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Week 10,case study, chapter 16, whistle-blowing in nursing
Case Study, Chapter 16, Whistle-Blowing in Nursing
A student nurse asks a faculty member to explain whistle-blowing. The student nurse wants to know the work conditions that would have to be met before whistle-blowing occurs, as well as situations in which whistle-blowing is clearly indicated. The faculty member reviews key concepts with all members of the class.
1. Being a whistle-blower takes great courage and self-conviction because it requires the whistle-blower to avoid groupthink. Analyze how groupthink affects the process of whistle-blowing.
2. Discuss the pros and cons of whistle-blowing.
3. What are the key guidelines for blowing the whistle?
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"url": "https://essaylords.us/week-10case-study-chapter-16-whistle-blowing-in-nursing/"
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Generating Sound Waves and the Speed of Sound
If I hold a rod of a solid material in my hand at the ½ way point and stimulate it "properly", it will start to vibrate and produce sound. "Properly" means that the stimulation causes the rod to vibrate at its resonant frequency. If you hear a sound, you have done it "properly". In the worksheet below, the rod is made of aluminum. ==Click and drag the slider to fix the length of the rod. ==Click on Vibrate Rod to hear the sound that would be produced.
See: This is just a fun applet, but I did check it out. I downloaded and opened Audacity and then went to the YouTube video: and actually checked out the frequencies he produced. Directions:
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"url": "https://beta.geogebra.org/m/td5hxpGu"
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Henson, the creater of the Muppets, developed a franchise in conjunction with his wife, Jane Nebel. In his later years the Muppets became television and movie staples with characters animated in part by the famous volatile inter-species love affair between Miss Piggy and Kermit the Frog. Adult humor was the focus of much Muppet entertainment, but perhaps the greatest impact Henson had was on the development of his characters on the trend-setting Sesame Street series directed to preschoolers.
Sesame Street, which first aired in 1969, was created by the Children’s Television Workshop to foster learning, particularly among deprived inner-city youngsters. Perhaps no program in history was tested for its impact as much as Sesame Street. Its creators worked to assure that it was not only popular and entertaining, but that empirical evidence showed that it had an impact on the literacy skills of preschool children. The show’s creators carefully pre-tested and then post-tested its concepts. The developers eschewed formal classroom presentations; the street setting was a way to weave both puppet and human characters together in an appealing narrative.
The Muppets were added to the show after testing of children in Head Start programs. It was discovered that the children’s attention wavered when the screen was dominated by human characters. By contrast, they were transfixed by the presence of Henson’s Muppets, a word coined to describe the mix of marionette and puppets.
In the show’s early years, the press and studies on Sesame Street‘s impact were overwhelmingly favorable. Early studies indicated that children who watched the show were better prepared for preschool. Critics noted that Sesame Street also advanced a social agenda. In an age when feminism was just emerging, the show featured women who worked in male-dominated fields such as construction. Before diversity became a corporate buzzword, Spanish words were featured. The show’s cast included children who were developmentally disabled, including the introduction of an autistic character this year.
Despite its positive buzz, Sesame Street was not without its critics. Some said that the impact of Sesame Street on poor children had been overhyped.
By the time Henson died, his characters had long transcended the simple set of Sesame Street, moving on to a hit television show and highly self-referential movies geared largely to adult audiences. Henson’s contributions to early childhood education are well noted. But another accomplishment was reinvigorating a moribund art form.
His Muppets began on local television in comedic skits geared to adults. Henson’s creations were successfully marketed to children, but his bringing them back into adult comedy on television and in the movies later inspired Broadway spectacles such as The Lion King and its use of giant puppets and Avenue Q, a bawdy acerbic comedy based on young adults reared on the bright optimism of Sesame Street.
Kermit the Frog broke out of his pond to become the world’s most recognizeable puppet character. The other Muppets were not far behind. As their popularity increased, the medieval art of puppetry re-emerged as an integral part of entertainment in the modern age, breaking out of its childhood ghetto.
Educational Researcher, Vol. 5, No. 8 (Sep., 1976), pp. 6-8
American Educational Research Associates
The Reading Teacher, Vol. 49, No. 4 (Dec., 1995 - Jan., 1996), pp. 300-306
Wiley on behalf of the International Literacy Association
Sociology of Education, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Spring, 1975), pp. 141-151
American Sociological Association
Phi Delta Kappa International
TDR (1988-), Vol. 43, No. 3, Puppets, Masks, and Performing Objects (Autumn, 1999), pp. 28-35
THe MIT Press
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"url": "https://daily.jstor.org/how-jim-henson-changed-early-education-and-brought-puppets-back/"
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What Are Latent Functions Quizlet?
What is an example of a latent function?
Similarly, an example of latent function can be that in a hospital the doctors while treating a patient suffering from a certain kind of incurable disease somehow saves the patient, thus, discovering a new method of treating that particular disease..
What does latent function mean?
Latent functions are those that are neither recognized nor intended. A latent function of a behavior is not explicitly stated, recognized, or intended by the people involved.
What is the latent function of community?
Answer. Answer: Latent functions are those functions which are unintended or unrecognized consequences of any social pattern. … On the other hand, the intended, conscious, or deliberate functions of the social policies or action which are created for the benefit of the society are called manifest functions.
What are some latent functions associated with public schools?
Latent FunctionsManifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended goalsLatent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequencesSocializationCourtshipTransmission of cultureSocial networksSocial controlWorking in groupsSocial placementCreation of generation gap1 more row
What is mean by latent?
Adjective. latent, dormant, quiescent, potential mean not now showing signs of activity or existence. latent applies to a power or quality that has not yet come forth but may emerge and develop.
Are there manifest and latent functions of celebrity gossip?
In general, celebrity gossips have both manifest and latent functions. Sometimes, the gossips are intentional and are in the form of rumors to intentionally assassinate some celebrity’s character and devastate the career.
What is a latent function of school quizlet?
latent function. an unintended function of education; custodial child care is a latent function. Only $2.99/month. manifest function. an intended function of education; sorting students by ability and creating knowledge are two manifest functions.
Are latent functions good or bad?
Manifest Versus Latent Function While manifest functions are consciously and deliberately intended to produce beneficial outcomes, latent functions are neither conscious nor deliberate but also produce benefits. They are, in effect, unintended positive consequences.
What are latent functions of education?
Latent functions of education are unintentional and unrecognized outcomes that going to school, interacting with peers and adults, and following the rules ingrained into you without anyone really intending for it to happen.
What is the latent function of family?
Family time’s latent function is to create a strong bond within the family. It reaffirms the strengths of the family and keeps them on track with their goals. A family that spends time together and is aware of what is going on in one another’s lives is more unified than one that does not.
What is latent curriculum in education?
When parents talk about a school’s curriculum, they usually refer to the courses and activities offered. But there is another curriculum that is less understood. … calls them the ‘latent curriculum. ‘
What does latent function mean in sociology?
noun Sociology. any function of an institution or other social phenomenon that is unintentional and often unrecognized.
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Creating a Group Circle
With a circle taped on the floor, the children sit, stand, and dance on the circle. When the drum plays, they scatter all around the room. The drum stops and they freeze. “Eight counts to come back to the circle!” The children move away from the circle and gather back to reform the circle in many variations of rhythms and timing.
Center of Attention, Attention to Center
Many children are eager to be the center of attention. Some more than others. The children practice both, being part of the circle and being in the center of the group circle.
“What is it like to be part of the group and giving your attention to someone in the center?”
Circle Centers
A child runs somewhere in the room, stops, and raises their hands into the air to establish a center. The group follows and creates a circle around the child. In the beginning, I pick which child will be the center. Eventually, the children spontaneously select who will be the center of their attention, and then come to a collective agreement without talking. How do they do this? When the drum plays, they scatter around the room and when it stops, they stop and then raise their hands if they want to be the center. The drum plays again and without talking, children start to circle around those children who want to be the center. Without discussing but simply observing and doing, whichever center-child has the most followers, the other followers and centers join them until the whole group forms one circle around one person. Every child who wants to be the center person gets to be in the center only one time. So everyone knows that in the remaining rounds of the game, they always pick someone who hasn’t had a turn to be the center yet. This continues for the remaining rounds of the game.
Where is your Personal Center?
The children explore the different centers along their midline:
Running game: Circle-Center Tag
Leave a Reply
error: Alert: Content is protected !!
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"url": "https://learninginaction.org/center-circle-center-creative-learning-movement-sonja/"
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Multiple ways to Set a Workbook
Set Workbook variable
The correct way to program VBA is to explicitly assign which object you want to work with. In case of a Workbook this can be expressed in several ways which are discussed here. For example, if you want to copy a worksheet, first you will have to tell which worksheet. let's assume ActiveSheet, which then begs the question in which workbook it is located.
Dim wb As Workbook: Set wb =
Dim ws As Worksheet: Set ws = wb.ActiveSheet
set workbook vba from menu
There are three groups of methods that can be used to set a Workbook:
If the macro and data are in the same excel file you can use ThisWorkbook. If not, you have more options: the workbook you just opened, the ActiveWorkbook, ...
If your macro is only intended to work on the excel file that contains it, you would insert ThisWorkbook:
Dim wb As Workbook: Set wb = ThisWorkbook
The Active Workbook is the workbook in the active window (the window on top).
Dim wb As Workbook: Set wb = ActiveWorkbook
• ActiveWorkbook can also be used in code in the template from which the document will be created. Putting code inside a template requires the template to be available on machines where the workbook is opened.
• ActiveWorkbook can sometimes returns Nothing although in modern Excel versions it seems to be able to assign an open Workbook - if available! It is good practice to test if a workbook was actually set for all methods (except ThisWorkbook).
Dim wb As Workbook: Set wb = ...
If wb Is Nothing Then
MsgBox Prompt:="The Workbook is not available", Buttons:=vbOKOnly + vbInformation
Exit Sub
End If
Item in the Workbooks collection
You can specify which workbook using the name or index number. The index count starts with 1, giving the first workbook in the collection.. You can leave the word Item out because the VBA compiler in case of collections uses the Item by default.
Dim wb As Workbook
Set wb = Workbooks.Item(1)
The name of the active workbook appears in the Excel title bar. If a workbook is new and not yet saved, it will be assigned a temporary name.
Name of the active workbook appearing in the title bar
Set wb = Workbooks("Book1")
The Name of the workbook will be filename plus extension in case of a saved workbook, e.g.
Set wb = Workbooks("Book1.xslx")
Iterating the collection returns in each round a new workbook variable implicitly set.
Dim wb As Workbook
For Each wb In Workbooks
Next wb
Create new or open existing workbook
In many cases the workbook you want to act on is the workbook you just created new workbook
Dim wb As Workbook
Set wb = Workbooks.Add
... or the workbook you just opened new workbook.
Dim strFilename As String: strFilename = "C:\temp\book24.xslx"
Dim wb As Workbook
Set wb = Workbooks.Open(Filename:=strFilename, Password:="hi123", UpdateLinks:=3)
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"url": "https://www.codevba.com/excel/set_workbook.htm"
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Krais of Russia
A krai (Russian: край, tr. kray, IPA: [kraj]) is a type of federal subject of Russia. The country is divided into 85 federal subjects, of which nine are krais. Oblasts, another type of federal subject, are legally identical to krais and the difference between a political entity with the name "krai" or "oblast" is purely traditional, similar to the commonwealths in the United States; both are constituent entities equivalent in legal status in Russia with representation in the Federation Council. During the Soviet era, the autonomous oblasts could be subordinated to republics or krais, but not to oblasts.
Also known as:
CategoryFederated state
LocationRussian Federation
Populations322,079 (Kamchatka Krai) – 5,404,300 (Krasnodar Krai)
Areas117,600 sq mi (304,500 km2) (Stavropol Krai) – 903,400 sq mi (2,339,700 km2) (Krasnoyarsk Krai)[1]
GovernmentKrai Government
SubdivisionsRaion, urban-type settlements, Selsovet, Closed City
Each krai features a state government holding authority over a defined geographic territory, with a state legislature, the Legislative Assembly, that is democratically elected. The Governor is the highest executive position of the state government in a Krai, and is directly appointed by the President of Russia. Krais can be divided into raions (districts), cities/towns of krai significance, and okrugs. Krais previously featured autonomous okrugs until the formation of Zabaykalsky Krai on March 1, 2008, when the last remaining autonomous okrug of a krai was abolished.
The term krai or kray is derived from the Russian word for an edge and can be translated into English as "frontier" or "territory". The largest krai by geographic size is Krasnoyarsk Krai at 2,339,700 square kilometers (903,400 sq mi) and the smallest is Stavropol Krai at 66,500 square kilometers (25,700 sq mi).[2][1] The most populous krai is Krasnodar Krai at 5,404,300 (2010 Census) and the least populous is Kamchatka Krai at 322,079 (2010).[2][1]
Historically, krais were massive first-level administrative divisions in the Russian Empire, divided into large guberniyas (governorates). Following the numerous administration reforms during the Soviet era, the guberniyas were abolished and krais were reshaped into smaller, more numerous divisions. Eventually, krais and oblasts became almost totally equal as the top-level administrative division of the Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs), the constituent political entities of the Soviet Union, with the only difference being autonomous oblasts could be subordinated to krais but not to oblasts. The krais were unique to the Russian SFSR and held very little autonomy or power, but when the Soviet Union dissolved into sovereign states along the lines of the SSRs, they became first-level administrative divisions of the Russian Federation and received much greater devolved power.
See also
1. "United States Summary: 2000" (PDF). U.S. Census 2000. U. S. Census Bureau. April 2004. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
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"url": "https://zims-en.kiwix.campusafrica.gos.orange.com/wikipedia_en_all_nopic/A/Krais_of_Russia"
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Among the materials used for books in ancient India, Palm leaf seems to be the ancient one. The word “Patra” used for materials directly denotes Tālapatra -Palm “Leaf” and not Bhūrja patra since the word patra in the compound doesn’t mentions any leaf, but the bark. Buddhist canonical works employ the term “Paṇṇa” which is clearer. Lather the usage of term “Patra” was expanded to include other materials like Bhūrja patra, Tāmra Patra etc..
The terms used in Rāyapaseṇiya sūtta, a Jain work of 4th BCE, seems to be related with palm leaf.
As per our ancient texts, the palm trees are classified into two viz Kharatāla and śrītāla. In Tamil they are mentioned as Tālippaṉai and Nuṅguppaṉai. Kharatāla’s leaves are narrower, thick and yellowish in colour whereas the other is broader, thin and light brown in colour.
The botanical terms of the varities of Palm trees are 1. Corypha umbraculifera 2. Corypha Faliera and 3. Borassus Flabellifera. The Kharatāla is identified with Borassus and the śrītāla with Corypha.
Mature fresh leaves are first dried and then boiled in water and again dried in shade. The surfaces of the leaves are made smooth by rubbing them with a burnishing stone. They are cut into required sizes.
Two round holes are punched on the middle points of both halves of the leaves. A traditional verse is seen in this regard.
आयामेन चतुर्भागं त्रिभागं पुनरेव च।
उभयोः सूत्रमध्येन तथा कुर्याच्छिद्रलक्षणम्।।
A thread of the same length of palm leaf is folded into three and unfolded. Again folded in four and unfolded. The leaf is punched between the creases.
Two wooden boards of the same size as the leaves and with similar holes are put on either side of the set of leaves. A cotton thread will pass through the hole including the boards and the bundle is wound round and bound by the same cord. This cord will ensure the order of the leaves.
The length of the leaves varies from about 4 cms to 90 cms and the breadth varies from 2.5 cms to 8 cms.
Letters will be incised on palm leaves with a stylus. Some specimens are available where palm leaves were written with ink.
Palm leaf was in use at least since about 5th BCE. Buddhist Jātakas and Jain suttas give clear evidences of the usage of palm leaves. Arthaśāstra also mentions the use.
Palm leaves were being used as late as the middle of 20th CE. There are so many instances where palm leaves where used in the recent times too.
1.The earliest palm leaf manuscript is found in Turfan collection. They were the fragments of a drama, Sārīputtappakaraṇa by Aśvaghoṣa, whose date is 2nd CE
2. The godfrey collection from kashkar has some manuscripts dated as 4th
3.The Hory uzi monatery, Japan has two manuscripts Prajñā pāramita hṛdaya sūtra and Uṣṇīṣa vijayadhāriṇi belonging to the 6th The origin of the manuscripts are from central India.
hori uzi
4.The Durbar library of Kathmandu has a copy of Skāndapurāṇa of the 7th
5.The Cambridge university has a copy of parameśvara tantra dated as 858 CE.
6.The Bhandarkar Oriental manuscript library, Pune has a copy of Upamiti Bhāva prakāśa which is dated as 905 CE.
7.The Jain Bhāṇḍār at mudbidri has dhavala manuscripts and dated as 9th
8.A copy of Amarakośa ṭīkā in the mysore oriental manuscript library is dated as 1130 CE.
Peculiar manuscripts
1. Longest manuscript
The oriental Research Institute, Mysore has two manuscripts of 120 cms.
1. Smallest manuscript
The same library has a copy of Devī bhāgavata with the size 4 x 2 cms.
1. Leaves of the manuscript cut to give the appearance of a śivaliṅga is found in GOML, Chennai
4.Leaves are tied in the form of beads and strung into a rosary is found from Kerala University oriental manuscript library, Tiruvanantapuram.
Thus the usage of manuscripts is available in our country.
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"url": "https://sarasvatam.in/en/2015/09/30/materials-for-manuscripts-palm-leaf/"
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Genre of Essay: Exposition
Genre of Essay: Exposition
Writing an expository essay needs specific understanding of what an exposition is. This kind of essay is usually written when someone wants to give a specific argument or influence readers to the topic that s/he believed to be right.
The Expository Essay
According to Pardiyono (2007: 215):
Exposition adalah jenis teks yang tepat untuk (1) berargumen bahwa something is the case (analytical exposition), (2) berargumen bahwa something should be or ought to be (hortatory exposition). Analytical exposition lebih mirip dengan descriptive arguments, sedangkan hortatory exposition lebih mirip dengan suggestive arguments. Key words untuk jenis teks ini adalah “What do you think” OR “Do you want to argue?”
Pardiyono. Teaching Genre-based Writing: Metode Mengajar Writing Berbasis Genre Secara Efektif. Yogyakarta; ANDI, 2007.
Example of an Expository Essay
The following writing sample is taken from Pardiyono, 2007: 221
Increases in the prices of fuels has resulted in the ‘social disaster’ although it is rationally planned to improve the social welfare of the people.
Thesis: containing topic and brief statement of the writer’s position related to the topic
Increases in prices of fuels results in the increase in the cost of transport. Transportation is the core of economic development and safety. The more expensive cost of transport will surely result in in the more expenses to pay by the suppliers or distributors. This condisition will result in the more expensive products to sell people as to compensate the cost spent on the transport.
Arguments that describe the reality according to the writer’s opinion
Increase in prices of fuels results in the increase of prices in many consumed-daily living products, such as food and beverage products, healthy and beauty products, clothing products, products for schooling, etc. This negative impact is unavoidable because the production of those products will certainly cost more.
The more expensive cost of living, which is not accompanied by the increase in income of the people, will result in the ‘imbalanced life’, and this means ‘disaster’. More people begin to decrease their expenses, more children cannot go to schools, and more companies begin to close down the production activities, as people begin to lose their buying power.
Briefly, increases in the price of fuels has resulted in the more expensive cost of daily living needs, which possibly leads to ‘social disaster’.
Writer’s reiteration or restatement related to the thesis
Author: Syayid
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Toolbox Library, primary resources thematically organized with notes and discussion questionsOnline Seminars, professional development seminars for history and literature teachersThe Gilded and the Gritty: America, 1870-1912
The Gilded and the Gritty: America, 1870-1912
Topic: MemoryTopic: ProgressTopic: PeopleTopic: PowerTopic: Empire
Topic: People: Assimilation and the Crucible of the City
Toolbox Overview: The Gilded and the Gritty: America, 1870-1912
Resource Menu: People
Text 1. The American Metropolis
Text 2. Coney Island
Text 3. Horatio Alger, Jr., Ragged Dick
Text 4. Lewis W. Hine photographs
Text 5. Jacob Riis, How the Other Lives
Text 6. Anzia Yezierska, Russians
Text 7. Two Wives
Text 8. Lee Chew, The Biography of a Chinaman
Text 9. Exclusion
Text 10. Zitkala-Sa, Native Americans
» Reading Guide
• Link
RESOURCE MENU » Reading Guide Link
Reading Guide
Zitkala-Sa, 1898
Zitkala-Sa, 1898
- Zitkala-Sa (Gertrude Bonnin), "The School Days of an Indian Girl," Atlantic Monthly, February 1900
- Gertrude Käsebier, photographs of Zitkala-Sa, 1898
For one group of "newcomers" to industrial America the city was decidedly not the site of assimilation, yet what was happening in the cities affected the strategies of socialization offered to them. In the 1880s the impulse that prompted government action on the problems of poverty, immigration, and labor unrest in the cities was directed west on behalf of Indians. Influential reformers, evangelical Protestants calling themselves "Friends of the Indian," urged education and support as alternatives to suppression and extermination. The transformation of this approach into government policy came through the Dawes Act of 1887, which essentially offered the Indians a deal—if they would give up their traditional ways, they could become members of American society. Under this legislation, if a male would separate himself from a tribe and live according to "civilized" values, the government would provide him land and the prospect of citizenship. In other words, if an Indian ceased to be an Indian, he/she could become an American.
Indian schools were charged with the task of processing the "Indian" out of Indians. Gertrude Simmons Bonnin (1876-1938) entered what she called "the civilizing machine" at White's Manual Labor Institute in Wabash, Indiana, a Quaker missionary school. Born of a white father and Yankton-Nakota Sioux mother, Bonnin left the reservation at the age of eight to attend White's, a move she made against the expressed disapproval of her mother. After White's she went to Earlham College in Indiana, and upon graduation took the name Zitkala-Sa. She studied at the New England Conservatory of Music and taught music at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, a job from which she was fired when she began publishing her autobiographical essays. She went on to compose opera, edit American Indian Magazine, and lobby on behalf of Indian causes. "The School Days of an Indian Girl" tracks her education after arriving in "The Land of the Red Apples" through her college years. In it she ably conveys what to her was the strangeness of her new surroundings. She suffers repeated indignities, some inflicted innocently through cultural misunderstanding, others inflicted deliberately. Language and its subtle power to change a person are a constant theme. In the end she triumphs but at enormous cost.
Photographer Gertrude Käsebier (1852-1934) lived in Iowa and Colorado until her teen years. She was educated at the Moravian College for Women in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and later studied photography and art in New York. Her photos were published in Alfred Stieglitz's Camera Work and other notable photographic magazines of the times. Käsebier photographed Indians in Buffalo Bill's Wild West and on reservations of the Dakota Sioux. She formed a friendship with Zitkala-Sa and made several portraits of her. 14 pages.
Discussion questions
1. Who is Zitkala Sa's audience?
2. What response is she trying to evoke from her audience? Compare her approach to her audience and her goals with those of Simon Pokagon (see EMPIRE).
3. According to the school, what does becoming "civilized" mean? What values does it seek to inculcate?
4. How do the school's values differ from Indian values?
5. How are they the values of an industrial society?
6. What role does language play in her experience?
7. What does she gain and what does she lose in her "civilizing" experience?
8. Compare Zitkala-Sa's portraits with the Indian studio portraits in the EMPIRE section of the toolbox. There will you will find suggestions for interpreting portraits.
» Link
Topic Framing Questions
• How was the American cultural mainstream defined at this time?
• What messages and strategies of socialization did the government and other culture brokers extend to immigrants, African Americans, and Native Americans during this period?
• What benefits and costs for these groups were associated with a strategy of assimilation?
• How did the city function as a site of assimilation?
Toolbox: The Gilded and the Gritty: America, 1870-1912
Memory | Progress | People | Power | Empire
Contact Us | Site Guide | Search
Toolbox Library: Primary Resources in U.S. History and Literature
National Humanities Center
Web site comments and questions, contact:
Copyright © 2005 National Humanities Center. All rights reserved.
Revised: May 2005
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.07458770275115967,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9416720271110535,
"url": "http://www.nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/gilded/people/text10/text10read.htm"
}
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Radiometer is usually a glass vessel containing highly-rarified air. Light vanes are carefully balanced on an axis about which they are free to rotate. If two equal discs are balanced on an arm, and a light be allowed to shine on them, nothing will happen; but if alternate sides be coated with lampblack, rotation will commence in a direction such that the blackened side moves backwards as soon us a candle or other light is brought near. This is due to the fact that the blackened face gets hotter than the mean temperature, and the difference of pressure on the two sides causes motion. Crookes found that a rotation oould also be obtained by using unblackoned vanes if the shape wore altered. He therefore balanced four vanes on two arms, and bent them at the ends; heat then fell upon the convex side of one vane and the concave side of another and rotation occurred. If, further, the vanes be plane and of the same appearance, but of different materials, e.g. one of ohromic oxide and one of copper tungstate, rotation will occur. It has also been shown that the effect varies with the light used. The causo of the motion has been discussed by Osborne Reynolds and by Clerk Maxwell.
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.24470704793930054,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.948707640171051,
"url": "http://www.sacklunch.net/encyclopedia/R/Radiometer.html"
}
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Fire Awareness and Intervention Programme
Fire and Emergency New Zealand
Fire Awareness and Intervention Programme
The Fire Awareness and Intervention Programme (FAIP) is a free consequences-based education programme designed to stop young people, aged from 5 to 17, lighting fires. It aims to do this by raising their awareness of the dangers and consequences of lighting fires.
Every year FAIP receives over 400 referrals for young people to attend the programme.
Over 90% of young people who complete this programme are not involved in further fire setting. As shown by a University of Auckland study looking at repeat offending behaviours of FAIP participants over a 10-year period.
The aim of FAIP
The aim of the programme is to reduce the number of deaths, injuries and the millions of dollars worth of property damage caused by juvenile fire setting.
The programme doesn’t try to make the young person feel guilty, but rather educates them so they know the dangers of fire, the speed it spreads, and how easily accidents happen.
New Zealand law recognises both intentional and reckless damage by fire, as arson. Many of the fires started by young people are not with malicious intent, but most often caused by a lack of understanding of the speed of fire-growth, and the potential consequences of their actions. While the intent may be different, the impact of their actions still has serious and at times fatal results.
In New Zealand, young people are over-represented among fire-setting offenders. In 2009 63% of apprehensions were under 17 years of age.
We provide FAIP as a specialist intervention programme for young people who set fires.
Listen to Radio New Zealand's journalist Sue Ingram as she investigates FAIP. Sue interviews participants and their families, psychologists, Police, schools, and FAIP staff as she explores why young people are involved in fire lighting and how FAIP helps them overcome this behaviour.
How does the programme work?
The FAIP programme is delivered by a firefighter, trained as a FAIP practitioner, and usually in a home setting. The programme is strictly confidential and voluntary (except for referrals by the Police or the court). The content and delivery of the programme varies according to the age and maturity of the young person.
Practitioners use education and behaviour modification resources to challenge and correct the negative fire-lighting behaviour.
Understand more about the intervention process.
Referring a young person to FAIP
Parents, caregivers, schools, Youth Aid, or anyone who has legal care of someone aged under 17, can refer a child to FAIP.
You can contact FAIP by calling 0800 FIRE INFO (0800 3473 4636), or by filling out the referral form below and emailing it to
Once you've made a referral, you can expect a call from a FAIP practitioner within 3 days. The FAIP intervention usually takes place within 10 days of referral.
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.02013683319091797,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9460689425468445,
"url": "https://www.fireandemergency.nz/kids-and-parents/fire-awareness-and-intervention-programme/"
}
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Grade: 6 - 8
Packing Circles (6-8)
This activity allows students to explore how to optimize the packaging of circular objects which relates to many real-life scenarios. Students have the opportunity to work collaboratively to determine which packaging strategy is optimal for a set of six discs. Students can think creatively about their packaging strategies and exploring the relationship between the area of circles and that of other shapes.
Select Day
Not building a Playlist?
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<urn:uuid:84d3f549-18d9-40b6-a094-534206af3254>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.056412339210510254,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.932901918888092,
"url": "https://www.youcubed.org/wim/packing-circles-6-8/"
}
|
Skip main navigation
Today we will learn intonation of affirmative-negative question.
We have learnt the intonation of a specific question. There are two points we need to pay attention:
1. The interrogative pronoun is stressed
2. the intonation of the whole sentence falls gradually.
1． 西瓜怎么卖？
2． 苹果多少钱一斤？
3． 那个唱歌的男孩子是谁的哥哥？
Today we’ll focus on the intonation of an affirmative-negative question The affirmative part is stressed and the negative part is unstressed.
and喝不喝、来不来、起不起is read fast, this is another feature of the intonation of this sentence structure. And at last, the intonation falls gradually after the stressed word.
This article is from the free online
HSK Standard Course Level 2: 2.3
Created by
FutureLearn - Learning For Life
Our purpose is to transform access to education.
Learn more about how FutureLearn is transforming access to education
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.03125,
"fasttext_score": 0.09198278188705444,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8653914928436279,
"url": "https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/hsk-standard-course-level-2-2-3/0/steps/317979"
}
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Energy Transmitted by The Earth Questions
Please use the Trenberth’s plot given in class slides to answer these questions. You will submit three sets of equations.
For each equation, please write down the individual terms, the summed up values (that is, the total incoming and total outgoing energy). Provide the name to each numeric value (names can be found next to each numeric value in the Trenberth plot). Explain what this difference means (gaining too much or losing too much energy?).
The answers were already discussed during class.
Note: please use the value with one digit after the decimal point, if it is available.
1. Incoming and outgoing energy at the Top of the Atmosphere (TOA)
IN_TOA: …such as: X + Y + Z = M (W m-2) (don’t forget to provide your unit and the name for each value!)
2. Incoming and outgoing energy at the surface of Earth
IN_surface: …
OUT_surface: …
3. Incoming and outgoing energy for the atmosphere itself
IN_atmosphere: …
OUT_atmosphere: ….
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.9375,
"fasttext_score": 0.06789946556091309,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8597511649131775,
"url": "https://blog.econstatistics.com/energy-transmitted-by-the-earth-questions/"
}
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3 methods you can use to teach new concept to kids
1. Tell a story using characters while tying imagery to locations on their body. An example would be –
The seasons of the year associated with their fingers and a butterfly’s journey across the seasons represented by your thumb.
Winter would be your short pinky finger where the butterfly saw white on the ground.
Spring would be the wedding finger where the butterflies see flowers pop out of the ground
Summer would be the long middle finger where the days are long
Fall would be the pointer where fruits ripen and are harvested.
2. Explain concepts with direct comparisons to an object or something in their environment. An example would be –
A neuron is like a tree
Dendrites are the tree branches
Axon are its roots
3. Let the child see the function of the item being introduced and then you explain how it ties to their thought or association.
My son played the game Fortnite and he thought they showed him a new gesture/pose called the gentlemen’s bow. I then had to let him know that a bow was not created by the game and has been used as a form of greeting for a long time. Oh Fortnite…..
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.875,
"fasttext_score": 0.9045153856277466,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9711081385612488,
"url": "https://kidstrive.blog/2018/12/18/3-methods-you-can-use-to-teach-new-concept-to-kids/"
}
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lab report discussion-What is the Unknown Metal
Investigation 1: What is the Unknown Metal?
Set B
A metal scrap yard wants to recycle metals but needs to know the identity of the metal before sending it for recycling. In this investigation you will determine a way to identify unknown metals using intensive properties. Density is an example of an intensive property that can be used to identify different metals.
In this investigation, you will determine the identity of two unknown metal samples by calculating the density of each sample.
A group of students recorded the following information during the course of this investigation:
Lab Notes
Investigation Name: __What is the Unknown Metal?
Student Name: _____________________________________
We were given two unknown metals to identify. We decided to use density which is an intensive property to identify the different metals. An intensive property is one that does not depend on the amount of material present. Density is defined as mass divided by volume (D=m/V).
We will first determine the mass by weighing each sample of the unknown metals. We will also determine their Volume by measuring the amount of water displaced when each unknown metal is completely submerged in water.
List of the materials we used for this investigation:
-We were assigned Set B: Unknown II & Unknown IV
-An electronic balance
-100mL graduated cylinder
Each metal was observed and described, then the weight of each cylinder was taken and recorded on Table 1. Three trial were performed.
Unknown IUnknown IV
DescriptionReddish-orange, heavy weight metalMetallic brownish, heavy weight metal
Table 1: Unknowns Metals
Unknown IIUnknown IV
Trial 1Mass (g)244.558234.782
Trial 2Mass (g)244.675234.941
Trial 3Mass (g)244.515234.325
We filled a graduated cylinder with 20mL of water, then we submerged the Unknown II completely and we recorded the new volume. This procedure was repeated for the other unknown. At the end the difference in volume was calculated. This was repeated two more times and the data was recorded.
Table 2: Volume Displacement
Unknown IIUnknown IV
Trial 1Trial 2Trial 3Trial 1Trial 2Trial 3
Initial Volume (mL) 20.0020.0020.00 20.0020.0020.00
Final Volume (mL)47.1146.2646.4050.0750.6349.51
Vol Difference (mL)27.1126.2626.4030.0730.6329.51
We calculated the average mass for each of the unknowns
Unknown II: (244.558g + 244.675g + 244.515g)/ 3 = 244.583g
Unknown IV: (234.782g + 234.941g + 234.325g) /3 = 234.6839
We calculated the average volume for each of the unknowns
Unknown II: (27.11mL + 26.26mL + 26.40mL)/ 3 = 26.59mL
Unknown IV: (30.07mL + 30.63mL + 29.51mL)/ 3 = 30.07mL
We calculated the density for each unknown
Unknown II: 244.583g / 26.59 mL = 9.198 g/mL
Unknown IV: 234.683g / 30.07 mL = 7.804 g/mL
We compared our calculated densities to the densities of various metals and alloys found in appendix J
The calculated density of Unknown II is similar to the density of copper, 9.02 g/mL.
The calculated density of Unknown IV is similar to the density of bronze, 7.80 g/mL.
Page 4 of 4
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"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.4773590564727783,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8977351784706116,
"url": "https://chemhomeworkhelp.com/homework-questions/lab-report-discussion-what-is-the-unknown-metal/"
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How IBM Aided the Holocaust
In 2001, investigative author, Edwin Black, wrote the award winning book, IBM and the Holocaust which outlines in painstaking detail how the IBM Corporation and its subsidiaries directly aided in the extermination of 6 million Jews during WWII. While IBM has criticized Black’s research methodology, the corporation has never directly denied the evidence obtained (Bazyler, 2005, p. 303).
During WWII, the world was, as Black put it, turned “upside-down.” Police officers shirked their duties by protecting aggressors while persecuting victims, lawyers perverted the law to create anti-Jewish policies, and doctors defiled the art of medicine to commit ghastly experiments and choose who died first.
Statisticians, who are rarely taken into consideration, had an important role in this equation as well. Using their skills, they were the ones who identified the victims, projected and rationalized the benefits of their destruction, and organized their persecution. They even audited the efficiency of the genocide. According to Black, this is where IBM comes into the picture.
IBM, at this time, was “dazzled by its own swirling universe of technical possibilities,” it’s corporate mantra was if it can be done, it should be done. With this mindset, the destruction of a race of people became less important than technological achievement.
How it worked:
One of the Nazi’s central goals once Hitler came to power was to eliminate Germany’s 600,000 Jews.
The only way the Jews could be systematically exterminated was… after they were identified. This called for a monumental cross-indexing task that involved searches through generations of communal, church, and governmental records across Germany. All of this was accomplished with IBM’s punch-card and card-sorting system, which was a precursor to the computer.
IBM, primarily through its German subsidiary, made Hitler’s program of Jewish destruction a technological mission the company pursued with chilling success.
IBM Germany, at that time, was called Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft, or Dehomag for short. With the knowledge of IBM’s New York headquarters, Dehomag “enthusiastically custom-designed the complex devices and specialized applications as an official corporate undertaking.”
hollerith 2
Those who comprised the top management of Dehomag were devout Nazis, and they were arrested after the war for their party affiliation. According to Black, IBM NY had understood from the beginning that they were doing business with high ranking Nazi officials. The company in fact leveraged its connections to the Nazi Party in an effort to continuously enhance their business relationship with Hitler’s Reich, not only in Germany, but “throughout Nazi-dominated Europe.”
Few knew, or even asked, how it was the Germans had a ready list of Jewish names. Nazi’s would storm into a neighborhood or a city square and begin posting notices demanding that those named were to assemble the next day at the train station to be deported, but for decades, no one knew how or where the Nazi’s got their lists. The answer again came from IBM.
IBM was actually founded in 1898 by the German inventor, Herman Hollerith, as a census tabulating company. “Census was its business.” Once IBM partnered with Nazi Germany, they also began a racial census, listing religious affiliation, and bloodlines going back generations. This is how the Nazis were not only able to count the Jews, but identify them specifically.
Hollerith_CensusTaker1890Hollerith Census Taker
As Black points out in his book, the Holocaust still would have happened, even without IBM’s help. However the corporation enabled Hitler to achieve his mass murder of the Jews swiftly, and efficiently. Black feels it is therefore important to hold IBM accountable.
In related news: IBM’s Role in the Halocaust – What the New Documents Reveal
As Black points out, we have become enraptured by the Age of Computerization, and the Age of information, but we need to advance into the Age of Realization “as we look back and examine technology’s wake.” We need to understand how the Nazis acquired their names because more “lists” can be compiled in the future.
Black, Edwin. The New York Times. Oct 2000. (
Michael J. Bazyler, Holocaust Justice: The Battle for Restitution in America’s Courts. New York: New York University Press, 2005; pg. 303.
This Article (How IBM Aided the Holocaust) is free and open source. You have permission to republish this article under a Creative Commons license with attribution to the author and
• My understanding is that credible scholarly numbers range between 4 and 6 million. Raul Hilberg calculated it around 5.1 million. Less than the commonly discussed 6 million, but still a horrific head count.
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"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.09721076488494873,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.964009702205658,
"url": "https://anonhq.com/ibm-aided-holocaust/"
}
|
Jovita Idár was a Mexican American born in Laredo, Texas in 1885, four decades after the Mexican American war. She grew up in a family that valued education, and after graduating school she became a teacher at a segregated school. In a profile of Idár’s life as an activist, Marilyn La Jeunesse writes,
According to Dr. Gabriela González, the author of Redeeming La Raza: Transborder Modernity, Race, Respectability, and Rights, there were two major events that shaped Jovita Idár’s activism in her early 20s. First, there was the segregation and impoverished nature of schools for Mexican-American students that Idár had witnessed firsthand as a former teacher. Idár believed education was the foundation for a better future, Dr. González tells Teen Vogue. The young activist had been teaching since she was 18, and, after seeing the deplorable state of education provided to Mexican-American students, committed herself to ending segregation and increasing educational opportunities for Mexican-American students however she could.
In an obituary of Jovita Idár published as part of the New York Times series Overlooked, Jennifer Medina begins with this dramatic confrontation.
When the Texas Rangers showed up outside the office of the newspaper El Progreso in 1914 with the intent of shutting it down, Jovita Idár, a writer and editor, was waiting at the front door to block them from entering. And she was not about to back down.
The officers, who by then had gained a reputation for their violence against Mexicans, were furious over an editorial that criticized President Woodrow Wilson’s order to send military troops to the Texas-Mexico border amid the Mexican Revolution. Idár argued that silencing the newspaper would violate its constitutional right to freedom of the press under the First Amendment.
The Rangers eventually turned back. But the next day, when Idár was gone, they returned to ransack the office, smashing and destroying the printing presses.
Their actions would not stop Idár from writing about her view of justice, one that she had formulated from childhood.
Laws of the Jim Crow era enforcing racial segregation also limited the rights of Mexican-Americans in South Texas (they are often referred to by scholars today as “Juan Crow” laws). Signs saying “No Negroes, Mexicans or dogs allowed” were common in restaurants and stores. Law enforcement officers frequently intimidated or abused Mexican-American residents, and the schools they were sent to were underfunded and often inadequate. Speaking Spanish in public was discouraged.
As a daughter of relative privilege, Idár had access to the kind of education she dreamed of for others. Educated in Methodist schools, she received a teaching certificate from the Laredo Seminary and went on to teach young children in Los Ojuelos, a town in southeast Texas. She quickly became appalled by school conditions, including run-down buildings and a dearth of books.
She decided she could have more impact by focusing on activism and writing, joining her brothers and father at La Crónica. And after she learned of lynchings of Mexican-American men, her commitment to the civil rights struggle only deepened.
Learn more about Idár in this short film from PBS’s American Masters series.
Reflection Questions and Teaching Suggestions
You might begin by focusing on Idár’s identity. What do you know about her? What do you know about her family? What about the community that she lived in? We suggest using the graphic from Ecology of Identity as a model to begin to consider the relationship between her identity, the world Idár lived in, and the choices she made.
Idár was a teacher, a journalist, and an activist. What do you think these professional identities have in common. What is similar about them? What differences feel worth pointing out?
What do you learn from Idár’s story about democratic taking action?
How do you explain why her story has not been better known until very recently? Why do you think people have begun to focus on her story?
Use the Three Why’s Thinking Routine to reflect on the significance of Idár’s story?
• Why does it matter to you?
• What does it matter to your community?
• Why does it matter to the world?
Note:Idár’s identities as a teacher, journalist, and activist remind us of Ida B. Wells, an African American woman from the same time period who is known for her work to expose the horrors of lynching. Wells was profiled in the NY Times Overlooked obituary series. You might research her story and use the same-different-gain thinking routine to compare their experiences and contributions.
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"fasttext_score": 0.13310319185256958,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9792173504829407,
"url": "https://reimaginingmigration.org/teacher-journalist-and-activist-jovita-idar/"
}
|
Skip to Main Content
Chapter 2: 1607-1763
5 Lessons
Chapter 2 of Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness, BRI’s U.S. History Curriculum Resource, invites students to explore the religious, political, and social movements and events that fostered a sense of autonomy from Great Britain among the American colonists between 1607 and 1763.
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.040634334087371826,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8459334969520569,
"url": "https://billofrightsinstitute.org/units/chapter-2-1607-1763"
}
|
31 ParseInt Javascript – Javascript
Last updated on July 13th, 2020 at 11:41 am.
This video is taken from the full course that will teach you HTML, CSS, Programming concepts and Javascript .
Transcript :
So this is where we stopped in the last video where we so certain cases of ‘not a number’ in the parseInt() function.
So in this video, let’s see what happens if we have a situation whereby the radix is ‘0’, the radix is ‘undefined’ or ‘missing’.
Now if the radix is ‘0’, ‘undefined’ or ‘missing’, number one, if the string begins with ‘0’ and a small ‘x’ or ‘0’ and a capital ‘X’, the radix will be considered as ‘16’.
So maybe if you have some something like ‘0x192’, this will automatically make the radix ‘16’.
‘0x’, ‘x’ stands for hexadecimal.
And number two, if the string begins with ‘0’, the radix will be considered ‘8’ or ‘10’.
And this will depend on the implementation of the browser engine.
So there are certain browsers that will consider it ‘8’, others will consider it ‘10’ if it begins with ‘0’.
And that entirely depends on the browser.
But from ES5, ECMAScript 5 implementations, the default will be 10.
So even if the number begins with zero, the default will be 10.
And then number three, if a string begins with, with any other number, any other value, the radix is always 10.
That means, if it does not begin with ‘0x’ or small ‘x’ or does not begin with a zero, it’ll always be considered 10.
So if it begins with ‘a’, any of the letters from ‘a’ to ‘z’, to ‘z’, or any of the, any of the numbers from ‘1’, from ‘1’ to ‘9’.
In this case, it’ll always be, the radix will always be considered to be 10.
So if I come back here, and let’s start with the first one where we see that if the radix begins with ‘0x’, then the number is considered, the radix here will be considered as 16.
So if I come here and I display, you see this is giving us 20.
That’s because this was given a radix automatically of 16.
If we didn’t have the, if we didn’t have the ‘0X’ and we try to display this, it’ll give us 14.
If you don’t put a radix in there and the number begins with ‘0x’ it’ll be considered as a radix of 16.
So you should always put the radix in there.
And then, the next one we said was that if a number begins with ‘0’, let’s say ‘023’.
Let’s see.
If we display this one, it returns ‘23’.
So you can see in this implementation, in this particular implementation of my browser, we are automatically returned ‘23’.
And this means that the radix that is being used is 10.
However in other browsers, it could be different.
But in this particular browser that I’m using, the Firefox engine is giving, is using 10 as a default.
And then, if this one starts with any other number, let’s say it starts with ‘9’ that, and we display, it’ll convert this number based on the radix of 10.
So I hope you’ve understood this.
I mean there’s no easy example to show this.
You only have to understand them the way they are.
If a string begins with ‘0’ and a small ‘x’, so this is hexadecimal.
We’re later on going to see something like ‘0’ and ‘o’ whereby ‘o’ stands for octal.
So we’re going to see that when we look at ‘number literals’.
That is the next section from this, when we start looking at ‘literals’.
So in the past few videos, we have looked at the parseInt() function and how you can use it to convert your numbers.
You can convert any number, any you can convert any string into a number.
So, if this was our number and we use that and we display, that’s what happens.
If that was radix of 16, you see it gives us a different number.
So always display the radix even though in certain modern browsers, it’ll be assumed to be 10, as long as the number doesn’t begin with ‘0x’, always display it there so that it doesn’t confuse the browsers.
So that’s it for this video.
Let’s continue in the next video.
And in the next video, we’re going to start looking at the ‘parseFloat()’.
So, I’ll see you in that next video.
And if you do have any questions, feel free to let me know about them.
See you in the next video.
Click the button below to watch this full course:
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Wildlife Journal Junior!
New Hampshire PBS
Tundra Swan - Cygnus columbianus
Tundra Swan
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Genus: Cygnus
ICUN Redlist - World Status: Least ConcernLeast Concern
Tundra SwanThe tundra swan is 47-58 inches in length with a wingspan of about 66 inches. It is completely white and has a round head, a long neck, a long black bill, a black face, and black feet and legs. It may have a yellow spot in front of its eyes.
Tundra SwanThe tundra swan, unlike the mute swan, holds its neck up straight when swimming. Males and females look alike, but the male is usually a little larger. The tundra swan is the only swan native to the eastern U.S.
mapThe tundra swan breeds in the Arctic regions of northern Canada and Alaska. There are two populations of tundra swans in North America, one in the east and one in the west. Both populations migrate over 3,000 miles each season. The eastern population winters on the Atlantic Coast from the Chesapeake Bay to North Carolina. The western population winters on the Pacific Coast from southern British Columbia to southern California. Small groups also winter in interior portions of the west and on the Great Lakes. The tundra swan also breeds in Siberia.
The tundra swan breeds on the Arctic tundra and winters on salt water bays, estuaries, and marshy lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, and flooded fields.
Tundra SwanThe tundra swan feeds in flocks in shallow water. It plunges its long neck underwater and tips up its rear to feed on the tubers and roots of aquatic plants. It also eats mollusks and grains.
Life Cycle
Tundra SwanMale and female courtship begins in the late winter and continues into the spring. The male and female face each other, stretch out their wings, and bow their heads at each other. Both the male and female build a large mound of vegetation with a bowl-shaped depression in the middle and line it with down. The female lays 3-5 eggs.
Tundra SwanThe female incubates the eggs for 32-34 days while the male guards the nest site. Both parents care for the cygnets, who can swim and feed themselves shortly after birth but still need to be brooded or sat on by a parent to keep warm on the cold tundra. The cygnets migrate with their parents in the fall and stay with them through the winter. Male and female pairs usually mate for life.
Tundra SwanThe tundra swan was once called the whistling swan because of the sound its powerful wings make when it is in flight.
Audio Credit: xeno-canto.org Allen T. Chartier cc logo
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Naming a new species is a time-consuming process. Any prospective new species must be identified, described, and confirmed before an appropriate taxonomic name is assigned, a process that can take months or years. To make matters worse, few young scientists enter the field of taxonomy, so the pool of experts able to do this cataloguing work is shrinking. Now, habitats are being destroyed so rapidly that species can go extinct before they are even named. The race is on to name species before they disappear, but there are structural obstacles in the way.
According to Paul M. Oliver and Michael S.Y. Lee, advances in technology have aided the species identification process, but they also highlight new frustrations. Thanks to improved genetic analysis, it is now possible to rapidly identify genetic differences that might indicate a new species. (Before, a sharp-eyed scientist might have had to notice subtle physical or behavioral differences.) Once genetic “candidates” are identified, trained taxonomists must perform a more detailed analysis to confirm whether it is actually a new species or not. The result is that identification of candidates is much faster than confirmation, frustrating scientists and managers. It’s more than an academic question—public opinion, financing, and management decisions can be influenced by updated biodiversity information. The more quickly new species can be formalized, the sooner additional research—and management—can proceed.
According to Oliver and Yee, the formal rules for naming new species can make haste risky. With a genuine need for speed, new scientific names and descriptions can be quickly recognized as official, even if first presented in unverified or really obscure sources. The internet makes it extremely easy to quickly work through large quantities of proposed names.
The danger is that, without safeguards, false or unscrupulous actors will take advantage of other people’s work, swooping in to claim credit and publish a name that a different scientist painstakingly described. Sometimes, according to Oliver and Yee, such people have no relevant expertise, but nevertheless simply select and publish a name. Some acts are even described as “vandalism,” where individuals rename entire groups of animals basically just because they can, bogging the community down in efforts to repair consensus. Such acts discourage scientists from publishing candidate species and doing the hard work of confirming new species, as they may never get credit for the work.
The result, potentially, is chaos, although it is difficult to tell from Oliver and Yee’s work just how widespread the problem actually is. Oliver and Yee propose that new species not be approved until they have gone through a peer-review process, which, despite some documented issues, will greatly improve the accuracy of new species identification and description. The downside, of course, is that descriptions will take longer, and unknown species might not have that kind of time.
Taxon, Vol. 59, No. 4 (August 2010), pp. 1201-1205
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Terraced Landscape of the Mediterranean Plateaus
Terraced Landscape of the Mediterranean Plateaus
Agricultural terraces are among the most recognisable of man-made landscape elements, which mankind has built-up gradually in adapting to the natural conditions and improving the chances of survival. Terracing has facilitated cultivation, enabled intensification, reduced water and wind erosion, increased and retained soil moisture, and gained land at the same time. Terraced landscapes have been used in different corners of the world, combining and advancing the knowledge of previous centuries and even millennia, and continue to be built today. Among the older terraced landscapes, from the period before antiquity, are those in the hinterland of the Mediterranean Sea. From there the terraces spread into the interior of the continent, also into the Slovenian interior (Kladnik, Komac, Zorn 2016).
Interest in these inherent agricultural, ecological, and social systems arose rather late. UNESCO recognized the exceptional value of terraced landscapes and the need to protect terraces in the late 1970s. The first were inscribed in 1979, and to date it has classified 8 functional variations, not only agricultural, terraced regions: three European, three Asian and two African (Unesco List). Many other terraced landscapes are included in the UNESCO list, but terracing is only one of many criteria for entry. Worldwide interest in terraced landscapes grew at the turn of the 21st century, especially since the International Terraced Landscapes Alliance (ITLA) was established in 2010, supported by a number of organizations, e.g. UNESCO, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (ITLA Background). In 2010, the First ITLA World Conference in China adopted the Honghe Declaration on the Protection and Development of Terraced Landscapes (Honghe Declaration), which states, among other things, that terraces have scientific, cultural, historical, ecological, aesthetic, even psychological, philosophical and religious value (Kladnik 2016a, 7). Three more ITLA world conferences followed: Peru in 2014, Italy in 2016 and in the Canary Islands in 2019. Their aim was to bring together specialists, farmers, terrace owners, scientists, managers and politicians in a quest for the future and preservation of terraces, for the preservation of related traditional knowledge, and in caring for the environment and food security. The European Union also allocated funds to terraced regions. They were included in rural development policy for the period 2007-2013, namely in an action plan to broaden agro-ecological practices, increase biodiversity in agriculture and give protection to the soil (Kladnik, Kruse, Komac 2017a). In Slovenia, various specialists have been interested in terraced landscapes since the 1960s – geographers, architects, landscape architects, ethnologists, archaeologists and even artists who recognise terraced landscapes as heritage (Kladnik, Kruse, Komac 2017a; Ažman Momirski 2019).[1]
Terraced areas on the territory of present day Slovenia: the Merče case study
In the second half of the 19th century, during the period of greatest agrarian utilisation of land, Slovenia had 1.71% of terraced areas, the Slovenian Mediterranean landscape as much as 8.96% of such areas, and on the plateaus of that Mediterranean landscape, terraced areas averaged 3 to 4% (Kladnik 2016b). Merče, a small settlement close to Sežana, in the south-eastern part of the Kras plateau or the Trieste-Komen plateau, is representative of the Mediterranean plateaus, boasting up to 13% of such land (LIDAR 2015[2], Šmid Hribar et al. 2017) Due to tree foliage and shrubs in Merče, the terraces are little noticed during the growing season and are most easily observed from above, especially in late winter, when the leaves have blown away and trees are bare.
Panoramic view of Merče from the west. To the rear right is the village of Plešivica, and to the left is the flat valley with the traffic corridor and settlements of Žirje and Povir. Photo: Matevž Lenarčič, 2015.
The settlement of Merče developed along this extended lowland, which has been an important traffic corridor. The old Divača-Trieste road and the Southern Railway (Vienna-Trieste), built after 1850, pass by, as well as a branch of the current Divača-Fernetiči motorway. The settlement lies in an area made up of various carbonate rocks. The northern part is less permeable, with greater karstification taking place towards the south, and with it, a higher density of sinkholes and increased cavernosity. Such information is essential to understand the way terraces are supplied with water. These days the area has no surface watercourses, but at the end of the 19th century, the Štirnca spring, which had hardly satisfied the village’s water needs, originated on the north-western slope of the nearby Prnji hill (503 m). It flowed to the north, into a central basin below the village, towards the main terraced area, or the area of the most intensively used terraces; all livestock routes to the more remote grazing terraces also passed by. An earthquake that hit Ljubljana in 1895 also caused the stream to dry up at great depth. These days, that memory lingers at an altitude of 421 m by the preserved gap and the walled pond below. The locals had already lain a livestock supply pipe from the Padež-Sežana-Trieste railway water pipe, which was built in 1857 (Mohorič 1968, Čehovin 1968). After the well dried up, they became reliant on rainwater. It was collected in wells, six of which are still in use today. In 1898, an even larger 300 cubic metre water reservoir was built to collect water flowing down from Ščenetnik Hill (253 m), in the 1920s a pool was built below Planina, also known as Gabrovec Hill (448 m). This was intended to supply the inhabitants, and any water that seeped into the lower pond was used for livestock. Since 1984, the Brestovica water supply system has been providing water to the settlement (Škrinjar, Kristan 1998).
The settlement of Merče (391 m) is only 12 km from the coast of the Gulf of Trieste as the crow flies. It has a modified, hinterland sub-Mediterranean climate (Ogrin 1996) with greater and better distributed precipitation than at the coast (Komen, 1645 mm). Despite the mild conditions, winter temperatures here can be very low. Warm sea air alternates with cold inland air intrusions. Cold bora winds blow frequently, and there is possibility of snowdrifts and sleet (Rejec Brancelj 1998, Mihevc 1998). The long vegetation period and the agricultural season allow grapevines to grow, but due to the proximity of the Dinaric Mountain barrier, this is its absolute limit of growth towards the interior.
The altitude of the lowlands in the north is about 360 m. This is the first condensed area of terraces. South of the road and the railway there is a larger karst basin with its bed at an altitude of 380 m. Most households are tightly clustered together on its eastern bank.
The gradually sloping banks of the basin are terraced. The terraces also extend over Ščenetnik hill towards the neighbouring village of Plešivica to the east and continue up the steeper slopes of all the hills surrounding the central basin. The relative heights of these elevations amount to several tens of metres, 170 m at most, with absolute heights reaching elevations between 450 and 570 m. The highest elevations are in the west, on the border with Sežana (Zidovnik, 570 m).
Due to the more favourable lithology and soil composition, and less inclined slopes, the terraces are concentrated in the northern half of the settlement area. They were formed gradually. The villagers first terraced the immediate surroundings to the households, the area below the transport axis and the less sloping land on the border with Plešivica.
The most distinctive terraced village area at the foot of Zidovnik hill (570 m) is still noticeable in the spring, before the tree leaves start to grow. Photo: Maja Topole, 2014.
As grazing areas began to run out, the terraces spread to increasingly remote and steep land. They were built by the shepherds, who put their time to good use by collecting stones to build the walls, while at the same time permanently securing their own grazing areas.
If the slopes of the terraces were made from earthworks, the terrace would slip downwards with each ploughing. As a rule, a terrace is the property of the upper owner. Otherwise, on Kras plateau the terrace banks are mostly rocky; they have a dry wall construction or, as the locals call them, dry stone walls. They are from half to one metre in height. The walls between the plots are taller than those between the terraces, and the tallest, at two-metres, and strongest are those that follow the main village tracks to the former pastures. They protected the neighbouring fields or crops from livestock incursions.
Due to the diverse relief, the terraces vary greatly in form. Their length, width and height were adapted to the shape of the surface: the length and width of the hill, basin, sinkhole and slope. The course may wind, the sides do not necessarily run in parallel, sometimes the shape bends out, at other times it is fan-shaped. Terraces vary according to land use and intensity of use. Those intended for vegetables, crops and fruit trees were usually narrower than others intended for cereals, meadows and pastures. The lengths of the terraces range from a few tens of metres, up to 100, 150 m, and widths up to 30 m and greater. The longest, 300-metre terraces, with maximum width of 15 to 20 m, e.g. the eastern foothills of Ščenetnik, and the narrowest are those found on the steepest slopes (eastern slope of Zidovnik, western slope of Ščenetnik, southern slope of Hrib). They measure only 5 to 6 m in width, some vineyards even less. The most extensive irregularly-shaped terraces can be seen southeast of the central basin, in a less sloping area between Prnji and Ščenetnik hills. The terraced areas were named after the owners (e.g. Kariževe njive/Kariž’s fields), after the location (Nad Gabrovcem/Above Gabrovec, Dolenji vrt /Lower garden), Nad brajdami /Above vineyards, Nad Šircem/Above Širec …) or what was being cultivated (Brajde/Vineyards, Lesana/The woods).
Accessibility to the terraces is highly varied. The most remote hilltop terraces were only reachable by livestock, and all terraces intended for agriculture, fruit growing, and meadow farming were accessible by cart, and later by motorised tractor. From the village there are some main power grid lanes, from which steeper cart tracks split off, leading to individual plots or terraces. A single point on the cart track gives access three stepped terraces on the left and to three on the right.
The building elements of the walls that protect, support or mark the terrace boundaries are particularly well made. Access to the terrace is through a space in the wall, the so-called vrzela, i.e. a gap, bounded by two large upright stones anchored to the ground that prevent the wall from collapsing due to the wheel axles getting stuck on the edge.
They are called gap stones, also portal stones, and are splayed at the top, leaning towards the wall. The drywalls include several other interesting features, e.g. stone steps to cross over the wall, or specific ground drainage openings every few metres, through which flowing water flushed manure from the livestock track to the adjacent lower field terraces. Walnut trees were usually planted below the opening to catch (the flowing) nutrients. Nothing was left to chance; everything was thought out to the last detail.
Ground drainage openings every few metres, through which flowing water flushed manure along the livestock path to the adjacent lower terraces Walnut trees were usually planted below the opening to catch nutrients. Photo: Maja Topole, 2015.
Walls, therefore, had many functions (Panjek 2015): in addition to piles of loose stone, they were a dumping ground for excess stones, demonstrated ownership of land or marked the plot of a particular owner, enclosed livestock pastures, and on the other hand protected fields, gardens and orchards from livestock, protected the soil from water and wind erosion and protected the seedlings from frost and wind, or from drying out. Grapevines were therefore often planted just behind the wall, on the south side, to make it easier to resist the bora winds.
All the Merče terraces (a total of 52 ha) are concentrated at altitudes between 350 and 450 m. Due to the slopes, stoniness, cavernosity and associated drought, we failed to find any in the southern, karstic half of the village land. The terraces are adapted to their exposure and slope; more than half of them face south, southwest, southeast, west and east, and 40% face north, northwest and northeast. Almost three quarters of the terraces are on flat ground, a fifth have a slope of 15 to 30 %, and more than 6% of the terraces are found on even steeper slopes.
Use of terraces over time
The Franciscan cadastre from the period 1818-1828 shows that the terraces of Merče had a completely different land use than they do today. As many as two-thirds were arable terraces. Even at that time, woodland covered 15% of the terraces, and more than 10 % was taken up by vineyards. Meadows and pastures accounted for more than 4 %, while inhabited buildings occupied a little less. 30 years ago, the terraces were most often used for growing vines or grain (wheat, spelt, oats, buckwheat, barley), there were many fruit trees (cherries, plums, pears, sagebrush, figs, mulberries), fodder plants and vegetables (potatoes, beets, carrots, peas, beans) and rapeseed. In the first half of the 1980s, the purchase price of wheat was very high, which encouraged its sowing. Fruit and vegetables were also bound for the Trieste market, until the Paris Peace Treaty after the Second World War. Today, wheat, potatoes and rapeseed, as well as vegetables for self-sufficiency, are grown on the greatly reduced arable land (1.6 %). 20 years ago, a combine harvester was required in the village for 2 days, but today it is only for an hour or two. Almost two thirds of all terraces are grassed overand rows of vine or fruit trees have been planted in some places.
Today, there are more orchards (1.8 %) than vineyards (0.8 %). Almost 4 % of the terraces are becoming overgrown, and a quarter are overgrown by woodland. After Slovenia’s independence and its accession to the EU, agriculture declined sharply due to greater competition. While 200 years ago there were about 300 head of livestock in the village, five mixed farms recently raised about 15 head of livestock. Since there is a shortage of stable manure today, farmers use green manure by ploughing rapeseed into the soil.
Today, the terraces are grassed over or extensively cultivated. Photo: Maja Topole, 2015.
The settlement of Merče initially spread outwards on the terraces, but is now in stagnation. These days, the villagers only maintain the terraces next to their households, and they no longer build new drywalls in the traditional way. A re-bar wire mesh is inserted into concrete and lined with stones to give the appearance of a drywall. There are several reasons for the abandonment and decline of the traditional terraced landscape: the abandonment of agriculture, social transformation, an aging population, emigration, better earnings in non-agricultural activities immediately following Slovenian independence, ownership difficulties, manufacturing unprofitability, difficulties for heavy machinery. The remote, hard-to-reach terraces on the steeper hillside slopes, were the first to be abandoned. Today they are already overgrown with woodland, especially pine trees.
The woodlands of terraced areas, that were jointly owned before the Second World War, but passed into state hands after the war, are even older. The terraces on the less sloped and more distant from the main tracks have also become overgrown with shrubs. They first settle on the border wall, which are colonised by roots and covered with moss which accelerate deterioration (bioerosion). The bushes that encircle the terrace grow into trees within a few years reducing exposure to the sun, but soon take over the terrace itself.
The terraced vineyards on steep slopes have long been abandoned, so the terraces have become overgrown with mature pine trees. Photo: Maja Topole, 2015.
Views of the elevation, lead us to suspect that terraced slopes are hidden beneath the woodland. Photo: Maja Topole, 2015.
Co-ownership is also unfavourable for the fate of terraces. Heirs are often unable to agree on how to manage them, which is reflected in abandoning work, maintenance and (later) decay of the walls. Only a few individual locals are aware of the importance of terraces and respect the effort and knowledge of their ancestors. They never go past a stone that has fallen out of a dry stone wall without picking it up and returning it to where it belongs. Most, however, are unaware that it is part of a cultural heritage that is slowly disappearing. There is also a noticeable difference between those larger terraces that received agricultural subsidies from European funds, and other terraces. In fact, the owners only mow the terraces for which they receive a subsidy, so narrower terraces, for which maintenance makes no sense, are doomed. This example proves the dependence of preserving the cultural landscape on bureaucratic measures after the terraces are no longer maintained for their primary, i.e. agricultural activity. The disadvantage of such policy is that the terraced landscape is only partially preserved, and that even if support covers material costs, it does not cover labour costs. Baling and bale sales provide the farmers with a small additional income.
Terraces as heritage
Terraces were recognized as a global heritage relatively recently, as the first terraces were only inscribed on the UNESCO list in the late 1970s. Slovenia has lagged slightly behind in recognizing terraces as heritage. Although individual municipalities in Slovenia have tried to protect the terraced areas, even at the time of UNESCO’s first recognition of terraces, this was more of a wish than a serious attempt. Inclusion in a nature park at the municipal level was not enough to protect and preserve them. However, in this case it was the youngest terraces from the 1950s, created due to the post-war intensification in winegrowing. Immediately following denationalisation, an extensive process of returning them to their original condition was initiated, as the owners considered the existing arrangement of terraces to be impractical. They could not come to terms with their aesthetic value (Pipan 2017).
Recognition of terraces as heritage at UNESCO and the establishment of the International Association of Terraced Landscapes ITLA 2010 has accelerated interest within scientific and professional circles, especially in Slovenia among geographers, architects, landscape architects, ethnologists, archaeologists and agriculturalists. The result of their work is also about current efforts to nominate the Goriška Brda terraces for inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The most important shift in recognizing terraces as heritage is likely to occur when terraces are taken up by society as a whole, with owners and managers, government bodies, businesses and communities taking their share of responsibility. In any case, the consequences of decades of indifference will be difficult to remedy.
Not only is knowledge about the construction of terraces, drywalls, use of terraced land, their protection, maintenance and water supply hardly passed on, or down the generations, but it is rapidly disappearing.
Why should we preserve terraced cultural landscapes?
Finally, the question of how and why to preserve the cultural landscape of the terraces so that they retain useful value, as well as aesthetic and experiential appeal? One of the possible routes is a focus on sustainable tourism, especially within selected settlements such as Merče, where the terraced landscape is more distinctive than is usual on the Mediterranean plateaus. The Merče area not only boasts a well-finished terrace system and related exceptional knowledge and skills, but there are also a number of natural and cultural attractions in the village and its surroundings that could be included in a tourist offer. These are the components of the karst natural landscape, karst rocks, underground caves, abysses, climbing walls, dolines and collapsed dolines, diverse flora and fauna, and, in addition to terraces, also other components of the cultural landscape – archaeological sites, the churches of St. Andrew and St. Maria, karst village or houses, stone shepherd huts, wells, ponds, and various stonemasonry products. There are also possibilities to reintroduce old terrace culture, the revival of local cuisine and bolstering self-sufficient farming.
Of course, not all endangered cultural landscapes can be preserved, nor does that make sense. Change is an inevitable part of life, including heritage. The solution is reflected more in the selection of representative areas, which are valuable for their message in terms of food production methods, water management and maintaining stability of the land and of biodiversity. The settlement of Merče, as a prominent example of a terraced landscape in the area of the Mediterranean plateaus, is certainly one such area. Some possible criteria are mentioned by geographers (Kladnik, Šmid Hribar, Geršič 2017b). Finally, let’s answer the question of why terraces need preserving. Adaptation of terraces to natural conditions, their design, layout, use for various purposes, their equipment and connection with water resources reflect humankind’s exceptional ability to observe, knowledge, ingenuity, sacrifice and a sense of streamlining work. They reflect human activity, its creative wisdom and concern for sustainable development, much older than the modern concept of sustainability.
1. According to architects and geographers, terraces add value to the cultural landscape, but only remain so if they are suitably maintained (Ažman Momirski, Kladnik 2015). We know of examples for protecting terraces within a nature park (Decree 1976, Decree 1992), however that protection was executed with no specialist basis and remained only on paper (Pipan 2017). Even today, several examples of cultural terracing are listed in the Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage of the Republic of Slovenia, but as a characteristic part of the cultural landscape, and not as a terraced region per se (e.g. registration numbers 7867, 9340, 15090, 18465, 21627, 24422, 28262 ). It is important to formulate criteria that allow a meaningful selection of terraced areas to protect, and then to actually protect them. One such proposal for criteria has been suggested by geographers (Kladnik, Šmid Hribar, Geršič 2017b).[
2. Using LIDAR recording or aerial laser scanning it is possible to identify the surface form beneath the vegetation cover, even overgrown terraces.[]
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Deccan Traps: A Different Take
At the recent 2008 AGU meeting in San Francisco, a long simmering controversy reared its head again. Paleontologists Gerta Keller and Sunil Bajpai and geophysicist Vincent Courtillot presented evidence that India’s Deccan Traps, and not the Chicxlub meteor in Mexico, created the unhealthful conditions that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. Their data is thought provoking but what attracted my attention was Dr. Keller’s comment that much of their data came from quarries in the basalt.
Erupted 65 million years ago, the Deccan Traps covers an area as large as Texas. Geologists have estimated the volume at 1.2 million cubic kilometers, with nearly half lost to erosion. The depth of the layers is more than 3,500 meters thick. At AGU, Keller observed that the viscous basalt spewed forth in as little as 10,000 years.
Basalt Quarry: Photo from Gerta Keller
The quarries that interest Keller and her colleagues are found in flows that oozed 800 kilometers across India to Rajahmundry, on India’s east coast. They are the longest lava flows on Earth. Dozens of quarries pockmark the Rajahmundry traps of the Deccan plateau. (Trap refers to any dark colored igneous rock though it is most commonly associated with basalt; trap comes from the Swiss word for step.) According to Dr. Keller, families and extended clans work most of the quarry sites by hand, using hammers and explosives. Men break up the stone and women carry it out on their heads. And in some cases, trucks transport rock to people’s homes and dump the material in their backyards, where they work on it.
Worker at basalt quarry: Photo from Gerta Keller
Because the Rajahmundry basalt resists weathering, much of it goes for roads and to make train beds. It is shipped to Europe and perhaps to the United States. Basalt from other flows in India have been used as a building stone, though Dr. Keller did not know if the Rajahmundry stone had gone into buildings.
The quarries have played an important role in Dr. Keller’s research because they expose the rocks that she has wanted to study. In the quarries is evidence for shallow marine deposition, where marine microfossils were preserved. These fossils have been essential to narrowing the date of Deccan Trap deposition and allowing Dr. Keller to further elaborate on her thesis. I am not qualified to say whether her theory is right or wrong, but the work raises some interesting questions and if Dr. Keller is right, you may want to give a second thought to the road you travel on. It may contain evidence for the dinosaur’s demise.
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Educator’s Guide: Summer of the Mariposas
Educator’s Guide: Summer of the Mariposas
Summer of the Mariposas by Guadalupe Garcia McCall is the selection for the LAII’s Vamos a Leer book group meeting scheduled for September 9, 2013.
The following information comprises a standards-based educator’s guide that the LAII has produced to support using Summer of the Mariposas (Garcia-McCall, Tu Books, 2012) in the classroom. The standards are not included here, but are included with the lesson plans in the PDF. The complete guide is available for download at no cost: Vamos a Leer Educator’s Guide: Summer of the Mariposas.
• 2013 Andre Norton Award Nominee
• Westchester Fiction Award
• 2012 School Library Journal List of Best Books
About Guadalupe Garcia McCall:
A little more about the author in her own words:
The following lesson plans are comprised of two sections:
• A short section of suggested activities that can be used before, during or after the reading of the novel which are organized thematically by different subject areas
• Guided reading questions organized by parts of the book and extended response writing prompts. These questions have been written to support the types of reading and critical thinking skills required in standardized reading comprehension tests. The following key words and skills are highlighted: analyze, infer, evaluate, describe, support, explain, summarize, compare, contrast and predict.
In addition to the lesson plans and activities included here, check out the following resources provided by Lee & Low Books:
The author also runs a Facebook page for the novel where you can join others in conversation and hear from Garcia McCall herself:
Social Studies:
The girls live in Eagle Pass, Texas and drive to El Sacrificio, Mexico. Find Eagle Pass on a map, and then find El Sacrificio. Trace a possible route the girls may have traveled. Can you image traveling that distance on your own? How would you have felt attempting that trip without an adult?
La Llorona:
La Llorana is an important character in McCall’s book. Students may or may not be familiar with the many versions of legends surrounding La Llororna. There are a number of excellent books based La Llorona legends. I’ve listed some examples below. Read some of these books with your students, discussing what the story of La Llorona is and what the purpose of such a legend may be. As students read Summer of the Mariposas discuss how McCall’s version of La Llorona differs from others. Create a Venn Diagram comparing and contrasting McCall’s version of La Llorona with another book’s portrayal. Discuss why McCall may have wanted to change the legend. Think about what role La Llorona plays in the novel.
For a more in-depth study of La Llorona, I’ve linked to possible lesson plans below.
Literary Analysis:
Make a Prediction and La Loteria:
The game La Loteria is mentioned frequently throughout the novel. If students are unfamiliar with how the game is played use either of these links to explain the game to them:
McCall begins each of her chapters with a riddle that would accompany a specific Loteria card. At the beginning of each chapter read the riddle. Then, ask students to predict what they think will happen in that chapter based upon the riddle. Once students have finished a chapter, return to the riddle and discuss how it foreshadows what happened in the chapter.
Magical Realism:
Magical realism is an important part of McCall’s novel. As the name suggests, magical realism is blending of the magical or fantastical with the realistic, not limiting itself to either of the two genres. As students read the novel, ask them to pick out the realistic from the magical. Which parts of the story could actually happen? Which are less likely to be possible? Why do you think the author chose this genre for her novel? What does this genre allow her to do? For a more in-depth look at magical realism click on the links below for lesson plans.
Guided Reading Questions
Part One:
1. Why can Mama no longer be a housewife? What does she have to do? (p. 2)
2. How do the five sisters spend their summer? Compare it to how you spend your summer break—how is alike or different? (p. 3-4)
3. What would you have done if you’d been swimming and discovered a dead body in the water? (p. 6-7)
4. What are the girls afraid of it they report the dead man to la migra? What are the rumors? (p. 12-13)
5. Who does the dead man remind the girls of? Do you think this influences their decision on what to do? (p. 16-19)
6. What do the girls hope to find out if they go to El Sacrificio? Who lives there that they know? (p. 21)
7. What is the sisters’ motto? Think about how they get along, does it surprise you that they’ve chosen this? (p. 25)
8. When they return home, the four youngest sisters start packing and planning for the trip to Mexico, but Odilia, the oldest says, “. . .I knew very well how this was going to turn out. They weren’t going anywhere. They just didn’t know it yet” (p. 26). Predict what you think will happen: will the sisters go to Mexico? What will become of the dead man’s body?
9. The girls reference the code of the cinco hermanitas numerous times throughout the book. Keep a list as you read of the different rules of the code. At the end of the book answer the following questions: Are these rules that you would include in your code? What rules would you add? Would you get rid of any of the girls’ rules? Explain your answer.
10. How does Odilia feel about being the oldest? Do you think she has too much responsibility? (p. 36-37) How would you feel if you were Odilia?
11. What do you think the five shooting stars symbolize? (p. 37)
12. How do the four younger sisters coerce Odilia into going on the trip to Mexico? (p. 41-43)
13. When the girls return to get the dead man’s body, what does Odilia see along the riverbank? Does Odilia think that the children she sees are real? How do you know? (p. 45-46) What do you think—are the children and the woman real? Explain your answer.
14. Who is the woman that Odilia sees? (p. 48) What do the stories say that she did to her children? (p. 49) What is her version of the story? (p. 49-50)
15. What does La Llorona tell Odilia that the sisters must do? What will happen if they do not take this path? (p. 52-53)
16. What does La Llorana give to Odilia to help her on their travels? How does it work? (p. 54-55)
17. What happens to make Odilia realize that La Llorona and her magic were real? (p. 66)
18. Who remembers how to get through the check point at Piedras Negras? What does the officer want? (p. 71)
19. What does Odilia find when she returns to where she’s left the girls to get lunch? (p. 77)
20. How do the girls imagine they will be received when they bring the dead man back to his family? (p. 81) Predict what you think will happen.
21. What clue do the girls get that the family may not be excited about the dead man’s return? (p. 83-84)
22. What kind of party is the dead man’s family having? Explain why it surprises the girls so much? (p. 87)
23. Explain what the saying “too much cream spoils the tacos” means (p. 88). Why does Odilia remind the sisters of this before they go in to meet the family?
24. Describe the scene where the family realizes their father has returned. Do they know he’s dead? How do they find out? (p. 96-98)
Part Two:
1. How does Odilia get the family to stop pressuring them to call their mother? What do the sisters learn then? (p. 108-110)
2. What does Odilia find when she goes to get the paper for Ines? How will this complicate the girls’ plan to visit their grandmother? (p. 117)
3. Who are two of the people of interest in the sisters’ disappearance? Imagine you are Mama. How do you think she is feeling? (p. 120-122)
4. What happens 15 miles outside of El Sacrificio? (p. 127)
5. What do you think of the woman the girls meet on the side of the road? (p. 129-130) Would you trust her? Think about the Loteria clue for this chapter (p. 118). Predict what you think is going to happen.
6. Why do you think Cecilia keeps feeding the girls? What do you think is in the food? (p. 135)
7. How does Odilia finally realize that something is wrong about Cecilia and her house? (p. 141)
8. Who helps Odilia rid herself of Cecilia’s potion? What does her potion do? (p. 142-146)
9. How does Cecilia respond when the girls try to leave in the morning? (p. 151-153)
10. What mistake do the girls make when leaving Cecilia’s? What were the girls warned about? What do you think will happen now? (p. 157-159)
11. If you were the girls would you trust Teresita and the old man? Explain why or why not. (p. 159-161)
12. Teresita tells the girls “It’s a difficult road you’ve taken, one riddled with hardships and painful ordeals, but then again, you are difficult children” (p. 162). Do you agree, do you think the girls are difficult? Explain.
13. Do you think the girls’ behavior is really Odilia’s fault? Think about how the sisters have acted so far. Do you think they would have heeded Odilia’s warning and not taunted the witch? (p. 164)
14. What is the nagual? What must they do to defeat him? (p. 165-166)
15. What are the lechuzas? What must they do to escape them? (p. 166)
16. What is the chupacabras? What must they do to save themselves from it? (p. 168-169)
17. What do you think about the donkey? Do you think the girls should trust it? (p. 171-173)
18. How do the sisters learn what the donkey really is? (p. 181-183)
19. Why does the nagual need the five sisters? What will sacrificing them do for him? (p. 185)
20. What happens when the girls sing the song of the cave? Describe what the scene looked like. (p. 189-190)
21. Predict what you think is going to happen when the girls go in the barn. (p. 198-199). What would you do in their situation—it’s getting dark and you need shelter, but you know there is the threat of the lechuzas. Would you stay in the barn or not? Why?
22. Describe what the lechuzas look like. Have you ever seen anything like that? (p. 201-202)
23. What do the lechuzas sound like? What kinds of things do they say? Why do you think they do this—what does it achieve with the girls? (p. 202-207)
24. What do you think about Delia’s and Velia’s tendency to always think everything is okay? Think about when they met the Cecilia, the nagual, and some of the other characters. Do they ever heed Odilia’s warning? How do they act when they meet the boy? Do they trust him? Would you trust him after everything the sisters have been through? (p. 214-219)
25. What does Chencho tell the sisters about the chupacabras? (p. 226-227)
26. What does Odilia wake up to find? (p. 231-232)
27. Why do the girls decide not to kill the chupacabras? (p. 236) Do you think this was the right decision? Why or why not?
28. How does Abuela Remedios take care of Pita’s wound? (p. 246)
29. What was the main reason the girls wanted to find Abuela Remedios? By the time they get there is that the most important thing to them? Explain. (p. 249)
30. What do they learn from Abuela about their father? How does Abuela describe Papa? (p. 249-251)
31. After talking to Abuelita, the girls have greater insight into why their mother has acted the way she has. What do they learn about her? What do they realize about themselves and their own actions? (p. 253-257)
Part Three:
1. What does Abuelita give to Odilia to take home? (p. 262)
2. What do the girls realize they don’t have that they need to get back home? Why do they need these? How do they solve the problem? (p. 267-271)
3. Describe the scene when the girls see Tonantzin. (p. 271-273)
4. Tonantzin speaks in riddles to the girls. What do you think her riddles or messages mean? (p. 273-276)
5. How do the girls get across the border? (p. 278-281)
6. Do the roses change Mama as Odilia expected? (p. 291-291) Do you think the roses were meant for Mama? Or a different mother?
7. How do the girls react to Papa’s return? How do you think you would have reacted? Should the girls trust him? (p. 296-298)
8. What was Papa hiding from the girls? Who else is in the house? (p. 300-304)
9. Think about the confrontation between the sisters, Mama and Papa. How have the sisters changed since the beginning of the story? How has Mama changed? Do you think the changes are for the better? (p. 305-311)
10. Who does Odilia realize the roses were meant for? (p. 321) What happens when Odilia gives the right mother the roses? (p. 323-325)
11. How does the story end? Do you think that was the best way to bring the girls’ journey to a close? (p. 328-334)
Reflective Writing Questions:
1. La Llorona tells Odilia that she and her sisters must go on this journey in order to find happiness. Having completed the novel, why do you think La Llorona said that. What happened as a result of their experiences during their travels? How did the girls change? What do you think would have happened if the girls hadn’t gone to Mexico?
2. In Summer of the Mariposas McCall changes the traditional legend of La Llorona and the chupacabras. Instead of simply being a horrible mother cast as an evil person or a monster, McCall complicates the stories showing that things often aren’t as simple as we think they are, people aren’t just good or bad. Think of the myths, fables or fairy tales you’ve heard with traditional villains or ‘bad guys.’ How would you re-write your story to that the villain’s story was more complex.
3. Who was your favorite character in the novel? Explain why.
4. Which character do you think changed the most? Explain how they changed and why you chose that person.
Written by staff at the UNM Latin American & Iberian Institute (LAII), Vamos a Leer Educator’s Guides provide an excellent way to teach about Latin America through literacy. Each guide is based upon a book featured in the Vamos a Leer book group. For more materials that support teaching about Latin America in the classroom, visit the LAII website. This guide was prepared 4/2013 by Adam Flores, LAII Graduate Assistant, and Katrina Dillon, LAII Project Assistant.
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image The Birth of the Skyscraper Conclusion
TimelinesKey FiguresGlossary
Maps & Key Buildings
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Why were these buildings suddenly getting bigger and who was actually occupying them? The answer is that there was this huge social change in the office world in the early twentieth century. The need for office workers was expanding at a spectacular rate as businesses like banking, insurance, and law firms hired more people, not only the partners at these firms but huge numbers of office workers too. Both men and women were being hired and so they needed more space.
In addition to the large businesses, there were many smaller support businesses that rented small offices in these speculative office buildings. But the number of these businesses expanded enormously. If business had not been expanding, this skyscraper development would never have occurred because these are money generators. The builders of these skyscrapers wanted to make a profit and they had to know that there was an office market out there to rent the space, because if there was no office market, what was the point of investing money in constructing such a large building if it was just going to remain vacant? So it was the expansion of the office market that went hand in hand with the expansion of the skyscraper.
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001 - Resources and Theories
Debatable Question
Does every country 'need' the same resources? Discuss
Key Terminology
• Resource
• Renewable
• Non-renewable
• Replenishable
• Recycling
Define the words above using the following links:
Activity One - Opinion
1. Write down ten resources that you can not live without.
2. Group the resources using the terminology above.
3. Within three paragraphs write down the resources which we ´need´.
4. Within three paragraphs discuss how the resources we 'need' may differ between a LEDC and a MEDC.
Activity Two - Skill
• Describe the global change in use of resources. Don't forget to include figures to illustrate your answers.
Taken from: www.igbp.net
Factual Question
What is Malthusian and neo-Malthusian thought?
What is Boserup's theory on resources?
Debatable Question
Can economic theories relating to resources still apply today?
Key Terminology
• Optimum Population
• Malthus
• Neo-Malthusian
• Boserup
Define the term optimum population using the link below. You will define the others throughout the activities.
Activity One - Describe
Malthusian Theory
Taken From: http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/malthusian_theory_of_population_growth.png
Boserup's Theory
Taken From: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/archive/7/74/20070927012943!Graph_boserup.JPG
Activity Two - Comprehension
Using the information above and below, answer the following questions:
1. Write a description of Malthusian and Boserup´s theories. A diagram may help.
2. What are the limitations of both theories?
3. What are the strengths of both theories?
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Lord of the Flies Questions Chapter 4 help
1. How do the hunters behave in response to the success of the hunt, and what is the significance of this behavior?
2. How does Ralph “assert his chieftainship” after the argument with the hunters? Why do you think this gesture is so effective?
3. What do you think will result from the open conflict between Jack and Ralph and from Jack‟s success at getting meat? What is the significance of the boys‟ reaction to being able to eat meat, and how does this compare to their reaction about having missed a chance to be rescued?
4. Discuss the thematic significance of the title of the chapter.
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Cooking Techniques
To create fine threads of an ingredient by passing it over a serrated surface. This is usually accomplished with a grater, which is a flat piece of metal with notches cut in the face. The size of the notches determines the size of the threads of food. Shredded food is usually thought of as being a larger thread while grating creates a finer one (that can even be as fine as powder).
Food processors are equipped with blades that can also be used for grating (usually more of a shred). Foods that are to be grated should be firm. For instance, cheese that has been refrigerated will grate easier when passed over the surface of the grater.
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"url": "http://drgourmet.com/techniques/shred.shtml"
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The Effectiveness of the Opening to Hamlet
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• Published : October 8, 1999
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Hamlet is launched extremely well because there is no long drawn out introduction to the plot. The story begins almost immediately with a brief yet concise 5-scene Act entailing the state of affairs within the Court of Denmark. Each scene contributes to the overall exposition significantly and Act 1 effectively captures the interest of the audience, introduces the key characters, establishes the conflicts and creates and maintains the dominant atmosphere of the play.
In Act 1 Scene 1, the audience is instantly shocked into interest by the exchange of short, sharp speeches between the very nervous sentries of the castle. What follows is the audience's discovery of the frequenting appearance of a Ghost and the sentries' plans to have Horatio, a scholar, attempt to communicate with it. The setting for this scene is atop a castle, resting upon cliffs high above the ocean. It is midnight, creating a more sinister atmosphere, apt for following story and the medieval time period to which it is set. When the ghost finally appears to Horatio and the others, the audience discovers through their inferences that the ghost has a strong likeness to the late King Hamlet of Denmark. The conversation that follows gives the audience a brief understanding of the current situation in Denmark, involving the details of preparations for war and revelations of conflict with Fortinbras of Norway.
Scene 1 therefore serves as part of a good exposition in that it: Captures the interest of the audience with the short stabs of nervous speech between the sentries, It introduces the characters of the Ghost, the sentries (Marcellus, Barnardo, Francesco) and Horatio, It establishes the situation with Fortinbras and the appearances of the mysterious Ghost as points of interest and future conflict, And it contributes through mood and setting to the dominant atmosphere of tragedy within the play.
Scene 2 jumps to within the castle, where the court mourning for King...
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Chanakya IAS Academy Blog
What do you understand by Graded Response Action Plan? Explain how it is supposed to work.
A Graded Response Action Plan is a set of stratified actions that are taken once the pollution level reaches a certain specified limit. The Supreme Court had mandated the Environmental Pollution Control Authority (EPCA) to come up with such a plan. The Union Environment Ministry has recently announced this plan for Delhi and National Capital Region.
How does it work?
There are several limits specified under the plan. The limits are that of the pollution level or more specifically the concentration of Particulate Matter. When the concentration reaches a certain limit say, 100 micrograms per cubic metre of Particulate Matter, several steps to control pollution has to start, like water sprinkling on the roads, sweeping roads more often, etc. When the pollutant concentration reaches a little higher level, there can be a ban imposed on firecrackers, and other fuel use, etc.
It is the task of the Environmental Pollution Control Authority to find out the particulate matter levels in each state by the help of a task force. Then a proper scrutiny is done regarding the concentration levels. If it reaches the specified limit in any state, the Environmental Pollution Control Authority orders various departments to start functioning in order to control these levels.
The various departments are given a set of various tasks beforehand. These departments might include the transport department, public works department, etc. They are supposed to carry out these tasks so that the pollution level is controlled at an early stage.
It is called a ‘graded’ plan because it does its function step by step. There are separate tasks for separate pollution concentration levels. In this way, gradually, pollution control is done. But it is not the role of any one specific department. It is a task of several departments coordinated together. The main objective of the plan is to avoid strict pollution control measures all of a sudden and respond to the problem gradually.
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Kettle Boiled Batch Saponification
The Kettle Boiled Batch Process has many similarities to the saponification reactions that you can perform in the school laboratory: it uses a direct saponification reaction. A lot about this process can actually be determined from the name:
A kettle is a large, open, steel tank. The kettles used for saponification can hold up to 130,000 kg of material.
The reaction mixture is kept boiling through the injection of high temperature, high pressure steam. This also acts to keep the reaction mixture well-stirred. Some soap from previous reactions is usually left in the kettle to help the water and oil mix by forming an emulsion (see emulsification later in this module).
Batch Process
A batch process is a reaction where everything is added at the beginning, the reaction proceeds until it reaches completion and then the products are removed. (This is in contrast with a semi-batch reaction where more reactants are added as the reaction proceeds, or a continuous process where reactants are added and products removed constantly throughout the reaction.) In this case, the fats and oils, caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), salt and water are added at the beginning of the reaction.
At the conclusion of the saponification reaction, additional salt is added to the mixture (thus changing the way the soap solidifies). The mixture is washed with more steam and allowed to settle, removing the glycerol. The washing and settling process usually takes several days to complete.
Key Differences
The key differences between the Kettle Boiled Batch Process and the saponification reactions performed in the school laboratory are:
• the industrial process uses a blend of fats and oils in the reactor
• heating and stirring is achieved using steam
• salt is added to control the way the soap solidifies
• glycerol is removed from the product (and used in other processes)
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Themes and Meanings
The major theme of Amy Hempel’s story is duality—duality of experience and memory, and the more universal knowledge, but a very singular experience, that everyone is going to die. The motif of duality is introduced in the narrator’s statement, “things are two ways at once,” and are underscored by his several descriptions of experiencing events in two—usually opposite—ways simultaneously: near and far, fast and slow, hot and cold, not being there but being there. These same descriptions reflect the duality of memory: Memory brings things from the past (far away) into the present (closer)—a kind of binocular-vision of one’s life. Memory also brings things that are absent into presence, such as the nurse: “After she leaves the room, for a short time the room is like when she was here. She is not here, but the idea of her is.” Memory is stimulated by smells: a Christmas candle, smoke, face powder; any one of these odors recalls into the present a person, an event, or both.
The concept of life is a dual one, for it must include the notion of death. Living is not just a movement through space and time, but also a movement toward death. From the moment of birth, each person begins to die, and living is that time in between. Death is quietly present throughout, although it is mentioned indirectly only once, in the teacher’s observation, and directly once, when the narrator mentions the night his mother died. The narrator himself could have...
(The entire section is 551 words.)
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Reading Journal
The Snail and the Whale (KS1)
81YrCQVFKfLAuthor: Julia Donaldson
Illustrator: Axel Scheffler
Age range: KS1
This story has a great rhyme sequence which makes it easy and enjoyable to listen to. The repetition of phrases “The tiny snail on the tail of the whale” allows children to anticipate and join in with patterns.
The story contains lots of adjectives– can you find them all? There is also a simile “This is a rock as blsck as soot” – couldinvstigate similes.
Themes include friendship, travelling, habitats, teamwork
Cross-curricular links
Science: animals and their habitat
• What are the habitats of the snail and the whale? How do they differ?
• How are they each suited to their habitat?
• Why wasn’t the whale able to move on the land?
• view news stories of beached whales
• differences between snails and whales
• Could you make a tune/write the words for the song the whale sings for the snail?
• even though the snail is small he still manages to help save the whale- Is there anything you thought you couldn’t do but then managed when you tried?
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<urn:uuid:af2f0257-2a24-41a9-81a5-251bfa32a70e>
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Étienne de Condillac and the Importance of Language in Logical Reasoning
Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1714-1780)
On September 30, 1714, French philosopher and epistemologist Étienne Bonnot de Condillac was born. A leading advocate in France of the ideas of John Locke de Condillac further emphasized the importance of language in logical reasoning, stressing the need for a scientifically designed language and for mathematical calculation as its basis.
Étienne de Condillac was born at Grenoble as the youngest of three brothers to Gabriel Bonnot, Vicomte de Mably, and Catherine de La Coste. “Condillac” was the name of an estate purchased by his father in 1720. He is said to have had very poor eyesight and a weak physical constitution, factors that so retarded his intellectual development that as late as his twelfth year he was still unable to read. His education began only in his teens, first under the direction of a local priest, then at Lyons, later as seminarian in Paris, at Saint-Suplice and at the Sorbonne. He took holy orders in 1740 at Saint-Sulpice church in Paris and was appointed as Abbot of Mureauand, but did no pastoral work. [1]
Condillac published two main philosophical works: the Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge of 1746, and the Treatise on Sensations of 1754, both of which were devoted to expositing his views on the role of experience in the development of our cognitive capacities. In his works La Logique (1780) and La Langue des calculs (1798), Condillac emphasized the importance of language in logical reasoning, stressing the need for a scientifically designed language and for mathematical calculation as its basis.[2] As a philosopherCondillac gave systematic expression to the views of John Locke, previously made fashionable in France by Voltaire.
In retrospect, Condillac’s importance is both in virtue of his work as a psychologist, and his systematic establishment of Locke’s ideas in France. Like Locke, Condillac maintained an empirical sensationalism based on the principle that observations made by sense perception are the foundation for human knowledge. In the Traité des sensationsCondillac questioned Locke’s doctrine that the senses provide intuitive knowledge. He doubted, for example, that the human eye makes naturally correct judgments about the shapes, sizes, positions, and distances of objects. Examining the knowledge gained by each sense separately, he concluded that all human knowledge is transformed sensation, to the exclusion of any other principle, such as Locke’s additional principle of reflection.[2]
According to Condillac, all sensation is affective, that is, causes pain or pleasure. Sensations, consequently, are the source of all active faculties. Need, for example, is the result of the privation of some object whose presence is demanded either by nature of habit. Need, subsequently, directs all energy towards this missing object. This directionality, Condillac claimed, is what we call desire. Will is absolute desire, made vigilant by hope.
In Paris Condillac spent some years spent living the life of a man of letters in Paris and was involved with the circle of Denis Diderot, the philosopher who was co-contributor to the Encyclopédie. He developed a friendship with Jean Jacques Rousseau, which lasted in some measure to the end of his life. Together with his brother Gabriel, who became the well-known political writer known as Abbé de Mably, Condillac introduced Rousseau to an intellectual circle. Condillac’s relations with unorthodox philosophers did not injure his career. He had already published several works when the French court sent him to Parma to educate the orphan duke Prince Ferdinand of Parma, then a child of seven years.
In 1768, on his return from ItalyCondillac was elected to the Académie française. Contrary to the popular idea that he attended only one meeting, he was a frequent attendee until two years before his death. Near the end of his life, Condillac turned his attention to politics and economics. His economic views, which were presented in Le Commerce et le gouvernement, were based on the notion that value depends not on labour but rather on utility. The need for something useful, he argued, gives rise to value, while prices result from the exchange of valued items.[2] Finding the irreligious climate of Parisian intellectual society offensive, he retired to spend his last years at Flux, near Beaugency on the Loire River. He died there on 3 August 1780.
At yovisto, you can learn more about Condillac’s age of enlightenment in the talk of Gresham College Prof. Justin Champion on ‘Why the Enlightenment still matters today‘.
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Definition of germ layer in English:
germ layer
• ‘Flatworms are unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical worms that lack a coelom but that do have three germ layers.’
• ‘This process, called induction, culminates in the formation of a thickening in the ectoderm germ layer known as the neural plate.’
• ‘During gastrulation, animals form a structure called the blastopore, which is where migrating tissues tuck themselves inward to establish the three germ layers of the embryo.’
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Pennsylvania To Kentucky In A Flatbottom Boat
Harry Smith was a Pennsylvania farmer. He was living in a time of new beginnings for those who were tough enough and willing to brave the hardships and dangers of 'The Great Westward Movement'. Harry and his brother had heard about the rich farmland ready for the taking and the newly opened route that would take them down the Ohio River. The were convinced they could navigate a Broadhorn Flatbottom Boat and began their trip where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers formed the northeastern mouth of the Ohio River in Pittsburg and flowed in a southwesterly direction to the Mississippi.
Harry Smith, his wife Nancy, their two daughters Ann and Margaret most likely were part of a small contingent of farmers who contracted one of the larger flatboats referred to as Arks. The Ark Barges were built for navagating big rivers like the Ohio and Mississippi and carried two or more families traveling West with their farm animals. The trip took a month or longer depending on the final destination, the number of times they banked for supplies, and how often they stopped to forage feed for the animals. Then there was the ever present danger of encountering Indian raiding parties. It was on a banking for the cattle to feed that the Smith Party came under attack.
Not far from the Falls of the Ohio River at Fort Washington (now Cincinnati), the Smith Ark poled over to an embankment that led to a grassy pasture. The cattle were hered to the field while Harry and his brother scythed and bundled grass for storage. When time came to round up the cattle, Harry noticed the milk cow was missing. He followed the sound of her bell coming from the wooded area just beyond the pasture. To late, he realized that the Indians had taken the cow and were using the bell to lure him closer to the woods where he would not be able to warn his family and the crew on the boat. He was shot and killed while running back to the boat. The warning he shouted gave the crew just enough time to push off the bank and fight off the Indian's from boarding the barge.
Nancy and her daughters were tending to housekeeping chores atop the covered compartments when she heard her husbands shouts. She instantly knew they were under attack and threw her body over her daughters to protect them, all the while screaming her husbands name. After the attack, Nancy and her daughters were devastated at the loss of their husband and father, but had no choice but to continue downstream to Louisville where they thought they would be safe. Louisville had been under attack and all river boats were routed across the Ohio to Clarksville and the fort.
Fearing for their lives, Nancy and her daughters quickly left the barge with the rest of the Smith's and the crew, leaving their belongings and animals on the boat. Before they could get off the river bank, they were attacked again. Nancy and her younger daughter Margaret were able to escape the onslaught as the soliders from the fort arrived. As soon as they reached safety, Nancy noticed that Ann was not with them. She tried to run back, but was stopped.
All through the siege, Nancy prayed that if her daughter was dead that her death at the hands of the Indians be quick and merciful, as she was remembering the accounts she had read about another young girl's horrifying death not so many years earlier. The story of Jane McCrea had been published in the Pennsylvania Ledger and it was all Nancy could think of as she waited for the fighting to end.
As Nancy and Margaret clung to each other and prayed, shouts could be heard to open the gate. A soldier was running toward the fort and not far behind, a band of savages, their weapons raised. Thrown over his shoulder was the lifeless figure of Ann Smith.
As soon as he was through the gate, he collapsed. Nancy too, fell to the ground and took her daughter in her arms. Anns face and strands of hair around her face were covered and soaked in blood. As Nancy touched her daughters head to pull her close for a hint of a breath, she felt a mixture of blood and dirt, and heard Margaret scream,
"She has been Scalped!"
1 comment:
Wendy said...
Interesting historic background. Exciting story. Tragic story.
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Illustration representing an ancient explorer.
Did This Ancient Explorer Make It to The Arctic In 325 BC?
(Read the article on one page)
The first arctic explorer isn’t who you think. More than 2,300 years ago, Pytheas of Massalia traveled to the Arctic Circle and back – and, when he came home, nobody believed him.
In a time when most people believed that the sun was dragged across the sky by a god, Pytheas made it to a place where the sun doesn’t rise all winter long. He found a place covered in permafrost, a frozen ocean, and drifting icebergs, and he had to come home and try to explain what he’d seen.
He made discoveries so incredible that they were literally unbelievable – and it took more than a thousand years before we found out he was telling the truth.
An explorer in the Arctic by Andreas Kornerup
An explorer in the Arctic by Andreas Kornerup ( CC by SA 2.0 )
Who Was Pytheas?
Not much is known about Pytheas’s life. He was, we are told, “ a poor man ”, who traveled north on his own dime, without the support of any government. Everything beyond that, though, is speculation. Every word he wrote has been lost to time, and what we know of his journey comes, mainly, from people who didn’t believe him.
Statue of Pythéas by Auguste Ottin (1811-1890) in front of the Exchange in Marseille
Statue of Pythéas by Auguste Ottin (1811-1890) in front of the Exchange in Marseille ( CC by SA 3.0 )
It’s easy to understand why the ancient world would have doubted that a poor sailor could have made the trip Pytheas made. The path north took him through the Strait of Gibraltar, a place the ancient world called the Pillars of Hercules. To get through it, he had to get past a military blockade held by the Carthaginian army.
Somehow, Pytheas and his crew snuck past an entire army – although nobody knows for sure how he did it. Modern historians have their theories, but they’re really nothing more than wild speculation. And the only explanation the ancient world left us was that Pytheas was a liar and none of it ever really happened.
The things he reported back, though, suggest that, somehow, he really did it. Somehow, snuck past an army, went on to Britain and – once there – became the person to circumnavigate the island. And he was only getting started.
The Strait of Gibraltar
The Strait of Gibraltar ( public domain )
The Discovery of Thule
After circling Britain, Pytheas went on north, in search of an undiscovered land the natives promised him was out there. This went against all reason – at the time, it was believed that there was nothing north of Britain but ocean. Pytheas’ trip would take him past the edge of the world.
After six days of sailing, he saw, jutting out of the water, the tall, rocky coastline of a land he called Thule. Nobody knows for sure what country he discovered – it may have been Iceland or Norway . It would be more than a thousand years before any European attempted the trip again.
His records of the sky, though, suggest he really was somewhere near the Arctic Circle. He recorded how the stars overhead shifted, and they reflect the sky you’d actually see from around Iceland. And he recorded how much shorter the days became as he traveled north.
He claims that there were people living there when he arrived – which, if Thule is Iceland, would be incredible, as the country was deserted when it was colonized 1000 years after his journey. These people, he said, had to struggle to live in a place where the sun barely shone and few plants and animals could live. They lived off millet, fruit, and roots, unable to grow much else.
There is no night at the summer solstice ,” Pytheas reported back from Thule. This, for a person living in the 4 th century BC, must have been an incredible revelation. He was seeing something that no Greek had ever seen – a place where the sun didn’t rise all winter long.
A 16th century map of the Arctic
A 16 th century map of the Arctic ( public domain )
The Frozen Ocean
Pytheas had gone further north than any European had ever traveled – but he didn’t stop there. He sailed on, a day’s journey north of Thule, and reached a place he didn’t know how to describe. There was something in the water which he said was not “land properly so‑called, or sea, or air, but a kind of substance concreted from all these elements, resembling a sea-lungs.”
It’s believed, today, that he was trying to describe a sea filled with drifting pancake ice . With no frame of reference to describe it, though, he had to resort to some strange word choices. He called it a “jellyfish-like substance”, which “you can neither walk nor sail upon”.
Normann, your first statement is false, there were a few people in Greenland by 325 BC and the country didn't stayed empty until the 10th century AD.
There is some undeniable archeological evidences that the ameridindian Dorset culture had settlement in Greenland from as early as 600 BC until as late as 1000 AD.
However, those settlements were all on the northwest coast of Greenland, so even if Pytheas had reached Greenland, it would have been from the opposite southeast side and he would then have found an empty land, so that only leaves the scandinavian peninsula as possible solution.
The opening of the article mentions ice bergs, but goes on to say Pytheas reached Thule six days sail north from Britain, and another day north he encountered what sounds like sea filled with "pancake-ice", low flat ice sheets rather than the gigantic ice bergs.
So he wasn't necessarily near Greenland, and could have been off the coast of Norway.
If in fact this quote is true: "circling Britain, Pytheas went on north, in search of an undiscovered land the natives promised him was out there. This went against all reason – at the time, it was believed that there was nothing north of Britain but ocean. Pytheas’ trip would take him past the edge of the world" ... Then it seems obvious that the so called "natives" of Britian (likely of Scandanavian heritage) had already been to the arctic and settled there likely alongside the natives we call Lapps today. This mindset of the reigning superpower "discovering" an area (in this case the Greeks or the claims of Columbus as another example) is nothing more than a continuation of the master narative and therefore excludes the accomplishments of the true indigenous cultures who really "discovered" and settled such places.
All in all Mr. Oliver a fascinating article but it is time to throw off the chains and predisposed claims of dominance and oppression that is ingrained in the historic record and include those who have been excluded. Pytheas accomplished a great feat to be sure but he was far from the first in that epoch to go there.
For the record, according to all sources we have, there was no scandinavians in Britain at the time of Pytheas (around 315 BC), only britonnic and caledonian tribes, which all are celts.
Pytheas told about meeting people in Thule, so we can exclude Iceland that, as far as archeology knows today, was totally unhabited at that time.
So the Thule of Pytheas must be ever Greenland (populated then by the amerindian paleoeskimo of the Dorset culture) or more probably northern Norway (populated by Sami tribes aka Lapps).
Lapps are not sea people, there is absolutely no reason to think at this point that they ever reached Britain, Iceland or Greenland in that era. On the other hand, celts of the british isles were good navigators and Pytheas got some of his informations from them, from his own words.
Laurent, the Dorset culture died out in Greenland about 150 years before the voyages of Pytheas. Greenland was uninhabited at that time. Only Norway fits the description.
Myths & Legends
A vase-scene from about 410 BC. Nimrod/Herakles, wearing his fearsome lion skin headdress, spins Noah/Nereus around and looks him straight in the eye. Noah gets the message and grimaces, grasping his scepter, a symbol of his rule - soon to be displaced in the post-Flood world by Nimrod/Herakles, whose visage reveals a stern smirk.
The Book of Genesis describes human history. Ancient Greek religious art depicts human history. While their viewpoints are opposite, the recounted events and characters match each other in convincing detail. This brief article focuses on how Greek religious art portrayed Noah, and how it portrayed Nimrod in his successful rebellion against Noah’s authority.
Ancient Technology
A cowboy boot in a horse’s stirrup.
Seemingly simple, yet oh so significant - the stirrup is an invention that changed the history of the world. The emergence of the stirrup revolutionized the way horses were ridden and consequently re-shaped transportation. In fact, this invention played an important role in some key historical events and empire building.
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Κυριακή, 20 Σεπτεμβρίου 2015
ανάλυση του φωτός
By Captain76：NikonD90+TAMRON SP10-24mm (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
Why are there seven colors in the rainbow?
Short answer: There aren’t.
Long answer: Isaac Newton was one of the first people to rigorously experiment with light by observing how white light can be decomposed into a full rainbow spectrum using a prism. He observed how objects would absorb and transmit certain parts of the spectrum by separating out colors from the spectrum for experiments. By shining those colored rays on different objects he concluded that those different parts of the spectrum would not change their color if scattered. This overturned the classical theory of light, which claimed that sunlight was “pure” and was converted into different colors when scattered from objects. In short, Newton showed that white sunlight already contained those colors.
By Dispersive_Prism_Illustration_by_Spigget.jpg: Spigget derivative work: Cepheiden (Dispersive_Prism_Illustration_by_Spigget.jpg) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], via Wikimedia Commons
You can add “Father of Optics and Color Theory” to Newton’s long list of accolades, which include inventing classical physics as well as dicking Leibniz out of his share of credit for co-inventing calculus.
Newton’s theory of color also has one more weird component, owing to Newton’s interest in alchemy and the ancient Greeks, who had a bit of an obsession with the number seven. For example they developed a correspondence between the seven known planets in the night sky and the seven days of the week (Sun-day, Moon-day, … , Saturn-day). They also only knew of seven metals, and believed each had an associated planet so the number seven is pretty ubiquitous in ancient texts.
By The original uploader was Mark22 at English Wikipedia (Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World? Basically the original clickbait list.
Basically, the number seven shows up a lot in alchemy, and Newton was a bit of an alchemist. Newton originally subdivided the spectrum he observed into just five colors – red, yellow, green, blue, and violet. He revised it to include seven colors which he published in his treatise on light, “Opticks,” where he argues for a correspondence between the seven colors and the seven musical notes. This isn’t actually that weird – Newton believed the colors were cyclical (like the musical scale) so he placed red adjacent to violet, thereby inventing the color wheel. I guess when you invent as much science as Newton you’re allowed to stylize it however you want.
Anyway, to make the point one last time, take a look at this spectrum:
By Gringer (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
With our modern understanding of the electromagnetic spectrum we know that visible light is any light with wavelengths between about 390 and 700 nm. This means that light comes in a continuum, with smooth transitions between colors. Furthermore, the human eye is capable of distinguishing hundreds of colors! The “Seven Colors of the Rainbow” is completely arbitrary.
Αρχειοθήκη ιστολογίου
Univers de particules
Univers de particules
Univers de particules
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History of Discovery
Clonorchiasis has been around for hundreds of years, although it was not recognized and categorized as a parasitic infection until 1874. We do not know how long this worm has infected humans, but according to Dr. Frank Cox, “As it infects a large number of animals including primates we can safely assume that Homo sapiens has always been infected and that we inherited this worm from our primate ancestors.” The earliest historical record of Clonorchiasis dates back to an ancient corpse buried in 278 B.C. in the West Han Dynasty in China. Our current understanding of the parasite and disease began in Calcutta, India on September 8, 1874. At that time James McConnell, a professor of pathology and resident physician at the Medical College Hospital in Calcutta, performed an autopsy of a 20 year old Chinese carpenter who had died several hours after admission. He found a swollen, tense liver and abnormally large bile ducts, which were obstructed by “small, dark, vermicular-looking bodies.” He dissected and compared these bodies with other liver flukes recognized at the time (Fasciola hepatica and Distoma lanceolatum) and realized that this fluke constituted an entirely new species. The name given at the time to this new species was Distoma sinense, but it was eventually placed into the Clonorchis genus by Arthur Looss in 1895.
The second intermediate host (fresh-water fish) was officially discovered by a Japanese zoologist Harujiro Kobayashi, although McConnell theorized at the first autopsy that the disease was caused by contaminated fish. In 1914, Kobayashi conducted experiments which identified and provided proof for the existence of fresh water fish as the second intermediate host. He fed cats (which had previously been recognized as a reservoir species) the flesh of fish which carried a type of encysted fluke which he hypothesized was the precursor to clonorchiasis. At autopsy, these cats all were found to be infected with C. sinensis. He also showed that cysts were abundant both in the subcutaneous tissues and in the muscles of fish, particularly in the more superficial parts. By 1965, approximately 80 species of freshwater fish vectors of C. sinensis were identified.
The discovery of several species of snails as the first intermediate host was achieved by Masatomo Muto in 1918. He hypothesized that a certain species of snail he collected (Parafossarulus manchouricus) harboured the cercariae of Clonorchis sinensis. To go about proving this fact, he infected experimental, cyst-free fish which were in turn fed to non-infected dogs (a known reservoir of Clonorchiasis). These dogs all became infected with C. sinensis, proving that the snail was the primary intermediate host. Muto also demonstrated that freshwater fish provided a necessary intermediate stage in the development of the parasite by showing that a rabbit (a known reservoir of Clonorchiasis) did not develop Clonorchiasis when infected with cercariae obtained from the snail host.
(Information obtained from: A History of Helminthology)
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Humanisme dan Sains dalam Strategi Kebudayaan
Ariesa Pandanwangi
Humanism is a movement in philosophy and literature that emerged in Italy in the 14th century and spreaded to other European countries. The fast changing human thoughts had accelerated the development
of science during the renaissance period. Science in the field of art potentially creates cultural strategies, so that every new finding could produce newness in the field of art. Art played a great role in producing opportunities for multidisciplinary studies. The advantage and also the disadvantage of art is the matter of certainty since it is always related to creativity and intuition. The role of human is very important in cultural strategies. Human beings are the one who create their cultural strategies with all of its steps to search, find and questioned its science.
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Flow-line patterns constructed from the orientation of drumlin long axes are used to infer two major subglacial meltwater floods in southern Ontario and northern New York State. In this interpretation, the flood waters of the first event, the Algonquin, surged southward. In the later, Ontarian event, powerful floods streamed southwestward along the basins of Lakes Ontario and Erie. Bedrock fluting, upstream-pointing noses on escarpments, and tunnel channels give supporting evidence for the regional flood hypothesis. Regional distributions of drift thickness may be explained by this hypothesis.
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Wolfram von Eschenbach, (born c. 1170—died c. 1220), German poet whose epic Parzival, distinguished alike by its moral elevation and its imaginative power, is one of the most profound literary works of the Middle Ages.
An impoverished Bavarian knight, Wolfram apparently served a succession of Franconian lords. Though a self-styled illiterate, Wolfram shows an extensive acquaintance with French and German literature, and it is probable that he knew how to read, if not how to write. Wolfram’s surviving literary works, all bearing the stamp of his unusually original personality, consist of eight lyric poems, chiefly Tagelieder; the epic Parzival; the unfinished epic Willehalm, telling the history of the Crusader Guillaume d’Orange; and short fragments of a further epic, the so-called Titurel, which elaborates the tragic love story of Sigune from Parzival. Parzival, probably written between 1200 and 1210, is a poem of 25,000 lines in 16 books. Likely based on an unfinished romance of Chrétien de Troyes, introduced the theme of the Holy Grail into German literature. Its beginning and end are new material, probably of Wolfram’s own invention, although he attributes it to an unidentified and probably fictitious Provençal poet, Guiot.
Wolfram uses Parzival’s dramatic progress from folk-tale dunce to wise and responsible keeper of the Grail to present a subtle allegory of man’s spiritual education and development. The complexity of Wolfram’s theme is matched by his eccentric style, which is characterized by rhetorical flourishes, ambiguous syntax, and the free use of dialect.
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Images: Changes in Regions of Provenance
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King Gezo, Dahomey
Forbes, Frederick E, Dahomey and the Dahomans; being the journals of two missions to the king of Dahomey, and residence at his capital, London, Longman, Brown, Green,and Longmans, 1851.
ID# 1167909
King Gezo, Dahomey
The Bight of Benin was the second largest exporter of captives, after West Central Africa. King Gezo, like his predecessors, was feared for his military power and his numerous slave raids. He had an army of several thousand female warriors, the famous Amazons. From the 1720s to the 1860s, Dahomey's trade was conducted mainly through the port of Whydah and was oriented principally toward Brazil.
1. View All Images
2. Introduction
3. The Economics of the Illegal Slave Trade
4. Changes in Regions of Provenance
5. A Shift in Ethnicities
6. Changes in the Trading Centers
7. From the Barracoon to the Middle Passage
8. A New Demography
9. No Longer a Triangular Trade
10. The Impact of the Suppression
11. Bibliography
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Analogy – Concept & Exampls
An analogy is a comparison between two objects, or systems of objects, that highlights respects in which they are thought to be similar. Have a look at some examples to understand Analogy problems.
1) CUP : LIP :: BIRD : ?
A. BUSH B. GRASS
C. FOREST D. BEAK
Answer : D
Explantion: Cup is used to drink something with the help of lips indetail cup is some relation with lips. Similarly birds collects grass with the help of beak to make her nest. So Answer should be Beak.
2) Bank:Money :: Transport:?
A. Road B. Traffic
C. Speed D. Goods
Answer: D
Explanation: A bank deals with trasaction of Money, similarly Transport deals with the Goods.
3. Peacock : India :: Bear : ?
A. Australia B. America
C. Russia D. England
Answer: C
Explanation: As Peacock is the national bird of India, similarly Bear is the national animal of Russia.
4. Window is to pane as book is to
A. novel B. glass
C. cover D. page
Answer: Option D
Explanation: A window is made up of panes, and a book is made up of pages. The answer is not (choice a) because a novel is a type of book. The answer is not (choice b) because glass has no relationship to a book. (Choice c) is incorrect because a cover is only one part of a book; a book is not made up of covers.
5. Pen is to poet as needle is to
A. thread B. button
C. sewing D. tailor
Answer: Option D
A pen is a tool used by a poet. A needle is a tool used by a tailor. The answer is not choice a, b, or c because none is a person and therefore cannot complete the analogy.
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August Bebel. Woman and Socialism
Woman in the Past
Conflict between Matriarchate and Patriarchate.
1. – Rise of the Patriarchate.
With the increase in population a number of sister gentes arose that again brought forth several daughter gentes. The mother gens was distinguished from these as the phratry. A number of phratries constituted the tribe. So strong was this social organization that it still constituted the unit of military organization in the states of antiquity, when the old gentile constitution had already been abandoned. The tribe was subdivided into several branches, all having a common constitution and in each of which the old gens could be recognized. But as the gentile constitution prohibited intermarriage among remote relatives even on the mother’s side, it undermined its own existence. A social and economic development made the relation of the various gentes to one another more and more complicated, the interdict of marriage between certain groups became untenable and ceased to be observed. While production of the necessities of life was at its lowest stage of development, and destined to satisfy only the simplest demands, the activities of men and women were essentially the same. But with increasing division of labor there resulted not only a diversity of occupations, but a diversity of possessions as well. Fishing, hunting, cattle-breeding and agriculture, and the manufacture of tools and implements, necessitated special knowledge, and these became the special province of the men. Man took the lead along these lines of development and accordingly became master and owner of these new sources of wealth.
Increasing population and the desire for an extensive ownership of land for agricultural and pastoral purposes, led to struggles and battles over the possession of such land; it also led to a demand for labor-power. An increase in labor-power meant greater wealth in produce and flock. To procure such labor-power the rape of women was at first resorted to, and then the enslavement of vanquished men, who had formerly been killed. Thus two new elements were introduced into the old gentile constitution that were incompatible with its very nature.
Still another factor came into play. The division of labor and the growing demand for tools, implements, weapons, etc., led to a development of handicraft along distinct lines apart from agriculture. A special class of craftsmen arose, whose interests in regard to the ownership and inheritance of property diverged considerably from those of the agricultural class.
As long as descent was traced from female lineage, members of the gens, became heirs to their deceased relatives on the mother’s side. All property remained within the gens. Under the changed conditions the father had become owner of flocks and slaves, weapons and produce, but being a member of his mother’s gens he could not will his property to his children, but had to leave same to his brothers and sisters or to his sisters’ children. His own children were disinherited. A strong desire for changing this state of affairs therefore began to manifest itself, and it was changed accordingly. Polygamy and polyandry gave way to the pairing family. A certain man lived with a certain woman, and the children born from this relation were their children. These pairing families developed gradually, being hampered by the marriage interdicts of the gentile constitution, but favored by the above enumerated economic causes. The old household communities were not in keeping with the idea of private property. Class and occupation became determining factors in the choice of a place of residence. An increased production of commodities gave rise to commerce among neighboring and more widely separated nations and necessitated the development of finance. Man was the one to conduct and control this development. His private interests, therefore, were no longer harmonious to the old gentile organization; on the contrary, they were frequently diametrically opposed to it. Therefore this organization became of less and less importance, and finally all that remained of the gens was the conducting of a number of religious rites within the family group. The economic significance was lost and the final dissolution of the gentile constitution only remained a question of time.
With the breaking up of the old gentile organization the power and influence of woman rapidly declined. The matriarchate disappeared and the patriarchate took its place. Man, being an owner of private property, had an interest in having legitimate children to whom he could will his property, and he, therefore, forced upon woman the prohibition of intercourse with other men.
But for himself he reserved the right of maintaining as many concubines as his means would permit beside his legitimate wife or wives, and their offspring were regarded as legitimate children. The Bible furnishes important evidence on this subject in two instances. In the first book of Moses, 16, 1 and 2, it says: “Sarai, Abram’s wife, bore him no children; and she had an handmaid, an Egyptian whose name was Hagar. And Sarai said unto Abram: Behold now, the Lord bath restrained me from bearing; I pray thee, go in unto my maid; it may be that I may obtain children by her. And Abram hearkened to the voice of Sarai.” The second noteworthy evidence is found in the first book of Moses, 30, 1; it reads as follows: “And when Rachel saw that she bore Jacob no children, Rachel envied her sister, and said unto Jacob: Give me children or else I die. And Jacob’s anger was kindled against Rachel and he said: Am I in God’s stead who has withheld from thee the fruit of the womb? And she said: Behold my maid, Billah, go in unto her; and she shall bear upon my knees that I may also have children by her. And she gave him Billah, her handmaid, to wife, and Jacob went in unto her.”
Thus Jacob was not only married to two sisters, the daughters of Laban, but both also gave him their handmaids to wives, a custom that was not immoral according to the moral conceptions of the time. His two chief wives he had married by purchase, having served their father Laban seven years for each of them. At that time it was the general custom among the Jews to purchase wives, but besides they carried on a widespread robbery of women from nations conquered by them. Thus, for instance, the Benjamites robbed the daughters of Shiloh. The captured woman became a slave, a concubine. But she could be raised to the position of a legitimate wife, upon fulfillment of the following command: She had to cut her hair and nails and exchange the garments in which she was captured with others given to her by her captors. Thereupon she had to mourn for her father and mother during an entire month, her mourning being destined to signify that her people were dead to her. These regulations having been complied with, she could enter into wedlock. The greatest number of women were owned by King Solomon, who, according to the first book of Kings, chapter 11, had no less than 700 wives and 300 concubines.
As soon as the patriarchate, that is, paternal descent, was established in the gentile organization of the Jews, the daughters were excluded from inheritance. Later this rule was modified in cases when a father left no sons. This is shown in the fourth book of Moses, 27, 28. There it is told that when Zelophehad died without leaving sons, his daughters complained bitterly that they should be excluded from their father’s inheritance that was to pass to the tribe of Joseph. Moses decides that in this case the daughters should be heirs to their father. But when, according to an old custom, they decide to choose husbands from another tribe, the tribe of Joseph complain that thereby they are losing an heritage. There upon Moses decides that the heiresses may choose freely, but that they must make their choice from among the men in their father’s tribe. So it was in behalf of property that the old marriage laws were annulled. As a matter of fact, in the days of the old Testament, i. e., in historical times, the patriarchal system was prevalent among the Jews, and the clan and tribal organization were founded on descent in the male line, as was the case with the Romans. According to this system the daughters were excluded from inheritance. Thus we read in the first book of Moses, 31, 14 and 15, the complaint of Lea and Rachel, daughters of Laban: “Is there yet any portion or inheritance for us in our father’s house? Are we not counted of him strangers? For he hath sold us and hath quite devoured also our money.”
Among the ancient Jews, as among all other nations where the matriarchate was succeeded by the patriarchate, women were utterly devoid of rights. Marriage was a purchase of the woman. Absolute chastity was demanded of her; but not so of the man, who moreover was entitled to have several wives. If the man had cause to believe that the woman had lost her virginity prior to marriage, he was not only entitled to cast her off she might also be stoned to death. The same punishment was meted out to the adulteress; but the man was subjected to the same punishment only then when he committed adultery with a Jewish matron, According to the first book of Moses, 24, 1–4, a man was entitled to cast off a woman he had just married if she found no favor in his eyes, even though his displeasure be only i whim. Then he might write her a bill of divorcement, give it in her hand and send her out of his house. A further proof of the degraded position of woman among the Jews may be gathered from the fact that to this day women attend services in the synagogue in a space separated from the men, and are not included in the prayer.[1] According to the Jewish conception, woman is not a member of the congregation; in religion and politics she is a mere cipher. When ten men are assembled they may hold services, but women are not permitted to do so, no matter how many of them are assembled.
In Athens, Solon decreed that a widow should marry her nearest relation on her father’s side, even if both belong to the same gens, although such marriages were forbidden by an earlier law. Solon likewise decreed that a person holding property need not will it to his gens but might, in case he were childless, will it to whomsoever he pleased. We see, then, that man, instead of ruling his property, is being ruled by it.
With the established rule of private property the subjugation of woman by man was accomplished. As a result of this subjugation woman came to be regarded as an inferior being and to be despised. The matriarchate implied communism and equality of all. The rise of the patriarchate implied the rule of private property and the subjugation and enslavement of woman. The conservative Aristophanes recognized this truth in his comedy, “The Popular Assembly of Women,” for he has the women introduce communism as soon as they have gained control of the state, and then proceeds to caricature communism grossly in order to discredit the women.
It is difficult to show how the details of this great transformation were accomplished. This first great revolution that took place in human society was not accomplished simultaneously among all the civilized nations of antiquity, and has probably not developed everywhere along the same lines. Among the tribes of Greece, the new order of things attained validity primarily in Athens.
Frederick Engels holds the opinion that this great transformation was brought about peaceably, and that, all preliminary conditions making such a change desirable being given, a mere vote on the matter in the gentes sufficed to put the patriarchal system in place of the matriarchal system. Backofen, on the other hand, believes – his opinion founded on ancient writers – that the women vehemently opposed this social transformation. lie considers many myths of the Amazon kingdoms that are met with in the histories of Oriental countries, in South America and China, proofs of the struggle and (Opposition of women against the new order.
With the rise of male supremacy the women were deprived of their former position in the community. They were excluded from the council and lost their determining influence. Men compelled women to be faithful in marriage without recognizing a similar duty on their part. When a woman is faithless, she commits the worst deception to which a citizen of the new order can fall a victim; she brings another man’s children into his house to become the heirs of his property. That is why among all the ancient peoples adultery, when committed by a woman, was punishable by death or slavery.
Traces of the Matriarchate in Greek Myths and Dramas.
Although the women were thus deprived of their former influential position, the customs connected with the ancient cults continued to dominate the minds for centuries; only their deeper meaning was gradually lost, and it remained for the present time to investigate them. Thus it was customary in Greece that women appealed for advice and help to the goddesses only. The annual celebration of the Thermophoria clearly derived its origin from matriarchal times. Even in later days Greek women still celebrated this festival in honor of Demeter, which lasted for five days, and in which no man was allowed to participate. A festival of the same character was held annually in Rome in honor of Ceres. Demeter and Ceres were the goddesses of fecundity. In Germany, similar festivals were observed up to the Christian middle ages. These were consecrated to Frigga, the ancient German goddess of fecundity, and here also men were excluded from participation.
In Athens, the matriarchate had to make way to the patriarchate at an early period, but apparently not without strong opposition on the part of the women. The tragedy of the transformation is pathetically presented in the “Eumenides” by Aeschylus. The following is a synopsis of the story: Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, husband of Klytaemnestra, on his expedition to Troy, sacrifices his daughter Iphigeneia, in obedience to a command of the oracle. The mother is enraged over the sacrifice of her child that, in accordance with natural law, does not belong to her husband, and during Agamemnon’s absence she accepts Aeghistus as her husband, thereby not committing any objectionable act according to the ancient laws. When Agamemnon returns to Mycenae, after an absence of many years, he is murdered by Aeghistus, whom Klytaemnestra has incited to this deed. Orestes, son of Agamemnon and Klytaemnestra, upon a command from Apollo and Minerva, avenges his father’s death by killing his mother and Aeghistus. The Eumenides, representing the old maternal law, prosecute Orestes for the murder of his mother. Apollo and Minerva – the latter, according to the myth, not having been born by a mother, since she sprang from the head of Zeus in full armor – defend Orestes, for they represent the new paternal law. The case is brought before the areopagus and the following dialogue ensues in which the two conflicting views are expressed:
Orestes: Aye: and I never yet my destiny regretted.
Eumenides: When judgment will be given thou wilt not speak thus.
Orestes: Perhaps. But from his grave my father will send aid.
Eumenides: What hopest from the dead thou, who hast killed thy mother?
Orestes: She had been guilty of a double. bloody crime.
Eumenides: How so’ Explain unto the judges what you mean? Orestes: She killed her husband and she thereby killed my father. Eumenides: Her crime she expiated now, but you still live.
Orestes: Why did you fail to prosecute her while she lived?
Eumenides: She was no blood relation to the man she killed.
Orestes: But I, so you assert, am of my mother’s blood.
Eumenides: Did she., thou bloody one, not bear thee ‘neath her heart? Wouldst thou thy mother’s sacred blood deny?
The Eumenides accordingly do not recognize the right of the father and husband. They proclaim maternal law. That Kleytaemnestra caused the murder of her husband seems unimportant to them, for he was a stranger to her. But they demand punishment of the matricide, for by killing his mother, Orestes committed the most unpardonable crime that could be committed under the dominance of the gentile organization. Apollo, on the other hand, holds the opposite point of view. Upon a command from Zeus he has induced Orestes to murder his own mother to avenge the patricide, and before the judges he thus defends the deed:
Then say I, listen ye unto my word of justice:
The mother is not procreatrix to her child;
She only the awakened life doth keep and bear.
The father is tile procreator; she but keeps
The forfeit for her friend, unless a god destroy it
I will submit a proof that cannot be denied.
For one can have a father, yet no mother have.
Minerva, daughter of the great Olympian Zeus,
Within the darkness of a mother’s womb ne’er rested,
And yet no goddess e’er gave birth to fairer offspring.
According to Apollo, then, procreation gives the father a superior right, while the view that had prevailed until then proclaimed the mother, who gives life to the child by her own blood, the child’s sole possessor, and deemed the child’s father a mere stranger to her. Therefore, the Euminedes reply to the views of Apollo:
Thou overthrowest forces of remotest days ....
Thou, the young god, wouldst its, the ancient ones, dethrone.
The judges prepare to pronounce their verdict; half of them favor the old law and the other half favor the new, giving an equal number of votes to both sides. There Minerva seizes a ballot from the altar and casting it into the urn she exclaims:
Mine is the right to utter final judgment here,
And for Orestes I cast in the urn this stone;
For unto me no mother was who gave me birth,
Therefore with all my heart all manly things I praise
Excepting marriage. For I am my father’s quite.
Less criminal I deem the murder of this woman,
Because her husband she has killed, the home’s maintainer.
Though even be the vote, Orestes is victorious.
Another myth depicts the fall of the matriarchate in the following manner: During the rule of Cecrops, a double miracle occurred. Simultaneously an olive-tree sprang from the earth at one place, and a well at another. The frightened king sent a messenger to Delphi to question the oracle concerning the meaning of these miracles. The reply was: The olive-tree represents Minerva, the water represents Neptune, and the citizens may decide after whom of the two deities they choose to name their city. Cecrops summoned the popular assembly, in which both men and women were entitled to vote. The men voted for Neptune, and the women for Minerva, and since the women had a majority of one vote Minerva was, victorious. Thereupon Neptune became infuriated and let the sea flood the lands of the Athenians. To appease the fury of the god, the Athenians then inflicted threefold punishment upon their women. They were to be disfranchised, their children were no longer to bear their mother’s name, and they themselves should no longer be called Athenians.[2]
Thus the new order was established. The father became the head of the family. The patriarchate conquered the matriarchate.
Legitimate Wives and Courtesans in Athens.
Just as the transition from the matriarchate to the patriarchate was accomplished in Athens, it was accomplished elsewhere as soon as a similar degree of development had been attained. Woman was restricted to her home and isolated in special rooms, known as “gynaconus,” in which she dwelt. She even was excluded from social intercourse with the men who visited the house; in fact, this was the special object of her isolation. In the Odyssee we find this change in customs expressed. Thus Telemachus forbids his mother to be present among her suitors, and utters this command:
But go now to the home, and attend to thy household affairs;
To the spinning wheel and the loom, and bid thy maids be assiduous
At the task that to them were allotted, To speak is the privilege of men,
And mine is especially this privilege, for I am the lord of the house![3]
This was the prevailing conception in Greece at the ‘lime. Even widows were subjected to the rulership of their nearest male relatives, and were not even free to choose a husband. Weary of the long waiting imposed upon them by the clever Penelope, the suitors send to Telemachus their spokesman, Antonioos, who thus voices their demand:
See now, the suitors inform thee that thou in thy heart mayest know it
And that all the Achaeans may of the fact be informed.
Send thy mother hence, and command her to take as her husband
Whom she chooses to take, and whom her father selects.[4]
At this period woman’s freedom has come to an end. When she leaves the house she must veil her face – not to waken the desires of some other man. In the Oriental countries where sexual passions are stronger, as a result of the hot climate, this method of isolation is still carried to the extreme. Among the ancients, Athens served as a pattern of the new order. The woman shares the man’s bed, but not his table. She does not address him by his name, but calls him master; she is his servant. She was not allowed to appear in public anywhere, and when walking upon the streets was always veiled and plainly dressed. When she committed adultery she was, according to Solon’s law, condemned to pay for her sin either with her life, or with her liberty. Her husband was entitled to sell her as a slave.
The position of Greek women of those days is powerfully expressed in Medea’s lamentation:
“Of all creatures that have soul and life
We women are indeed the very poorest.
By our dowery we’re obliged to purchase
A husband – and what then is far worse still,
Henceforward our body is his own
Great is the danger; will his nature be
Evil or good? Divorce is to the woman
A deep disgrace. Yet she may not say nay.
Unto the man who was betrothed to her.
And when she comes to lands with unknown customs,
She has to learn – for no one teaches her —
To understand the nature of her husband.
And when we have succeeded in all this,
And our loved one gladly with us dwells,
Then our lot is fair. But otherwise
I’d rather far be dead. – Not so the man.
If in his home he is not satisfied,
He finds outside the home what pleases him,
With friends and with companions of his age;
But we must always seek to please but one.
They say that we in peace and safety dwell,
While they must go forth to the battlefield.
Mistaken thought! I rather thrice would fight,
Than only once give birth unto a child!”[5]
Very different was the man’s lot. While the man compelled the woman to abstain absolutely from relations with other men, for the purpose of insuring the legitimacy of his heirs, lie was not inclined to abstain from relations with other women. Courtesanship developed. Women noted for their beauty and intellect, usually foreigners, preferred a free life in the most intimate association with men to the slavery of marriage. Nor was their life deemed a loathsome. one. The name and the fame of these courtesans who associated with the foremost men of Greece and took part in their intellectual discussions and in their banquets, have come down to us through history, while the names of the legitimate wives are lost and forgotten. One of these was Aspasia, the friend of the famous Pericles, who later made her his wife. Phryne had intimate relations with Hyperides, and served Praxiteles, one of the foremost sculptors of Greece, as a model for his statue of Venus. Danae was the mistress of Epicure, Archaeanassa was Plato’s. Lais of Corynth, Gnethanea and others were equally famous courtesans. Every one of the famous Greeks had intercourse with these courtesans. It was part and parcel of their life. The great orator Demosthenes in his oration against Neaera thus characterized the sexual relations of Athenian men: “We marry women to have legitimate children and to have faithful guardians of our homes, we maintain concubines for our daily service and comfort, and courtesans for the enjoyment of love.” The wife was only destined to bear offspring and, like a faithful dog, to guard her master’s house. But the master himself lived to suit his pleasure. In many cases it is so still.
To satisfy the demand for mercenary women, especially among the younger men, prostitution developed, an institution that had not been known during the dominance of the matriarchate. Prostitution differs from free sexual intercourse by the fact that the woman yields her body in return for material gain, be it to one man or to a number of men. Prostitution exists wherever a woman makes the selling of her charms a trade. Solon, who formulated the new laws for Athens and is famed as the founder of these laws, introduced the public brothel, the “deikterion.” He decreed that the price should be the same to all visitors. According to Philemon this was one obolus, about 6 cents in American money. The “deikterion” was a place of absolute safety, Pike the temples in Greece and Rome and the Christian churches in the middle ages. It was under the immediate protection of the public authorities. Until about 150 B. C. the temple in Jerusalem was the general rallying-point of the prostitutes.
For the boon bestowed upon Athenian men fly his founding of the “deikterion,” one of Solon’s contemporaries thus sings his praise: “Solon, be praised! For thou didst purchase public women for the welfare of the city, to preserve the morals of the city that is full of strong, young men, who, without thy wise institution, would indulge in the annoying pursuit of the better class women.” We will see that in our own day exactly the same arguments are being advanced to justify the existence of prostitution and its maintenance as an institution sanctioned by the state. Thus the state laws approved of deeds committed by men as being their natural right. while the same deeds were branded as criminal and despicable when committed by women. It is a well-known fact that even to-day there are a great many men who prefer the company of a pretty offendress to the company of their wife and who, nevertheless, enjoy the reputation of being “pillars of society” and guardians or those sacred institutions, the family and the home. To be sure, the Greek women frequently seem to have taken vengeance upon their husbands for their oppression. If prostitution is the complement of monogamic marriage on the one hand, adultery of wives and cuckoldom of husbands are its complements on the other. Among the Greek dramatists, Euripides seems to have been the most pronounced woman-hater, since in his dramas he preferably holds up the women to ridicule and scorn. What accusations he hurls at them can best be seen from a passage in “The Thesmophoria” by Aristophanes, where a Greek woman assails him in the following manner:
With what calumny doth lie (Euripides) not vilify us women?
When e’er hath silent been the slanderer’s tongue?
Where there’s an audience, tragedy and chorus,
We are described as man-mad trailoresses.
Fond of the cup, deceitful, talkative.
We’re wholly bad, to men a tribulation.
Therefore, when from the play our husbands come,[6]
They look distrustfully at us and search about
If somewhere not a lover is concealed,
And henceforth we no longer are permitted
To do what harmlessly we did before.
Such wicked things lie tells the men about us,
That when a woman on] y makes a garland,
They think she is in love; or when at home
She works about and dropping something, breaks it,
The husband promptly asks: “For whom this broken glass?
Quite evidently for the guest from Corinth.”
It is not surprising that the eloquent Greek woman thus serves the defamer of her sex. But Euripides could hardly have made such accusations nor would they have found belief among the men, had it not been well known that they were justified. Judging by the final sentences of the above quoted harangue it seems that tile custom, well known in Germany and other countries, whereby the master of the house honors his guest by placing his own wife or daughter at the guest’s disposal, did not prevail in Greece. Of this custom, that was still observed in Holland in the fifteenth century, Murner says: “It is the custom in the Netherlands that whosoever hath a dear guest, unto him he giveth his wife in good faith.”[7]
The increasing class struggle in the Greek states and the deplorable conditions that existed in many of these small communities led Plato to an investigation of the best constitution of the state and its institutions. In his “State,” that he conceives as an ideal one, he demands that among the highest class of citizens, the guardians, women should hold a position of absolute equality. Like the men, they should take part in military exercises and should perform all civic duties, only should the lighter tasks be alloted to them on account of the weakness of their sex. He holds that the natural abilities are the same with both sexes, that woman is only weaker than man. He further demands that the women should belong to all the men in common as should also the children, so that no father might know his child nor a child its father.[8]
The views of Aristoteles are more in keeping with the bourgeois conceptions. According to his “Politics,” every woman should have the right of freely choosing her husband. She should be subservient to him, yet she should have the privilege of giving him good advice. Thucydides expresses a view that meets with the approval of all Philistines. He says: “To that wife is due the highest praise of whom one speaks neither well nor ill outside of her home.”
While such views prevailed women were bound to sink lower and lower in the esteem of men. A fear of excess of population even led men to avoid intimate intercourse with women. An unnatural satisfaction of sexual desires was the result. The Greek states consisted mainly of cities having very limited landed property, and it therefore was impossible to maintain the population at their accustomed nourishment beyond a given number. This fear of excess of population caused Aristotle to advice the men to shun their wives and to indulge in sodomy instead. Before him Socrates had already extolled sodomy as a mark of superior culture. Finally the foremost men of Greece indulged in this unnatural passion. The esteem of woman sank to its lowest level. Bawdy houses containing male prostitutes were maintained, beside those containing female prostitutes. It was in such a social atmosphere that Thucydides could say of woman that she was worse than the sea raging in storm, worse than the fire’s fierce glow and the mountain torrent’s rushing stream. “If it is a god who invented woman, whoever he be, let him know that he is the nefarious originator of the greatest evil.”
While the men of Greece practiced sodomy, the women drifted into the opposite extreme, indulging in the love of their own sex. This was especially the case among the inhabitants of the island of Lesbos, wherefore this aberration was called Lesbian love and is still called so, since it is by no means extinct but continues to exist among us. Tile chief representative of this “love” was the celebrated poetess Sapho, “the Lesbian nightinggale,” who lived about 600 B. C. Her passion is fervently expressed in her Ode to Venus
“Thou who rulest all, upon flowers enthroned,
Daughter of Zeus born of foam, o thou artful one,
Hark to my call!
Not in anguish and bitter suffering, O goddess,
Let me Perish! —“
Still more passionate is the sensuality expressed in the ode to the beautiful Athis.
While in Athens and other Greek states the patriarchal system prevailed, in Sparta, Athen’s greatest rival, we still find the matriarchate, a condition which had become entirely foreign to most Greeks. Tradition has it that one day a Greek asked a Spartan how the crime of adultery was punished in Sparta; whereupon the Spartan replied: “Stranger, there are no adulterers in our midst.” “But if there should be one?” quoth the stranger. “Then,” said the Spartan mockingly, “his penalty would be to give an ox, so tall that he could stretch his neck across the Taygetus and drink from the Eurotas.” Upon the astonished query of the stranger how an ox could be so tall, the Spartan laughingly replied: “How can there be an adulterer in Sparta?” The dignified self-consciousness of the Spartan women finds expression in the reply given to a stranger by the wife of Leonidas. The stranger said to her: “You Lacedemonian women are the only ones who rule over men.” To this she replied: “And we are the only women who bring forth men.”
The freedom enjoyed by women during the matriarchate heightened their beauty and increased their pride, their dignity and their self-reliance. There is a uniformity of opinion among ancient writers that these attributes were highly developed in women during the matriarchal period. The condition of servitude that followed naturally had a deteriorating influence. The change is manifested even in the difference of dress that marks the two periods. The dress of the Doric woman hung loosely from her shoulders, leaving her arms and the lower part of her legs uncovered. It is the dress worn by Diana as she is represented in our museums, a free and daring figure. But the Ionic dress covers the figure completely and restrains the motions. The manner in which women dress was and is to this day a proof of their dependence and a cause of their helplessness to a far greater extent than is generally assumed. The style of dress worn by women to this day makes them clumsy and gives them a feeling of weakness that is expressed in their carriage and their character. The Spartan custom of permitting girls to go about naked until maturity – a custom that was made possible by the climate of the country – had the effect, so an ancient writer tells us, of teaching them simplicity of taste and regard for the care of their bodies. According to the views of the time, this custom did not shock the sense of decency or arouse physical passions. The girls also took part in all physical exercises just like the boys. Thus a strong, self-respecting race was reared, conscious of their worth, as is shown in the reply given to the stranger by the wife of Leonidas.
4. – Remnants of the Matriarchate in the Customs of Various Nations.
Certain customs are closely linked with the vanished matriarchate that modern writers have erroneously termed “prostitution.” In Babylon, for instance, it was a religious duty for young girls upon reaching maturity to go to the temple of Mylitta and there yield to some male, making a sacrifice of their virginity. Similar customs were observed in the Serapis of Memphis, in honor of the goddess Anaitis in Armenia, in Tyrus and Sydon in honor of Astarte or Venus. The Egyptian festivals of Isis were accompanied by the same religious rites. This sacrifice of virginity was deemed an atonement to the goddess for the exclusiveness of surrender to one man in marriage. “For woman is not endowed with all the beauties nature has bestowed upon her, to fade in the arms of a single man. The law of substance condemns all restrictions, hates all fetters, and considers exclusive ness a crime against its divinity."[9] The continued good will of the goddess must be purchased by this sacrifice of virginity to a stranger. In conformity with this conception the Libyan maidens earned their dowery by their According to the matriarchate they enjoyed sexual liberty before marriage, and the men, far from taking offense at this pursuit, in choosing a wife gave preference to the girl who had been most desired. The same condition existed among the Thracians at the time of Herodotus. “They do not guard the maidens, but give them complete freedom to have relations with whomever they choose. But the married women are closely guarded. They buy them from their parents for a large portion.” The Hierodules in the temple of Venus in Corynth were far famed. There more than a thousand girls were assembled, constituting the chief attraction for Greek men. Of the daughter of King Cheops of Egypt the legend relates, that she had a pyramid built from the proceeds obtained by the abandonment of her charms.
We still find similar conditions in existence in the Marquesas Islands, in the Philippines and Polynesia, and, according to Waitz, among various African tribes. Another custom, which was maintained on the Balearic Islands up to recent times and that expressed the right of all men to every woman, was that in the bridal night all the men related to the bride, were admitted to her successively in accordance with their ages. The groom came last. Among other peoples this custom has been changed to that effect, that one man representing the others, the high priest or chieftain of the tribe, exercises this privilege with the bride. The Claimars in Malabar engage putamares (priests) to deflour their wives. It is the duty of the chief priest (namburi) to render this service to the king (zamorin) upon his marriage, and the king pays for it with fifty pieces of gold.[10] In India and on various islands of the Pacific either the priests or the tribal chiefs (kings) perform this office.[11] It is the same in Senegambia, where the tribal chief practices the defloration of virgins as one of his official duties and receives presents in return. Among other peoples the defloration of the virgin – sometimes even of female babies – is accomplished by idols constructed for this purpose. We may assume that the “jus primae noctis” (right of the first night), which was in practice in Europe until far into the middle ages, derived its origin from the same tradition. The landlord, considering himself master over his serfs, practiced the right of the tribal chief that had come down to him. We will return to this subject later on.
Remnants of the matriarchate are also seen in a peculiar custom of South American tribes, that has likewise been met with among the Basques, a people that have preserved many ancient customs and practices. Here the father takes to his bed, instead of the mother, after the birth of a child, feigns being in labor-pain, and lets the woman care for him. The custom designates that the father recognizes the newly born child as his own. The same custom is said to exist among several tribes of mountaineers in China, and it existed until a recent date in Corsica.
In the records of German colonies submitted to parliament (during its session 1904–05) there is a report of the South-West-African region that contains the following passage: “The tribal chief in a Herero village cannot decide upon the slightest matter without the advice of his council, and not only the men but generally the women also give their advice.” In the report of the Marshall Islands it says: Rulership over all the islands of the Marshall groups was never concentrated upon a single chief ... but as there is no female member of this class (The Irody) living, and the child inherits nobility and station from the mother only, The Irodies will be come extinct with the death of their chiefs.” The manner of expression and description used by the informants shows how utterly foreign the conditions they describe are to them and that they fail to understand them.[12]
Dr. Henry Weislocky, who for many years lived among the Gypsies of Transylvania and finally was adopted into one of their tribes, reports,[13] that two of the four tribes in whose midst lie lived, the Ashani and the Ishale, observed maternal law. if the migratory Gipsy marries, he enters the clan of his wife, and to her belong all the furnishings of the Gipsy household. Whatever wealth she has belongs to her and to her clan, the man is a stranger. In accordance with maternal law the children also remain in their mother’s clan. Even in modern Germany remnants of the matriarchate survive. The “Westdeutsche Rundschau” (published in Westphalia) reports in the issue of June 10, 1902, that in the parish of Haltern the laws of inheritance were still subject to the old her be lifts her on his horse and carries her away toward the forest. Thereupon men, women and children set up a loud clamor and try to prevent the flight. But as soon the man has succeeded in reaching the shelter of the forest the woman is considered his wife. This is the case even if the robbery was perpetrated against tile parents’ will. Similar customs are met with among Australian tribes.
Among civilized nations the custom of wedding journeys still serves as a reminder of the ancient rape of women; the bride is abducted from her paternal hearth. in the same way the exchange of wedding rings is a symbol of tile old submissiveness of woman and her being chained to tile man. This custom originated in Rome. The bride received all iron ring from her husband to signify that she was chained to him. Later on th is ring was made of gold, and much later still the exchange of rings was introduced to signify the mutual bond.
Polygamy has existed and still exists among the Orientals; but owing to the limited number of women that are at a man’s disposal, and owing to the expense of their maintenance, it is at present practised only by tile privileged and propertied classes. The counter-part of polygamy is polyandry. This is found especially among the mountaineers of Thibet, the Garras living at the boundary of India and China, the Baigas in Godwana, the Nairs in the southernmost part of India, and also among the Eskimos and Aleuts. Descent is determined on the mother’s side – as must needs be the case – and the children belong to her. The woman’s husbands usually are brothers. If an oldest brother marries, the other brothers thereby become husbands to his wife. But she has the right to take other husbands beside these. The, men also are entitled to several wives. From what conditions polyandry sprang is as yet unexplained. As the tribes practising polyandry without exception live either in mountainous regions of a high attitude or in the frigid zone, polyandry may perhaps be explained by a phenomenon that Tarnowsky has pointed out.[14] Tarnowsgy was told by reliable travelers that a lengthy sojourn on high altitudes greatly diminishes sexual desire, which reawakens with renewed vigor upon descending. This diminution of sexual desire, so Tarnowsky believes, might explain the slow increase in population in mountainous regions, and by becoming hereditary might be one of the symptoms of degeneration leading to perversity.
Continuous living in high altitudes or in frigid zones might in the same manner signify that polyandry did not make extraordinary demands on women. Women themselves are influenced accordingly by their nature, since among Eskimo girls menstruation, as a rule, does not set in until the nineteenth year, while in the torrid zone it sets in with the ninth or tenth year, and in the temperate zone between the fourteenth and sixteenth year. It is generally known that hot countries have a stimulating effect upon sexual desire; that is why polygamy is especially prevalent in hot countries. In the same way cold lands, and high altitudes having a similar climate, may have a restrictive influence. It is also a matter of experience that conception is less frequent when a woman has cohabitation with several men. The increase in population is, therefore, weak where polyandry exists, and is adapted to the difficulty of obtaining food in cold climes and high altitudes. This goes to show that even in regard to this strange custom of polyandry, the relations of the sexes are in the last instance determined by the methods of production. It still remains to be investigated whether the frequent killing of female infants is practised among the tribes living in mountainous regions or in the frigid zone, as has been reported of Mongolian tribes living in the mountainous regions of China.
5. – Rise of the State. – Dissolution of the Gens in Rome.
After the dissolution of the matriarchal gens, the patriarchal gens took its place with considerably diminished functions. The chief function of the patriarchal gens was the strict observation of common religious and funeral rites and mutual aid and protection. It entailed
the right, and sometimes the duty, to marry within the gens; the latter being the case especially in regard to rich heiresses and orphans. The gens also controlled all the remaining common property.
With the rise of private property and the right of inheritance connected with it, class distinctions and class antagonism came into existence. In the course of time the propertied members made common cause against the propertyless ones. The former sought to gain control of the administrative positions and to make them hereditary. Finance had become a necessity and entailed conditions of indebtedness that bad previously been unknown. Struggles against external enemies, internal conflicts of interest, and the varied interests and relations created by agriculture, industry and trade, necessitated a complicated system of laws and the formation of public bodies destined to keep the social machine in orderly motion and to settle disputes. The same was true concerning the relations of masters and slaves, debtors and creditors. Thus a power was needed to control all these relations, to conduct, regulate, arbitrate, protect and punish. The state came into existence as a necessary product of the new social order based on conflicting interests. Its direction naturally was assumed by those who had the greatest interest in its founding and who, thanks to their social power, were most influential: the propertied classes. Thus aristocracy of wealth and democracy opposed one another, even where complete equality of political rights was maintained.
During the old matriarchal system no written law existed. Conditions were simple and custom was hallowed. In the new, far more complicated order, written law became one of the urgent necessities and special officials were needed for its administration. But as the legal relations became more and more complicated, a special class of persons arose, devoted exclusively to the study of law and having a special interest in still further complicating them. The jurists, the lawyers, came into Existence, and owing to the importance of the law to the body social, they soon became one of the most influential estates. The new civic jurisprudence in the course of time found its most classic expression in the Roman state, that explains the influence exerted by Roman law down to the present time.
We see then that the state organization is the natural outcome of a society divided into a great variety of occupations and having varied, frequently opposing and contending, interests. An inevitable result was oppression of the weaker members. This truth was recognized by the Nabastaeans, an Arabian tribe, who, according to Diodorus, issued the command neither to sow nor to plant, to drink no wine, and to build no houses, but to live in tents, for if they did all these things they might be compelled to obey by a superior power (the state). Among the Rachebites, the descendants of the father-in-law of Moses, we find similar decrees.[15] In fact, Mosaic law is framed in a manner destined to prevent the Jews from developing beyond the stage of an agricultural society, because their lawmakers feared that it might bring about the downfall of their democratic, communistic organization. For the same reasons the “holy land” was selected in a territory that was bounded on the one side by a mountain range which was difficult of access, the Libanon, and on the other, especially in the East and South, by barren lands and a desert, making isolation possible. For the same reasons, moreover, the Jews were kept at a distance from the sea , which is favorable to commerce, colonization and the acquirement of wealth. For the same reasons there were strict laws forbidding mingling and intermarriage with other nations; and the poor laws, the agrarian laws, the year of jubilee, all were institutions destined to prevent the acquirement of great fortunes by individuals. The Jews were to be prevented from becoming a state-forming nation. That is why the old gentile constitution founded on tribal organization was maintained by them until their dissolution, and has left its traces among them even to-day.
Apparently the Latin tribes who participated in the foundation of Rome had already superseded the matriarchal development. As previously stated, they robbed the women who were wanting among them from the tribe of the Sabines and called themselves Quirites after these. At a much later date the Roman citizens in the popular assembly were still addressed as Quirites. “Populus Romanus” designated the free population of Rome generally; but “populus Romanus quiritium” designated Roman citizenship by descent. The Roman gens was patriarchal; the children’ inherited from their natural parent. In case there were no children the property fell to relatives on the man’s side, and if these were wanting, It fell to the gens. By marriage the woman lost all rights of inheritance to her father’s property and that of her father’s brothers. She withdrew from her gens, and thus neither she nor her children could inherit from her father or his brothers. Otherwise the hereditary portion would have been lost to the paternal gens. The division into gentes and phratries for centuries remained the foundation of military organization and the enactment of civic. rights. But with the decay of the patriarchal gentes and the decline of their significance, conditions became more favorable to Roman women. They not only obtained the right of inheritance, they also obtained the right to control their own fortunes; they accordingly held a far more favorable position than their Greek sisters. This freer position gradually won by them, gave the elder Cato – born 234 B. C. – cause for the following complaint: “If the head of each family, following the example of his ancestors, would seek to maintain his wife in proper submissiveness, the entire sex would not give so much trouble publicly.” When a few tribunes in the year 195 B. C., moved to repeal a law enacted previously, for the purpose of restricting the luxury of women in dress and personal adornment, he stormed: “If each of us had maintained his manly authority with his own wife, we would have less bother here with all the women. Our power that has been shattered in the home, now is being broken and trampled upon in the forum too by the unruliness of women, and because we are incapable of resisting them individually, we fear them all together. Our ancestors decided that women should not even attend to their private affairs without the control of a guardian, that they should be subject to their fathers, brothers, husbands. But we submit to it that they take possession of the republic and interfere with the popular assembly. If you give free reign to the imperious natures of these unruly creatures, do not imagine that they will recognize any limits of their tyranny. The truth is that they desire freedom, nay, dissoluteness, in all things, and when they have begun to be our equals, they will soon be our superiors.”
At the time Cato delivered this speech the father was guardian to his daughter during his lifetime, even when she was married, unless he appointed another guardian. When the father died the nearest male relative assumed the guardianship. The guardian had the right to transfer this guardianship to whomever and whenever he pleased. Originally then the Roman woman had no will of her own before the law.
The forms of marriage ceremonies were varied and underwent many changes in the course of the centuries. The most ceremonious marriage ceremony was performed by the high priest in the presence of at least ten witnesses, whereupon the bridal pair ate a cake made of flour, salt and water as a symbol of their union. This ceremony has a strong resemblance to the eating of the sacramental wafer at the celebration of the Lord’s Supper. A second form of marriage was merely by taking possession. If a woman had lived with her chosen husband under the same roof for one year, with the consent of her father or guardian, the marriage was legalized. A third form was a sort of mutual purchase. The man and woman exchanged some coins and promised to be husband and wife. At the time of Cicero[16] free divorce to both partners in the marriage contract was already established, and it was even denied that an announcement of the divorce was necessary. But the “lex Julia de adultriis” prescribed that a divorce must be solemnly announced. This law was caused by the frequent occurrence that women, having committed adultery and then having been called to account, claimed to have divorced their husbands. Justinian (The Christian)[17] prohibited divorce, except when both parties wished to enter a monastery. But his successor, Justinian II, found it necessary to introduce it again.
As Rome grew in wealth and power, vice and licentiousness of the worst kind replaced the moral austerity of its early days. Rome became the center from which lewdness, debauchery and sensual finesse spread over the entire civilized world of that period. Especially during the time of the emperors, and frequently encouraged by the emperors themselves, the debauchery assumed forms that could only have been inspired by insanity. Men and women vied with each other in immorality. The number of public brothels increased rapidly, and besides the “Greek love” (sodomy) was practised more and more by the men. At one time the number of male prostitutes in Rome was greater than the number of female prostitutes.
The courtesans appeared in great pomp, surrounded by their admirers, on the streets and the promenade, in the circus and theater, sometimes reclining on couches carried by Negroes, holding a mirror in their hand, decked with jewels, partly nude, fanned by slaves, surrounded by a swarm of boys, eunuchs and flute-players, with grotesque dwarfs bringing up the rear.
These debaucheries assumed such dimensions in the Roman empire, that they threatened its very existence. The bad example set by men, was followed by women. There were women, so Seneca[18] reports, who did not count years by the consuls, as was customary, but by the number of their husbands. Adultery was general, and in order to escape the severe penalties attached to it, women had themselves registered as prostitutes. Even some of the most aristocratic ladies of Rome were among these.
Besides these debaucheries, civil wars and the system of the latifundia caused such a marked decline of the marriage and birth-rate, that the number of Roman citizens and patricians was greatly diminished. In the year 16 B. C. Augustus enacted the so-called Julian law;[19] that placed a penalty upon the unmarried state of Roman citizens and patricians, and rewarded them for having children. Whoever had children was deemed of higher station than childless or unmarried persons. Unmarried persons could not inherit property from anyone except their nearest relatives. People who had no children could only claim half of an inheritance, the other half was turned over to the state. Women who had been convicted of adultery, were compelled to give a part of their dowery to their deceived husbands. This provision caused some men to marry with a desire for adultery on the part of their wives. That caused Plutarch to remark: “Romans do not marry to have heirs, but to become heirs.” Later on the Julian law was still increased in severity. Tiberius issued an edict that no woman whose grandfather, father or husband had been or was a Roman knight, might prostitute herself. Married women, who had their names entered in the lists of prostitutes, should be banished from Italy. For the men, of course, no such punishments existed. As Juvenal reports, husband-murder by poison was a frequent occurrence in Rome of his day.
1. In the oldest quarter of Prague is an old synagogue, built during the sixth century, the oldest synagogue in Germany. Up” descending about seven steps into the dusky chamber, the visitor beholds a row of small loop-holes on the opposite wall leading into an utterly dark room. Upon inquiry we are told by the guide that this is the woman’s room. where the women attended service,;. Modem synagogues are less gloomy, but the separation of men and women is still maintained.
2. Backofen: “The Matriarchate.”
3. “Homer’s “Odyssee.”
4. Homer’s “Odyssee.”
5. “Comedies by Aristophanes.”
6. The theatre, to which Greek women were not admitted.
7. “German History of Manners and Civilization,” by Johann Scherr Sudermann deals with the same subject in his drama, “Honor.”
8. Plato: “The State.”
9. Backofen: “The Matriarchate.”
10. K. Kautsky: “Origin of Marriage and the Family.” Kosmos, 1883.
11. Mantagazza: “Love in Human Society.”
12. Similar conditions are still met with in Camerun and in other parts of Western Africa. A German naval surgeon who studied the land and people from his own observations sends us the following information: “Among a great many tribes the right of inheritance is founded on maternity. Paternity is a matter of indifference. only children of the same mother consider one another brothers and sisters. A man does not will his property to his own children, but to his sisters! children., his nephews and nieces, who can be shown to be his nearest blood relations. A chief of the Way tribe explained to me in broken English: ‘My sister and I surely are blood relations, for we are children of the same mother. My sister again surely is the blood relation of her son. So her son is my heir, and when I die he will be king of my town.’ ‘And your father?’ I asked. I do not know what that is, my father,’ he replied. When I then went on to ask him whether he had no children of his own, he was convulsed with laughter and replied that with them not men but only women had children. I can assure you,” our informant goes on to say, “that even the heir of King Bell in Camerun is not his son, but his nephew. The children of Bell, many of whom are being trained in German cities, are but the children of his wives, while their fathers are unknown. One of them I might lay claim to myself.” – How are the people who deny the existence of maternal law impressed by this description of present-day conditions?! Our informant is a keen observer who goes to the bottom of things. But few who live among these savages do so. Therefore we are given such false descriptions of the alleged “immorality” of the natives.
13. H. v. Weislocky: “Sketches of the Life of the Transylvanian Gypsies.”
14. Tarnowsky: “Pathological Phenomena of Sexual Desire.”
15. “Mosaic Law,” by John David Michaelis.
16. Born 106 B. C.
17. From 527 to 565 A. D.
18. Seneca lived from 2 to 65 A. D.
19. Augustus, the adopted son of Caesar, was by adoption a member of the Gens Julia, from which the Julian law derived its name.
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Definition of ordinary
Definition of ordinary
1. ordinary Adjective Having regular jurisdiction (of a judge; now only used in certain phrases).
2. ordinary Adjective Being part of the natural order of things; normal, customary, routine.
3. ordinary Adjective Having no special characteristics or function; everyday, common, mundane (often deprecatory).
4. ordinary Adjective bad or undesirable.
5. ordinary Noun A devotional manual.
6. ordinary Noun A rule, or book of rules, prescribing the order of service, especially of Mass.
7. ordinary Noun A person having immediate jurisdiction in a given case of ecclesiastical law, such as the bishop within a diocese.
8. ordinary Noun A set portion of food, later as available for a fixed price at an inn or other eating establishment.
9. ordinary Noun A place where such meals are served; a public tavern, inn.
10. ordinary Noun One of the standard geometric designs placed across the center of a coat of arms, such as a pale or fess.
11. ordinary Noun An ordinary thing or person.
12. ordinary Noun A penny-farthing bicycle.
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At the end of WWII, why was the fate of Poland so important to U.S. and the Soviet Union?
Expert Answers
pohnpei397 eNotes educator| Certified Educator
The fate of Poland was important to the US and the USSR because of the looming Cold War.
By the end of WWII, it was clear that relations between the US and the Soviets would not be very friendly. Because of this, Poland became an important issue. The Soviets wanted to control Poland for at least two reasons. Partly, they wanted to spread communism. In addition, they wanted a buffer between them and the West to help protect them from invasion.
The US, by contrast, was suspicious of the Soviet Union. It felt that Poland should be democratic. It wanted this partly because it wanted to prevent the Soviets from getting too much power. It also felt that Poland had been abused by the major powers before WWII and it wanted to treat Poland more fairly.
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Keys to the Past
A waggonway might need unavoidably to slope in the absence of any cutting or to reach staithes. This section is called an incline. Wagons would be need to run up or down it. Gravity could be employed on the downhill slopes. To assist horses used stationary winding engines were employed to haul the wagons up slopes - lowering the other wagons safely. Alternatively use of ropes or cables allowed those wagons going down a slope to pull other wagons up by gravity alone, called self-acting inclines. These mechanisms were introduced from the 1750s AD.
To explore more glossary entries click on a letter.
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What was the ancient animal Orobates? © Thomas Martens
What was the ancient animal Orobates?
Orobates was not a dinosaur, but a member of an earlier group named diadectids.
Orobates is a member of an extinct group of ancient tetrapods called diadectids and lived around 260 million years ago during what’s known as the Middle Permian period.
Diadectids were superficially lizard-shaped, chunky and had a robustly constructed skull adapted for the consumption of tough plant material. They might have eaten small animals too. They were – so far as we know – the very first group of tetrapods to become specialised herbivores and their bulky, barrel-shaped bodies contained the large guts needed for the digestion of plant material.
Diadectids were also the first tetrapod group to evolve large size, the biggest reaching three metres and perhaps 150kg. This makes it a giant compared to the majority of other ancient land-living tetrapods. Orobates was not quite so big, at 85cm and 4kg.
Orobates is a relatively new addition to the diadectid group and was scientifically named and described in 2004. It was discovered in the Bromacker sandstone quarry in the Thuringian Forest of central Germany, a locality famous for its many well-preserved Permian fossils.
When Orobates was alive, Germany was landlocked and part of the gigantic supercontinent Pangaea. Conditions across Pangaea were hot and mostly dry, and land-living animals were adapted to cope with the conditions. Many were capable of building burrows where they took refuge during the day, and this was likely the case for Orobates. It appears to have been a good walker and mostly an animal of upland environments, rather than swamps or valleys.
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Sooty Tern Onychoprion fuscatus
Justification of Red List Category
Population justification
The global population is estimated to number c.35 million individuals (Wetlands International 2020), which roughly equates to 23 million mature individuals.
Trend justification
The overall population trend is uncertain, as some populations are fluctuating, some are stable and others have unknown trends (Wetlands International 2020).
Distribution and population
Sooty Tern breeds on tropical islands and ranges through most of the tropical oceans (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
Behaviour The species is dispersive and migratory (Higgins and Davies 1996). At most colonies, adults leave for the open sea after breeding and become strongly pelagic for 2-3 months before returning to the breeding grounds (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Higgins and Davies 1996). On returning to the breeding colonies, they continue to forage pelagically by day and settle on land at night for a further 2-3 months before beginning to breed (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The timing of breeding varies throughout the species's range, with nesting occurring all year round at some colony sites, but seasonally at others (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species nests in very large colonies (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and remains gregarious throughout the year (congregating in small to large flocks to feed at sea), although it may be observed singly (Higgins and Davies 1996).
Habitat Breeding It breeds on flat, open, sparsely or heavily vegetated, oceanic or barrier islands of sand, coral or rock in productive tropical and subtropical offshore waters rich in plankton, fish and squid (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It is absent from cold current areas and generally avoids islands with terrestrial predators (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Non-breeding Outside of the breeding season, the species is highly pelagic, but generally avoids cold current areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
Diet Its diet consists predominantly of fish up to 18 cm long (usually 6-8 cm) and squid, but it also occasionally takes crustaceans, insects and offal (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species is reliant upon prey driven to the surface by predatory fish (e.g. tuna, Scombidae), especially when breeding (Higgins and Davies 1996).
Breeding site The nest is a slight depression or scrape on the ground (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Higgins and Davies 1996). It shows a preference for nesting on flat, bare sand, coral grit or shell amongst low vegetation on beaches above the high-water mark or on coral islands, atolls and sandbanks (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Higgins and Davies 1996). Less often, it may nest on rock stacks or other offshore islets, and on ledges or terraces of cliffs (although it avoids sheer cliff-faces) (Higgins and Davies 1996). It nests in dense colonies, within which neighbouring nests may be placed c.50 cm apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Higher nesting densities occur in areas where bare ground predominates but which are vegetated with plants greater than or equal to 15 cm tall (Feare et al. 1997).
Some colonies (e.g. Ascension Island) (del Hoyo et al. 1996) are threatened by predation from introduced rats Rattus spp. and domestic cats Felis catus (Rodriguez et al. 2006), and the species has been displaced from nesting colonies on Bird Island by invasive ants Anoplolepis longipes (Feare 1999). Colonies have declined in line with observed increases in sea temperatures in Australia, in contrast to the fortunes of Bridled Tern, which have formed new colonies further south (Dunlop and Surman 2012). Variations in sea-surface temperature have been shown to negatively influence the species's foraging success at breeding colonies, hence lowering reproductive success (Erwin and Congdon 2007). Previously, persistent large scale egg-collecting in some areas has encouraged the species to move to suboptimal nesting sites, resulting in higher mortality and reduced reproductive success (van Halewyn and Norton 1984).
Conservation actions
Conservation Actions Underway
The mortality of the species was significantly reduced on Isla Isabel (a densely forested tropical island off the Pacific coast of Mexico) by the eradication of introduced domestic cats Felis catus using a combination of poisoning, trapping and hunting with firearms (Rodriguez et al. 2006). The nesting density, and therefore the number of breeding pairs, was increased in colonies on Bird Island by clearing areas of dense native or introduced vegetation and burning existing colony areas annually to prevent the growth of woody plants (Feare et al. 1997).
Conservation Actions ProposedPrevent the spread of invasive predators around breeding colonies.
Text account compilers
Hermes, C.
Bennett, S., Butchart, S., Calvert, R., Ekstrom, J., Malpas, L., Martin, R. & Stuart, A.
Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2021) Species factsheet: Onychoprion fuscatus. Downloaded from on 26/10/2021. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2021) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from on 26/10/2021.
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Roman house
This post is also available in: Polish (polski)
Peristyle in the House of Venus in a shell, Pompeii
Peristyle in the House of Venus in a shell, Pompeii | Photo: F. Tronchin / Warren / BY-NC-ND 2.0
The early Roman house had little to do with the images of it as we know it. The first Romans lived in ordinary huts, and their houses were made of simple materials (wood, clay), with a thatched roof and a central opening through which smoke escaped from the hearth.
With the growth of the state and the increased incomes from trade, houses evolved – they became bigger and got decorations. The Romans also began to follow the example of Greek and Etruscan culture. A typical urban Roman house, in the late republic and empire, had one-story or two-story buildings and was built on a rectangular plan.
A model of a Roman two-story house.
Layout of typical domus
Entrance doors and tabernae (shops)
The entrance door to the house (ostium) was usually double-leaf and opened inwards; There was also a knocker on the door. In addition to the main entrance in the house, there was an additional door (posticum), which served slaves and domestic help. Sometimes the master of the house used them, wanting to go for a walk, without risking surveillance by other household members.
In front of the house, there could also be shops (tabernae) that were leased to other citizens.
Upon entering the house, the visitor first crossed the vestibule (vestibulum), today’s vestibule. Sometimes, on the floor of the vestibule, the host greeted the guest with an additional warning “beware of the dog” (cave canem), or he announced his joy to visit his house with the words “be well” (salve). Everything was naturally made with small pebbles (tesserae) in the form of a mosaic.
Atrium – representative room
Atrium it was a central rectangular room around which living rooms were arranged. Most of the hole in the roof (compluvium) and the tank for rainwater (impluvium), which was later replaced in the time Republic fountain.
From the corridor, there was a direct entrance to the atrium, as I mentioned in the introduction. It derives its name from the word – ater, meaning “black”, which was due to the smoky walls; the blackness came from the hearths in the altars placed in this room. Originally, the atrium served as a mater familias bedroom. There was also a sanctuary for the Lares (lararium) and sometimes a bust of the master of the house, as well as ancestral masks (imagines maiorum).
The central place in the atrium was occupied by an impluvium, a shallow depression in the floor filled with water. There was a roof over the atrium, in the middle of which there was an opening (compluvium) through which rainwater ran directly to the impluvium. This water was then channeled to an underground cistern, where it was collected for personal hygiene, or directly to the road.
Depending on the structure of the roof and the number of columns used, the following types of atrium were distinguished:
• Tuscanium – did not have any columns. The weight of the ceiling was held by the rafters. Despite its high cost, it was the most widespread.
• Tetrastylum – had only one column at each corner of the impluvium
• Corinthium – similar to a tetrastyle, but with a larger roof opening and more columns
• Displutaviatum – it had a roof sloping towards the side walls
• Testudinatum – it had no roof opening and was found in small houses
Roman house plan.
Image: PureCore / Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
Tablinum – office
Directly behind the atrium was the tablinum. Initially, this room was a matrimonial bedroom. Later, the room was transformed into the home’s workplace. In front of the tablinum there was a chest in which the host kept his savings. In addition, it served as a transition from the atrium to the peristylium. From the atrium, the tablinum was separated by a curtain, while from the peristylium, a wooden screen or a wide door.
Over time, one of the functions of tablinum, the room connecting the atrium with the peristylium, was taken over by a small andron passage.
Model Roman house (domus).
Cubilculum – bedrooms
Around the atrium, there were bedrooms (cubiculum) with beds (lectus or cubile). The wealthier ones had a small hall where a personal servant (procoeton) slept. The standard equipment of the bedroom was also a money box (arca) and a chair for guests.
At the end of the atrium, there were alae. They were open rooms, placed on either side. Their use is largely unknown today.
Pompeian interior, Luigi Bazzani
Triclinium – dining room
Next to the tablinum there was a dining room (triclinium), meaning literally “a room with three couches”. The name comes from the fact that in this room there were the abovementioned beds, on which the guests ate meals in a lying position. In Rome, the Greek and Etruscan custom was adopted to eat meals lying down on a bed in the shape of the letter U (wedge).
During the feast, slaves from the kitchen (culina) brought their meals. It was placed as far as possible from triclinium, as it was assumed that people eating meals should not be distracted by smells coming from the place where they were prepared.
The walls of the dining room were often covered with black or dark colors to hide the soot evaporating from fireplaces, lamps or stoves, placed on cold days.
Hortus/peristyle – garden
Through the tablinum one led to the garden (hortus), which was the least public part of the house. The wealthy senators wanted to expand their estates. The goal was achieved by adding a peristyle (peristylium), a larger garden. There was a small narrow corridor (fauces) leading from the atrium to the garden; sometimes the atrium with the peristyle was connected by a passage (andron). In the peristyle, there was a larger pond (piscina) than in the atrium, and sometimes a separate space for discussions (exedra). The latter also served as a living room or common dining room. Sometimes this extra room was also called oecus. If there were still columns inside this room, it was called oecus corinthium.
The peristyle was surrounded by columns that supported the roof. Both herbs and flowers were grown there. The ancients felt a special taste for roses, violets and lilies. Small statues and furniture were also placed there. The peristyle could also have a separate posticum. Often there were also ponds and fountains.
Richer Romans could afford more rooms. Libraries were additionally built in the most historic houses. Following the Greek example, personal gymnasiums, i.e. places for exercise, were also built.
Central heating
From the 1st century BCE, the Romans used a kind of central heating in their homes, called hypocaustum. The principle of its operation was similar to the one applied several centuries later by the Teutonic Knights at the castle in Malbork.
Hypocaustum literally means ” fiery “, from the Greek word hypo – below or below, and kaiein – to burn or light a fire. The floor panels in Roman houses rested on wide, about 80 cm high, brick posts. Thus, there was an empty space under the floor. A hearth was placed at the outlet in a special vestibule. The vestibule was constructed in such a way that the smoke rose up and hot air reached the floor of the house, and then traveled through a special chimney outside. The efficiency of using the energy of the burnt wood in this way was reportedly very high.
In this way, not only the air was heated, but also water, e.g. in thermal baths. Of course, only the richest Romans could afford such a luxury as hypocaustum – in their comfortable villas.
Hypocaustum in practice.
In later times, the walls were also heated in a similar way. For their construction, bricks with vertically running holes inside were used (today we call this type of brick a “hole”) so that they form channels from the space under the floor to the outlet in the roof.
Roman Lair preserved in Herculaneum, after the eruption of Veusvius.
One of the pieces of furniture most characteristic of the Roman civilization is the bed. The ancient Romans spent a large part of their lives lying down, and the bed played an unequally greater role in furniture than it does today. So there were beds for sleeping, sofas for eating, reading and working, and finally litters used for walks. So it was not only part of the bedroom furniture, it often played the role of a chair or armchair.
As a sleeping piece, the Roman bed (lectus cubicularis) was not much different from ours. The Romans ate lying down. The beds were placed on three sides of the table, and the dishes were served on the fourth free side. The revelers were leaning on their elbows. There were usually three of them on each side of the table, but that number could go up to four, five or even more. The guests of honor were seated on the middle bed. It is difficult for us to know exactly what the shape of the tables was in antiquity because there is no trace of wooden tables. Thanks to the paintings and sculptures, however, we know that the Romans showed a special tendency to guéridons on three legs in the shape of animal paws.
Roman bed scheme
Wardrobes, it seems, were less commonly used in antiquity than in our times. They preferred to store clothes, food, jewels, silver, and family papers in chests that were easier to move from one apartment to another. The boxes were often shaped like a huge trunk resting on four legs. When there were any valuables inside, the walls were reinforced with metal sheets and covered with a solid lock.
Nowadays, street names and house numbers are used to describe where you live. It is a simple and effective system but was not used by the ancient Romans. In small towns, finding a home by a stranger might not be a big challenge. Certainly, such a person was helped by local residents and managed accordingly.
However, in large cities, such as Rome, achieving the goal could be a much more serious challenge. In Rome, some of the larger and more important streets had names, but most did not. Hence, the Romans determined the location of their houses by giving characteristic places where their building was located, e.g. statues, baths, temples, even single trees.
Sometimes houses on streets without names were located as those that were, for example, on the way to landmarks. Even if the streets had a name, it was advisable to provide the visitor with landmarks so that he could find himself in the city.
A good tip was also to provide the place of residence of known and important figures of political and cultural life in the city. It should be emphasized, however, that the best way to find a given house was by asking passersby.
Roman villas
The richer forms of Roman houses were villas, which were built in three standard versions. Country villa (villa rustica), seaside (villa maritima) and city (villa urbana).
Country villa, originally a country house with accompanying farm buildings, constituting the center of the estate. These estates varied in size: from small farms mostly farmed by the family to large estates where slaves worked or landed colonies, who were a kind of serfs.
From the 2nd century BCE, villas were built more and more sophisticated and elegant, usually around a spacious yard, located so as to blend in with the landscape; They were erected outside the city, in the countryside, on the seashore. Rich Romans had a lot of them in different regions. The property related to the villa was cultivated by free tenants or slaves under the supervision of the administrator (villicus). A villa-type house, with an accompanying land estate, also spread to the Roman provinces, for example in Britain we know about 60 villas. In medieval times, the villa and her estate were replaced in Western Europe by a manor house and a manor estate.
A Roman villa, such as the one at Chedworth (Gloucestershire), was a spacious country mansion, surrounded by outbuildings and granaries, on a manor. The villa at Chedworth was built in the first half of the 2nd century CE but was rebuilt and enlarged until the 6th century CE. It had a sewage system, heated floors, two lines of baths, but had few rooms and bedrooms. Some rooms were decorated with mosaic floor tiles.
Urban villa was still rural in character, however was only a one or two-night drive from town – therefore the name.
• Alfred Frazer, The Roman villa, 1998
• William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London 1875
• Witold Szolginia, Architektura, Warszawa 1992
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Prejudice Activities
Activity One
Read some online newspapers and use diigo to create notes and highlight evidence of prejudice in the current/recent news media.
Activity Two
Use wallwisher to collect pictures and explain how they relate to prejudice underneath each picture.
Activity Three
Use Fotobabble to create an audio-visual description of prejudice using evidence from your selected text.
Activity Four
List words of affirmation and rejection. Display three or more of them in a poster that addresses why prejudice harms the victim and the perpetrator.
Activity Five
Create a concept map on the theme ‘prejudice’ and note all the texts you have/can see it in (don’t forget songs, poems, news etc.)
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The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the Genocide Convention
Av Anton Weiss-Wendt
After the staggering horrors of World War II and the Holocaust, the United Nations resolved to prevent and punish the crime of genocide throughout the world. The resulting UN Genocide Convention treaty, however, was drafted, contested, and weakened in the midst of Cold War tensions and ideological struggles between the Soviet Union and the West.
Based on extensive archival research, Anton Weiss-Wendt reveals in detail how the political aims of the superpowers rendered the convention a weak instrument for addressing abuses against human rights. The Kremlin viewed the genocide treaty as a political document and feared repercussions.
What the Soviets wanted most was to keep the subjugation of Eastern Europe and the vast system of forced labor camps out of the genocide discourse. The American Bar Association and Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, in turn, worried that the Convention contained vague formulations that could be used against the United States, especially in relation to the plight of African Americans. Sidelined in the heated discussions, Weiss-Wendt shows, were humanitarian concerns for preventing future genocides.
(Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2017).
Publisert 4. apr. 2018 12:23 - Sist endret 26. okt. 2018 06:56
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Dormouse Facts
Dormouse Facts
Dormouse belongs to the group of rodents. There are 29 different species of dormice, most of which can be found in Europe. Certain species of dormice live in Asia and Africa. Dormouse inhabits deciduous forests, grasslands, scrublands and rocky areas. In some parts of the world, dormice are kept as pets. Ancient Romans hunted dormice because of their meat. Unfortunately, this tradition still lives in certain parts of the Europe (Slovenia). British dormouse is extremely rare in the wild. This type of dormouse is endangered due to habitat loss and increased competition for food with animals such as grey squirrels.
Interesting Dormouse Facts:
Dormouse can reach from 2.4 to 7.5 inches in length (tail is usually the same length as the body) and 0.5 to 0.73 ounces of weight. Before hibernation, dormouse weighs much more, usually around 1.4 ounces.
Creamy, orange or golden coat covers dorsal side of the body. Belly is covered with white fur. Some types of dormouse have white, grey and black coat.
Dormouse has chunky body that ends with long, fluffy tail. It has large black eyes, long black whiskers and small ears.
Like all other rodents, dormouse has sharp and elongated front teeth (incisors) designed for nibbling.
Dormouse is an omnivore (animal which eats other animals and plants). Its diet consists of flowers, nectar, hazelnuts, and insects.
Dormouse plays important role in the pollination of flowers. It collects pollen on the whiskers when it drinks nectar and transfers it to the next flower.
Dormouse is nocturnal creature (active at night). It uses large eyes, whiskers and sense of smell to find food in the dark.
Dormouse rests during the day using the abandoned holes in the trees or nests above the ground.
Dormice are excellent climbers. They spend most of their time high in the trees and bushes where they can find food and hide from the predators.
Main predators of dormice are owls, eagles, falcons, cats, foxes and weasels.
Dormouse spends cold time of the year, from middle of October to April or May, in deep sleep (hibernation). Its body temperature and heart beats decrease significantly to preserve energy. During period of hibernation, dormouse uses body fats as only source of energy. Since hibernation can last more than 6 months, dormouse is also known as sleeper or sleep mouse.
Dormouse produces couple of sounds for communication (some of them cannot be detected by human ear).
Dormice produce one or two litters annually (from May to September).
Pregnancy lasts one month and ends with 4 babies that are blind and naked at birth. At the age of 4 weeks, youngsters are ready to leave the nest. They will reach sexual maturity at the age of one year.
Dormouse can survive 5 years in the wild and 6 in the captivity.
Related Links:
Animal Facts
Animals Facts
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Swazi, Sotho, and Ndebele States
Swazi, Sotho, and Ndebele States
Indeed, as a result of the mfecane , a series of states formed throughout southern Africa as people banded together to secure access to foodstuffs and to protect themselves from Zulu marauders. Sobhuza, leader of the Ngwane people to the north of the Zulu, built a defensive state that eventually took the name of his son and heir Mswati to form the basis of the modern Swazi nation, Swaziland. Sobhuza secured the boundaries of his state through a combination of diplomacy and force. He negotiated marriage alliances with Ndwandwe and later Zulu chiefs and cemented similar arrangements with his own chiefs. He paid tribute to the Zulu kings when he thought it necessary, but he also built a powerful army with which the Swazi were able to repel Dingane's incursions in the 1830s.
Moshoeshoe, another contemporary (b. 1786) of Shaka, forged a strong Sotho kingdom on the southern Highveld in the 1820s and 1830s. This kingdom became the foundation for the modern state of Lesotho. Moshoeshoe, seeking in the 1820s to protect his people from the worst ravages of the difaqane , fortified a large mesa, Thaba Bosiu, that proved impregnable to attack for decades thereafter. With this natural fortress as his base, he built a large kingdom, welcomed in particular refugees from famine and wars elsewhere, and provided them with food and shelter. These refugees, once incorporated into the state, were considered Sotho like their hosts; thus, as with the Zulu, ever larger numbers were integrated into a group with a consolidated ethnic identity, a practice that furthered the process of nation building. Moshoeshoe also sought to strengthen his kingdom militarily, especially by acquiring guns and horses from the Cape. A superb diplomat, he sought to maintain cordial relations with all his neighbors, even paying tribute on occasion to Shaka and seeking always to avoid war. Believing that they could act as emissaries on his behalf to the intruding European powers while also teaching his children to read and write, he welcomed French Protestant missionaries. By the mid-1830s, Moshoeshoe's kingdom comprised about 30,000 people and was the largest state on the southern Highveld.
A fourth major African state formed in South Africa during the 1820s and 1830s was the Ndebele state ruled by Mzilikazi. Mzilikazi had been a subject chief of Shaka, but in 1821 he had sought to demonstrate his independence by refusing to send tribute cattle to the king. Fleeing from a punitive force sent by Shaka, Mzilikazi and a few hundred followers crossed the Drakensberg Mountains and established a series of armed settlements on the Highveld. Raiding for cattle and grain and forcibly incorporating Sotho-Tswana people into his forces, Mzilikazi built a powerful kingdom in the 1830s near present-day Johannesburg and Pretoria.
Although the mfecane in many ways promoted the political development of southern Africa, it also caused great suffering. Thousands died because of famine and warfare, and thousands more were uprooted from their homes and were forced to travel great distances, many to become refugee laborers in the Cape who sought work at any wage. Perhaps the most significant result in terms of the future was that large areas of South Africa were temporarily depopulated, making it seem to Europeans that there were unclaimed lands in the interior into which they could expand.
Country Studies main page | South africa Country Studies main page
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Georg Pencz
German , 1500 - 1550
German painter, printmaker and draftsman Georg Pencz was born about 1500. He is known as one of the “Little Masters”, a group of artists who made tiny, intricate, and influential prints.
Pencz was influenced by Albert Durer, whose workshop he entered in Nuremberg in 1523. He was banished from Nuremberg in 1525, along with other “godless painters”, such as Hans Sebald Beham and Barthel Beham for voicing their disbelief in Christ and baptism. Within several months, the three received pardon and Pencz came to be Nuremberg’s city painter in 1532.
Pencz returned to Italy around 1539 and visited Rome for the first time. Once back in Nuremberg, Pencz earned great success as a portraitist. He was named court painter by Albert, Duke of Prussia in 1550, but he died en route to the post.
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The Charge of the Light Brigade
The Charge of the Light Brigade was a military event that occurred on the 25th of October, 1854. Lord Cardigan led a British light cavalry against Russian forces in the Battle of Balaclava, which resulted in a tragic number of deaths and causalities, with 110 men killed and 161 wounded. Lord Raglan, the commander of British forces during the Crimean War, had ‘intended to send the Light Brigade to prevent the Russians removing captured guns from overrun Turkish positions’. However, unfortunately as a result of poor miscommunication throughout the hierarchy of commanders, the Light Brigade was misdirected into a direct line of fire which no escape in which they were unprepared, meaning the brigade was forced to retreat immediately. The event, therefore, resulted in no war gains but ended up with a substantial number of British casualties, that could have been avoided.
The Light Brigade set off, led by Cardigan, and engaged with Russian forces at the end of the valley. The mass of guns and forces waiting for them offered mass panic, and the remaining troops were forced to retreat, realising their fatal mistake. Cardigan, the leader of the Brigade, became renowned for his role. Although when news of the tragic event first surfaced, Cardigan was renowned as a courageous and brave leader, it soon became common knowledge that he abandoned his troops. Cardigan rode forward, refusing to look behind and realise what was happening, took part in the fight, and then rode back up the valley alone, without bothering to find out what happened to the survivors or helping any of the wounded.
When Lord Cardigan returned home, he was greeted with mass recognition and hero status with his remaining brigade. News of the event in mass media provoked Victorian feelings of patriotism and pride, and the brigade was seen as brave heroes who sacrificed their lives for their country out of sheer courage. However, eventually, when news of the scandal and miscommunication spread, Lord Cardigan became detested by nineteenth-century society. Therefore, the event of the Charge of the Light Brigade highlighted the lack of technology available in the era and furthermore reinforced the strong feelings of patriotism that the Victorian’s held, strengthened by the sheer size of the British Empire.
The event of the Charge of the Light Brigade was most famously renowned for its role in literature, in which poet laureate Lord Alfred Tennyson wrote a poem in 1854, named ‘The Charge of the Light Brigade’.
From, The Victorian Blogger
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Lesser Celandine….Smotherer of Native Plants
Lesser Celandine….Smotherer of Native Plants
Lesser celandine (Ficaria verna) is a broadleaf plant with a yellow flower, which is native to Europe and Western Asia. In North America it is considered to be a highly invasive plant. You can find it growing in 21 of the lower 48 states, and in southern parts of Canada.
Lesser celandine produces both seeds and bulbils. This type of reproduction strategy causes it to be highly invasive, and allows it to spread like wildfire. The three easiest and fastest ways it spreads are water ways, boots of hikers, and hooves of ungulates. The spread of lesser celandine begins to create dense green carpets in our woods and lawns. Studies have shown that these “carpets” inhibit native wildflowers and other plants from finishing their life cycles. When these native wildflowers and plants cannot finish their life cycles, pollinators are losing their sources of nectar and mammals are losing food sources. Can the mammals just eat the celandine instead? Unfortunately no, because lesser celandine has compounds that make it taste bitter and possibly toxic to mammals. These are just a few out of many ecological impacts that are the driving forces to research ways to eradicate lesser celandine from our woods and lawns.
We are starting a research project in early 2020 to test eradication methods of lesser celandine. We will be testing the effects of hand removal, and two types of herbicides: glyphosate and metsulfuron. We will measure cover of celandine and count other species pre and post treatment. This study will likely be a multiple year study because other data shows lesser celandine needs multiple rounds of treatments to eliminate it.
Below are photos of lesser celandine before and after it flowers, and the dense carpet it creates.
–Chad G.
pre-flower stage
flowering stage
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How did novels promote the colonialism?
Novels contributed to colonialism by making the readers feel that they were a part of a superior community of fellow colonists, e.g. the hero of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe is an adventurer and a slave trader. Shipwrecked on an island, he hates the coloured people because he considers them inferior creatures not as human beings equal to him.
The colonisers were always depicted as heroic and honourable—confronting native people, strange surrounding, adapting to native life as well as changing it, colonising new territories and developing nations there.
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Woman’s position in the Eastern Roman (‘Byzantine’) society
The Byzantine noble women were burning with anxieties and were passionately pursuing to participate in political chess, to excel in letters and to spread the culture of Byzantium.
The life of a great woman of Byzantium, princess Anna Komnena the Porphyrogenita, is indicative of this passion for power and education. Her touching death encapsulates a life full of tension and intense contradictions: Anna was a revolutionary female for her time. To achieve her goals she did not use female “weapons” (charm, cunning), but purely male “means” (power, boldness, perseverance). She may have been the first feminist in human chronicles.
In the late 11th and 12th centuries, the family institution was strengthened, starting with the emperor himself, who concentrated power around his family. There were conditions of family honor and virtue, and being a member of the Komnenian family required specific ethical principles. In parallel, at the same time, the role of women in the family, especially in the upper classes, was also strengthened. Although the families remained patriarchal, women played a more dynamic role, as many of them have apparently acquired significant education and they have appeared active even in political life. Prominent female celebrities of the Komnenian era were Anna Dalassena, mother of Alexius I Komnenos (1081-1118), Maria Komnena, daughter of Manuel I, Anna Komnena, daughter of Alexius I.
The case of Anna Komnena constitutes, of course, an excellent example of an educated Byzantine of the upper aristocracy, as the girls of her social class were educated at home – and the majority of them received very good education. Byzantine girls, according to Steven Runciman, often had better education than boys because they enjoyed more private attention.
It is a fact that many of the Byzantine ladies of noble descent were “exposed” to politics and were actively involved in the political affairs of their time; as a result, they left a serious legacy of friction with the public things for the next-generations of women. Indeed, some of the Byzantine Empresses ended up assassinating their own children so that they don’t take their power from them. Other Byzantine noble women shone through their backstage presence.
Certainly, according to scholars, the position of woman in Byzantium was much better than that of ancient Greece. In Byzantium there were women emperors, women leaders, women doctors: from the first centuries until 1453, in all the major cities of the empire, social welfare and care services were recorded, in whose function women played an important role: a fine example is the 12th century Pantokrator Hospital in Constantinople, which had a female doctor, four female alternate assistants and another two female alternate assistants of the latter. In addition, Byzantine women were not considered unworthy to hold the highest office of state just because they were women.
Four Empresses ruled on their own — without a spouse — without facing any objection from anyone because of their sex; Zoe (914-919), Irene (797-802), Theodora and Zoe (1042), Theodora (1054-1056). In the view of the outstanding Byzantinologist Steven Runciman, “There was no constitutional barrier to the assumption of high power by a woman in Byzantium. And in the end, the cause of Irene’s decline was more because of her poor health rathen than her gender. The reign of these women was never considered illegitimate.” (St. Runciman, Byzantine Culture). And of course at this point we must also consider the women who essentially ruled the state, having a man in the spotlight for reasons of force majeure or “public relations”. The state of women in Byzantine society, with all its difficulties and problems … was admittedly more bearable, compared to their state in Greek antiquity. In this relative upgrading, Christianity played its role: it brought out the woman and liberated her from the ancient, pagan phallocraticism.
Mosaïque de l'impératrice Zoé, Sainte-Sophie (Istanbul, Turquie)
While the above cases of noblemen and women of the upper aristocracy indicate an upgraded position of women in Byzantine society, it should not be overlooked that the broader masses of women were excluded from the forefront of the political and social action of their time.
Certainly, the female presence contributed to the shaping of the Byzantine society at a time when the female ideal was closely linked with charity and social welfare, in opposition to the male ideal which was associated with war and violence.
The action of the less eponymous women, and even more the action of the anonymous women of the middle and lower class, has been intense during the period of the great heresies and especially during the period of Iconoclasm. In these cases, entire crowds of women, according to the sources, left the private sphere of their daily lives and entered the more exciting one of public life and activation.
A great chapter in the History of European Culture is the spread/diffuse of the Byzantine civilization in Western Europe by the Byzantine princesses who married foreign nobles. When Otto II married the princess Theophano Porphyrogenita, following this determined female, a crowd of Byzantines from the East and southern Italy went to the north and organically joined the German imperial court. There, Theophano scandalized the local aristocrats because of wearing silk and because she was bathing, according to the customs of Constantinople: in the 12th century Constantinople had 33 public baths and, on average, the Byzantines, aristocrats and the public, were taking their bath in them three times a week. “Horrible” habits that, according to the vision of a strict German nun, would send Theophano to hell (St. Runciman, Byzantine Culture). Her cousin Maria Argyre encountered the same problems in Venice, where she got married, because she introduced the use of the fork.
Some historians, researching the sources, found that already since the 4th century AD there have been teachers for the girls; it was also possible for the middle class to send them, together with the boys, at the Grammar School (elementary education) so that they learn how to read and write. We also have testimonies that just as boys went to men’s monasteries to educate, so did the girls in women’s monasteries. It is also certain that the girls of the richer classes were receiving almost the same education as their brothers, as they were trained at home by private teachers.
Throughout the whole Byzantine social scale the wife is, before anything else, the lady of the house and then, if she is still a little pretty and young, she is the mistress, too.
The crystallization of the nuclear family, which had already been completed in the 9th century, radically changed the social role of women. During the Iconoclastic period women were still actively involved in the public matters, and were even actively involved in the images worship debate. It is no coincidence that the restoration of the images was promoted by two women, the Empresses Irene and Theodora. There is a valuable detail in the Life of Antonius the New, showing that women’s activity was not confined to religious conflicts: when the Arab fleet, around 825, attacked Antalya, the city’s ruler gathered on the walls not only men but also young women dressed in men’s clothing.
The traditional image of the patriarchal, nuclear Byzantine family is depicted by Kekaumenos. The family is a self-contained entity, surrounded by an invisible wall that separates it from the rest of the world. Anyone who is not intimately attached to her, even a friend, can, by penetrating this inner circle, seduce women, learn family secrets, and generally disturb the family’s order. A good wife, adds Kekaumenos, is the half of life; the promise for a good fortune. Spouses should be faithful and avoid second marriages when widowed. The upbringing of children is also treated very seriously.
Children must fear and respect the head of the family, but this attitude must be the result of good upbringing and not of punishment and beating. Unmarried girls, of course, were not allowed to be exposed to the looks of men who are not relatives. This restriction of women, wives and daughters, is also implied indirectly from other texts of the same time.
The social and personal life of the middle and lower Byzantine woman was as follows: when the Byzantine daughter turned 12 years old, her parents through relatives or friends, acting as match-makers, were looking for a husband who has at least completed 14 years of age. This of course did not exclude love, which was not uncommon in Byzantium. The engagement/betrothal, which lasted no more than two years, was a very important event, with almost religious formality and written ratification. Prior to the wedding, another contract was signed, which stipulated the bride’s dowry and groom’s gifts. The future bridegroom was leading the bride to the church, having received her from her father’s house, as the head of a procession. After the wedding ceremony an official dinner followed. State law, despite the church’s dissent, recognized the right to divorce when both parties wanted it. The second marriage was condemned by the church, but not by the State. The third marriage was leading to severe penalties, while the fourth was usually leading to apostasy from the Church.
The first of the Christian emperors, Constantine the Great, issued in 331 AD the following divorce law: “When a woman sends a divorce notice, only the following accusations should be investigated: is there evidence that he is a murderer, a magician or a grave robber? If so, then this woman should be commended and restored to all her dowry. But if she has filed for divorce for reasons independent of these three categories, she should even leave her last hairpin at her husband’s house and be displaced to an island for her high pride. If men send a divorce notice, the following three categories should be investigated: Do they want to renounce an adulteress, a witch or procuress? If a man persecutes his wife who has no proven connection with these charges, he must return the whole dowry to her and not marry again. If he indeed does something like this, then she is allowed to enter her former home and transfer to herself all the dowry of the second wife as compensation for the damage she has suffered” (G. Clarck, Women in Late Antiquity).
However, the feminine figure that embodies and condenses the positive and praiseworthy, of the otherwise weak and incomplete, qualities of the female nature is, for the whole of Byzantine society, is the Virgin and Mother of God. She, with Her perfection, virginity, tenderness and charity, constitutes the other, positive aspect of the coin: it is Eve’s counterweight that has hurt Humanity with her credulity. So Eve and the Virgin both make up the female enigma for the Byzantine ideological universe.
Due to Her association with war events during the Byzantine period, the Virgin also received the distinctive agnomen “Our Lady of Victory” or “Nikopios” (the Victory maker). Since the early Byzantine years, Theotokos (the Mother of God) became the Protector of the Byzantine Empire. Already under the Emperors Mauritius, Fokas, Heraclius, the Theotokos was depicted on seals and coins of the State, in place of the Goddess Nike (Victory). And just as Niki was holding the shield, similarly did the Virgin Mary, holding a shield-like disk that depicted Christ, who was the chief sponsor of victory.
We must not forget that Constantinople was dedicated to Our Lady. This is evidenced by the multitude of temples, monasteries and pilgrimages that existed in Her honor. The same is confessed by the many miraculous icons of the Virgin Mary that were kept in the City. In Constantinople, therefore, it had become public consciousness that the Virgin was their great Protector. They considered it a great blessing that the Maphorio (the ‘Skepi’) and the Belt (the ‘Zone’) of the Virgin, transferred from Jerusalem, were kept in the Reigning City (‘Βασιλεύουσα’). So during the difficult war times they resorted to the help and shelter/aegis of the Virgin Mary.
Throughout the Byzantine years women’s activity and presence in church and society has been continuous. Of course, at times, the monastic and strict conservative spirit limited her, but she was always finding fertile ground for fruitfulness, for contribution to developments and initiatives of all kinds. Byzantine women’s monasteries were particularly distinguished for their philanthropic and social welfare work. They fostered poor women, they provided destitute women with knowledge and employment in the weaving and knitting art, so that with the manufactured articles the orphans of the poorhouses and orphanages, that were usually situated near to monasteries, could dress. In many of them there was an employer sister. Many of the female nuns had medical and pharmaceutical knowledge and treated sick women. In orphanages the younger inmates were usually trained by female nuns. The sisters supervised the little girls in learning weaving, embroidery, music and other useful practical arts.
In the monasteries there were two boxes, the purpose of which is evident from their inscriptions: one reads «εις αιχμαλώτων ανάρρυσιν» (‘for the return of the captives’) and the other «εις πενήτων διατροφήν» (‘for the food of the poor’). With the money raised, the sufferers were taken care of and the captives redeemed from pirates who were roaming the Mediterranean seas and by raiding barbarians. “Bath-aiding” nuns («λουτράρισσες») offered their services by soaping and sponging the released prisoners and leading them to rest beds.
(Source: “The position of women in Byzantine society”, by Amalia K. Heliadis)
Research-Selection-Translation (original text in Greek) for NovoScriptorium: Anastasius Philoponus
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Trying to establish specific, definite time periods in history is a subject that is almost always up for debate. But when defining the early modern period, most scholars would agree that it falls roughly between 1500 and 1800. And although the beginning and ending years of early modern times overlap somewhat, it is generally considered to be the time period between the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution. The reason for the title is simple: it is during the early modern era that the world begins to take shape as the world we know today. That includes not only for formation of nations, but the evolution of language as well.
This was a time period that included a great deal of expansion in virtually all arenas, including math, science, exploration, transportation and — most notably for our purposes here – language. Countries in Europe were trading with Asia on a regular basis and establishing colonies in Africa. In Asia, the Mughal Empire began in 1526, bringing not only a more structured government, but also prosperity and intense interest in science and math among the people of that region. The Middle East was ruled primarily by the Ottoman and Persian empires. And, last but certainly not least, America was founded and colonized by Great Britain.
The language arts also flourished during the early modern period. Two opposing views of translation were formed at that time by English translators/poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, with Dryden believing that it was acceptable for translators to take some literary license with their translations and Pope contending that translations should remain absolutely true to the original text. The victor in this disagreement is hard to determine, although it should be noted that Dryden – England’s first Poet Laureate and a well-known translator, playwright and literary critic of the day – for the most part dominated the literary circles of his day, and that time period (the latter half of the 17th century) came to be known as the “Age of Dryden.” And although the winner of the debate between these two scholars is in itself debatable, modern translation practices fall somewhere between these two extreme views – translators of today make every effort to stay true to the style and flavor of the original text, while still making it understandable and relatable to the target audience.
But Dryden and Pope were hardly the only linguists to make significant contributions during the early modern period. During the mid-1600s, French translator Nicolas Perrot d’Ablancourt (1606-1664) focused his efforts on the Latin and Greek classics; English playwright Aphra Behn, one of the first women to actually earn a living from her writing, was also an accomplished translator – not only from French to English, but from English to French as well; Antoine Galland, who excelled as an archaeologist and an accomplished translator from Arabic to French, translated (among other things) the collection of Middle Eastern folk tales entitled “One Thousand and One Nights” and the “Arabian Nights”; and Johann Gottfried Herder, language theorist and translator from Latin to German, published his “Treatise on the Origin of Language” in 1772, and promoted the principle made centuries earlier by Martin Luther that a translator should only translate works into (not from) his/her native language.
Considering the relatively short period of time encompassed by the early modern era, the growth of the language arts during this time period is impressive. In fact, we’ve only scratched the surface in this article. And this is just a small indicator of what was to come in the years that followed. We’ll examine those contributions in our last and final article in this series, where we’ll review the history of language in the Industrial Revolution and the Modern Era.
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I thought it had a name along the lines of interlocular groove, but I haven't been able to find that term anywhere.
• $\begingroup$ You probably mean the filament.  $\endgroup$ – Eleftheria Chatziargyriou Jul 15 '16 at 19:06
• 2
$\begingroup$ There are two longitudinal ridges in a typical anther. An anther has two lobes each with two pollen sacs/thecae. So there is a groove both between the two lobes and also between the two thecae in one lobe. Having a look at the transverse section would help. Although I don't know what they are called, it would be better if you specify which of the two ridges you are refering to. $\endgroup$ – Polisetty Aug 19 '16 at 13:32
I think what you are looking for is the connective. Anthers are usually two-lobed and connected by a band of sterile tissue that also connects the anther with the filament - therefore the name, I guess (see Wikipedia article for stamen). It says
Each anther lobe usually consists of two pollen sacs (see Wikipedia article for microsporangia). It says:
Each anther lobe develops two pollen sacs. Thus, a two-lobed anther develops four pollen sacs situated at four corners of the anther.
And further (accentuation by me)
The cells of endothecium possess fibrous thickenings. They remain thin-walled and constitute stomium (line of dehiscence) in the shallow groove in between the two microsporangia of the anther lobe.
This groove frequently is called by its orientation, i.e. longitudinal groove, even though I do not think this really is a well-defined technical term (but do a quick Google search for "longitudinal groove" anther and you will find several biology books using the term, e.g. this).
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I think that you're talking either about the connective that separates two lobes of the anther, or the longitudinal groove that I think separates the two theca making it dithecous.
enter image description here
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• 1
$\begingroup$ Welcome to Biology.SE! Please take the tour and then consult the help pages for additional advice on How to Answer effectively on this site and then either delete or edit your answer accordingly. It isn't clear that this adds anything to the existing answer. In addition, answers are much more likely to receive a favorable response if you include supporting references (primary literature is best). Without that support, your answer is indistinguishable from opinion. Finally, if you include a figure you must document where it came from. Thanks! 😊 $\endgroup$ – tyersome Mar 23 at 18:46
Your Answer
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Astrophysics (Index)About
tidal heating
(tidal working, tidal flexing)
(heating due to friction from motions caused by tidal force)
Tidal heating is heating from friction due to movements within a body due to tidal forces. The process is also called tidal working or tidal flexing. Tidal heating is one of the sources of heat in a body undergoing tidal force, for example, providing the heat to allow liquid water to exist in some solar system moons even though they are at sufficient distance that sunlight would provide insufficient heat.
Such tidal forces and heating occur if a body is not tidally locked with a body it is orbiting, resulting in different parts of it facing the other body, thus being closest to it, over time. They also occur when the if an orbit is eccentric, a condition that orbital resonances can promote, and which has given some moons of Jupiter and Saturn sufficient warmth to harbor subsurface liquid water.
Further reading:
Referenced by pages:
habitable zone (HZ)
inflated radii
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article-imageHand of Glory
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian code of laws from ancient Mesopotamia — now Iraq — enacted by Hammurabi, the sixth Babylonian king. This ancient set of laws dates to about 1772 BC and is one of the oldest translated writings in the world. Today partial copies exist on stone stele and clay tablets. The code consists of 282 laws, with scaled penalties, also known as “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.”
“Eye for an eye” is a legal principle where exact reciprocity is used to mete out justice depending on social status — e.g., free man versus slave. For example, if a person caused the death of another person, the killer would be put to death; if a man has knocked out the eye of an aristocrat, his eye would also be knocked out; and if a son has struck his father, his hands would be cut off.
“He who does not keep peace shall lose his hand.” (photo by Andreas Praefcke)
article-imageA mummified severed hand (photograph by Colin Wilson)
During the demolition of an old fortified town in 1905, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, workers found an amputated hand preserved in limestone. It became known as the “perjury-hand” and from 1907 was stored in a wooden box at St Brigida’s Catholic church. According to local legend, the hand was severed as punishment for breaking an oath and was displayed to serve as a warning to those who might consider telling a lie. But nobody knew who the owner of the perjury hand was or why the owner was punished.
Unfortunately, the hand was stolen in 2012, about the time the people of Legden raised enough money to send it to Düsseldorf University for testing to determine the owner’s sex and age.
article-imageThe Hand of Glory in the Whitby Museum (photograph by John W. Schulze)
Sometimes the amputated hands of felons were used to commit crimes rather than prevent them. According to an old European belief, a candle made out of the dried, severed hand of a criminal who had been hanged — known as the Hand of Glory — had supernatural powers. Traditionally, a Hand of Glory was the “pickled” right hand of a felon, cut off while the body still hung from the gallows. It was used by burglars to send the sleeping victims in a house into a coma from which they were unable to wake.
There were a couple of versions of the Hand on Glory. In one interpretation, a clenched hand is used as a candleholder, with the candle held between the bent fingers. In another version, such as the hand at the Whitby Museum in England, all five fingers of an outstretched hand were lit. If one of the fingers did not light, the burglars saw it as a sign that someone in the house was still awake. The Whitby Museum has the only known surviving Hand of Glory.
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In 1841, the population of Consett was only one hundred and forty five people. The town rapidly grew soon after this because the hills of Consett were full of coke coal and black band iron ore. With coke coal and iron ore rich in the hills surrounding Consett, it was no surprise the town became home to huge blast furnaces which were used to produce iron and steel, two very important ingredients in British Industry during the industrial revolution.
Consett is located above the River Derwent. The River Derwent runs through the nearby village of Shotley Bridge. Shotley Bridge was home to immigrant German cutlers and sword-makers from Solingen. The sword makers and cutlers of Solingen are said to have settled in Shotley Bridge in the 17th Century.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, Consett and the Derwent Valley was life blood of the British steel industry as coal came to Consett easily from the nearby Tyne Valley, while imported high quality iron ore came from Sweden to the port of Newcastle upon Tyne. Steel from Consett is said to have been used during the construction of the Eiffel Tower in Paris in 1889, the Blackpool Tower, and more recently British nuclear submarines. Consett truly ruled the world steel industry during this time.
Henry Bessemer changed the British steel industry forever when he invented an inexpensive method to mass-produce steel from molten pig-iron. Henry Bessemer took out a patent on the process in 1855. The Bessemer process had been used before, most notably by William Kelly, but it had never been used on such a mass industrial scale before. The process basically removes impure parts from the iron by blowing air through molten iron. Blowing or oxidation of the molten iron keeps the temperature high and allows the metal to stay in a molten form for longer.
British iron ore is generally extremely rich in phosphorus. Using the Bessemer process, the British Steel Industry lost interest in Consett and the Derwent Valley’s geographical advantages and soon after, Sheffield would take over from Consett as the leading location for steel production in Britain. The Bessemer process made it possible to take away the phosphorus which is commonly found in British iron ore. Unfortunately, Consett had lost its place in British Steel Industry.
In 1980, the Consett steelworks were eventually closed as part of Margaret Thatcher’s strategy to revitilise British industry. Thirty-seven hundred people lost their jobs in Consett with the closure of the plant and the surrounding facilities. Money and jobs in the local economy dive bombed and Thatcher was despised by many in the town. We all know now that the Thatcher Government in the UK along with the Reagan administration in the USA set out and sadly accomplished the privitisation of industry, nationalised asset-stripping and the political attacks on unionised working people.
Unemployment in Consett worsened after the closure of Consett steelworks. In 1981, Consett’s unemployed percentage reached at much as thirty six percent. Since the closure of Consett Steelworks the town has flourished into a micro economy unaffected or influenced by the large city decisions in the North East of England. Consett industry today is in situated large factories on the Number One and Hownsgill industrial estates. Notable factories which account for the majority of employment in the town of Consett include united biscuits and frozen microwave meal company “International Cuisine”.
Consett has seen its fair share of ups and downs over the years with the rise and fall of the legendary steel works and the growth of the major factory industry in the area. What is in next in store for this little town? Who knows, but no doubt it will bounce back even better than before.
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July 15, 1635
William Pynchon Buys Land for Springfield
On this day in 1636, William Pynchon received the deed giving him title to most of what is now Springfield, Longmeadow, and Agawam. In exchange, he paid the local Agawam Indians 18 fathoms of wampum, 18 coats, and a quantity of hoes, hatchets, and knives. A devout Puritan, Pynchon left England for Massachusetts Bay in 1630. A shrewd and ambitious businessman, he moved a few years later to the still-wild Connecticut River Valley. He established Springfield as a center for fur trading; other ventures followed. Because he badly needed labor, he welcomed settlers who were impoverished, whose behavior was unruly or irreligious. As a result, early Springfield was an unusually diverse, tolerant, and commercially-oriented Puritan community.
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What is the sum of 4 and 7?
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Implementing a Doubly Linked List
Modify the class Linked List in Exercise 1 to make it a Doubly Linked List. Name your class DoublyLinkedList. Add a method addEndto add an integer at the end of the list and a method displayInReverse to print the list backwards.
void addEnd(int x): create this method to add x to the end of the list.
void displayInReverse(): create this method to display the list elements from the last item to the first one.
Create a main() function to test your DoublyLinkedList class.
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The base of the Menorah
“You shall also make a lampstand (menorah) of pure gold; the lampstand shall be of hammered work. Its shaft, its branches, its bowls, its ornamental knobs, and flowers shall be of one piece…”
(Exodus 25, 31)
The description of the Menorah in Exodus 25 is very detailed. but try now the following exercise: read the description – Exodus 25, 31-40. Now try to draw the Menorah in your mind just from the writing. You will very soon see that the written description is not enough. The many details that we see in the Menorah as we know it from eye sight is not completely covered in this description.
But we know that Bezalel the son of Uri made the Menorah after Moses’s instructions (Exodus 38,22).
The original Menorah from the second temple was lost in Rome after the destruction of the temple in 70 A.D.
People in modern Israel tried to draw and remake the Menorah from the model that they had in mind. What was the model that they used?
The most common and famous model is on the arch of Titus in ancient Rome.
The interesting part of it is the base. In the arch of Titus, there is a base that looks like an hexagonal box of two parts – a smaller part on top of a bigger part, and is decorated with drawings.
Menorah drawings in ancient synagogues
The Menorah was found in some mosaics on floors of several ancient synagogues.
Synagogue of Maon: 7d585800-8cbc-4002-a521-df3f0b41ea0c_big
Synagogue in Hamat Tiberias: %d7%a4%d7%a1%d7%99%d7%a4%d7%a1-%d7%9e%d7%a0%d7%95%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%97%d7%9e%d7%aa-%d7%98%d7%91%d7%a8%d7%99%d7%94-%d7%a6%d7%99%d7%9c%d7%9d-%d7%a9%d7%99-%d7%90%d7%a9%d7%9b%d7%a0%d7%96%d7%99-jpg5
Note that those Menoras have three lion legs and not the hexagonal boxes!
Menorah on coins
A coin from the time of the Maccabee kings, 37 BC, show a different base. A round wide base.
This image also appears on the 10 Agorot of modern Israel today.
The Maccabees coin:coin_issued_by_mattathias_antigonus_c_40bce
The 10 Agorot: israel_10_agorot_1985_edge_obverse__reverse
So how did the base of the Menorah look like?
A few years ago, an important stone was found in the synagogue of Magdala near the Sea of Galilee.
On that stone, there is a carving of the Menorah:
This carving is not very sophisticated, but resembles the base that is seen on the coin from the Maccabees. A round wide base. No lion legs and no hexagon boxes.
The importance of this stone, is that it was made in the first century A.D. in the time of Yeshua and of Mary Magdalene who came from the village of Magdala.
So this carving was done by an artist that saw the Menorah in the Temple before it was destructed.
We can be quite sure that this is how the Menorah looked like.
What about the other bases that were found?
The bases that look like lion legs are all from mosaics in synagogues from the Byzantine period. They are dated to the third to sixth centuries. The artists that made them did not see the original Menorah and therefore they are not authentic.
It is possible that this is the idea that the people had about the Menorah in the Byzantine time, as they could not see it.
And what about the base seen in the arch in Rome?
The carving on the arch of Titus if very precise. But there is a real problem about it. There are drawings on the base that look like pagan drawings.
Some researchers suggest that the base that appears in this image was made by the Romans when they took it to Rome. The original base is either hidden inside this box or was broken and replaced by the box.
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Teaching Iowa History Logo
Home » Lesson Plans » Iowan Occupations Then and Now Timeline Comparison
Iowan Occupations Then and Now: A Timeline Comparison
Lesson Plan Item
General Information
Grade 1st Grade Class Social Studies Length of Lesson 45 Minutes
Lesson Title Iowan Occupations Then and Now: A Timeline Comparison
Unit Title Iowans at Work
Unit Compelling Question How do Iowans work to provide for themselves, their families, and their communities?
Historical Context:
The manner in which people make a living, and the variety and scope of job opportunities, has changed throughout time based on factors such as socio-economic status, societal and consumer needs, and technological advances. The jobs available to individuals have also changed, as gender roles assigned by society have shifted over time.
Some jobs, such as mining and farming, require difficult manual labor. Some jobs, such as nursing, teaching, or hair styling, require individuals to remain on their feet all day. Jobs that existed one hundred years ago, such as a local telephone switchboard operator, no longer exist today due to technological advances.
Factory jobs, in which raw materials are turned into a product, exist in far fewer numbers in the United States today, as many of those jobs have been moved to other countries.
~ Allyson Simpson, Simpson College
2018.017.011 This photograph shows a Chickasaw County farmer cutting corn. The farmer appears to be using a corn cutter, which was a horse-drawn sled with blades attached to it that cut one or two rows of corn at a time.
2018.010.002 This photograph, taken around 1900, shows several workers inside of a pearl button factory in Muscatine, Iowa.
John Frederick Boepple, a German immigrant button maker, launched the pearl button industry in Muscatine in 1891, when he opened a small button shop. The button and clamming industries started small but quickly overwhelmed the town. Clamming became the Mississippi River's gold rush while large automated factories and shell-cutting shops employed nearly half the local workforce. By 1905, Muscatine made 37 percent of the world's buttons and earned the title of "Pearl Button Capital of the World." Entire families - men, women, and children - contributed to the industry, giving weight to the popular local saying "No Muscatine resident can enter Heaven without evidence of previous servitude in the button industry." Although the industry peaked in 1916, several decades passed before the American-made pearl button buckled under the pressure of foreign competition, changing fashions, limited availability of shell, and the development and refinement of plastic buttons.
The rise and fall of the pearl button occurred over nearly 75 years before being replaced by plastic buttons. During this time, Boepple began his own pearl button business. After finding the mussels of Illinois too fragile and thin to cut, he returned to Muscatine where the mussels were thick and durable to cutting. Creating an ocean pearl machine to cut fresh water mussel shells, Boepple established his first shop. However, the McKinley tariff of 1890 made ocean shell imports rather expensive and Boepple had to find a business partner to help with the business. Working with William Molis, the two opened the worlds first fresh water pearl button plant in the world. As the factory grew, the plant moved from the foot-powered to steam-powered machines and created a Barry Automatic machine to drill holes to make a standardized button. Muscatine soon became known as the Pearl Button Capital of the World.
2018.012.014 Miner's checks, also known as lamp checks, tokens, or tags, were used by mining companies to keep track of how many workers were in a mine in case an accident occurred. This miner's check was used in Buxton, Iowa.
Buxton was a mining town founded in 1895 by the Consolidation Coal Company (CCC), which supplied the Chicago and Northwestern Railway. The company established Buxton after a four-year search for new coal veins. After its search, the company purchased 8600 acres of land in Monroe County and 1600 acres in neighboring Mahaska County in 1900 for $275,000. The mining business drew approximately 5,000 people to Buxton, creating a thriving economic and social community. Buxton soon became the largest unincorporated city in the nation and the largest coal town west of the Mississippi River. The prosperous coal mining town was one of few in Iowa's history to have a majority African American population.
Equality was an important part of Buxton's success. Miners were paid equal wages, a standard home was provided for each family, and segregation was not allowed. Many African Americans became prominent business and community leaders. At a time when racism and segregation were prevalent in American society, the residents of Buxton experienced relative equality. Five years after the town was established, 55% of its residents were African American.
Buxton experienced a series of events that led to its slow demise beginning in 1914. That year, miners worked fewer days due to labor disputes, an explosion in one of the town's nearby mines led to its permanent closure, and the CCC established a new coal camp ten miles west of Buxton. All three events drew residents out of the town, a trend that continued in the following years when large fires destroyed parts of Buxton and nearby settlements. Furthermore, after the coal boost provided by World War I ended in 1917, the coal industry in Iowa rapidly declined. The industrialization of coal mining also contributed to Buxton's decline, as Iowa's coal formations did not adapt well to large-scale mining operations and railroads began to rely more heavily on eastern coal.
By 1916, the Iowa Bystander, an African American newspaper, observed that Buxton "looked like a deserted village." By 1919, the population of Buxton had dwindled to less than 400, and in 1923, Consolidation Coal Company moved its headquarters out of Buxton. Two years later, the company was bought out by Superior Coal Company. In 1927, Super Coal Company closed its last mine in Monroe County.
In the early 1980s, Iowa State University conducted an archeological dig at the Buxton site. Using maps, old photographs, oral histories, and the help of former residents, historians and archeologists uncovered Buxton. As a result of the project, the Buxton site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, a list maintained by the National Park Service, in 1983.
2018.051.011 This photograph shows a train arriving at the Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway Co. railroad depot in Corwith, Iowa.
In 1880, the construction of the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway Line from Minneapolis to Fort Dodge (a 210 mile line), created new towns along the railway, including Corwith Iowa. The land was surveyed by J.H Ambrose and the depot became the second building to be constructed in the town following the Gaylord Hotel. The Hotel, owned by E.W. Gaylord, who also served as the superintendent of the railroad, housed depot and railroad employees. The town soon expanded with two blacksmith shops, livery stables, businesses and houses, with a population of nearly 800. In 1886, the railway caused issues in Corwith when the line crossed main streets of the town and the county claimed that the railway company never made proper crossings for residents. The company responded to the town's complaints that the railroad was constructed before the major town streets, and that company had left a crossing at Elmer Street, the main street at the time of construction. An agreement was met between the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway Company and the town of Corwith that the company was willing to plank their tracks if the materials were supplied by the town.
2018.051.021 This large building was the first public school constructed in Garner, Iowa. From 1894 to 1914 this building housed all of Garner's K-12 students. In a 1916 report, it stated that Garner had built an additional high school and the district included nearly 365 students enrolled and fourteen teachers employed. The building was eventually replaced due to overcrowding and was torn down in 1967.
~ Matthew Miller, Teaching Iowa History Team
Lesson Supporting Question How did Iowans work to support their families and communities in 1900?
Lesson Overview
In this lesson students will order a timeline of occupations from 1900 to present day. Students will be encouraged to “think like an economist” as they write supporting questions for the timeline, specifically related to the careers between 1900-1925. In groups, students will then dive deeper into exploring and beginning to answer some of the questions made by their peers. This lesson provides students with chronological awareness of careers, and most importantly the beginning framework to develop understanding in the differences of how Iowans worked in the early 1900s from present day.
*Note: This lesson is planned as an introduction to the supporting question. However, students are expected to know some previous content related to thinking like an economist. We will have practiced how to “think like an economist” in previous lessons, so students will be familiar with it.
Primary Sources Used
Resources Needed
Lesson Target
• Students will develop their own job card for the timeline.
Lesson Themes No themes are assigned for this lesson.
Lesson Procedure
Step Procedure Time Differentiation plan / Additional Information
Bell Ringer
To begin the lesson, the teacher will pass out a timeline to students in groups of 3-4.
Along with the timeline students will receive cut out photos with short captions and dates.
The students will look at the photos, read the captions and dates to order the photos in the timeline.
As soon as students finish their section, the teacher can check it over.
5 Min
The teacher will pass out blank templates of job cards for the timeline.
Students will be instructed to fill in the card with the title and a sketch of a job their own parent/guardian currently does, or has worked at in the past. (*Note: Students will bring a letter home with them a couple days before this lesson. This is so the parents/guardians and students will have the opportunity to discuss this topic before they draw a job for the timeline.)
At this time, the teacher will tape up a larger version of the timeline students put together in groups on the whiteboard.
5 Min
Student Once students’ have made their job cards, they will tape them up to the large timeline on the whiteboard. 4 Min
As students transition into the next activity, they will do a quick gallery walk of the new job cards added to the timeline.
The teacher will call students up by groups.
3 Min
Students at their seat will review the “Think Like an Economist” questioning worksheet.
The teacher will go over the worksheet with the students and model ways to think like an economist:
“The mine check, like the one in this picture (pointing to timeline) was used to keep track of how many miners were working. This specific mine check was used in Buxton, Iowa, when the town was booming with success in the mining industry. However, Buxton is no longer a successful, thriving, mining town. The mining began to slow down in 1914. My questions are: who mined in 1900? Also, how much money did a miner make? Was it enough to feed their family? Lastly, why is Buxton no longer a successful mining town? And what did this do to the miners who were working?”
The students will be instructed to brainstorm questions with their group members using their worksheet as a guide:
Differentiation for Readiness:
To scaffold for students who need more support for thinking about and writing questions, the teacher can provide the “Thinking Like an Economist” worksheet with extra questions to guide the students.
This can even be used to scaffold the entire class, and then slowly taken away as the class gains skills for thinking like an economist.
To scaffold for students who need more challenge during this section of the lesson, the teacher can ask a student to also “think like a historian.” This can include the student asking questions about changes that occurred in the timeline and inferences on what caused the change.
*Students review the “Thinking Like an Economist” worksheet while at their seats*
*Students brainstorm questions with their group members about the timeline*
As students are brainstorming, the teacher will pass out sticky notes to each table.
Each student is encouraged to write two supporting questions they have about the timeline/jobs in 1900.
The students will write questions for the first 6 photographs on the timeline (dates 1900-1925).
Students will be encouraged to look at the “Thinking Like an Economist” worksheet for assistance. The teacher will also be walking around to students to help them formulate their questions.
Once students have written their questions, they will show them to the teacher first (formative assessment) and then stick them up on the timeline on the whiteboard, next to the spot they think their questions should go.
7 Min
Transition For the transition, the teacher will ask for a couple volunteers to share out one of their questions with the class. 3 Min
Remaining in their groups of 3-4, students will now be working with a specific primary source photograph, handed out by the teacher (one of the first 6 photos from the timeline).
Each group will also receive one or two sticky note questions written by their peers for the photograph they receive.
The teacher will instruct the students to think like an economist, like they did earlier. The teacher can also review the worksheet with students if needed.
4 Min
Differentiation for Interest:
In this section of the lesson, students are only focusing on one or two questions in their groups. Therefore, if the teacher would like students to choose their own questions to focus on by interest, the lesson could be differentiated in that aspect.
Students will work together to answer the questions made by their peers.
Students will be asked to write down an answer to the question and a reasoning for how they came to their answer.
(*Note- these questions can be used to spark further investigation into the next lessons for the students to fully answer their supporting question: “How did Iowans work to support their families and communities in 1900?”)
6 Min
Transition The teacher will have groups take turns sharing out an answer and their reasoning to one question from their timeline chunk with the class. 3 Min
In pairs/groups, students will be asked to complete a 3-2-1 of the timeline.
3 facts/pieces of information that were new to them.
2 aspects of the timeline they found surprising.
1 questionthey still have about the timeline/jobs.
5 Min
Formative Assessment
• During the student breakdown #2, students will be given sticky notes to write supporting questions for the timeline. The teacher will encourage the students to think like an economist. The teacher can make a quick note (✓, ✓+, or ✓-) on a separate sheet of paper to assess where students are at for analyzing the content and thinking like an economist. The students’ names will not be on the sticky notes, since these questions will be used throughout the lesson.
Summative Assessment
• Summative Assessment (How does the lesson connect to planned summative assessment(s)?) ● This lesson builds up towards the following summative assessment: ○ Students will complete a RAFT. The students can pick a role and follow the line across, or they can mix and match the audience, format, topic, and time to be more creative. ○ Since this is a summative assessment, students would complete this after more lessons exploring 1900s careers in depth. Role Audience Format Topic Time Farmer Readers of the local newspaper Speech Describe this job. Include details such as setting, type and number of people working, tools used, etc. 1900 Factory Worker Friend Set of drawings How do you see this job changing in the future? Give reasoning for your thoughts. 2030 Shop Owner/Employee Person in 1900 looking for work Song Why might a person choose this job to support their family? Give 2-3 examples why. 1900 Coal Miner A news reporter writing a story Essay/Sentence format How has this job changed or been replaced in Iowa over time? Give 2-3 examples. 2019 Railroad Employee/ Transportation Worker Classmates Poster How does the change in this job affect your life? Give 2-3 examples. 2019
Author Information
Author Shelby Miller Reviewer Dr. Chad Timm, Simpson College Created 08/16/2019 Last Edited 09/06/2019
Objects Large for Lesson Plans
No objects were found.
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Jewish settlements during the 1st World War (1914-1918)
Targ w Białowieży, 1917, zdjęcie Piotra Bajko, źródło Czasopis 10.2014
As First World War broke out on the 28th of July 1914, the period of tsar ascendancy over Białowieża and other Polish lands ended.
A number of Jews and other inhabitants were pressed into the tsar's army [10]. One such drafted soldier was Hershel Feldabaum, born in 1892 in Białowieża, who served in the tsar's army for three years and was sent to the German frontline, where he was taken captive. He remained in Germany after the war, and got married there [11]
It took a year for the war to reach Białowieża. Tsar Nikolai the Second visited the city as late as in June 1915, and the decision to abandon Białowieża was made in August. The Russians took with them most of the palace and church amenities and furnishings, together with historical monuments [2]. They also forced the citizens to evacuate, threatening them with visions of murder, rape and brutal repressions they would suffer at the hands of the Germans. This tragic exodus (pol. bieżeństwo, rus. Беженство) afflicted over three million people, mainly from the western governorates of the Russian Empire; this included the Grodno Governorate to which Białowieża belonged [7]. Piotr Bajko described the exodus with these words:
"On the day of 16th August, the officers of the local forest and hunting administration and the inhabitants of most of the surrounding villages and neighbourhoods were evacuated into Russia's hinterlands. - You could take only as much as would fit on a wagon – recounted Julian Bajko (…). The Białowieża people were selling most of their hard-earned belongings to the local Jews. Some of the families stayed in Białowieża, hiding in the forest for several months" [1].
Escherich (pośrodku) – szef wojskowego zarządu leśnego Białowieży, przed kasynem oficerskim w Białowieży fot. ze zbiorów Piotra Bajko
Jews were also relocated, making up 6,4% of the afflicted [8]. It is certain that some of the Jews from Bielsk Podlaski had to move [12] but we have no clear information about the Białowieża families. Plenty remained, as evidenced by the above information about the purchase of belongings from the fleeing, and later records of Jews being forced to labour for the German occupant (see further sections). Tomasz Wiśniewski mentions that in 1917, during the exodus, there were 80 Jews living in Białowieża, though it is not known on which sources he bases this information [6].
As they left Białowieża, the Cossack army set fire to the buildings – the only village to survive was Podolany, as well as the area between Osocznicy alley and the Palace Park in Stoczek. Half of the Zastawa village was burnt [1]. According to Piotr Bajko, the Russian forces left a small partisan division in the Forest, consisting of around 100 soldiers, whose main task was to distress the Germans. They lived off bison meat, and "they traded the skins and horns with local Jews in exchange for necessities" [1].
Niemieccy oficerowie przy ściętym debie w czasie I wojny św_zdjęcie ze zbirów Piotra Bajko
Niemieccy oficerowie przy ściętym debie w czasie I wojny św. Zdjęcie ze zbirów Piotra Bajko
The German army entered Białowieża on the 17th of August 1915, and stayed until December 1918. The Białowieża Forest was thus under the occupation of an army government, led by Georg Escherich. Members of the committee and soldiers lived in the Palace buildings and in the Dyrekcyjny Park. Three years of German occupation caused drastic damage to Białowieża Forest, due to massive exploitation in German-built wood-workshops (six lumber mills, excelsior factory, turpentine factory, workshop making carts, shovels, buttstocks, and a powder magazine). To supply them, the Germans built a narrow gauge railroad, and some barracks – today, the settlements Grudki and Czerlonka- to accommodate the workers. Two lumber mills were located in Białowieża (in Stoczek and in Grudki), along with a turpentine factory and three timber yards. The Stoczek factories, officially under the name "Hindenburg Departments", employed close to 1200 professional soldiers, 300 captives and 8000 labourers [1].
The development of local economies came to a halt as Germans confiscated all of the agricultural and foodstuff products, making the people of Białowieża suffer with hunger [10].
The local inhabitants, including Jews, were also forced to work in the forest. As Leon (Lejb) Leyson, a Jewish citizen from Narewka recalls:"During the Great War the German soldiers were quite fair towards the Poles, regardless of their religion. On the other hand, they forced them to work for Germany. My father, [Mosze Lejson] worked for Germans at the narrow gauge railroad, transporting lumber and other things that were to be taken to Germany" [9].
Despite their destructive exploitation of the forest, the Germans dispatched a group of scientists lead by professor Hugo Cowentz to ensure the most valuable part of the forest was excluded from exploitation and put under protection. This was the first step toward the creation of the Białowieża National Park [1]
Lata 1914-1918 Zniszczenia I wojny swiatowej w Bialowiezy
Lata 1914-1918 Zniszczenia I wojny światowej w Białowieży
The occupant opened an elementary school for the the children of families who had remained in Białowieża, regardless of their religion (thus including Jews). The school was located in Stoczek in a house which had escaped the fire, belonging to Michał and Eudokia Dulko. The teacher was a young German soldier, whose civilian profession was also teaching, and Maria Milko (later Wołkowycka) from Białowieża was his assistant. It is likely that the children studied in German, just as they did in Narewka [10]. The school functioned until mid-1918 [2]. The Jewish children attended private religious lessons after classes, with melameds as their teachers [3].
The Germans left Białowieża in December 1918, having first destroyed buildings, industrial machines and the tsar's railroad spur. They also pillaged and devastated the main Palace. Quoting the "Short guide through the Białowieża Forest(Krótki przewodnik po Puszczy Białowieskiej): "When [Germans] left Białowieża at the end of 1918, the village was completely destroyed, the palace was left ragged and stripped of furniture, half of the houses were burnt" [5].
1. Piotr Bajko, Białowieża pod rządami Georga Eschericha, Czasopis 9/2014;
2. Piotr Bajko, Białowieża, której już nie ma, (Białowieża 2015), 123;
3. Pinkas HaKehilot, Poland, Vol. 8 (2005), Yad Vashem, 139-140: "Bialowieza";
4. Niwa nr 47/1995, za: Piotr Bajko, Białowieża pod rządami Georga Eschericha, Czasopis 9/2014;
5. J.J. Karpiński, M. Orłowicz, Krótki przewodnik po Puszczy Białowieskiej, (Białystok 1937), 29;
6. Tomasz Wiśniewski, Bóżnice Białostocczyzny, (Białystok 1992), s.133;
7. Aneta Prymaka Oniszk, Bieżeństwo,
8. Artur Markowski, Bieżeństwo dla Żydów znaczyło co innego, interview by Aneta Prymaka-Oniszk,
9. Leon Leyson, Chłopiec z listy Schindlera, (Prószyński i S-ka, Warszawa 2014), 35-36;
10. Pinkas HaKehilot, Poland, Vol. 8 (2005), Yad Vashem, "Narewka Mała";
11. The Feldbaum Family Chronicles,
12. Marek Gordon, Historia bielskiej rodziny Chrabałowskich, volume 1 of Bielski Gościniec 2010, 31-40;
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THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1679)
Hobbes studied the scholastic philosophy at Oxford and was eight years older than Descartes.
Hobbes went to Paris many times, got acquainted with Gassendi and Mersenne and Descartes.
Hobbes was greatly influenced by Galileo and Descartes.
In England, Cromwell’s revolution took place and It was the republics from 1649-1660 and Hobbes was supportive of the absolute monarchy due to that political turmoil.
Hobbes was a materialist and a skeptic.
Hobbes attacked the Scholastic philosophy
which, according to Hobbes, is a meaningless play with meaningless words.
1) Leviathan 1651
2) Elementa philosophiae
a) de corpore (1655)
b) de homine (1658)
c) de cive (1642,1654)
3) elements of Law natural and politie (1640)
4) Liberty and Necessityl (1646, 1654)
Defined from the method, according to Hobbes,
Philosophy is the cognition either of the effect from its cause (=deduction)
or of the cause from its effects (=induction)
by the proper employment of reason
The center of Hobbes’ metaphysics (=the doctrine of being) is the concept of BODY
Defined from its object,
is the science of Body and its motion.
Any being is a body and
any phenomenon is motion.
Anything real which is a body (=material entity) applies even to a point or a line.
Spirit is a matter too fine to the senses.
or it is considered a motion of a certain portion of an organism. so is feeling and emotion.
If the body and its motion are the proper objects of philosophy,
The only correct method of philosophy must be the mathematical.
Hobbes recognized the significance of mathematics and corrected Bacon’s weakness.
The human-being is the most perfect body and it is an element of the body called the state.
Hobbes’ metaphysics is a clear statement of materialism.
The most primary in the process of knowledge is our impression given to the sense.
The impression is caused by the external motion and will reach the heart and will create a reaction.
The sensation thus caused in us is purely subjective, exists only in our mind and does not correspond to (is not a copy of) the external cause.
Hobbes distinguished the secondary qualities
the primary qualities which are to be inferred from those impressions.
Hobbes was a nominalist.
Nominalism is the philosophical position such that the universals such as being, justice, number, etc. do not exist, but only words.
The universals are created by the humans.
According to Hobbes,
Words have meanings only when they are associated, directly or indirectly, with qualities of sense or feeling.
The qualities of sense or feeling are produced by the motions of bodies acting on our body:
These motions leave traces, and associations are made.
This engenders memory and imagination, which is “nothing but decaying sense.”
Memory is the sensation to have sensed something.
Experience is something such that the totality of perceptions retained in memory is connected to the foresight which predicts a future event.
The animals also possess the same ability.
the human-being being capable of the pursuit of knowledge (sciences) is due to our linguistic ability.
The humans have the ability and learn to attach names to their imaginations and
to use signs
Hobbes developed the theory of mind only the basis of the facts of memory and imagination
Reasoning is mere calculation, = the manipulation of signs
reasoning is said to be correct if the same signs are constantly attached to the same image. [NB]
imagination = an image or an idea, according to Hobbes.
Mathematics is the model of all knowledge.
Moral Philosophy
Hobbes took the position of Determinism (the doctrine which holds that our will does not have freedom, but is totally causally determined by the preceding conditions).
There are two different kinds of reaction that the human heart has upon the impression of an object.
– The one which is a logical reaction is called sensation
-The other which are practical reactions are called feelings of pleasure and pain.
Deliberation is the name for the interchanges of different desires.
Will is the name which is given to the strongest, the most winning desire
Freedom means that without any external hindrance an action is made from the will.
therefore, the action is necessarily resulted from the winning desire.
All motion is a consequence of the totality of the preceding motions.
Good is that which is desired.
Evil is that which is hated.
Therefore, nothing is either good or evil in itself.
What is good or evil is relative to a particular person, in a particular place, in a particular time and in the particular circumstances.
The standard of Good and Evil exists, therefore, only in a given society, in a given state.
What the law permits is good,
What the law prohibits is evil.
Good is in general profitable.
In the State of Nature where there is no (positive=man-made) law and nothing is prohibited,
Nature gave everyone the right to everything.
In other words,
The scope of one’s right was the scope of one’s power.
The transition from the State of Nature to the Civil State the State of War.
By Nature, the human being is not a social animal as Aristotle held.
The human being is Selfish.
In the State of War, we are fighting each other over the each one’s rights and try to deprive others of their rights by destroying their lives.
The strongest would win and would subjugate others to slavery or even to their death. [cf. Hegel’s maste-slave dialectic]
the Fear and the Calculation of the people lead people to move to the Civil State or to form a Civil Government.
The political organization is the artificial human product of the Fear of Death and Calculation of one’s benefit.
The highest Good is Self Preservation.
Such goods as friendship, wealth, wisdom, science or power is secondarily and is valuable as long as it is beneficial to Self Preservation.
In the State of Nature, Preservation of One’s Life and Health is lacking.
The State of Nature immediately moves to the State of War (bellum omnium contra omnes).
Everyone is fighting for one’s own happiness by killing each other.
In this State of War, even the strongest among them may not be safe.
Reason of People dictates to seek Peace and establish an Ordered Society.
The Preconditions for Peace is The Law of Nature, but in itself is not sufficient to guarantee the actual Peace. The Law of Nature actualizes itself by supplemented by the Positive Laws such that everyone in the given society is giving up all the other Natural Rights than the Right to Life for the sake of Protection of Life.
The Civil State comes into existence by the Covenant.
This Covenant is possible 1) by giving up all the other rights and freedom
2) by transferring all those rights and Subordination to One Will which by representing the rest of the subject will act for the Protection of the subject’s Life.
This is the Absolute Monarchy.
The evils resulted from the Absolute Monarchy is better than
the evils in the State of War.
The Absolute Monarch determines what is good or evil by Laws and Teachings
and what to believe.
The Religion which is not approved by the State is Superstition.
The Monarch is the highest Priest, while the other priests are his subordinates.
the community which consists of the humans is called a State,
the community which consists of the Christians is called a Church.
The Subject should not question of whether or not the doctrines established by laws are true.
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BioKIDS home
Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species
Altica subplicata
What do they look like?
Altica subplicata has an oval body shape. The body is a dark metallic blue color, sometimes with deep violet reflections. Antennae and legs are the same color as the body. The pronotum, the plate behind the head, is square in this species, with a deep groove across it. There is another deep groove between the eyes, which are not big. Females of this species tend to be bigger than males. Larvae of A. subplicata are darkly colored. (LeSage, 1995)
• Sexual Dimorphism
• female larger
• Range length
5.0 to 6.6 mm
0.20 to 0.26 in
Where do they live?
Altica subplicata, known as the willow leaf beetle, is found north of Mexico, across the Nearctic region. It ranges from the southern most point of Texas to southern Canada from British Columbia to Quebec. The largest amount of this species is along the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes, spreading west to the Rocky Mountains. (LeSage, 1995)
What kind of habitat do they need?
Altica subplicata lives in sand dune habitats along the Great Lakes and on sand bars in rivers. More beetles are found closer to shore on the Great Lakes, with the amount of beetles present decreasing moving farther away from shore. Beetles are not found on plants further than 16 meters from the shore. Willow leaf beetles are more likely to be found on young dunes than older dunes. (Bach, 1993a; DeSwarte and Balsbaugh, 1973)
How do they grow?
Altica subplicata goes through complete metamorphosis. It begins as an egg, then develops into a larva, then a pupa, and finally an adult. Eggs of A. subplicata are laid in the spring. Larvae hatch after about 7 days, and go through 3 larval stages, called instars, during which the larval instars feed. After about 16 days, the larvae move underground and form pupal cells using mucus secreted by maxillary glands. Larvae use moist sand as a pupation site. The pupal period lasts 1 week or more depending on weather conditions. The adults come out of their pupation site and eat for the rest of the summer. During the first cold nights of fall, adults leave the host plant and find shelter in leaf litter, under stones, logs, and bark. They stay here all winter, which is called overwintering. When spring arrives, adults come out of hiding, find mates, and then lay eggs on host leaves. In total, one generation takes about 34 days to complete from egg to adult. Adults live for awhile after emerging from pupation. (DeSwarte and Balsbaugh, 1973; LeSage, 1995; Rickelmann and Bach, 1986)
How do they reproduce?
Adults become able to mate during winter. After overwintering, the willow leaf beetles appear on plants in early spring. Females do not lay eggs for the first 1 to 2 weeks, starting on the first day that the beetles appear on plants. Adults are very active during this period, flying around host plants looking for mates. To mate, the male mounts on the back of the female. These beetles often mate with more than one other beetle. (LeSage, 1995)
Adults of Altica subplicata emerge from overwintering in the spring, and will wait about a week before reproducing. They then start mating and laying eggs. Females lay eggs horizontally in small groups on the underside of young leaves of host plants, along the leaf veins. Up to 100 eggs can be found in an egg mass and a female can lay more than 400 eggs in a lifetime. In a group of eggs, there are equal amounts of male and female beetles. In the southern part of United States, A. subplicata lays eggs two or more different times during the summmer. In northern states and Canada, A. subplicata lays eggs during only one time of the year. (DeSwarte and Balsbaugh, 1973; LeSage, 1995)
• How often does reproduction occur?
Willow leaf beetles produce 2 to 3 generations in southern states, but only 1 generation in Canada.
• Breeding season
Willow leaf beetles breed in spring in the northern portion of their range, and may have a second summer generation in the southern portion.
• Range eggs per season
100 to 400
• Range gestation period
1 to 2 weeks
• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
31 to 37 days
• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
31 to 37 days
After laying eggs, parents do not do anything else to help their offspring develop.
• Parental Investment
• pre-hatching/birth
• provisioning
• female
How long do they live?
A typical generation from egg to adult takes about 34 days. Adults live for a period of time after coming out of pupation. Adults that are still alive when winter starts go into hiding and overwinter, and then start mating and egg-laying again in the spring. (DeSwarte and Balsbaugh, 1973; LeSage, 1995)
• Typical lifespan
Status: wild
2 to 12 months
How do they behave?
Larvae of Altica subplicata feed on willow tree leaves in large groups, and often move from one plant to another. Adults also group together on host plants. They tend to group together more often on host plants that are in areas of high humidity, as well as on plants with taller stems. On dunes in the Great Lakes, they are more likely to be found on the youngest dunes near shore, instead of on older dunes. Similar species that also eat willows, in the subfamily Chrysomelinae, find their host plants by detecting chemicals produced by the plant. Both males and females can fly, though they do not fly long distances as they keep close to shore. Adults become more active and fly more when looking for mates. A. subplicata is most active during the day. (Bach and Carr, 1990; Bach, 1993a; Bach, 1993b; Bach, 1993c; Gannon, et al., 1994; Tahvanainen, et al., 1985)
Home Range
Adult beetles stay close to areas of host plants. In the Great Lakes region these are coastal dunes, where A. subplicata stays almost entirely on the youngest dunes. (Bach and Carr, 1990; Bach, 1993a; Bach, 1993c; Bach, 1993d)
How do they communicate with each other?
Altica subplicata finds and accepts host plants based on chemicals produced by the plant. Many similar beetle species also have their own chemicals that are used as defense against predators, and this is also likely true for A. subplicata. Willow leaf beetles communicate with other beetles through touch, during mating and when grouping together to feed, and can detect each other visually. They can also sense their environment visually, with smells and chemicals, and through touch. (Rowell-Rahier and Pasteels, 1986; Tahvanainen, et al., 1985)
What do they eat?
Altica subplicata is an herbivore that feeds on the leaves of willow plants. Along rivers over much of its habitat, this beetle feeds primarily on Salix interior, the sandbar willow, but it will also feed on Salix amygdaloides. On the shores of the Great Lakes it feeds on Salix cordata, the sand dune willow. Young larvae eat only on the underside of the leaves, while older larvae and adults eat the entire leaf, leaving only the veins. Larvae are far more likely to feed on young leaves. Adults will feed on older leaves, but are also more likely to eat younger leaves. (Bach and Carr, 1990; LeSage, 1995)
• Plant Foods
• leaves
What eats them and how do they avoid being eaten?
Carabid beetles of the genus Lebia are known to prey on Altica larvae, and are likely a predator of A. subplicata. It is possible that A. subplicata produces chemicals and uses them as defense, since related species are able to do this. The bright, metallic blue color of these beetles is called aposematic coloring. Predators know that bright colored beetles are often poisonous, so this bright blue coloring warns predators that A. subplicata might be poisonous too. A. subplicata also defends itself by grouping together in large numbers. A group of beetles or larvae appears much larger than a single beetle, looking more threatening to predators. (Bach, 1993b; Bach, 1993c; Bach, 1993d; DeSwarte and Balsbaugh, 1973; Pettis, 2005; Tahvanainen, et al., 1985)
• These animal colors help protect them
• aposematic
What roles do they have in the ecosystem?
Altica subplicata can affect what plant species are present on sand dunes in the Great Lakes region. In years where there are many willow leaf beetles, they can remove most of the leaves on willow plants. This damage to willow plants means that there may be less willow plants on the dunes. This causes empty space for other plant species to grow. A. subplicata may also compete with other similar beetle species for plants to eat, particularly the beetle Disonycha alternata on the sandbar willow. (Bach, 1990; DeSwarte and Balsbaugh, 1973; LeSage, 1995)
• Salix cordata
• Salix interior
• Salix amygdaloides
Do they cause problems?
There are no known negative affects of Altica subplicata on humans.
How do they interact with us?
There are no known positive effects of Altica subplicata on humans.
Are they endangered?
Altica subplicata is not an endangered species, but it is a major herbivore on sand dunes along the Great Lakes where several other threatened or endangered species occur.
Bach, C. 1993. Effects of microclimate and plant characteristics on the distribution of a willow flea beetle, Altica subplicata. American Midland Naturalist, 130: 193-208.
Bach, C. 1993. Movement behavior of Altica subplicata (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) - effects of plant characteristics on patterns of adult movement. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 66: 310-318.
Bach, C. 1993. Movement behavior of Altica subplicata (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) - larval orientation and movement. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 66: 86-96.
Bach, C. 1994. Effects of a specialist herbivore (Altica subplicata) on Salix cordata and sand dune succession. Ecological Monographs, 64: 423-445.
Bach, C. 1990. Plant successional stage and insect herbivory: flea beetles on sand-dune willow. Ecology, 71: 598-609.
Bach, C., D. Carr. 1990. Aggregation behavior of a willow leaf beetle, Altica subplicata (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae). Great Lakes Entomologist, 23: 65-76.
DeSwarte, D., E. Balsbaugh. 1973. Biologies of Altica subplicata and Disonycha alternata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), two flea beetles that feed on sandbar willow. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 66: 1349-1353.
Gannon, A., C. Bach, G. Walker. 1994. Feeding patterns and attachment ability of Altica subplicata (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) on sand-dune willow. Great Lakes Entomologist, 27: 87-101.
LeSage, L. 1995. Revision of the costate species of Altica Müller of North America north of Mexico (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae). Canadian Entomologist, 127/3: 295-411.
Milanowski, D., C. Bach. 1994. Between-site variation in suitability of Salix cordata as a host for Altica subplicata (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae). Great Lakes Entomologist, 26: 253-261.
Pettis, G. 2005. "Management of insect pests of crapemyrtle (Lagerstroemia spp) with special reference to the ecology and biology of Altica litigata Fall (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)" (On-line pdf). Athenaeum @ UGA. Accessed March 23, 2013 at
Rickelmann, K., C. Bach. 1986. Effects of soil-moisture on the pupation behavior of Altica subplicata (Coleoptera: Chysomelidae: Cassidinae). Journal of New York Entomological Society, 94: 98-114.
Rowell-Rahier, M., J. Pasteels. 1986. Economics of chemical defense in Chrysomelinae. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 12: 1189-1203.
Shen, C., C. Bach. 1997. Genetic variation in resistance and tolerance to insect herbivory in Salix cordata. Ecological Entomology, 22: 335-342.
Tahvanainen, J., R. Julkunen-Tiitto, J. Kettunen. 1985. Phenolic glycosides govern the food selection pattern of willow feeding leaf beetles. Oecologia, 67: 52-56.
University of Michigan Museum of ZoologyNational Science Foundation
BioKIDS home | Questions? | Animal Diversity Web | Cybertracker Tools
Leasia, M. and B. Scholtens 2013. "Altica subplicata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed August 11, 2020 at
University of Michigan
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Maths – Learning about chance
Today we have been using language to describe chance events
(more likely, less likely, probably,
could happen, could not happen,
possible, impossible)
identification of common events as:
o certain (eg the sun will set today)
o likely (eg there are likely to be
clouds in the sky today)
o unlikely (eg it is unlikely to snow
here today)
o impossible (eg the sun will not
rise tomorrow)
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labrum +
(Latin: a lip)
Applied to lip-like parts (as in zoology). A labret refers to an ornament of wood, shell, or bone worn in a hole pierced through the lip.
Another derivative of labrum is labellum,, one of the three parts forming the corolla [the whole of the petals of a flower] in orchidaceous plants (botany); meaning, a "little lip".
1. A lip or liplike structure; such as, the one forming the roof of the mouth in insects.
2. The outer margin of the opening of a gastropod shell.
labrum acetabulare, acetabular labrum
A triangular rim of fibrocartilage, the base of which is fixed to the margin of the acetabulum (cup-shaped socket of the hip joint; from Latin an acetabulum, "a vinegar cup" or "a cup"), deepening its cavity.
labrum glenoidale, glenoid labrum
A triangular rim of fibro cartilage, the base of which is fixed to the circumference of the glenoid cavity of the scapula, deepening it.
A mouth part composed of the labrum (lip) and epipharynx (structure which overlaps the mouth of certain insects) and usually elongate (more length than width).
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GCSE Mathematics Syllabus Statement
These are the Transum resources related to the statement: "Pupils should be taught to calculate with numbers in standard form A × 10n, where 1≤A<10 and n is an integer".
Here are some exam-style questions on this statement:
©1997-2020 WWW.TRANSUM.ORG
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Sawmill - Early History
Early History
The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) dating to the second half of the 3rd century AD is the earliest sawmill. It is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.
Water-powered stone sawmills working with cranks and connecting rods, but without gear train, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD at the Eastern Roman cities Gerasa and Ephesus.
The earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a Roman poet, Ausonius who wrote an epic poem about the river Moselle in Germany in the late 4th century AD. At one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390 AD, demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire.
Sawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. 1250. They are claimed to have been introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c. 1420 and spread widely in Europe in the 16th century.
By the 11th century, hydropowered sawmills were in widespread use in the medieval Islamic world, from Islamic Spain and North Africa in the west to Central Asia in the east.
Prior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived and planed, or more often sawn by two men with a whipsaw, using saddleblocks to hold the log, and a saw pit for the pitman who worked below. Sawing was slow, and required strong and hearty men. The topsawer had to be the stronger of the two because the saw was pulled in turn by each man, and the lower had the advantage of gravity. The topsawyer also had to guide the saw so that the board was of even thickness. This was often done by following a chalkline.
Early sawmills simply adapted the whipsaw to mechanical power, generally driven by a water wheel to speed up the process. The circular motion of the wheel was changed to back-and-forth motion of the saw blade by a connecting rod known as a pitman arm (thus introducing a term used in many mechanical applications).
Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand. An early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade.
A type of sawmill without a crank is known from Germany called a "knock and drop" or "drop mill": "The oldest sawmills in the Black Forest are "drop sawmills" also referred to as "knock and drop sawmills". They have all disappeared in Europe except for three in the Black Forest, one of which is in the Open Air Museum in Gutach. In these drop sawmills, the frame carrying the saw blade is knocked upwards by cams as the shaft turns. These cams are let into the shaft on which the waterwheel sits. When the frame carrying the saw blade is in the topmost position it drops by its own weight, making a loud knocking noise, and in so doing it cuts the trunk. From 1800 onwards.”
In the United States, the sawmill was introduced soon after the colonisation of Virginia by recruiting skilled men from Hamburg. Later the metal parts were obtained from the Netherlands, where the technology was far ahead of that in England, where the sawmill remained largely unknown until the late 18th century. The arrival of a sawmill was a large and stimulative step in the growth of a frontier community.
Read more about this topic: Sawmill
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... Catlettsburg's history begins in the decades directly following the American Revolution ... Beginning in the late 19th century and lasting until the early 1920s, Catlettsburg was the largest hardwood timber market in the world due to its location at the ... One known exception to history's hardwood harvest is the existence of a very large healthy Oak, standing on a knob in the Hampton City section ...
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Famous quotes containing the words history and/or early:
The whole history of civilisation is strewn with creeds and institutions which were invaluable at first, and deadly afterwards.
Walter Bagehot (1826–1877)
Make-believe is the avenue to much of the young child’s early understanding. He sorts out impressions and tries out ideas that are foundational to his later realistic comprehension. This private world sometimes is a quiet, solitary
world. More often it is a noisy, busy, crowded place where language grows, and social skills develop, and where perseverance and attention-span expand.
James L. Hymes, Jr. (20th century)
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Ants and Bacteria
Every Ant Tells a Story - And Scientists Explain Their Stories Here
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Studies have shown bacteria provide
• amino acid provisioning by Blochmannia (g-Proteo-bacteria) in Camponotus ants (Feldhaar et al., 2007)
• Cephalotes essential amino acids (Hu et al., 2018)
• Cardiocondyla with useful intermediate metabolites (Klein et al., 2016).
• Tetraponera dependent on honeydew from Pseudococcidae (scale insects): oxidative recycling of nitrogenous-rich metabolic waste by 'domesticated' root-nodule bacteria (Billen & Buschinger 2000, van Borm et al. 2002, Stoll et al. 2007)
Recent studies have shown that huge numbers of bacteria called Mollicutes live in the leafcutter ants’ guts. These bacteria do not make the ants sick, so they were thought to be somehow beneficial. Now, Sapountzis et al. (2018) show that the two most common types of Mollicutes found in leafcutter ants evolved to make fungus farming more efficient. The complete genomes of two Mollicutes strains were analyzed and compared to the ones found in other insects. The results showed that both types of Mollicutes can turn excess quantities of the amino acid arginine into a nitrogen-rich fertilizer the ants deposit on their fungal gardens as feces. This helps the ants produce more food. One of the two types can also decompose citrate from plant sap and fruit juice consumed by the ants. This produces acetate, which supplements the ants’ fungal diets and provides extra energy. The unique energy-producing Mollicutes may explain why leafcutter ants evolved larger colonies and sustain higher levels of worker activity than other species of fungus-growing ants. The genome data also showed that both types of Mollicutes have costly defense systems to protect themselves against bacteria-destroying viruses. Many bacteria do not invest is such systems, but the Mollicutes may be able to afford them because their ant hosts provide them with plenty of food. This suggests that both the ants and the Mollicutes benefit from their symbiotic relationship.
Sapountzis et al. (2018) - The two most common Mollicute strains EntAcro1 and EntAcro10 (cf. Sapountzis et al., 2015) were examined in thirteen Panamanian fungus-growing ant species and compared these abundances with the typical spectrum of forage-material that different fungus-farming ants collect and use as compost to manure their fungus-gardens (Kooij et al., 2014a; Leal and Oliveira, 2000; Shik et al., 2016). The Panamanian fauna of attine ants encompasses nine of the 17 known genera, including the three most basal genera (Apterostigma, Mycocepurus and Myrmicocrypta), two other basal genera (Cyphomyrmex and Mycetophylax) being more closely related to the Trachymyrmex and Sericomyrmex lineages that arose and diversified while rearing gongylidia-bearing cultivars, and finally the Atta and Acromyrmex leaf-cutting ants who came to practice fungus-farming at an ‘industrial’ scale (Branstetter et al., 2017; Schultz and Brady, 2008; Mueller et al., 1998).
At the Panama site where we conducted our study, the EntAcro1 and EntAcro10 symbionts are the most common Entomoplasmatales strains associated with attine ants and they represent the majority of sequence reads (>40% jointly for both EntAcro symbionts that were obtained from these ants in field colonies and >50% in captive colonies fed ad libitum; Sapountzis et al., 2015). Our study thus captured much of the qualitative and quantitative biodiversity of abdominal Mollicutes endosymbionts. We show that these two symbionts are phylogenetically distant and therefore evolved independently, but that their gene contents reflect convergent adjustment to life as ant symbionts when compared to related Mesoplasma and Spiroplasma bacteria associated with other arthropods or plants (Figure 1—figure supplement 3). These convergences primarily relate to carbohydrate metabolism, consistent with patterns of bacterial adaptation being generally based on substrate utilization (Lo et al., 2015; Pa´l et al., 2005).
The loss of the arginine synthesis pathway in the basal attine ants (Nygaard et al., 2011; Suen et al., 2011) has been instrumental in making their fungus-farming symbiosis obligate (Nygaard et al., 2016). The selection regime that caused this loss remains unknown (Nygaard et al., 2016; Jesˇovnik et al., 2016), but it is reasonable to assume that outsourcing the production of this most nitrogen-rich amino acid to fungal cultivars gave complementary efficiency benefits even though it also generated symbiotic dependency. For symbiotic division of labor to be sustainable under variable environmental conditions, average levels of fungal arginine production would have to be higher than the minimally sufficient level to avoid occasional windows of fatal shortage in the symbiosis as a whole. Symbiotic dependency may thus have created a niche for Mollicutes symbionts to ensure that surplus arginine is recycled as NH3 to provide the most efficient manure for new garden growth.
The only other ant lineage in which Entomoplasmatales (Mollicutes) endosymbionts have so far been abundantly found are the army ants (Funaro et al., 2011). These ants are exclusive predators of mostly invertebrate prey (Kronauer, 2009) and 16S rDNA sequences of their Mollicutes sym- bionts suggested they are closely related to EntAcro1 but rather distantly to EntAcro10 (Funaro et al., 2011). It is intriguing that the Dacetine sister lineage of the fungus-farming ants are also specialized predators (Branstetter et al., 2017; Ward et al., 2015). It would thus be interesting to clarify whether also Dacetine ants have Entomoplasmatales symbionts, how (un)related they would be to the EntAcro symbionts of the fungus-growing ants, and whether army ants acquired their Mollicutes horizontally from preying upon on attine ants (Powell and Clark, 2004).
Nitrogen-recycling bacteria
Species of the Tetraponera nigra-group in SE Asia live exclusively inside twigs or bamboo, and numerous pseudococcids (scale insects) provide the ants with honeydew (Buschinger et al. 1994). Workers are rarely seen foraging outside their nests, so the ants depend almost entirely on this amino acid-deficient honeydew diet. In Tetraponera attenuata, Tetraponera binghami and Tetraponera nitida, a unique pouch-shaped organ at the junction of the midgut and the intestine is filled with a dense mass of bacteria (Billen & Buschinger 2000). This bacterial pouch is surrounded by a network of intruding tracheae and Malpighian tubules, transporting ample oxygen and nitrogen-rich metabolic wastes to the pouch. The epithelium at the base of the pouch is specialized for absorption (Billen & Buschinger 2000), but the contorted shape of this region ensures that gut fragments cannot enter.
Digestive tract in T. binghami, showing lateral outgrowth (BP= bacterial pouch) between midgut (MG) and intestine (INT). The Malpighian tubules (MT) end in this pouch. From Billen & Buschinger (2000)
Bacterial pouch with its conspicuous tracheolar (tr) supply reflecting high metabolic activity. The pouch is filled with a dense aggregation of bacteria. The microvillar epithelium (ME) is associated with the uptake of metabolites from the pouch lumen. From Billen & Buschinger (2000)
The bacteria cultured in the gut pouch of Tetraponera binghamiare distinct from the nitrogen-recycling symbionts found in other insects (van Borm et al. 2007). Instead they are close relatives of root-associated nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and function to reintegrate metabolic nitrogen waste of the ants into the bacteria's metabolic pathways, then release amino acid precursors in the pouch where they can be absorbed by the ant’s proximal epithelium. comparative study of the gut microbiota in T. nigra-group, Stoll et al. 2007 Bartonella and Rhizobium (order Rhizobiales)
Related webpages
• Billen, J., Buschinger, A. 2000. Morphology and ultrastructure of a specialized bacterial pouch in the digestive tract of Tetraponera ants (Formicidae, Pseudomyrmecinae). Arthropod Structure & Development 29, 259-266.
• Sapountzis, P., M. Zhukova, J. Z. Shik, M. Schiott, and J. J. Boomsma. 2018. Reconstructing the functions of endosymbiotic Mollicutes in fungus-growing ants. eLife. 7:31. doi:10.7554/eLife.39209
• Stoll S, Gadau J, Gross R, Feldhaar H 2007. Bacterial microbiota associated with ants of the genus Tetraponera. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 90: 399–412.
• Van Borm, S., Buschinger, A., Boomsma, J.J., Billen, J. 2002. Tetraponera ants have gut symbionts related to nitrogen-fixing root-nodule bacteria. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 269, 2023-2027
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Wednesday, November 28, 2012
by Michael Auld
Taquitock (tah-qui-tock) , n. Algonquian, 1. The Harvest. The fourth of the five seasons of the year in which celebrations occurred.
Thanksgiving, n, English, 1. The time set aside for showing appreciation.
If on December 4th, you can’t find one of the above persons, thank an indigenous Bahamian, a Dominican, Haitian, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Jamaican, or Virgin Islander. Or thank an Amerindian Mexican, Virginian or New Englander.
(Above) Etched 17th Century images by DeBrey of the First American Thanksgiving and the more likely, the meal that followed. (L) Although this first illustration may have been a Springtime festival, Taquitocok, it is one of the 5 Algonquian seasons and the indigenous name for the harvest. (R) “The manner of feeding is in this way. They lay a mat made of reeds on the ground and set their meat in the middle thereof, and then the men sit around on one side, and the women on the other. Their main dish is boiled maize/corn, and tastes good [in such a way that I described in an earlier treatise] with venison, and other animals and fish. They are very sober in their eating, and drinking, and consequently long lived because they do not oppress nature.” - The New Found Land of Virginia
(Above) The typical image of the idealized “First Thanksgiving”. A 1914 painting by the English artist Jennie A. Brownscombe. Here the artist used one of the traditional painting and advertising compositional formulas in which figures of primary importance are made the largest and placed in the foreground; secondary figures are smaller and placed in the middle ground; figures of less importance are placed in the background. All figures, except the mother, bow or face towards the standing religious person. The artist’s depiction of a Madonna and Christ-like image of a child in a cradle in the foreground of the composition may portray the artist’s suggestion of a birth of a new nation. Also, notice the symbolism of subservience and religious overtones in the middle and backgrounds. The Indians at the table have Plains headdress not Wampanoag regalia.
At the ending of National Native American Month, why should we thank an Indigenous American? Because their ancestors made America and Thanksgiving possible. It is also a form of adoration or showing gratitude. Why not thank one of the descendants of the First Americans to our south, the Taíno. They were the first to fall victim to Spanish and Portuguese commercial exploitation of their conucos (gardens). Have you ever wondered about the billions of dollars that many of the planet’s economies garner yearly from Amerindian agricultural products? Think latex rubber; corn/maize; potatoes (sweet and Inca); yucca/cassava; dried beans; peppers (capsicum); pineapples; tomatoes; etc., etc. China heads up the list of producers of corn in Asia. Corn/maize that we know today is a grain that Ancient Mexican horticulturalists “invented” to suit a variety of soils and climates. Many African countries continue to grow, export and feed millions with byproducts of plants that are endemic to the Tropical Americas.
At the Thanksgiving dinner that we just celebrated, we ate Taíno gifts that were the first contributions of the 1492 Encounter. Their gardens added the pumpkin, peanuts, sweet potato, corn/maize, peppers, pineapple, and allspice to the menu. Our Thanksgiving menu also called for the domesticated Mexica (me-she-kah) or Mexican turkey and vanilla bean (ice cream) complemented by the Native American cranberry sauce. Since Columbus was searching for the Indian Subcontinent, we added nutmeg, cinnamon and cloves from that other part of Asia.
This is November and the real Thanksgiving is not yet over!
The Thanksgiving Day that we now observe was decreed by President Abraham Lincoln. The Pilgrims of New England have become the main actors from the elementary school stages to the lavish street parades. However, a more accurate Thanksgiving Day observance was included in a statement by Virginia’s Governor Douglas Wilder. At an annual pre-Thanksgiving treaty ceremony that was held on the steps of the Governor’s Mansion with the descendants of the two surviving Powhatan Confederacy reservations (America’s first Indian reservations), the Pamunkey and Mattaponi of King William County, Governor Wilder stated the following:
“The Pilgrims of Massachusetts ate the bones from the first Thanksgiving meal that was held in Virginia”.
(R) Governor Douglas Wilder (who served from 2005 to 2009) in front of the Governor’s Mansion in Richmond, Virginia welcoming the chiefs of Virginia’s Pamunkey and Mattaponi Indian Reservations. He accepted the annual payment of deer as part of the annual treaty ceremony the week before Thanksgiving. The gift to the Colonial English governor was originally 20 beaver pelts.
Governor Wilder was referring to the celebratory English who began arriving in 1607. Englishmen and women sat down at Berkley Plantation in Virginia’s Powhatan territory to have a Thanksgiving that predated New England’s Pilgrim arrival at Plymouth. The New England version was the third of this kind of celebration on American soil. The first American Thanksgiving (and maybe the second) at Berkley Hundred, a 8,000 acre property that later became Berkley Plantation, was held in the extensive Powhatan Chiefdom’s tri-state “tribal” territory ( At the plantation, Powhatan’s people may have provided the main dishes, since the English relied on Powhatan corn and game for survival. However, no enslaved Africans had yet graced the table since in that year only indentured Africans, confiscated from a Dutch ship, were to arrive in the new colony.
Pictograph of the Pamunkey Treaty observance. Although the time when “the geese fly” may refer to Spring and not Fall.
Undoubtedly, Native Americans had the earliest Thanksgivings in the United States. The first official colonial Thanksgiving was on 4 December 1619 at the Berkley Plantation in Charles City County, Virginia located between Richmond and Jamestown. The third, “more official” Thanksgiving was a food fest that is still promoted as “The event that some Americans commonly call the ‘First Thanksgiving’". It was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World in 1621. However, this may have occurred in July after another arrival of immigrants in 1623. “The event now commemorated in the United States at the end of November each year is more properly termed a "harvest festival". Another source stated that the original festival was probably held in early October 1621 and was celebrated by the 53 famine-surviving Pilgrims, along with the [sachem (leader)] Massasoit and 90 of his [Wampanoag] men.” The first New England Thanksgiving was not likely a religious event and was a feast that lasted three days and was a typical English method of thanksgiving after a battle or an important event. The confusion about the true thanksgiving is why we see Pilgrims at the Macy’s Day parade instead of 17th Century English “venture capitalists” waving at the gullible consumers in the crowd lining Park Avenue in New York City. As an advertising major, I secretly love to watch the televised fictitious commercial spectacle with cartoon characters, marching bands and Broadway previews. This year among the multitude of floats, flying balloons and marching feet, I saw one Oneida Indian Nation float with Native Americans standing on a large turtle or “Turtle Island” (their name for the United States) representing Mother Earth, on whose back stood the “Tree of Peace”. This *float represented the Native Americans who were actually the majority present (in the woods) at the truly first, first, first Thanksgivings.
Wikipedia sights: “Berkeley Plantation was originally called Berkeley Hundred and named after the Berkeley Company of England.” The article also includes the following by Captain John Woodleaf [who] held the [first] service of thanksgiving. “The Charter of Berkeley Plantation specified the thanksgiving service by decreeing; ‘Wee ordaine that the day of our ships arrival [on December 4, 1619] at the place assigned for plantacon in the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually keept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God.’" (
So, Thanksgiving Day has not yet really arrived. Why aren’t we taught these points in the history of the creation of America? Apparently, we prefer to delete that which is embarrassing. It seems that, in our education system, we have chosen to promote religious Pilgrims over America’s first capitalists. Building a myth on “religious freedom” soothes the conscience and puffs up the chest more than the reality of a country founded on a business proposition initiated by the Virginia Company of London.
*To see the Oneida Indian float and article go to
Glossary of terms:
Taíno = one of the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean. The other is the Island Carib.
Mexica (Me-she-kah) = Also called Aztec, a people of Mexico.
Powhatan = The indigenous people of Tidewater Virginia whose territory included Jamestown and lay within present day North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland and Washington, DC.
Wampanoag = One of the indigenous peoples of New England
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What is the royal history of diamonds?
In the 13th century, an act of Saint Louis (Louis IX of France, 1214-70) established a sumptuary law that reserved diamonds for the king based on their rarity and value that was conferred to them at that time. From that moment onwards, diamonds began appearing in royal jewelry for both men and women. From the 17th century, they were also seen with the greater European aristocracy and the wealthy merchant class.
The earliest diamond-cutting industry is believed to have been positioned in Venice (Italy) somewhere around the 1330’s. It is estimated that diamond cutting found its way to Paris and Bruges around late 14th century and later to Antwerp.
By 1499, the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to the Orient around the Cape of Good Hope, providing Europeans an end-run around the Arabic impediment to the trade of diamonds coming from India. Goa, on India's Malabar Coast, was set up as the Portuguese trading center, and a diamond route developed from Goa to Lisbon to Antwerp.
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Gilberto and the Wind by Marie Hall Ets
Enhance reading abilities with an activity that enriches and expands children's language and emergent literacy skills.
Updated on: October 13, 2004
Page 2 of 2
Ask the child questions after the second and third readings of Gilberto and the Wind, to start a conversation about the book. You can prompt the child on every one or two pages, using the questions below. If the child says something spontaneously about a picture, be sure to expand on it and listen while he or she repeats it.
1. Who is this little boy? (This is Gilberto.)
2. Who wants Gilberto to come out and play? (The wind wants him to come out and play.)
3. What happens to the balloon? (The wind carries it away from Gilberto up into a tree.)
4. What is Gilberto looking at? (He is watching the wind blow the clothes on the clothesline.)
5. Why does Gilberto have an umbrella? (It is raining outside.)
6. What happens to the umbrella? (The wind grabs it away and breaks it.)
7. What is Gilberto climbing on? (He is climbing on the gate of a fence.)
8. Where is Gilberto? What is he doing? (He is running in the grass.)
9. Who is looking at Gilberto? (The cow is looking at him.)
10. How many kites are up in the sky? Let's count them together. (There are two.)
11. Does the wind play nicely today with Gilberto? (No, the wind won't help him fly his kite.)
12. What is happening? (Gilberto is waiting for the wind to blow down an apple to eat.)
13. What happens to the boat? (The wind carries it across the little pond.)
14. Have you ever played with a pinwheel? Did the wind spin it fast?
15. What is Gilberto doing in these pictures? (He is blowing soap bubbles.)
16. Have you ever blown soap bubbles?
17. What is Gilberto doing in these pictures? (He is raking leaves.)
18. Why is Gilberto covering his eyes? (The wind is blowing dirt in his eyes.)
19. Does Gilberto let the strong wind come inside the house? (No, he goes in and closes the door.)
20. What is Gilberto doing here? (He is taking a nap outside.)
The words listed below come from the story and its pictures. As you page through the book, point to the pictures and ask the child to name the object or the action shown. This will help the child learn new words. You can use the words below, or you can choose words you think will interest your child. Below are words for every one or two pages of the story.
• door
• balloon, string, tree, reaching
• clothesline, laundry, clothespin
• umbrella, rain, broken
• fence, gate, climbing
• running, tall grass, cow
• kites, sky
• angry
• apple tree, apples, eating
• sailboat, pond
• pinwheel, spinning, blowing
• soap bubbles, bubble pipe, eyes
• raking, leaves
• howling, afraid
• napping, willow tree
Excerpted from
Read Together, Talk Together
Pearson Early Childhood
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How Is Fresh Water Quality Measured for Organic Pollutants?
Monday, January 27, 2020
The tired and longstanding way to say that something is difficult is to say it's like finding a needle in a haystack. When it comes to testing the quality of water, take that old metaphor and add the complication that the needle and the haystack are both moving and getting bigger daily.
Despite these difficulties, it's not an impossible task. Which leaves you wonder how is water quality measured?
To catch a moving target, you need a much bigger net. Studies indicate that no single set of measurements will fit the bill. What you need is a lot of measurements and the statistical, big data, tools to identify a fuller picture.
Nothing is impossible if it can be broken down into discrete steps. Read on to learn how these steps contribute to a working solution.
How Is Water Quality Measured?
It's not practical to know what chemicals are present in every drop of water at any given time. Much like a snapshot, you can only determine what is there at that moment. And often, to do that, it requires removing that water drop to perform the tests.
This is why water quality tests look for known bad actors. In particular, the existence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is watched for. These chemicals have known adverse effects on humans and animals.
Monitoring Equipment
The first step is to pick up samples of conditions from bodies of water. Researchers do this using a variety of different monitors to detect specific chemicals within a specific range.
Tests take time to run and each monitor can only do so much. Monitors also take up space, so it's impractical to create a tight grid of them and hope to have anything else in the water.
Spatial Changes
Spatial change monitoring takes a look at the concentration of a substance, one or more POPs, in an area. If these POPs remain in an area and that area gets larger over time, that's an obvious problem.
The less obvious issue is when these hot spots of POPs shift from one place to another. Spatial monitoring is therefore also concerned with flow rates and direction of the chemicals.
Are they diluting as they move through? Are they clumping? And what directions are the clumps heading so that they can be tracked?
Temporal Changes
Next, the water is monitored for changes in the concentrations of POPs over time. POPs that quickly move are less of a threat than those that linger.
The amount of POPs that sit in an area provides information on deterioration rates that can be measured against damage in the environment.
Statistical Analysis
Taking the samples provided by monitoring equipment and then mapping it against the spatial and temporal changes provides an overall picture.
These numbers can be compared against mandated water quality parameters to determine if the water is safe, improving, or deteriorating.
Gather Some Data
As you can see, answering "How is water quality measured?" takes equipment and know-how. As testing protocols improve, tour ability to create an accurate picture of conditions will be enhanced.
Testing your own water provides vital information to complete this picture and gives you first-hand reference points. Contact us for more information about water quality and chemical monitoring.
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CPM Homework Banner
Home > CCG > Chapter 5 > Lesson 5.3.4 > Problem 5-116
Mr. Kyi has placed red, blue, and yellow beads in a hat. If a person selects a red bead, he or she wins . If that person selects a blue bead, he or she loses . If the person selects a yellow bead, he or she wins . What is the expected value for one draw? Is this game fair?
For expected value you need to find the probability of drawing each marble and multiply that probability by the amount you could win.
The expected value is the total of these 3 outcomes.
Use the eTool below to graph the line.
Click the link at right for the full version of the eTool: CCG 5-116 HW eTool
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Human Rights’ by David Chalk
Here is an analysis of the poem Human Rights’ by David Chalk. The majority of Chalk’s poems are political in nature, and this poem is no exception. Chalk’s poems almost always concern the treatment of other people by the government in which the people are ruled. Other poems Chalk has written include Arab Spring, Workers’ Rights’, and The Refugee Convention. In this particular poem, Chalk exposes both sides of the human rights issue: the side to which every human should be entitled, and the often greedy, self-serving opinions of government officials. Chalk, presumably also the speaker of the poem, leaves no doubt as to which side he resides, referring to government officials as “they” and “them,” while stating the rights each human should be given.
Human Rights’ Summary
Chalk presents a dichotomy in his poem: the first two stanzas are dedicated rights every individual should be given; the last four stanzas are dedicated to exposing the selfish opinions of those who are in charge, who often deny such rights to their citizens. Chalk paints a picture with his diction of what a civilized land looks like: it accepts that its citizens have rights that are both major and minor. A civilized land also values truth, fairness, justice, and decency. He then describes the types of civilizations where human rights are not valued. He claims that if a government treasures money more than its people, they will attempt to remove their people’s rights through terrible ways in order to make themselves more rich and powerful. Chalk ends the poem by stating that rights are only for the powerful.
Human Rights’ Analysis
The poem, which can be read in full here, is broken into six stanzas, each containing four lines of varying length. While some of the lines do rhyme with each other, there is no set rhyme scheme. The importance of Chalk’s diction in this poem cannot be emphasized enough. Chalk relies on his word choice to convey his theme on the unfairness of denying human rights to all.
Stanza 1
The first stanza is somewhat juvenile, sounding more like something Dr. Seuss would write than a serious poet. Here, the lines all have a similar structure and meter, and lines two and four are a classic example of rhyme. The message in this stanza is quite simple: in a civilized area of the world, that area has a duty to ensure that all of its citizens have rights, regardless of how large or insignificant those rights may be. Chalk does not mince words here; his message—his opinion– is clear and simple.
Stanza 2
It is important to note here that Chalk does not utilize punctuation at the end of any line, including the last one of the poem. He does use commas to separate some thoughts, but for the most part, he neglects to punctuate his lines. Chalk could have chosen to do this for several reasons. First, perhaps Chalk is so impassioned about the poem’s theme that he did not want to bother with punctuation; he was more concerned with getting his thoughts written down quickly. Secondly, the lack of punctuation sets the tone of the poem: the message Chalk is writing is urgent and important. Therefore, it must be read quickly and without pause.
There is no misunderstanding the message Chalk continues to deliver in this stanza. He matter-of-factly states that this is how the world should run when one values ideals such as truth, fairness, justice, and decency.
The last three stanzas directly parallel the first two. In these stanzas, the poet describes what happens when an area is governed by people who are not motivated by common values.
Stanza 3
Chalk describes what happens when officials value money over basic human decency. They will do anything to acquire more power and wealth, even if that means removing the rights the people of his or her country once possessed. They will do anything to remove these rights, including actions that are done through deceit and secrecy. The twelfth line of the poem—“Through deceit and stealth”—contains consonance with the repetition of the “t” sound it both deceit and stealth. When this sound is emphasized, it lends a tone of anger and disbelief to the poem. Clearly, the speaker is upset that such injustices occur throughout the world.
Stanza 4
The speaker is separating himself from the despicable people in the world who are denying basic human rights to others, calling them “they.” In this stanza, Chalk gives us the leaders’ excuse for taking away others’ rights. He states they do it while claiming they must do it—it is the duty that comes with their job. They refuse to accept any guilt for what they have done.
Stanza 5
The fifth stanza contains repetition of this thought. Chalk utilizes a somewhat juvenile rhyme here to emphasize his point. He repeats himself that the corrupt leaders claim they have an obligation to their country before they have an obligation to the rights of the people. Chalk utilizes an interesting word in the last line of this stanza—“distain”—which means to sully or dirty. He is claiming that the leaders are sullying their own duties instead of following through on them, for surely there is nothing more important than protecting the basic fundamental rights of human beings.
Stanza 6
The last stanza has a particularly hopeless tone to it. Chalk openly states that he believes human rights only belong to the rich and powerful, whose duty is to ensure the poor are given decency and justice; however, the system almost always fails them. The corrupt country no longer provides the necessities to its people, instead choosing to line the pockets of a select few.
Historical Significance of Human Rights’
This poem is timeless and can be applied to nearly every historical era ever recorded. Sadly, basic human rights have been to denied to others based on their religious, social, and political beliefs, and because of their race, sex, or ethnicity. One needs only to choose an area of the world, particularly those prone to dictatorships and oppressive regimes, and one can easily apply the thoughts and themes expressed in this poem.
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In math, the adjective proper usually denotes something as being less than or equal to another thing. For example, we have:
• Proper subsets: A is a proper subset of B iff every element in A is an element in B, but A is not equal to B. A then has less elements than B.
• Proper divisors: a is a proper divisor of b if a*k = b, for some natural number k != 1. That is, a divides b and a !=b, so a < b
• Proper fractions: Think way back to elementary school... a proper fraction has a numerator which is smaller than its denominator. 5/3 is an improper fraction, which everyone (I, anyway) had to write as 1 2/3 up until the beginning of Algebra 1.
Prop"er (?), a. [OE. propre, F. propre, fr. L. proprius. Cf. Appropriate.]
Belonging to one; one's own; individual.
"His proper good" [i. e., his own possessions]. Chaucer. "My proper son."
Now learn the difference, at your proper cost,
Betwixt true valor and an empty boast.
The proper study of mankind is man.
In Athens all was pleasure, mirth, and play,
All proper to the spring, and sprightly May.
Becoming in appearance; well formed; handsome.
[Archaic] "Thou art a proper man."
Heb. xi. 23.
7. Her.
In proper, individually; privately. [Obs.] Jer. Taylor. -- Proper flowercorolla Bot., one of the single florets, or corollets, in an aggregate or compound flower. -- Proper fraction Arith. a fraction in which the numerator is less than the denominator. -- Proper nectary Bot., a nectary separate from the petals and other parts of the flower. -- Proper noun Gram., a name belonging to an individual, by which it is distinguished from others of the same class; -- opposed to common noun; as, John, Boston, America. -- Proper perianthinvolucre Bot., that which incloses only a single flower. -- Proper receptacle Bot., a receptacle which supports only a single flower or fructification.
© Webster 1913.
Prop"er, adv.
[Colloq & Vulgar]
© Webster 1913.
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Caenorhabditis elegans would make an ace fighter pilot. That's because the roughly one-millimeter-long roundworm, a type of nematode that is widely used in biological studies, is remarkably adept at tolerating acceleration. Human pilots lose consciousness when they pull only 4 or 5 g's (1 g is the force of gravity at Earth's surface), but C. elegans emerges unscathed from 400,000 g's, new research shows.
This is an important benchmark; rocks have been theorized to experience similar forces when blasted off planet surfaces and into space by volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts. Any hitchhiking creatures that survive could theoretically seed another planet with life, an idea known as ballistic panspermia.
Tiago Pereira and Tiago de Souza, both geneticists at the University of São Paulo in Brazil, spun hundreds of roundworms in a device called an ultracentrifuge. After an hour, the researchers pulled them out, convinced that the animals would be dead. But they were “swimming freely as if nothing had happened,” Pereira says. More than 96 percent were still alive, and the survivors did not exhibit any adverse physical or behavioral changes. “Life tolerates much more stress than we typically think,” as Pereira puts it. His team's results were published online in May in the journal Astrobiology.
Still, this extreme test does not replicate the full brunt of an interplanetary journey, the researchers concede. For one thing, it took roughly five minutes for the ultracentrifuge to build up to these massive g-forces—whereas rocks blasted off a planet would reach them within a 1,000th of a second. Nor did the experiment replicate the harsh conditions of space. “Other factors, such as temperature, vacuum and cosmic radiation, should also be tested,” says Cihan Erkut, a biochemist at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany, who was not involved in the research. Pereira says his team's work is a starting point for other experiments to develop “an understanding of the limits of life.”
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Image credit: Unsplash
Wayfinding is the ability to learn and recall a route through an environment. Theories of wayfinding suggest that for children to learn a route successfully, they must have repeated experience of it, but in this experiment we investigated whether children could learn a route after only a single experience of the route. A total of 80 participants from the United Kingdom in four groups of 20 8-year-olds, 10-year-olds, 12-year-olds, and adults were shown a route through a 12-turn maze in a virtual environment. At each junction, there was a unique object that could be used as a landmark. Participants were ‘‘walked” along the route just once (without any verbal prompts) and then were asked to retrace the route from the start without any help. Nearly three quarters of the 12- year-olds, half of the 10-year-olds, and a third of the 8-year-olds retraced the route without any errors the first time they traveled it on their own. This finding suggests that many young children can learn routes, even with as many as 12 turns, very quickly and without the need for repeated experience. The implications for theories of wayfinding that emphasize the need for extensive experience are discussed.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
Supplementary notes can be added here, including code and math.
Jamie Lingwood
Research Fellow
My research interests include language development, language processing, and shared book reading.
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Literary Analysis in the Scarlet Letter
Raven 1 In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s book, The Scarlet Letter, the phrase “Opposites Attract” does not always ring true.Such is the case between a young beauty and an aging scholar.Through Hawthorne’s use of figurative language and imagery, he creates a winter-spring relationship between the two characters Roger Chillingworth and Hester Prynne, which ultimately leads to Hester’s downfall.
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The character Hester Prynne’s unparalleled youthful beauty and passionate nature makes her the perfect embodiment of spring.
Early on in the text, Hawthorne says “She had dark and abundant hair, so glossy that it threw off the sunshine with a gleam, and a face which, besides being beautiful from regularity of feature and richness of complexion, . . . ”(50) This picturesque description of Hester is used to not only to show her beauty, but also how her beauty is so fresh and vibrant. Her hair being described as “glossy and abundant” alludes to her spring-like qualities because in spring, all plants and creatures are new and plentiful in number. Hester’s position as being a new mother also makes her symbolic of spring, because both represent fertility and new life.
Hawthorne even goes as far as saying “…with the infant at her bosom, an object to remind him of the image if Divine Maternity…” (53) Hawthorne using this comparison portrays Hester as being a perfect representation of fertility, almost to a god-like degree. It is Raven 2 unquestionable that spring is the most benign and gentle season. Hawthorne almost directly states that Hester is spring when he says, “…Hester’s nature showed itself warm and rich; a well-spring of human tenderness, un-failing to every real demand, and inexhaustible by the largest. (146) This is why Hester’s demeanor and character also contributes to her embodying spring. Even by saying that her nature was warm, Hawthorne adds to Hester’s symbolism, because spring is the first season where warmth is introduced; the warm quality it possesses is also why spring is considered “friendly”, because it is the savior after a cold, hard winter. Roger Chillingworth represents winter in every possible aspect. His demeanor and appearance both are strong evidence of how he symbolizes the season of cold.
When he is examining Hester’s health in the jail, he had “…a gaze that made her heart shrink and shudder, …and yet so strange and so cold,.. ” (67) His cold demeanor directly relates to how winter is the coldest of all the seasons. Even something as simple as his gaze made Hester’s heart, which is the warmth of spring, shudder and get smaller. This parallels how a winter frost can kill off the warmth and vibrancy of spring. Chillingworth’s appearance also contributes to him symbolizing winter.
He is described as a “…man well-stricken in years, a pale, thin, scholar-like visage” (55) Winter is the season where things get old, barren, and start decaying. So Hawthorne purposely describes Chillingworth as old, pale, and thin to make the most obvious statement of how the man and season are so closely related. Chillingworth is anything but a thriving individual: being thin and pale, he possesses the attributes that a sickly, perhaps dying, would have. Chillingworth’s insatiable appetite for revenge against Dimmesdale also lends to him being seen as a representation of winter.
Winter, by itself, is a symbol for wrath and revenge. So when Hawthorne says that “This unhappy man had made the very principle of his life to…revenge. ”(232), he is showing the uncanny similarities between Chillingworth and winter. Raven 3 Finally, Chillingworth’s own name alludes to how he embodies winter. The first eight letters of his name spell out “chilling”, which can only be associated with the cold temperatures in winter. The vast difference between the two characters Hester Prynne and Roger Chillingworth leads to the rapid decline and incompatibility of their relationship and to Hester’s downfall.
Chillingworth is quick to admit how unrealistic his expectations of their relationship are when he says “I, …- a man already in decay,… what had I to do with youth and beauty like thine own! ”(69) Chillingworth, describing himself as “a man already in decay” re-instills how he represents winter, which is the season where all things decay and die. He also says that “Mine was the first wrong, when I betrayed thy budding youth into a false and unnatural relation with my decay. (70) Hawthorne’s use of figurative language is ingenious when he describes Hester’s age as a “budding youth”. Flowers begin to bud at the beginning of spring, so by describing Hester’s youth as budding, Hawthorne gives Hester spring-like qualities. The combination of the two previous quotes explains why a relationship between winter and spring could never exist in harmony. Chillingworth and Hester are two completely different individuals; Chillingworth’s cold frost halted any hope of the seedling of love to grow within Hester’s heart.
Chillingworth acknowledges this fact when he says “My heart was a habitation large enough for many guests, but lonely and chill, and without a household fire. ”(69) In the end, a relationship between this pair could never work. Hester’s lack of love for Chillingworth led her to commit the sin of adultery, her ultimate downfall. When Chillingworth says “… from the moment when we came down the old church steps together, a married pair, I might have beheld the bale-fire of that scarlet letter blazing at the end of our path! (69) it’s as if he knew that Hester would cheat on him all along. Hester’s downfall was inevitable because Chillingworth could not make her love him due to them coming from two entirely different places: winter and spring. Raven 4 The character Hester Prynne experiences a downfall due to the winter-spring relationship established between her and Roger Chillingworth, which Hawthorne illustrates by using the literary devices of figurative language and imagery.
By using the characters as symbols for seasons, the meaning of why a relationship between the two characters cannot work is intensified and given depth. Through this particular analysis of The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, readers can perhaps see that when two people are so completely different from one another, a happy relationship cannot exist: love is never going to grow in spring when it is halted by a winter frost. Raven 5 Works Cited Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. 1850. New York: Bantam Dell, 2003. Print.
How to cite Literary Analysis in the Scarlet Letter, Essays
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The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was created in South Africa in 1995, after the end of apartheid. It was established by the country’s parliament. The main task of the TRC was to promote national unity and reconciliation in South Africa. Reconciliation is a process of bringing people with differences together and helping them understand each other.
During the period of apartheid, the government kept nonwhite people separate from whites. Many people suffered during this time. The nonwhite people were forced to live in certain areas that were often poor and overcrowded. They were not allowed to vote or to participate in the government. They were mistreated in other ways as well. Many were killed, tortured, or kidnapped.
When apartheid came to an end, many people were angry about the way they had been treated. The government established the TRC to give people a way to voice their complaints. They wanted all the people of the country to get along and to trust each other again. The TRC tried to do this by finding out about all of the problems that occurred during the apartheid era. The TRC also had to find out how serious these problems were and what could be done to help the victims.
The TRC focused mainly on things that happened between 1960 and 1994. This was the time when apartheid was part of the government’s official policy. The TRC had to investigate complaints from all people who had been mistreated. Many of the victims had been harmed by the apartheid government. Many others were hurt by people and groups who were fighting against apartheid.
The TRC consisted of three committees. They were the Human Rights Violations Committee, the Amnesty Committee, and the Reparations and Rehabilitation Committee. The head of the TRC was Archbishop Desmond Tutu.
The TRC received about 22,000 statements from victims. The commission also held hearings to question people about their activities.
The commission had the power to grant amnesty to those people who had committed violations of human rights. When people get amnesty, it means that they are not punished for things they did wrong. Only people who had a political motive were given amnesty by the TRC. They also had to tell the whole truth about what happened and what they did. The TRC therefore revealed information that would otherwise have remained a secret.
There was much criticism of the work done by the TRC. Some white people thought the TRC was meant to harm them. Some blacks felt that the commission allowed people who committed crimes to get away with it. Some people, including former president P.W. Botha, refused to testify before the TRC.
Despite the issues, the TRC was considered successful. The TRC hearings that took place across the country were broadcast on radio and television. Interpreters in all of the languages of South Africa gave the public the opportunity to hear what had happened in their country. The TRC published a report of their findings in 1998. It contained details of more than 7,000 people who asked for amnesty. Only 894 people received amnesty. People who did not receive amnesty could still be put on trial. The TRC released additional information in 2003.
The report of the TRC made it possible for many people to find out what had become of their loved ones or friends who had vanished or died during the apartheid years. The TRC also worked to understand how these things had happened.
The TRC had an effect beyond South Africa as well. Other countries learned from the process. They began to establish similar committees to address their own problems.
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"url": "https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Truth-and-Reconciliation-Commission/602289"
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Exercise 3
August 18, 2016 9:10 pm Published by
Key Question: How did segregation shape life in the North
Examine the section called “The Northern Promised Land that Wasn’t”.
Discussion Questions:
• What kinds of problems did black activists like Rosa Parks highlight about the North?
• Was Northern segregation different from Southern segregation? If so, how?
• Why did the Detroit Uprising of 1967 take place?
• What were some of the events that happened during the uprising that also indicated that segregation and racism existed in the North?
• How did Rosa Parks and other black activists resist segregation and racism in Detroit and the North more broadly?
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Blechnum Species in Tarra Bulga
There are seven different species of the fern genus Blechnum (Water Ferns) in Tarra Bulga National Park and with a bit of background knowledge it is relatively easy to tell them apart. This post will focus on the identification of Blechnum nudum (Fishbone Water-fern) and Blechnum cartiliagineum (Gristle Fern), which unlike the other 5 species both have leaflets (pinna) being directly attached to the regular fronds by a broad base. The easiest way to tell them apart is by their fertile fronds.
Blechnum nudum (Fishbone Water-fern) is usually found in clumps in wet forest and gullies, it is reasonably common around Tarra Bulga.
Blechnum cartiliagineum (Gristle Fern) is less common in Tarra Bulga and is more commonly found in gullies or sheltered spots at lower elevations downstream from the park.
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CPM Homework Banner
Thoroughly investigate the graph of for . Identify all of the important qualities, such as where the function is increasing, decreasing, concave up, and concave down. Also identify point(s) of inflection and intercepts, and provide graphs of and . Be sure to justify all statements graphically and analytically. Homework Help ✎
To find INCREASING vs. DECREASING: Solve and .
To find CONCAVE UP vs. CONCAVE DOWN: Solve and .
LOCAL MAXIMA happen where increasing changes to decreasing.
LOCAL MINIMA happen where decreasing changes to increasing.
POINTS OF INFLECTION happen where concavity changes.
To find the GLOBAL MAXIMUM: compare f(endpoint) with f(local maximum). The highest value wins.
To find GLOBAL MINIMUM: compare f(endpoint) with f(local minima). The lowest value wins.
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"url": "https://homework.cpm.org/category/CCI_CT/textbook/apcalc/chapter/7/lesson/7.3.2/problem/7-121"
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The Bologna Stone was discovered in 1603, at the base of a dead volcano near Bologna. When treated with heat, and exposed to sunlight, it would glow for hours—sometimes days. It took 400 years to figure out why.
In 1603, Vincenzo Cascariolo was digging in the volcanic rock near Bologna, Italy. The man was a shoemaker by trade, but he hoped to get rich by alchemy. When he found a milky-white stone he decided to take some samples back to his workshop. There, he most likely heated a sample of the stone, possibly in a special oven that let him control the exposure of the material to both the source of heat (coals or flames) and the oxygen in the air. The process is called “calcination.” Cascariolo failed to come up with the Philosopher’s Stone, but he can’t be faulted for thinking he did. After all, after the treatment, if exposed to sunlight or flames this particular stone glowed in the dark for hours.
The stone he found is now known as baryte. It’s BaSO4, a mix of barium, sulfur, and oxygen, but not all kinds of baryte glow, even after they’ve been calcinated. What Cascariolo found, which made him the discoverer of the world’s first “persistent luminescent material,” was a special radiating kind of baryte. It was much sought after by alchemists for years.
It took scientists a long time to figure out what it was that made baryte glow the way it did. Over four centuries after its discovery, scientists took a lab to samples of the Bologna Stone. What they found was an impurity in the baryte. Copper ions, denuded of two electrons each, were sprinkled through the baryte. When exposed to light, they would absorb energy, and then slowly emit it over multiple days.
Today, because no one thinks it will turn lead to gold or make them immortal, the Bologna Stone isn’t a hot commodity. It is still used. Here’s someone who made “Bologna stone pies,” by adding, among other things, copper chloride to barium sulfate and baked the result.
Top Image: Carles Millan
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"url": "https://io9.gizmodo.com/the-bologna-stone-was-a-glowing-mystery-for-400-years-1724589932"
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Not Out of the Woods, Yet—Genetic Extinction (Part 3)
We all have issues. The strategies and means employed to preserve the wild bison genome and promote genetic diversity is no exception. As discussed in the previous blog—Not Out of the Woods, Yet—Genetic Extinction (Part 2)—several issues are involved in working toward these objectives.
Inbreeding and Genetic Drift:
The common strategy to avoid inbreeding depression and genetic drift is to create large herds. It is estimated that herd sizes of 2000 to 3000 minimum are required [1]. Wild, free-ranging bison need to forage over large swaths of land. For a herd size of 1000 animals it is estimated a land parcel of 100,000 acres or approximately 156 square miles would be needed [2]. Achieving the minimum herd sizes, then, would require land areas from 300 to 500 square miles. For 500 square miles, this would be a square with each side having a length of 22.4 miles. The only large conservation herd that meets both requirements for minimum herd size and land is the Yellowstone herd. The herd of approximately 3500 roams over 3500 square miles [3]. However, much of that is mountainous and so does not represent the actual land available for exploitation by the bison, raising another issue—habitat requirements. It is not enough that sufficient amount of land is acquired. It must be terrain that can be exploited by the bison.
Relatedly, especially where private lands are acquired, restoration of the terrain may be necessary. Typically, private lands have been plowed-over and fenced-in for farming and ranching practices. Any fencing has to be removed to allow for movement of the bison. Other fencing, suitable for bison, has to be established along the perimeter of the reserve or refuge. Any dams built to retain water for livestock would also have to be removed [4].
Then there is the issue of money [2]. The cost to acquire the necessary land and place a herd of 1000 onto that land may run well over $ 1 million. Reaching the minimum requirements to preserve and promote the bison genome could then run $2 to $3 million per herd. Significant funding raising efforts will be needed.
So what land is possibly available? Bailey concludes that land east of 98 degrees longitude—Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, eastern Texas and all points east—is too fully developed to allow for the necessary land areas. Between farmland and cities is there is no land parcel large enough to support the minimum herd size. This leaves the plains—lands west of 98 degrees west longitude to the Rocky Mountains—available. Perhaps some parts of Nevada and Oregon could be utilized [5]. There are still large tracts available in this region to promote such herds.
Cattle-Gene Introgression:
A potential problem has been identified in regard to purifying bison herds of cattle-gene introgression. Removing bison with cattle genes may inadvertently remove genes of common ancestry. Authors Kathleen O’Neal Gear and Michael Gear [6] raise the question: Did bison interbred with any prehistoric species of the Bos side of the Bison-Bos family, and if so, is this the source of the cattle genes? No one really knows. Removing bison having only genes from domesticated cattle requires the DNA testing to differentiate between those genes belonging to both cattle and bison ancestors from genes belonging only to domesticated cattle. This would require a complete mapping, or sequencing, of the bison genome [Gears], which to date has not been performed. Except for the Yellowstone and the Henry Mountains herds, and more recently the American Prairie Reserve herd, all bison most likely have at least some cattle genes. Derr has found cattle genes in approximately 64% of US federally managed herds [7].
The Gear position, though, does not address the cross-breeding that did take place on private ranches in the US and performed by the Canadian government into the 1960s. There is no doubt the cross-breeding occurred and a few studies have suggested that introgression has been detrimental to bison [8].
Purifying the herds of cattle-gene introgression along with the movement to list wild bison under the Endangered Species Act presents another potential issue if such listing would succeed, according to the Gears. Some are arguing that the scarcity bison without cattle ancestry qualifies wild bison as an endangered species. Under the ESA the sale or transporting of bison free of cattle genes could be punishable by a $50,000 fine and one year in prison per charge. Ranchers or farmers owning bison without cattle ancestry could find themselves being charged under the ESA if they would try to sell or move their bison. The argument to list wild, pure, bison as endangered, then, could lead to conflicts with current legal definitions governing the status of bison.
Yet, legal recognition of plains bison as wildlife is required if the wild genome is to be restored on federal lands. But this seems unlikely at this time. Most states do not recognize wild bison (see March 2019 post, Legal Status of the American Bison), and the federal government will not restore wild plains bison without support from the affected states. This could change if the Fish and Wildlife Service would recognize the threat domestication represents to the wild genome, and lists the plains bison as a threatened or endangered species [9].
In any event, the greater goal is to restore wildness to the bison genome. Reducing cattle-gene introgression to low levels and letting nature takes it course, may over time swamp the cattle genes. Achieving absolute purity may not be needed if the other actions to promote the wild genome are taken [10].
Artificial Selection:
Purifying the conservation herds of cattle-introgression, though, is not enough to preserve the wild genome and promote genetic diversity. Artificial selection, caused by human intervention, must be minimized as much as possible. The complete elimination of human intervention may not be feasible. No matter how large the land parcel may be, fencing will still be required to keep bison out of private lands. Handling, needed for testing, culling and transporting of animals, will also be involved in implementing the other objectives.
Various mechanisms threaten the existence of the wild bison genome, requiring various strategies to thwart the threat. These strategies and their implementation, however, present conflicting objectives, which may require trade-offs, and issues, which demand solutions. But the restoration of the wild genome and the promotion of genetic diversity cannot wait until all issues have been fully resolved to all interested parties’ satisfaction. Fortunately, efforts are proceeding to realize the necessary objectives (e.g., The American Prairie Reserve, the Buffalo Field Campaign, etc.) while work continues to resolve the obstacles still in the way.
End Notes:
[1] Hedrick, Paul W. “Conservation of Genetics and North American Bison (Bison bison).” Journal of Heredity 2009: 100(4): 411-420.
[2] Heidebrink, Scott, Bison Restoration Manager, American Prairie Reserve. Email to author 03-Oct-2019.
[3] Bailey, 180. Baily, James A. 2013. American Plains Bison: Rewilding an Icon. Sweetgrass Books. Helena, MT.
[4] American Prairie Reserve Bison Report 2016-2017. Retrieved 10-Oct-2019 from Also, Bailey, 207.
[5] Bailey, 207.
[6] The Gears are well-known authors of over 50 novels. They may be best known for their People of the Earth series. In addition to writing novels, they raise bison.
[7] O’Neal Gear, Kathleen and Gear, Michael W. August 2010.“Bison Genetics—The New War Against Bison.”
[8] Geist, Darrell, Habitat Coordinator. Buffalo Field Campaign. Email to author 19-Sep-2019.
[9] Bailey, 220.
[10] Bailey, 214.
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Explore How Chromatography Can Unmix Mixtures
Create Assignment
Recommended Project Supplies
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Areas of Science Chemistry
Time Required Very Short (≤ 1 day)
Prerequisites None
Cost Low ($20 - $50)
Did you know that mixtures can be unmixed? Chromatography is an analytical technique in chemistry to separate mixtures and identify each of its individual compounds. In this project, you will separate ink dyes found in different markers using a strip of paper, chalk and different liquids. By comparing different chromatography substrates and solvents, you will learn how different attractive forces between substances can affect the separation of a mixture into its individual components.
The objective of this project is to compare different chromatography substrates and solvents to see which combination performs best for separating ink components.
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Author: Amber Hess
Editor: Andrew Olson, Science Buddies
Edited by Svenja Lohner, PhD, Science Buddies
Cite This Page
MLA Style
Science Buddies Staff. "Explore How Chromatography Can Unmix Mixtures." Science Buddies, 12 Jan. 2020, https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Chem_p009/chemistry/paper-chromatography-advanced-version-1?class=AQUkVKdV61DSFLYdQeCMruCyOIoR91TiBkCTy1y6tLIovSWgEBdJT3u9o-BjsNF7w7fSUBTSyp5TiY_mb6HvD3KJ. Accessed 16 Feb. 2020.
APA Style
Science Buddies Staff. (2020, January 12). Explore How Chromatography Can Unmix Mixtures. Retrieved from https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Chem_p009/chemistry/paper-chromatography-advanced-version-1?class=AQUkVKdV61DSFLYdQeCMruCyOIoR91TiBkCTy1y6tLIovSWgEBdJT3u9o-BjsNF7w7fSUBTSyp5TiY_mb6HvD3KJ
Last edit date: 2020-01-12
Matter makes up everything in the universe. Our body, the stars, computers, and coffee mugs are all made of matter. There are three different types of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Matter is often a mixture of different substances. A heterogeneous mixture is when the mixture is made up of parts that are dissimilar (sand is a heterogeneous mixture). Homogeneous mixtures (also called solutions) are uniform in structure (milk is a homogeneous mixture). A sugar cube floating in water is a heterogeneous mixture, whereas sugar dissolved in water is a homogeneous mixture. In a mixture, the substance dissolved in another substance is called the solute. The substance doing the dissolving is called the solvent. If you dissolve sugar in water, the sugar is the solute and the water is the solvent.
In this project, you will be using paper chromatography to unmix the individual components of marker ink. Chromatography is a technique, that is used to separate the various components in a complex mixture or solution. In each chromatography apparatus there is generally a mobile phase, which is a fluid that runs along the stationary phase, and a stationary phase, that stays stationary while the mobile phase moves through. You will be making a small spot with an ink marker onto a strip of paper. The bottom of this strip will then be placed in a dish of water, and the water will soak up into the paper. The water is the mobile phase of the chromatography system, whereas the paper is the stationary phase. These two phases are the basic principles of chromatography. Chromatography works by something called capillary action. The attraction of the water to the paper (adhesion force) is larger than the attraction of the water to itself (cohesion force), hence the water moves up the paper. The ink will also be attracted to the paper, to itself, and to the water differently, and thus a different component will move a different distance depending upon the strength of attraction to each of these objects, as shown in Figure 1. As an analogy, let's pretend you are at a family reunion. You enjoy giving people hugs and talking with your relatives, but your cousin does not. As you make your way to the door to leave, you give a hug to every one of your relatives, and your cousin just says "bye." So, your cousin will make it to the door more quickly than you will. You are more attracted to your relatives, just as some chemical samples may be more attracted to the paper than the solvent, and thus will not move up the solid phase as quickly. Your cousin is more attracted to the idea of leaving, which is like the solvent (the mobile phase).
Diagram of a homemade paper chromatography testing box
Equation 1:
In our example, this would be:
Polarity has a huge affect on how attracted a chemical is to other substances. Some molecules have a positively charged side and a negatively charged side, similar to a magnet. The positive side is attracted to the negative side of another molecule (opposites attract), and vice versa. The larger the charge difference, the more polar a molecule is. The reason for the unequal charge is that electrons (which are negatively charged) are not shared equally by each atom (in water, the negative electrons are more attracted to the oxygen because of its atomic structure). Some molecules, like vegetable oil, are neutral and do not have a charge associated with them; they are called nonpolar molecules. Polarity affects many of a molecule's properties, such as its affinity to water. Water is a highly polar molecule, so other polar molecules are easily attracted to it. A molecule is called hydrophilic if it dissolves well in water (hydrophilic essentially means "loves water"). A nonpolar molecule, such as oil, does not dissolve well in water, and thus it is hydrophobic ("fears water"). Oil would rather stick to itself than to water, and this is why it forms a layer across water instead of mixing with it. In chromatography, the polarity of the solvent determines how strongly the individual components of the mixture are attracted to the mobile phase versus the stationary phase. Therefore, the separation process will be dependent on the polarity of both phases.
Figure 3 below shows water molecules bonding with one another (hydrogen bonding). The negatively charged oxygen atom (red) on one water molecule is attracted to the positively charged hydrogen atom (white) on another water molecule.
Drawing of water molecules bonding
Molecules of water are made of a single oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Oxygen atoms have a negative charge and hydrogen atoms have a positive charge. Hydrogen bonds can form between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of different water molecules.
Figure 3. Hydrogen bond formation between two adjacent water molecules.
Figure 4 shows a fatty acid (a component of fat molecules) bonding with water. The hydrophobic tail is not attracted to the water, and thus it stands upright out of the water. The hydrophilic head is attracted to the water, which bonds to it. Many fatty acid molecules bonded together can form a layer above the water. Carbon atoms are represented by black circles.
Diagram of a fatty acid molcule bonding with the negatively charge oxygen atoms in water molecules
The head of a fatty acid molecule can create a hydrogen bond with water molecules. Hydrogen can bond to carbon atoms in the fatty acid and subsequent oxygen atoms in water can bond to the hydrogen attached to the carbon.
Figure 4. Hydrogen bond formation between a fatty acid molecule and a water molecule.
In this science project, you will explore how the use of different stationary and mobile phases can affect the separation of marker ink. You will use chalk, chromatography paper, isopropyl alcohol, acetone, turpentine, and water. Which combination of these results in the best unmixing of marker ink?
Terms and Concepts
• Heterogeneous mixture
• Homogeneous mixture
• Solute
• Solvent
• Paper chromatography
• Mobile phase
• Stationary phase
• Capillary action
• Adhesion force
• Cohesion force
• Rf value
• Polarity
• Hydrophilic
• Hydrophobic
• How does the polarity of a substance affect how far it travels up the chalk/paper?
• Are the polarities of the chalk and the paper different? If yes, how will this affect the spreading of the different inks?
Here are some basic chemistry and chromatography resources: These resources will give you more information about chromatography and teach you about the types of chromatography used in research labs today:
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Materials and Equipment Product Kit Available
• Chromatography paper strips. The kit comes with 20 strips; additional chromatography paper can be purchased separately from our partner Home Science Tools.
• 90% isopropyl alcohol
• 100 mL beaker
• Mini binder clips (2)
• Wooden splints
• Different types of black markers (including a permanent marker)
You will also need to gather these items:
• Water
• Acetone (nail polish remover) or turpentine
• At least 30 pieces of thin chalk (same size)
• Ruler
• Pencils
Recommended Project Supplies
Project Kit: $34.95
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Experimental Procedure
Separating the Ink Components
Note: To make sure you can compare your results, as many of your materials as possible should remain constant. This means that the temperature, brand of solvents used, size of paper strips/chalk, where the ink is placed onto the chalk/paper etc. should remain the same throughout the experiment.
1. Take a piece of chalk and etch a small ring two cm from the end.
2. Take the black marker and thinly trace inside of the etched ring.
3. Pour a small amount of your your first solvent (water) into the 100 mL beaker.
4. Place the chalk upright in the beaker with the ink on the bottom (the ink should be above the solvent level, it must not be submerged or touching the liquid).
5. Let the solvent rise up the chalk until it is almost at the top.
6. Remove the chalk from the dish and mark how far the solvent rose with a pencil.
7. Analyze the separated ink components.
1. Measure the distance the solvent and each ink component traveled from the starting position, then calculate the Rf value for each component. (If there are not different colors in the ink, you should use a different marker.)
8. Repeat the experiment for each brand of marker three times.
Changing the Stationary and Mobile Phase
Note: Using your knowledge of polarity and the results from your first trial for this marker brand, predict the order this ink will separate for each solvent and stationary phase.
1. Repeat the experiment, but instead of water, use a different mobile phase, such as isopropyl alcohol, nail polish remover, or turpentine. Again, repeat the chromatography procedure for each solvent and marker three times.
2. Next, repeat the experiment with paper as stationary phase instead of chalk. Instead of etching into the paper, use a ruler and pencil to draw a line across it horizontally two cm from the bottom. Place a small dot of ink onto the line. Then use the mini binder clips and wooden splints to hang the paper strip into the beaker of solvent so it is barely touching. For more details on how to do this, see Paper Chromatography: Is Black Ink Really Black?
3. Experiment with different combinations of stationary and mobile phases. Which combination results in the best separation?
For all of these questions, be sure to consider molecular structures and polarity.
• Which ink components were the most polar for each brand? Least polar? How do you know?
• How did the separation order differ for each solvent system, marker brand, and solid phase? Why?
• How did the Rf values differ for each solvent system, maker brand and solid phase? Why?
• Which combination of solid phase and solvent separated out each brand of marker the best?
• Were your initial predictions correct?
An example of the experiment:
Picture of chemist
NASA material scientist
Materials Scientist and Engineer
female chemical engineer at work
Chemical Engineer
female chemical technician monitoring experiment
Chemical Technician
• It is very easy to make this project more advanced without doing much additional work. You could test how changing the pH of the water and/or changing the temperature of the solvents affects your results. For changes in temperature, do a few levels of temperature difference: refrigerated, room temperature, and warm (do not let the solvents get so hot they boil). Changing the level of pH is easy, just add a small amount of acid (diluted hydrochloric or sulfuric acid will work). Test the pH of the water with litmus paper, and try a variety of different acidic pHs (maybe a pH of 2, 4, and 7). What is pH? Look here:
• Instead of analyzing different inks, you could analyze the compounds found in a plant; see:
Discover Chlorophyll Variety in Different Plants Using Paper Chromatography
• For a more basic chromatography project, see:
Paper Chromatography: Is Black Ink Really Black?
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Home Skills
Our teens will learn basic home skills such as:
1. Locate water main to turn on/off water
2. Locate circuit breaker and learn which fuses power which rooms
3. Basic plumbing including fixing leaking toilets and faucets
4. Learn how to operate and maintain a lawnmower and weed eater
5. Learn how to properly operate power tools such as saws, grinders, sanders, etc.
6. Learn simple woodworking skills in order to build sturdy lasting items for the house
7. Learn how to wire computers, radios, speakers, routers, etc.
8. Learn how to paint a room correctly
9. Learn how to perform basic house repair general housing maintenance
10. Learn how to how to find the right accommodation or housing options
11. Manage utilities and pay bills
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Tag Archives: Jewish Heroes of Boxing
Max Baer and Barney Ross: Jewish Heroes of Boxing
Jeffrey Sussman, Rowman and Littlefield, 2016. 193 pages with photographs.
Reviewed by Len Abram
Jews were a vital part of the ascendancy of boxing. From 1901 to 1939, according to boxing historian Mike Silver, they produced 29 world champions, about 16% of the total. Why did Jews enter boxing in such numbers? Why would sweatshop workers spend a $1 to see a match when they earned perhaps $5 a week?
Jeffrey Sussman’s answers these questions by focusing on two Jewish world champions, Max Baer and Barney Ross. Others have written at greater length about Baer and Ross, their careers and lives. Sussman, however, focuses on the significance of their popularity. Part American history and part family nostalgia, Sussman’s book deals with what Jews did for boxing and what boxing did for Jews.
The two fighters didn’t begin from scratch. They had predecessors, who fought before them and made their achievements if not possible, at least more likely. The great lightweight Benny Leonard, oft quoted for calling boxing a game of chess more than brawn, and Abe Attell , “the Little Hebrew,” were both early Jewish champions. Leonard won the Lightweight championship at age 21 in 1917 and defended it seven times. His success, Sussman says, undermined anti-Semitic stereotypes. Attell was Featherweight champion from 1906 to 1912, with a reputation of being afraid of no one.
Baer and Ross were unalike in many ways. Baer, of course, was a heavyweight and Ross a world champion in three lighter divisions. Beryl Rosofsky (Barney Ross) came from the Jewish ghetto in New York City, his parents Orthodox Jews, his father a Talmudic scholar. The neighborhood was dangerous; Ross’s father was killed in a robbery. Max Baer grew up in rural California, a farm, his mother a Gentile, and his father a non-practicing Jew. Both fighters wore the star of David on their trunks, but for Baer, it may have been to promote his bout with the German Schmeling, a favorite of the Nazis. Regardless, Baer wore the Jewish symbol for the rest of his career. Like Ross, he accepted his role to represent Jews.
Their boxing styles were also different. Baer was a big heavyweight, over six feet and 220 pounds, whose right hand punch was so powerful that he won over 50 fights by knockout. He was also famous for not training hard, a handsome man, who later became a movie star, more involved in gossipy romances, than in hours at the gym. He relied on that powerful punch to stay competitive. Ross was of medium height, no more than 147 pounds as a welterweight. He was the superior athlete, who trained hard, winning championships in three different divisions. Rather than a slugger, Ross was a “scientific” fighter, following the Benny Leonard model, boxing as a chess game.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Jews faced rising anti-Semitism, both here and abroad. Here, Father Charles Coughlin spoke to millions on the radio about Jewish bankers controlling our country. Industrialist Henry Ford, whom Hitler admired, published that a Jewish conspiracy was out to control the world. National hero Charles Lindbergh accused the Jews of pushing America into war with Germany.
When Max Baer stepped into the ring in 1933 to fight Hitler’s favorite boxer, Max Schmeling, the star of David on Baer’s trunks proclaimed that the Jews had a champion. Victorious, Baer became the first Jewish heavyweight champion. Ross’s famous bout with Jimmy McLarnin in 1935 had a similar appeal for Jewish fans: McLarnin was called the “Hebrew Scourge” because he defeated so many Jewish boxers. Ross won the decision. Although neither Schmeling nor McLarnin were anti-Semites, they were painted by social conflicts of the time.
Jews in boxing became “symbols of courage and defiance in age rife with anti-Semitism,” Sussman concludes.
After Baer and Ross retired, Baer went to Hollywood to make movies, one of which was banned in Germany because Baer was Jewish or defeated Shmeling, no one is sure. When World War II began, Baer joined the Army. When war broke out, Ross at age 32 (and plagued with gambling debts) joined the Marines and volunteered for combat.
On Guadalcanal, Ross was badly wounded, yet saved what was left of his platoon against many Japanese attackers. He won the Silver Star, but the narcotics he received for his wounds lead to life-altering addiction. At the infamous rock bottom addicts often face, Ross put himself into drug treatment. Successful, he later he lectured to youngsters about the dangers of drugs. Ross was a strong supporter of the state of Israel. The star of David, like the one on his trunks, is on the stone marker of his grave.
The sport of boxing is in decline, Sussman admits, certainly far from its golden era. He notes that mob influence tainted the sport, along with exploitive managers and promoters, indifferent to the wellbeing of the boxer. The threat to a boxer’s health from brain damage, pugilistic dementia, also hastened the decline. Today, the professions and trades have more to offer young people than the ring. The sport appears to be more popular in films than in arenas.
Yet, for a time, Jews found champions in boxing to defend and to affirm them until acceptance as valued members, to share and to shape American life.
(This review first appeared in the Jewish Advocate.)
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National Disability History
Disability Rights Movement by the Smithsonian National Museum of History
Disability History Week information States are taking an important step in the promotion of further understanding and awareness of disability history and the disability rights movement by designating a week (or more) to acknowledge the role and contributions of individuals with disabilities in our society. During an established Disability History Week, states will require their public schools to infuse instruction and activities related to disability history into the existing school curriculum.
Fun Facts
The Huddle
The football huddle was invented at a college for people who are deaf—Gallaudet University in Washington DC—as a means of hiding signals from other deaf teams.
"When Gallaudet played nondeaf clubs or schools, [quarterback Paul] Hubbard merely used hand signals—American Sign Language—to call a play at the line of scrimmage, imitating what was done in football from Harvard to Michigan. Both teams approached the line of scrimmage. The signal caller—whether it was the left halfback or quarterback—barked out the plays at the line of scrimmage. Nothing was hidden from the defense. There was no huddle.
"Hand signals against nondeaf schools gave Gallaudet an advantage. But other deaf schools could read Hubbard's sign language. So, beginning in 1894, Hubbard came up with a plan. He decided to conceal the signals by gathering his offensive players in a huddle prior to the snap of the ball. ... Hubbard's innovation in 1894 worked brilliantly. 'From that point on, the huddle became a habit during regular season games,' states a school history of the football program. ...
"In 1896, the huddle started showing up on other college campuses, particularly the University of Georgia and the University of Chicago. At Chicago, it was Amos Alonzo Stagg, the man credited with nurturing American football into the modern age and barnstorming across the country to sell the game, who popularized the use of the huddle and made the best case for it. ...
"At the time, coaches were not permitted to send in plays from the sideline. So, while Stagg clearly understood the benefit of concealing the signals from the opposition, he was more interested in the huddle as a way of introducing far more reaching reforms to the game.
"Stagg viewed the huddle as a vital aspect of helping to teach sportsmanship. He viewed the huddle as a kind of religious congregation on the field, a place where the players could, if you will, minister to each other, make a plan, and promise to keep faith in that plan and one another."
Quotes from How Football Explains America by Sal Paolantonio, published by Triumph Books, 2008
Guide Dogs
Many people associate the use of trained guide dogs, particularly by people who are blind or visually impaired, with the story of Morris Frank, a young man from Nashville who was blind. In the late 1920s, Frank agreed to start a guide dog training program in the United States in gratitude for receiving his first guide dog from Dorothy Eustis, a wealthy American who was training and breeding dogs for the customs service, army and police in Switzerland. However, the history of trained dogs to assist people who are blind goes much deeper into history.
There is convincing evidence that people with vision loss have been working with canine companions, protectors and guides for centuries. The ruins of the Roman city of Herculaneum, which was buried in volcanic ash in AD 79, contain a mural showing a blind person being guided by a dog. There are also pictures from the Middle Ages showing people who appear to be blind walking with a dog on a leash.
The first verified attempt to train guide dogs happened at a hospital people who were blind in Paris in 1780; by the early 19th century, a textbook describing techniques for training guide dogs was published in Vienna by Johann Wilhelm Klein.
Today, guide dogs are commonly used across the globe by people who are blind or visually impaired, but also by people with a variety of other disabilities. Currently, about 10,000 people use trained guide dogs in the U.S. and Canada.
Adapted from:The Extraordinary History of Guide Dogs:
CNIB: A History of Guide Dogs:
New! RALPH TEETOR: Inventor of Cruise Control
Ralph Teetor (1890 – 1982) was a noted engineer and inventor, best known for his invention of Cruise Control for automobiles. An accident at the age of five left him totally blind, and he developed a keen sense of touch. In 1912, Teetor graduated from the University of Pennsylvania with a degree in mechanical engineering. In 1936, Teetor was elected as president of the Society of Automotive Engineers. He was also made a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the planetarium and one of the residence houses at Earlham College are named in Teetor's honor. One of the Society of Automotive Engineers’ most prestigious awards is named in Teetor's honor. His career as an engineer, manufacturing executive and entrepreneur led to the invention of many helpful products, including an early version of the powered lawn mower, lock mechanisms and holders for fishing rods.
But Teetor is best known for his invention of Cruise Control for automobiles, which he was inspired to invent one day while riding with his lawyer. The lawyer would slow down while talking and speed up while listening. The rocking motion so annoyed Teetor that he was determined to invent a speed control device. In 1945, after ten years of tinkering, Ralph Teetor received his first patent on a speed control device. Early names for his invention included "Controlmatic,” "Touchomatic,” "Pressomatic" and "Speedostat." The name finally chosen was "Cruise Control.” The device wasn't used commercially until Chrysler introduced it in 1958.
In 1988, Teetor was posthumously inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in Dearborn, Michigan, for his numerous contributions to the automotive industry.
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Geckos evolve rapidly in Brazil after new dam constructed
Source: Science Magazine
The construction of a dam in central Brazil has spurred remarkably fast evolution of geckos in the region. In just 15 years, the lizards’ heads have grown larger—an adaptation that allows them to eat a wider assortment of insects made available by the dam’s creation. The find may portend other rapid evolutionary changes across the globe as humans continue to dramatically alter the natural landscape.
Starting in 1996, the dam flooded a series of valleys in Brazil’s savannalike Cerrado region, creating nearly 300 islands out of what was once high ground. Many of the area’s largest lizard species disappeared from the new islands, likely because there wasn’t enough food to support their energy needs. But a small, dragonfly-sized gecko called Gymnodactylus amarali—a termite eater once common across the flooded area—persisted on at least some of them. This created an opportunity: Larger termites, which had previously been eaten by the larger lizards, were now readily available to the geckos.
But there was a hitch. The geckos had small heads—only 1 centimeter wide—and some of the termites were nearly the same size. Eating them presented a challenge, kind of like a house cat trying to put a squirrel in its mouth.
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