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Area Position
The climbers know their area position: they are in the general area of Fantastic Crags (fig. 4-13). They want to determine line position and then, from that, point position. To move from knowing area position to knowing point position, two trustworthy pieces of information are needed.
The climbers may be able to use bearings on two visible features. They take a bearing on Mount Majestic and get a reading of 40 degrees. They plot a line on the map, through Mount Majestic, at 40 degrees. They know they must be somewhere on that bearing line, so they now have line position. They can also see Unsavory Spire. A bearing on the spire shows 130 degrees. They plot a line on the map, through Unsavory Spire, at 130 degrees. The two bearing lines intersect, and that's where they are.
When you know the area position and there is just one visible feature to take a bearing on, the compass can't provide anything more than line
Surviving the Wild Outdoors
Surviving the Wild Outdoors
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What Is the Habitat of the Purple Martin?
What Is the Habitat of the Purple Martin?
The typical male purple martin has a wingspan of nearly a foot and can be as long as 8 inches; this makes the purple martin the largest of the swallows living in North America. A voracious consumer of insects on the wing, the purple martin resides where it will be able to find its favorite meal-bugs.
There are large populations of purple martins in the eastern portion of the United States and isolated pockets of the birds in the west; the birds go as far north as central Canada and spend the winter in South America.
During the winter months the martins will inhabit rainforests and cleared tracts of land in countries like Argentina and Brazil, even roosting in large numbers in the villages there.
Martins will head north and south using three major routes. One is over Mexico's eastern portion, another is over Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico, and another is along the East Coast.
In the eastern United States, martins will depend on people to provide them with nest boxes, which are strategically placed near a source of water and by open territory where the martins have space to forage for insects.
Western Habitat
In the western part of the country these birds will inhabit the forested areas at elevations between 1,500 and 4,000 feet, next to beaver ponds where insects are plentiful.
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How to use the 5W’s
The 5Ws
Who, What, Where, When, Why. Sometimes how is added to this list.
• What occurs in the story. The actions taken be people, events that happen.
• Identifying What happens – and also who did it or caused it – A worksheet
Where involves the physical location of the story. While this may seem straight forward it can be important to really understand the location and it’s significance (historically, physically, spiritually, politically and culturally) .
For example, hearing Jesus is in Galilee lets us know he is near his home town, but knowing he is currently in the middle of the lake, on a fishing boat, in the middle of the storm brings a different understanding to the narrative than knowing he is in a friends house having a meal on a sunny day.
Where is the location of the story – A worksheet
What is the location of the story. What country are they in, what part of the country are they in? What are the physical characteristics of the part of the country they are in. what is around them, both in close proximity but also further away that may affect this story.
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Wind Chimes
Get Wind Chimes essential facts below. View Videos or join the Wind Chimes discussion. Add Wind Chimes to your PopFlock.com topic list for future reference or share this resource on social media.
Wind Chimes
A metal wind chime
Ancient Rome
Bronze tintinnabulum, Roman, 1st century AD, British Museum.
Eastern and Southern Asia
Sounds and music
Wind chime with the audible tones a1-d2-f2-g2-a2-d3-f3-a3. The bamboo cylinder is not only the case of the instrument, but at the same time it is the resonator. The eight tones are produced by eight metal rods within the cylinder which are centrally struck by a disk attached to the cord with the wind sail.
Chimes produce inharmonic (as opposed to harmonic) spectra, although if they are hung at about 2/9 of their length[5] (22.4%[6][7]), some of the higher partials are damped and the fundamental rings the loudest.[7] This is common practice in high-quality wind chimes, which are also usually hung so the centre ball strikes the centre of the wind chime's length, also resulting in the loudest sounding fundamental.[7] Frequency is determined by the length, width, thickness, and material. There are formulas [7] that help predict the proper length to achieve a particular note, though a bit of fine tuning is often needed.
In instruments such as organ pipes, the pitch is determined primarily by the length of the air column, because it is the resonance of the air column that generates the sound. The pipe material helps determine the "timbre" or "voice" of the pipe, but the air column determines the pitch. In a wind chime, the vibrations of the pipe itself radiate the sound after being struck, so the air column has little to do with the pitch being produced.
Sound can be produced when the tubes or rods come in contact with a suspended central clapper in the form of a ball or horizontal disk, or with each other.
Wind chimes may be used to observe changes in wind direction, depending on where they are hung when they commence to sound.
Due to the quality of the sounds they make, they are also often referred to as the cling clang things.[8][not in citation given]
A close-up of metal rods on a wind chime.
Wind chimes can be made of materials other than metal or wood and in shapes other than tubes or rods. Other wind chimes materials include glass, bamboo, shell, stone, earthenware, stoneware, beads, keys and porcelain.[9] More exotic items, such as silverware or cookie cutters, can also be recycled to create wind chimes.[10] The selected material can have a large effect on the sound a wind chime produces. The sounds produced by recycling objects such as these are not tunable to specific notes and range from pleasant tinkling to dull thuds. The sounds produced by properly sized wind chime tubes are tunable to notes.[7] As aluminum is the common metal with the lowest internal damping, wind chimes are often made from aluminum to achieve the longest and loudest sounding chime.
The tone depends on factors such as the material, the exact alloy, heat treatment, and whether a solid cylinder or a tube is used. If a tube is used, the wall thickness also affects the tone. Tone may also depend on the hanging method. The tone quality also depends on the material of the object that is used to hit the chimes.
With clay wind chimes, the higher the final firing temperature, the higher and more ringing the resulting tone. Earthenware clay fired at lower temperatures produces a duller sound than stoneware clay fired at higher temperatures. Stoneware wind chimes are also more durable and able to resist stronger winds without suffering chipping or damage.
Mathematics of tubular wind chimes
The mode 1 (lowest frequency) vibration of a free Euler-Bernoulli beam of length 1
A wind chime constructed of a circular tube may be modelled as a freely vibrating Euler-Bernoulli beam[11] and the dominant frequency in cycles per second is given by:
where L is the length of the tube, E is the Young's modulus for the tube material, I is the second moment of area of the tube, and μ is the mass per unit length of the tube. Young's modulus E is a constant for a given material. If the inner radius of the tube is ri and the outer radius is ro, then the second moment of area for an axis perpendicular to the axis of the tube is:
The mass per unit length is:
where ρ is the density of the tube material. The frequency is then
where W=ro-ri is the wall thickness and D is the average diameter D=ro+ri. For sufficiently thin-walled tubes the W2 term may be neglected, and for a given material, the main frequency is inversely proportional to L2 and proportional to the diameter D.
For the main mode of vibration, there will be two nodes on the tube, where the tube is motionless during the vibration. These nodes will be located at a distance of 22.416% of the length of the tube from each end of the tube. If the tube is simply supported (not clamped) at one or both of these nodes, the tube will vibrate as if these supports did not exist. A wind chime will give the clearest and loudest tone when it is hung using one of these node points as the attachment point. These attachment points are also the same as used by other similar instrument such as the xylophone and glockenspiel.
Use in music
David Sitek with a wind chime suspended from his guitar.
Different types of wind chimes have also been used in modern music and are listed as a percussion instrument. The following is a brief list of artists and composers who have used them:
• The Japanese video game franchise Pokémon used the Japanese f?rin wind chimes as the basis for the Pokémon Chimecho. Its in-game cry reflects this, as it sounds like three high-pitched bells chiming one after the other.
• Mark trees are often mistakenly called wind chimes, but they are different instruments, though with a basic similar structure consisting of tubes of differing lengths that are meant to produce a tinkling or chiming sound.[]
Wind chime images
See also
External links
1. ^ Catherine Johns (1982). Sex or Symbol?: Erotic Images of Greece and Rome. Taylor & Francis. pp. 66-68.
2. ^ "Bronze phallic wind chime (tintinabulum)". British Museum.
3. ^ Westcott, Wendell (1970). "Chapter 1: Bells of the Orient". Bells and Their Music. G.P. Putnam. LCCN 76077762.
4. ^ Amano, Kenichi; Kawakami, Takashi (May 28, 2007). "Foreign tourists find real Tokyo". The Nikkei Weekly.
5. ^ Sethares, William A. (2005). Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale, p.115. ISBN 9781846281136.
6. ^ "Physics of Music: Make your own wind chimes". Michigan Tech. Michigan Tech. 2009-01-08.
7. ^ a b c d e "Giant, Ominous Wind Chimes". Milwaukee Makerspace. 2011-09-29.
8. ^ "the definition of wind chime". Dictionary.com. Retrieved .
9. ^ "Wind chimes". Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary. Virginia Tech. 2009-01-08.
10. ^ MacKenzie, Peggy (August 25, 2007). "Crafted silver chimes hit right note; Retooled cutlery the meat and potatoes of woman's successful small business". The Toronto Star. pp. H05.
11. ^ Hite, Lee. "Say it with Chimes". Retrieved .
12. ^ Anderman, Joan (October 15, 2008). "Connecting with TV on the Radio". The Boston Globe. pp. B07.
Music Scenes
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How Foot Binding Worked
Foot Binding: Cultural Effects
Once foot binding became entrenched in the culture, it was impossible to stop. Bound feet became the norm; unbound feet were seen as freakish, lewd and ugly. And while mothers undoubtedly hated to inflict pain on their daughters, leaving their feet unbound was never considered. For if a mother didn't bind her daughter's feet, her daughter would be ridiculed by other women and would almost assuredly never snag a husband. A young girl could be lifted out of poverty if her feet were small and perfectly curved, because that was more important to men than her social status [source: Holman].
Foot binding also fostered the dominance of men over women. Since it was difficult for a woman to walk with bound feet -- the farthest she could walk was 3 or 4 miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) -- Chinese women never strayed far from home, nor had much contact with others outside their villages. This made them more conservative and more willing to obey their husbands. Their diminished mobility virtually ensured they couldn't have extramarital affairs, or run away to escape a beating when their husbands were displeased. As foot binding became entrenched during the Song dynasty (960-1279), education for women was strictly curtailed and independent property rights outlawed [sources: Evans, Ross, Holman].
On a more positive note, foot binding also created strong intergenerational bonds among the women, since they did all the binding and also had their feet bound. Women were proud of their tiny feet. They regularly got together to sew their shoes, which were a major fashion statement [source: Gillet].
Beyond relationships, foot binding reshaped China's architecture. The Chinese began building only single-story homes because it was so difficult for women to climb stairs. Streets and lanes were very narrow because the women needed to lean upon walls or railings when they walked [source: Ross].
Amazingly, foot binding also affected the world's colonization. While Westerners were rapidly exploring the globe and colonizing vast swaths of land, the Chinese opted out. Their women couldn't travel easily or perform the difficult manual labor necessary when pioneering a new country, and the men didn't want to leave their women. The few Chinese who did settle new lands were almost all from the ethnic groups that didn't practice binding [source: Ross].
Perhaps the most intriguing and bizarre cultural effect of foot binding, however, was the development of foot fetishes and the sexualizing of the bound foot.
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English novelist and journalist, author of Robinson Crusoe, a story of a man shipwrecked alone on an island. Along with Samuel Richardson, Defoe is considered the founder of the English novel as before his time stories were usually written as long poems or dramas. He produced some 200 works of nonfiction prose in addition to close on 2,000 short essays in periodical publications, several of which he also edited.
Defoe was born as the son of James Foe, a butcher of Stoke Newington near London. He studied at Charles Morton's Academy, London. Although his Nonconformist father intended him for the ministry, Defoe plunged into politics and trade, travelling extensively in Europe. Throughout his life Defoe also wrote about merchantile projects, but his business ventures failed and left him with large debts.
In the early 1680s Defoe was a commission merchant in Cornhill but went bankrupt in 1691. In 1684 he married Mary Tuffley; they had two sons and five daughters. Defoe was involved in the 1685 Monmouth rebellion against King James II. Later he became a supporter of William II, joining his army in 1688, and gaining a mercenary reputation because of his change of allegiance.
In 1702 he published a pamphlet "The Shortest Way with the Dissenters" which caused a public and private uproar and with a warrant out for his arrest Defoe was forced to become a fugitive. In 1703 he was caught and convicted for sedition. He managed to escape but was recaptured and placed in the pillory.
In 1706 he suffered from a second bankruptcy after the failure of a brick factory which he had set up. Seven years later he was arrested at least twice for political reasons, suffering a libel charge which was eventually dropped. Then in 1719 he published the first part of the novel which was to make his name, and change the face of English literature forever, "Robinson Crusoe".
A year later he published "Memoirs of a Cavalier, Captain Singleton" and in 1722 two of his most famous and well-received works, "Moll Flanders" and a historical record "A Journal of the Plague Year"
In 1724-1726 he published what is probably the world's first ever travel guide, "A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain" which not only increased his fame but made him a moderately wealthy man. Two years after the completion of this work an old creditor tracked him down and once more there was a lawsuit against him. Defoe was forced to go into hiding and on April 24, 1731 he died, still wanted by the law.
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Scientists and artists make movies together
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Scientists and artists make movies together
Ron Henderson, director of research and development at DreamWorks Animation, works on equations for the fluid dynamics behind a fluid simulation technology that gives animation artists the tools to work on the upcoming movie "Home" as they draw soap bubbles inhabited by diminutive aliens called the Boov. Photo: Al Seib/Los Angeles Times/MCT
In a small office, Ron Henderson was busy writing out equations.
Henderson is a physicist — a scientist who studies matter, energy, force and motion. The equations were Isaac Newton’s Three Laws of Motion.
Henderson explained that Newton's laws are behind a computer program he has developed. The program will soon help a group of artists with a difficult task: making three-dimensional bubbles that look almost real.
Henderson used to be a physics professor at Caltech. These days he works at DreamWorks Animation in California.
Animated films are cartoons that last as long as a movie. In the past, they were drawn entirely by hand. Now artists produce them on a computer.
Scientists Get To Be Creative
Artists working on the upcoming movie "Home" have a challenging job: They have to produce a lot of pictures of three-dimensional soap bubbles. Tiny aliens called the Boov live in the bubbles.
Henderson's computer program will be very important for the task. It will make those bubbles look as real as possible.
“What we’re doing here is creating tools for artists,” Henderson said. “I think it’s going to be a success.”
Henderson is only one of many scientists who now work in the movie business.
Animation artists rely more and more on people like Henderson. The scientists help them produce realistic-looking water, fire, dust and so on.
The effects in many animated movies are "incredibly complicated,” said computer scientist Paul Debevec. To get them right, you need "real scientists.”
Special Effects Can Be Tricky
DreamWorks has one of the largest groups of scientists: around 120 in all.
DreamWorks has even hired biologists. Biologists study humans, plants and animals. They are there to show artists how to correctly draw such things as tree branches.
Henderson finds working at DreamWorks very satisfying.
Science can be "very lonely,” he said. “I wanted to have the experience of working with people and being able to see the results of what I did.”
Henderson first became interested in working in animation after seeing the movie “Shrek.” The film made him very curious: He wanted to know how it was possible to achieve what he saw.
“What astonished me was how much detail and motion there was in every frame, the motion of the trees, the grass," he said. “I didn’t think it was possible.”
Now Henderson is working on animated movies himself. Each has its own tricky effect: For example, there's the frost in “Rise of the Guardians.” Then there's the cannon fire in “Kung Fu Panda 2.” Or there's the ice-breathing dragon in “How to Train Your Dragon 2.”
How Do Bubbles Behave?
His latest challenge was creating those bubbles in “Home." They aren't just the aliens' homes. They're also spaceships for the aliens.
Making a picture of a bubble on a flat surface isn't too hard. What's much trickier is this: Wrapping that picture around a floating shape that's a bit like a soccer ball.
Henderson set out to solve the problem. To do so, he drew on his knowledge of how bubbles behave. What he came up with is based on a computer program used to study weather patterns.
The fact that few moviegoers will appreciate his achievement doesn’t bother Henderson. The work is its own reward.
Henderson enjoys “doing something where you can clearly see the results of your work." Figuring out new ways to help artists is a thrill for him, he said. "That’s what keeps me coming here every day.”
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shoulder girdle of birds
shoulder girdle of birds defined in 1930 year
shoulder girdle of birds - Shoulder Girdle of birds;
shoulder girdle of birds - This series of bones serves as the intermediary between the fore limb and the vertebral column. It consists of three distinct elements. There is, first of all, a sword-blade-like bone with sharp edges, which lies along the vertebral column - the scapula. To the end of this is firmly attached a somewhat shorter bone, which approaches its fellow as it joins the sternum below; this bone is known as the coracoid (52. fig.). The angle between these two bones is, in flying birds, a considerable one, but in the ostrich tribe they are almost in the same straight line; this is really connected with the power of flight, for it has been shown by careful measurements that, in birds which still have wings that bear every appearance of being functional, and yet are not used for their legitimate purpose, the angle tends to approach the obtusity of the scapula and coracoid of the Ostrich. Birds have, besides these two bones, the merry-thought, or clavicle (58, fig.), which corresponds to our collar-bone. Its two halves are generally closely united to form one U-shaped or V-shaped bone; but sometimes they are separate, and then more or less rudimentary.
pictures for shoulder girdle of birds
sternum of shrike sternum of shrike. >>>>
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definition of word "shoulder girdle of birds" was readed 798 times
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Enabling Act of 1933
From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
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The formal name of the Enabling Act was Template:Lang (English: "Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich"). This legislation was ostensibly passed at the Kroll Opera House, where the legislators were surrounded by, and threatened by, Nazi troops. The Communists had already been banned and were therefore not present and not able to vote, while several Social Democrats were kept away as well. In the end, nearly all the parties present voted for the act, with the Social Democrats being the only ones voting against.
Portrayal in films
The same film also shows Hermann Göring, the then speaker of the house, begin singing Deutschland Lied. Nazi representatives then stand and immediately join in with Göring; bizarrely, all other party members join in too, with everyone performing the Hitler salute. In reality, this never happened.
Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "Enabling Act of 1933" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on original research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.
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From Click4it
Revision as of 11:12, 22 May 2013 by Administrator (Talk | contribs)
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Term2.png ANECDOTE
Short tale about an incident. Anecdotes usually concern a personal or biographical event and can be used to emphasize a statement, to make a point, to draw audience’s attention or to entertain it. Anecdotes are often told rather than written.[1]
Toolkit.png Writing an Anecdotal Speech
Writing an anecdotal speech is similar to writing other types of speeches. It has an introduction, body and conclusion. The anecdote should be true, short and must have a short tie-in.[2][3]
1. Choose your anecdote before narrowing the general topic of your speech or essay. It is more difficult to find an anecdote that perfectly illustrates your idea than it is to choose a convincing anecdote and elicit a worthwhile message from it. Make sure the anecdote you pick has a climax or conflict, a moment when the main character of the anecdote has to make a choice without knowing what will happen.
2. Define three main points related to the topic of your anecdote. Prepare an outline of the body of your speech, developing each of your three points.
3. Write your introduction and conclusion. Your introduction will be the first part of your anecdote, leading up to the climax. Once you have presented the main character's dilemma, stop the anecdote. This leaves your listeners wondering what the outcome will be, causing them to listen attentively while you speak about your main points. Your conclusion will be the end of the anecdote.
1. Wikipedia (19 May 2009), (14 December 2009), (14 December 2009), (14 December 2009), (14 December 2009), (14 December 2009), (14 December 2009)
3. How to Write an Anecdotal Speech | eHow
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Teacher Toolkit
Social Studies US History High School
Self-Guided Tour for Teachers
• Standards are addressed through a self-guided tour of the World of Coca‑Cola.
• Standards may be fulfilled in more than one area of the attraction.
• Please feel free to ask ambassadors to tell your class about their specific areas as you tour.
• Teachers may choose to ask students to bring paper and pencil in an empty book bag for some activities listed below.
• Look for the Coca‑Cola red bottle to direct you to the appropriate student activities.
SSUSH16 The student will identify key developments in the aftermath of WW II.
1. Identify Henry Ford, mass production, and the automobile.
SSUSH19 The student will identify the origins, major developments, and the domestic impact of World War II, especially the growth of the federal government.
1. Describe war mobilization, as indicated by rationing, war-time conversion, and the role of women in war industries.
SSUSH21 The student will explain economic growth and its impact on the United States 1945-1970.
1. Describe the impact television has had on American culture, including the Presidential Debates (Kennedy/Nixon, 1960), news coverage of the Civil Rights movement.
SSUSH24 The student will analyze the impact of social change movements and organizations of the 1960’s.
1. Explain Rachel Carson and Silent Spring, Earth Day, the creation of the EPA, and the modern environmentalist.
Pemberton Place
Pemberton place is a 22 acre site donated to Atlanta by The Coca‑Cola Company.
• Pemberton place is a 22 acre site donated to Atlanta by The Coca‑Cola Company. It houses the World of Coca‑Cola, the Georgia Aquarium and will house the Center for Civil and Human Rights. Originally, this area had water features and a reflecting pool. However, because of the drought Georgia has been experiencing over the last few years, it was considered to be more environmentally conscious to conserve water. To this end, The World of Coca‑Cola filled in the water features and replaced them with landscaping elements that require little water prosper and extended the green space where the reflecting pool had been.
• As students go through the attraction bring their attention to the small round plaques found throughout the attraction that highlight different efforts the company has made to make the building as ecologically green as possible. For example the building uses very little energy. Several of the t-shirts and other items in the store are made from recycled materials. The cups in Taste It are biodegradable, etc.
• Before beginning your class through Milestones of Refreshment, you may want to ask an ambassador to point out some of these green efforts.
• Ask students to think about the book written by Rachel Carson called Silent Spring. Ask students how they think Rachel Carson would feel going through this building. Ask students how the green movement affects their own lives.
Milestones of Refreshment: Gallery 6
This Milestones of Refreshment gallery showcases how advertising reflects desired lifestyles at the time the advertisement was used. Slogans as well as the importance of automobiles are displayed.
• Robert Woodruff started advertising Coca‑Cola on the radio in the 1930’s and on television in the 1950’s. Ask students to examine the artifacts in this gallery and explain how the marketing was geared to show a particular lifestyle. Ask students how television was impacting American lifestyle at that time.
• Ask students how television impacts American lifestyle today.
Milestones of Refreshment: Gallery 8
This Milestones of Refreshment gallery’s World War II case showcases Coca- Cola’s impact efforts to bring the product to soldiers in World War II, as well as the effects that the mobile bottling plants had on international bottling.
• Bring students’ attention to the WWII case. Ask students to read the material in the case relating to the conversion of bottling plants after the war. Allow students to study the displays. Next discuss with students the effects of rationing during WWII. The rationing (limiting use) of steel delayed the entry of Coca‑Cola’s first metal cans into the market. Also, because Coca‑Cola had sugar in it, people needed ration cards to buy it since sugar was rationed. Because of this rationing a clear Coca‑Cola product was briefly introduced because it used less sugar.
• Point out to students that The Coca‑Cola Company made a commitment to provide the Coca‑Cola product to all U.S. soldiers serving overseas in WWII for 5 cents. To do this, mobile bottling plants had to be shipped overseas. Once the war was over, entrepreneurs in the foreign countries wanted to keep the plants and produce Coca‑Cola in their own countries. The entrepreneurs were then able to provide jobs to local people and give consumers a product they wanted. Most of these plants are still in operation today. Ask students to think about how the mobilization of bottling plants during World War II affects those same countries today both economically and politically.
Milestones of Refreshment: Gallery 9
This Milestones of Refreshment gallery showcases both sports and entertainment figures who were important in Coca‑Cola advertising.
• Ask students to note the number of sports stars and people involved in entertainment located in this gallery. Ask the ambassador to point out some of these stars of the day in advertisements from the past.
• Ask students why using sports and entertainment stars in advertising would help boost sales of a product. Ask how the use of these people in television advertising can change a culture.
Bottleworks is a working bottling plant. It showcases how technology has been important to the bottling industry.
• Ask the ambassador in this area for a short tour.
• Review with students the assembly line concept of Henry Ford. The bottleworks area will show students an assembly line made of machines that need little human intervention.
• Bring students’ attention to the bottle capper. Relate the ease of capping thousands of bottles with this machine, to doing it by hand. Ask students to explain why the assembly line increased productivity in the United States. Ask students to look at the large yellow machine that packs the bottles. Ask students to think about how the assembly line and the use of machines changed the lives of factory workers. Ask students to make a list with two headings, “Benefits of the Assembly Line”, on one side of the paper, “Problems Caused by the Assembly Line” on the other side. Break into groups and analyze the morality of how society decides to move forward, even if some people are left behind.
Perfect Pauses Theater: 2nd Floor
This theater showcases three ten minute movie presentations featuring Coca‑Cola advertisements.
• Video television advertisements are in 3 ten-minute segments: classic advertising, animated and international advertisements. Ask students to view the segment on international marketing throughout the world. Ask students to write down what is important in each culture as displayed in the advertising. Ask students to jot down important life style elements that are featured in each of the other segments.
• Ask students to describe ways television changes public opinion.
• Remind students that television has had a great impact on Civil Rights and in Presidential debates. Television has great power to change habits of viewers. For example it can change the viewers mind about a candidate, influence them to buy products, and bring social problems to the forefront. Ask students to think about and discuss a time when television changed their mind about something.
Lesson Plan
Pre-Visit Activity
1. Students will understand how the entrance of the United States into World War II impacted the economy.
2. Students will understand why women entered the work force during WW II.
3. Students will understand sacrifices made by Americans and why they were necessary.
4. Students will explore wartime conversion, including the conversion of Coca‑Cola bottling plants for American soldiers and their impact after the war.
5. Students will conduct research using the Internet.
6. Students will construct diary entries both before and during the war in the voice of a citizen of that time.
• Textbook
• Internet access
• One copy per student of this article
Time — 3 Class Periods
Term to Know
1. Wartime conversion- Wartime conversion means the retooling of factories from consumer products to products needed for the war effort. For example, a car manufacturer might build jeeps or airplanes.
Background Information
1. Once the United States became committed to the war after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, patriotism rose throughout America. Americans were willing to recycle metals, paper, rubber, empty lipstick tubes, and cooking fats. They worked longer hours but had fewer goods to purchase due to the war effort and rationing. Politically, the nation started shifting from the social policies of Roosevelt to end the depression to the war effort. This lead to a growth of Presidential power and what is now termed “bigger government”.
2. In 1940, there were still 8 million Americans without work due to the Great Depression. However, because of the war effort, there were actually labor shortages in some industries. Because of this, more and more women entered the workforce, particularly in industries that had been predominantly staffed by men. “Rosie the Riveter” became a popular way to refer to these women. By 1945, women made up 36% of the workforce.
3. War bonds were used to involve the general public in the war effort. Even fashion was influenced by the war effort, as conservation of cloth was important. Women’s skirts became shorter and narrower. Men gave up vests, patches on jackets and cuffs. Americans were required to use ration cards to purchase coffee, sugar, gasoline, and meat. Industries were producing war materials and not consumer goods, which was of concern to Americans since they finally had money to spend but few consumer products to spend it on. After the war when industries returned to producing consumer goods, Americans went on a spending spree not seen before.
4. Between 1940 and 1945, the number of civilian employees that worked for the government went from 1 million to 4 million. Federal spending went from 9 billion a year to 98.4 billion. Executive power grew as a result of the war as well.
5. After the war the federal government had much more power. It could regulate economic activity as well as partially control the economy through spending and consumption. Industry was revitalized after the war and unions were strengthened.
Day 1 Women’s Roles Before WWII
1. Ask students to brainstorm jobs women hold in today’s economy. Ask them to brainstorm which jobs women either do not hold today, or that that they do hold, but is considered socially unacceptable.
2. Review with students the state of America at the beginning of WWII, particularly in regards to women. Print the article located on: http://www.indiana.edu/~inst2010/lessons/Colon_Changing%20Social%20Roles%20of%20Women.pdf Distribute one copy to each student.
3. Discuss with students how the roles of women in society have changed, after reading the article. Remind students that these roles began to change during WWII. Discuss how these changes would have influenced economic activity after the war was over.
4. Ask students to write a diary entry in the voice of a man or woman who lived during the time before WWII. Ask students to include in the diary entry facts included in the article and their perception of these facts from the male/female viewpoint. Give students about 1/2 hour. Share diary entries with the class.
Use diary entries to evaluate the student’s understanding of women’s roles before WWII.
Day 2 Women’s Roles Change During WWII
Picture from: http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/st/~cg3/outline.html
1. Review with students the roles of women before WWII.
2. Review with students the term “wartime conversion”. Discuss with students how this conversion plus the lack of men to work in the factories (they were at war) brought women into the workforce.
Ask students to research the roles of women during WWII using the following Websites:
1. Discuss what students have discovered through their research.
2. Ask students to do a second diary entry of the same person“s diary started in the day 1 activity. Students should give their perceptions of the changes experienced in roles of women and how they are perceived to affect society from either a male or female perspective. Remind students that the diary entries need to be substantiated by facts found in their research.
3. Diary entries can be shared with the class.
Use the diary entry to assess the research done by the student, as well as their understanding of women’s roles during WWII.
Coca‑Cola Supports the War Effort
Day 3
1. Explain to students that supporting the war effort involved not only activity at home, but in the war zone as well. Teachers can either give printouts of the articles below or allow students to use the Internet for research.
2. Ask students to read/research how The Coca‑Cola Company mobilized bottling plants to serve United States soldiers in the war zones and how this mobilization affected the economic activity of The Coca‑Cola Company.
3. Use the following sites for research:
1. Ask students to write an essay to explain how the mobilization initiated by The Coca‑Cola Company impacted both the soldiers during WWII and the company during and after the war.
Use the essay to assess the student’s understanding of how mobilization impacted soldiers and economic activity.
Remind students that they will be seeing displays at the World of Coca‑Cola that relate to the research they have done over the past few days. Advertisements often reflect the culture of the time. Ask students to take special notice of how women roles are depicted in Coca‑Cola advertisements over time. Tell students that they will also be seeing many “green” features at the World of Coca‑Cola. Remind them to take good notes about these green features, as they will need these notes in the post-activity.
Gifted Connection
Ask gifted students to research and report on how and who developed the Fanta beverage for The Coca‑Cola Company and its implications at the time.
Post-Visit Activity
1. Students will understand why the environmental movement came about.
2. Students will see a short video on Rachel Carson.
3. Students will work in groups to construct a song about environmentalism.
• Internet Access
Time — 1 Class Period
1. Ask students to take out notes from their visit to the World of Coca‑Cola attraction. Discuss the “green” technologies and innovations they noticed.
2. Tell students that the idea of being “green” is only a few years old. In fact for many years, the idea that technology could cause harm wasn’t a consideration.
3. Show the video on Rachel Carson located at: http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/04/22/sunday/main2714532.shtml
4. Ask students to break into groups to discuss how the modern environmentalist movement has changed America.
5. Ask students to take the tune of either “Row, row, row your boat” or “Twinkle, twinkle little star” and compromise new words to explain how environmentalism has changed America.
Discuss with students “green” technologies seen at the World of Coca‑Cola, and also other technologies that are being undertaken on a national level and the implications of this undertaking. Discuss why a company like The Coca‑Cola Company would have put so much effort into making their building as “green” as possible.
Assess students’ ability to work in groups to create an acceptable product.
Gifted Students
Ask gifted students to conduct research and write a report about how the EPA was founded, it’s job in protecting citizens, and evidence of its effectiveness. The report could be written, presented as a TV show, or as a poster.
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You are here
Paper helicopters
Make simple paper helicopters, which spin when dropped from a height. They model how a maple seed spins as it falls from a tree.
Science content (2016 curriculum):
Biology: Life Cycles (2)
For paper helicopter:
• paper, regular writing/copy paper works fine
• scissors
• helicopter template for one of the styles (attached file)
• paper clip
For either of the models, cut out the paper: as shown in the photo for the first model, or as shown on the attached template for the second model.
Fold as shown. Add a paper clip to the bottom, to hold it together and for extra weight.
Drop from a height - over a balcony is ideal, but standing on a chair works fine.
Watch the helicopters spin, which slows their descent.
Optional: discuss how maple, sycamore and other helicopter-like seeds have a similar shape and spin in the same way as they drop from the tree when the seeds are ripe. As they descend slowly, any wind will move them sideways, so that they fall further from the parent tree, and are more likely to find enough sun, water and space to grow into a tree.
Experiment with longer blades, more paperclips for extra weight, different thicknesses of paper to find out which ones stay aloft the longest.
Optional: add a fan or blow dryer to add wind from the side to see how far they can drift away from where they were dropped.
Attached documents:
Grades taught:
Gr 1
Teaching site:
New York Botanical Garden
Activity originally developed and delivered:
NY Botanical Garden
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A Volcano Called Vesuvius
This painting by Pierre-Jacques Volaire shows the terror, violence and horror of the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. Even now, it is a volcano that presents a threat to the millions of people who live in the region.
1 A Simple Quiz
This quiz is based on the detailed description of the eruption provided at the Melbourne Museum Exhibition in 2009. After completing this task, you can also watch the simulation of that terrifying day in Pompeii when Vesuvius, seemingly a harmless mountain that had not erupted in living memory, suddenly poured out ash, gases and volcanic debris on the hapless residents of nearby cities and towns.
Vesuvius: Hour by Hour
2 A Revealing Film
3 Other Videos
Focus on these words and numbers as you watch the last video in order to piece together what happened in Herculaneum:
• What or who was suspended in the last moment of life?
• What do the numbers 200 to 700 refer to?
• It was hot enough to boil…
• It was hot enough to vaporise…
• What do the numbers 900 and 500 refer to?
• What happened in a fraction of a second?
4 Handouts
5 A Quizizz Quiz
6 Recommended Websites
How Stuff Works: What would happen if Vesuvius erupted today? This link also includes a number of slides showing the site of Pompeii today.
The Atlantic: The Ancient Civilisation with Perfect Teeth
An Account from the Smithsonian
Excellent photos of Pompeii along with an artist’s reconstruction
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The Lenni Lenape native Americans lived in many small settlements throughout New Jersey before the first Europeans arrived. They made footpaths to connect the settlements. One of the major footpaths that stretched from the Delaware River to the eastern side of New Jersey later became know as the Burlington Path because it started in the area that later became known as Burlington. Even though it was a dirt footpath, it could be thought of as a very early highway. Burlington Road was built along this path.
It was a route the early settlers traveled on their way to Philadelphia from New York. From New York to the Highlands in New Jersey they would sail by boat. From the Highlands, they would travel on the old Indian trails through what is now known as Monmouth County. Through Colts Neck and historic Freehold, they would travel on the Burlington Path and connect somewhere near present day Hwy 537 to continue the journey to Philadelphia
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Why does Rudolph have a red nose?
A red-nosed reindeer might not be as unusual as you think.
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer is a Christmas icon, immortalised in books, songs and films.
But the cause of the beloved cervid's crimson nose has often been the subject of festive debate.
Watch Erica McAlister, Senior Curator of Diptera at the Museum, hint at why Rudolph's nose might glow so bright.
Meet the snot bot
Reindeer suffer with symptoms similar to a cold, such as coughing and spluttering - and maybe even that legendary red nose.
The cause is not a common cold, however, but an infestation of fly larvae.
'Snot bots', as they are affectionately known, are the culprits. These are flies of the genus Cephenemyia. The reindeer warble fly (Hypoderma tarandi) is also guilty of infesting cervids.
As an adult, the fly is fuzzy in appearance, with some resemblance to a bumblebee. But other than that they're both insects, appearance may be where the similarities end.
Female deer botflies squirt their larvae up the noses of unsuspecting reindeers. These then crawl down the throat to live and feed on the tissue there. After growing a little, it's time for the larvae to leave. So they begin irritating the unlucky deer's throat.
This causes the deer to cough and splutter so much that the offending insects are ejected from their temporary home through the mouth or nose of their host.
It would then, perhaps, be no surprise to see a reindeer with a very shiny nose.
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1472 — T & O Map
T and O style mappa mundi (map of the known world) from the first printed version of Isidorus’ Etymologiae (Kraus 13). The book was written in 623 and first printed in 1472 at Augsburg by one Günther Zainer (Guntherus Ziner), Isidor’s sketch thus becoming the oldest printed map of the occident. T-O-maps are typically displayed “East-up”, show Jerusalem at the center and the paradise at the outmost East, balanced by the pillars of Hercules at the outmost West.
This T and O map, which abstracts that society’s known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography and identifies the three known continents as populated by descendants of Sem, Cham and Japheth.
This supports the biblical idea that all humans descent from Cham, Sem and Japhet, the three sons of Noach. The explanation that black Africans, as the “sons of Cham”, were cursed, possibly “blackened” by their sins, became increasingly common during the 18c and 19c slave trade and justified slavery, racism and the exploitation of Africans.
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Mouthing Off
From a man’s mouth you can tell what he is. (Zohar Bamidbar 193)
Passover is a holiday of the mouth. The Hebrew word Pesach can be heard as two words: Peh sach, the speaking mouth. The Passover story of Exodus, liberation and redemption, traces from the mouth, starting with the cries of a people who descended so low in degradation and slavery that all they could muster were groans. Moses then spoke to truth to power, even with his speech impediment, calling Pharaoh to let the people go. And even once the people went free, liberation was not complete until they crossed the sea and sang their Song of the Sea to praise God for their freedom.
The groan of one so beaten down is the vocalization of a slave. Whether enslaved by a taskmaster, economics, illness or politics, groans alert us to the need for rescue. In our own time, these groans still are heard around the world, in our communities, and perhaps even in our own families. If we turn a deaf ear, then how can we hope for God's rescue? Passover instructs us to speak up on behalf of those who can only groan, or who are silent entirely.
Like Moses, a brave few resist tyrants and demagogues from the high platform of history. Their words rail against abuse and rouse the world to change. These have been our modern prophets: Abraham Joshua Heschel, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Reinhold Neibuhr – each rooted in a theological tradition of speech to bring change. But we needn't be theologians or prophets to amplify the cry for freedom. Passover asks precisely this: hear the groans, speak the call to freedom, release the bound, cut the shackles.
But freedom isn't just the lack of outward shackle: freedom is incomplete until one offers praise for one's freedom. When the newly freed people cross through the sea they erupt in song. That's what the Song of the Sea teaches: freedom is complete only when the inner impulse to express gratitude becomes automatic and free-flowing like an unstoppable geyser.
If our enslaved, impoverished, weary desert ancestors could do it, how about us who are relatively prosperous? In all we have, do we forget that we are not the Creator, the source or energy that manifests this world and all its possibility? Do we speak and sing gratitude for our lives, for what we have, for our freedom to have it? If not, then for our every outward appearance of freedom, inside we too are bound. What's stopping us?
Passover comes to remind us: we are to experience liberation not "as if" we were there but rather "because" we were there – perhaps because we still are there. If life's burdens keep us from singing gratitude for what we do have and for our freedom to have it, then inside we're not fully free. Passover beckons us into this timeless journey of bondage and liberation. We remember the times when we groaned (or still groan) under those burdens. We recall the times when spoke truth to power, when we celebrated our lives with gratitude, so that we can exercise those muscles. Countless millions today groan or are silenced completely. It's up to us to speak for them and then, step by step, help make the world more free from every oppression that burdens body and spirit.
You can tell a lot about a person by the quality of their speech and how they employ their words. What will come from your mouth this Passover, and after? Use your voice – groan if it's all you can do. Look for every chance to speak truth to power, stop oppression, free the bound and then let your free-flowing geyser of gratitude flow from you into the world. That's a path to freedom worth celebrating.
Spread the word. R’ Evan. (dedicated to Karen Simon).
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Japan Data Archive
About Japan > Life and Customs >
Has sumo been the national sport from ancient times?
Sumo in ancient times was a sacred event to foretell an abundant harvest and to predict the will of the gods.
The oldest bout of sumo recorded in history was in 642 A.D., and it was adopted as a court ritual in the early ninth century.
After the 12tｈ century, when warriors began holding real power in politics, sumo acquired the characteristic of a practical martial art to be used in the battlefield.
In the Edo period (1600-1868) sumo bouts began to be performed as part of shows in festivities at shrines.
It was not until the end of the Meiji period (1868-1912), or the early 20th century, that sumo was mentioned as the national sport for the first time.
As the emperor was deified under nationalism, sumo, originally a court ritual, was given national sport status.
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The settlement in the Porvoo region began in the 13th and 14th centuries, and the town is mentioned in documents in the early 14th century. In earlier times the Porvoo region also included Askola, Pornainen and Pukkila, which are today Porvoo’s neighbor towns.
Six towns were established in Finland during the Middle Ages. Some of them grew to be towns without any official order having been issued. This was the case with Porvoo, which got the town rights after Turku in the 14th century. The story tells that in 1346 Maunu Eerikinpoika (Magnus Eriksson), then the King of Sweden, visited Porvoo and granted the town rights there and then. The Porvoo Castle was built on the hill and the town was named Borgå ("castle river") in Swedish.
The Porvoo parish and the church originated in the 13th century. The church was first built of wood, later of stone. It was founded high on the hill to dominate the town.
The Porvoo Diet 1809 - The Beginning of Autonomous Finland
The 700-year marriage between Sweden and Finland ended after the Finnish War 1808-1809 when Finland was annexed to Russia as an autonomous Grand Duchy. Alexander I, the Czar of Russia, convened the Diet in Porvoo in 1809.
This was an important cornerstone in the history of Finland, starting the progress towards independence. As a result of the Porvoo Diet, Finland was allowed to keep its religion, its constitution dating from the Swedish era, and the rights of its estates.
The Empire Town - the Emperor's Town
The Empire-style part of Porvoo tells us about the era of Nicholas I, the Czar of Russia between 1825-55. This reactionary ruler wanted to get rid of the dense and flammable old town built under the Swedish rulers, to replace it with a regular and spacious Russian rectangular plan.
Luckily, Old Porvoo was not touched, instead the town expanded to the south built according to the Empire-style St. Petersburgian plan. Architect Carl Ludwig Engel, who also drew the Senate Square area in Helsinki, was nominated the designer of new Porvoo. The most popular attraction in this Empire town is the home of the Finnish national poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg.
The new Porvoo
The City of Porvoo and the Rural Municipality of Porvoo were united in 1 January, 1997. The new municipality is called the City of Porvoo. With its combined resources, it is an increasingly attractive place for people and business.
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An ancient Egyptian funeral procession
Teaching ideas
Look at the image of Ani’s funeral procession, and ask the students to identify the following people: Ani; his wife Tutu; family members (including an elder with white hair); Ani’s son wearing a panther skin; female mourners; lector-priest with a scroll; priest dressed as Anubis; servants carrying Ani’s belongings. Use the information in About the object to discuss the roles these different people played in the funeral.
Ask the class if anything about the funeral reminds them of how people behave at funerals now. Do people still do the same things? If appropriate, ask students to share how funerals are celebrated in different communities.
Look at the images of the funeral procession with the class and ask them to find the objects Ani wanted to take to the next life: his bed and chair; scribes’ equipment, etc. What do they think is inside the boxes? What would they choose to take to the afterlife? Watch the video clip in For the classroom and compare the tomb scene with Ani’s funeral.
Help the students understand the purpose of the Book of the Dead. Ask them to imagine going on a journey to a place they have never been before. How could they find their way? What would help: a guidebook, maps, pictures, signs? Is there anyone they could ask, for example police, tourist information? What dangers might they face, for example, busy roads, unfamiliar situations? How could they make sure of getting to their destination safely?
The following activities explore aspects of Egyptian afterlife beliefs raised by Ani’s Book of the Dead. Use the resources in For the classroom and the hundreds of images available on the British Museum website and the internet to broaden the enquiry. Each activity involves initial research leading on to creative activities.
Look closely at the Opening of the Mouth ceremony of Hunefer in For the classroom. Look at the equipment and adze used in the ceremony. Can the students find any of these in the painting? Read the story of Osiris and explain how this ritual relates to it. The story and the ceremony lend themselves to drama work. Students could also make an Anubis mask or mummy mask using paper maché or found materials.
Use the resources in A bigger picture and the interactive game in For the classroom to explore Ani and his wife Tutu’s journey through the Underworld to the court of Osiris. Ask students to imagine they are following them and write a narrative of the journey, describing the strange sights and sounds they encounter on the way.
Look at the Weighing of the Heart of Ani in A bigger picture – just identify everything the students can see without interpretation at this stage. Show the class the two video clips about the Weighing of the Heart in For the classroom. One of these shows the scene carved on the walls of a tomb. Go back to Ani’s scene and ask the students to identify and label the following: Ani, his wife Tutu, Ani’s heart, the feather of Truth, Anubis, Thoth, the Devourer. The idea of the balance can also be used for weighing and measuring activities, and for balancing equations in mathematics.
Use the resources in A bigger picture and For the classroom to explore what scarabs are and how the Egyptians came to identify them with rebirth. Explain why the heart scarab was so important for the judgment of the dead. Read the class the heart scarab text in More information. Do students think using magic to survive judgment was cheating? Allow students to make their own heart scarabs with clay.
Explore the images of the Field of Reeds with the class. Discuss the Egyptians’ idea of the next world and ask students to compare it with other ideas about paradise. Show the class the video clips about shabtis in For the classroom. They could make their own shabtis using air-drying clay.
Working in groups, students could make a wall frieze or digital presentation showing Ani’s journey from his house to the Field of Reeds. This could be done in the style of a papyrus scroll.
Next section: For the classroom
An ancient Egyptian funeral procession
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How Jackhammers Work
Imagine having to do the work of a jackhammer using a sledgehammer or a pickaxe, and you'll quickly understand how important this one machine is to the construction industry.
T-shaped jackhammers are among the most iconic, fearsome and ear-shattering tools on construction and demolition sites. Because they combine two fundamental human hand tools (a hammer and a chisel) in one mechanized body, they are also one of the most useful.
Without jackhammers, we humans would need new systems to rid our paths of old concrete or rock. We could always go back to the old way -- using heavy-headed sledgehammers -- but there probably aren't enough chiropractors in the world to keep construction workers' backs aligned.
Plus, sledgehammers are achingly slow. By comparison, jackhammers (sometimes called pneumatic drills or demolition hammers) make quick work of even really hard surfaces like highways, patios and rock walls.
That doesn't mean jackhammers are easy to use. They tend to be unwieldy, with some weighing nearly 100 pounds (45 kilograms), meaning that safe operation requires a user with some muscle. Otherwise, you risk dropping the tool, which could damage the innards of the jackhammer ... or the person using it.
In spite of the challenges of using jackhammers, these tools really are necessary for all sorts of major projects. And even though they perform a straightforward and brutal task, modern jackhammers are thoroughly evolved and refined machines with a long history. Keep reading and you'll see just how jackhammers came to be.
The First Real Rock Star
In the middle of the 1800s, the Industrial Revolution's effects were being felt all around the world. Machines and power tools of all kinds made labor easier and less physically taxing. But men working in mines and quarries still had to work with pickaxes and shovels, cussing their way through the day.
Brawn just wasn't enough for these exhausting jobs. What these laborers really needed was a more powerful way to break through rock to reveal minerals or release stones for construction.
Their salvation came from the mind of a car man in Detroit. Although Henry Ford is popularly credited with inventing the first automobile, it was actually Charles Brady King, an inventor and engineer, who created and drove the first motorized carriage. In March of 1896, King roared along the avenues at about, well, 7 miles (11 kilometers) per hour.
In addition to the first motorized car, King created more than 60 different machines in his lifetime, including a range of pneumatic tools, among them, the jackhammer.
Jackhammers were a godsend of sorts, particularly in the mining industry. In the 1800s, mining was downright treacherous and miserable work. Breaking up rock by hand in damp, dark tunnels was not a joyful experience for most laborers. Steam engine technology of the day might have helped expedite the process, but because these machines required combustion, they were far too dangerous for use in tight quarters that often filled with explosive gases.
Compressed air was a much safer option. That's exactly what King had in mind when he created the first pneumatic (air-powered) jackhammer. On the next page you'll read about the various types of jackhammer technologies, including the long-lived pneumatic versions.
Air-Powered Destruction
All that destructive power? It comes from simple compressed air on many models.
Although they perform a simple, almost primal feat of pounding and breaking, the inner workings of jackhammers are complex. Their exact construction varies from model to model, but there are some similarities in how they function.
Electric jackhammers are usually lighter weight models best suited for small jobs or for handymen. Gas versions are designed for job sites where there's simply no power or compressed air.
Pneumatic jackhammers were (and still are) among the most popular types of jackhammers. They became the standard in large part because of the specific needs of underground mining, in which any sparks from combustion engines threatened to ignite explosive gases. Not only was compressed air nonflammable, it didn't lose its power through long delivery hoses, even when the compressor was located many feet from the pneumatic tool at the other end.
A pneumatic tool is a device that uses highly compressed air as its power source. Typically, a diesel engine drives the air compressor, which then forces the air through a hose to the end tool -- in this case a jackhammer.
The body of a jackhammer is a vertical cylinder, which acts as a pressure chamber. Compressed air enters the chamber and activates a trigger valve, which rapidly opens and closes. When opened, the piston allows pressurized air into a piston chamber. Pressure rises in the piston chamber, causing the piston to move, striking the bit. The bit (or chisel) strikes the surface below, causing rock to fracture.
After the piston slams into the bit, the trigger valve closes and redirects the compressed air to the cylinder below the piston. The energy of the air, along with a spring, forces the bit back into its original position. Then the process begins anew. Typically, there's at least one exhaust valve on the cylinder that relieves pressure during the up-and-down piston cycle.
Hydraulic jackhammers work in the same manner but use fluid instead of compressed gas. These are typically larger, heavier and more powerful models that are mounted to big construction rigs and, thus, are used for jobs too big for a handheld jackhammer.
Percussive Power
Jackhammers are a type of percussive drill. They pound away at a surface to break it into smaller pieces. The mass of the tool itself, along with gravity, are two main elements that make jackhammers work because they help weigh down the machine and keep it in contact with the target.
As the bit impacts the rock at between 1,000 and 4,500 hits per minute, it immediately stresses the surface and causes the formation of irregular fragments. The bit pulverizes these fragments into a fine powder or granules that tend to pool around the tip of the bit.
Although these powdery remains absorb some of the bit's energy, they also transfer that energy to surrounding rock. Larger cracks form as the bit pounds the rock. Typically, those cracks stabilize as the bit hits its maximum reach.
As the bit retracts, it pulls along many of the rock chips, leaving behind a small crater. In some jackhammers, a valve opens and flushes the crater with a blast of air or water to clear the hole of debris.
Then, the operator moves the tool back a few inches and triggers the jackhammer again, restarting the process and propagating the initial smaller cracks into larger ones. Larger, deeper fractures in the rock join together, causing the breakage of large pieces that workers remove with other tools or larger machines.
It's important to clear craters as the job progresses. Otherwise the jackhammer might continue shattering chunks into smaller and smaller pieces that get in the way.
There are several types of bits for different jobs. For basic breaking purposes you'd chose a point bit, which, as its name implies, is simply a pointy shard of metal. To create a cleaner edge and provide better control of cracking direction, you might want a flat bit. These can be either narrow or wide depending on the job. Wider bits don't penetrate very quickly, so using them often takes longer.
Regardless of the style, it's vital to avoid going too deep into the rock. It's extremely easy to get the bit stuck, meaning you'll be taking an unscheduled break until you figure out how to loosen it.
Sharp bits are critical for maximum efficiency. When bits become dull, both the man and the machine have to work much harder to crush and crack the rock. That means you should sharpen the bit regularly, and the harder the rock, the more often you should check the bit.
Most jackhammers are used to work straight down or on an incline. It's possible to hammer horizontally, but because of the tool's immense weight, this task requires two people, or better yet, a jackhammer stand that supports the heft without human help. Overhead hammering requires smaller jackhammers or machine assistance.
Jackhammers are Hard
Shift change! Rotating the workers running a jackhammer helps reduce the risk of damage from the repetitive stress on their muscles and bones.
Jackhammers are heavy, powerful tools, and they take a toll on the human body. The weight and vibration inherent to jackhammers tends to wear out even hardened construction workers.
Some companies regularly rotate workers on jackhammer duty to save their strength and spare them the constant work of controlling such powerful machines. Adequately rested workers are less likely to make mistakes or hurt themselves.
Jackhammers are renowned and often despised for the racket they create. That's why many modern jackhammers include silencer boots to dampen their noise output. Yet these rock-breaking marvels still rate as one of the noisiest tools, often subjecting workers to 130 decibels, which is louder than a jet engine at takeoff. As such, hearing protection is necessary protective equipment for both the jackhammer operator and anyone nearby.
Excessive vibration from jackhammers can also damage the human body. Even with vibration dampening components, the relentless violence exacted upon the concrete below comes back on the operator to some degree. Too much vibration can cause fatigue, headaches, stomach issues, insomnia, and muscular and skeletal issues.
Medical researchers link power-tool vibration to Raynaud's phenomenon, which affects blood vessels in the extremities. After too much jackhammer vibration exposure, people who suffer from this condition wind up with poor circulation in their hands, which might even turn white from lack of blood.
Protect Yourself
Jackhammers can kick up a lot of fine particulate, so wearing a face mask and wetting the work area are good ideas.
Jackhammers often create clouds of dust, and sometimes that dust can be dangerous. For example, breaking up concrete pavement can release crystalline silica, which is known to cause lung cancer. To keep dust levels down, workers can attach a hose that sprays a mist of several ounces of water per minute, wetting the work area for a safer breathing environment.
Shrapnel is not unusual, so it's a really good idea to wear long, tough pants and long-sleeved shirts. Steel-toed boots are also recommended. And because jackhammers are heavy, some have optional lift-assist technology that pushes the tool upwards out of the ground, making it much easier to move around in the work area.
Although jackhammers make quick work of many substrates, they aren't the right tool for every demolition job. On some sites, buried gas or electrical lines might lurk beneath the surface, just waiting for a jackhammer's hefty bite to suddenly make the local emergency room a lot more exciting.
It's easy to point out the dangers of jackhammers. They are powerful machines with potential for serious destruction. But, of course, destruction is the whole point. Without their fantastic pounding power, we'd be stuck with horribly inefficient pickaxes and shovels and sledgehammers. And no matter how strong you might be, you definitely do not want to break up an old highway by hand.
Author's Note: How Jackhammers Work
Once upon a time, I had a job that required me to remove floor tiles. If you've never tried to scrape rock-hard tile from a concrete floor, let me assure you that you never want to try. Using a simple hand scraper, you slide the flat metal head as hard as you can until it slams into the edge of a tile. If you're lucky, the tile explodes into pieces. If you're not so fortunate, you repeat this process relentlessly until your hands are numb or you break down in tears (or both). Unbeknownst to me, there is a type of jackhammer that automates this process and would have made my life much easier. Unfortunately, my boss was too cheap to provide one.
Related Articles
• American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. "Noise." (Oct. 14, 2014)
• Detroit Historical Society. "King, Charles Brady." (Oct. 14, 2014)
• The Family Handyman. "Concrete Demolition Tools and Tips." (Oct. 14, 2014)
• Hyde, Justin. "March 6: Charles King Drives the First Automobile in Detroit on this Date in 1896." (Oct. 14, 2014)
• King Motor Car Club of America. "Charles King Brady." (Oct. 14, 2014)
• Montabert Corporate Page. "Hydraulic Rock Breakers." (Oct. 14, 2014)
• OnGuard Safety Training. "Jack Hammer." 2010. (Oct. 14, 2014)
• OSHA Fact Sheet. "What is Crystalline Silica?" 2002. (Oct. 14, 2014)
• Priester, Michael, Thomas Hentschel and Bernd Benthin. "Tools for Mining." GATE. 1993. (Oct. 14, 2014)
• Raghavan, Vijaya. "Analysis of Performance of Jack Hammer to Determine the Penetration Rate on Different Rocks." The International Journal of Engineering and Science. Aug. 5, 2014. (Oct. 14, 2014)
• Safety Services Company. "Construction Safety: Using, Handling and Maintaining Jackhammers." (Oct. 14, 2014)
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8 November 2004
Honeybee Survival Puts Question Mark Over Chicxulub Asteroid
by Kate Melville
The tropical honeybee may challenge the idea that a post-asteroid impact "nuclear winter" was a big player in the decimation of dinosaurs 65 million years ago. The tropical honeybee, Cretotrigona prisca, survived the end-Cretaceous extinction event, despite what many researchers believe was a years-long period of darkness and frigid temperatures caused by sunlight-blocking dust and smoke from the asteroid impact at Chicxulub.
Modern tropical honeybees have an optimal temperature range of 31 - 34 & #176;C in order to maintain vital metabolic activities. That's also the range that's best for their food source: nectar-rich flowering plants.
Based on what is known about the Cretaceous climate and modern tropical honeybees, Jacqueline M. Kozisek, of the University of New Orleans, estimates that any post-impact winter event could not have dropped temperatures more than 2 - 7 & #176;C without wiping out the bees. Current nuclear winter theories from the Chicxulub impact estimate drops of 7 - 12 & #176;C - too cold for tropical honeybees.
The survival of C. prisca is problematic and telling, asserts Kozisek. Late Cretaceous tropical honeybees preserved in amber are almost identical to their modern relatives, she says. If no modern tropical honeybee could have survived years in the dark and cold without the flowering plants they lived off of, Kozisek reasoned, something must be amiss with the nuclear winter theory. "It couldn't have been that huge," says Kozisek of the Chicxulub-related temperature drops asserted by other researchers.
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Also known as the Wakhan Corridor or the Wakhan Panhandle.
Rugged and desolate region in North-eastern Afghanistan, hemmed in between Tajikistan, China and Pakistan. Located between the Hindu Kush and the Pamir, the Wakhan is very mountainous, with more than 80% of the region being located more than 3000 meters above sea level. The landscape is marked by glaciers and tall mountains, cut by deep, narrow valleys.
The first geographical records of the Wakhan were made by Marco Polo, who passed through the region around 1273. In fact, an important element in the local economy still bears his name: the Marco Polo sheep.
In 1891, the Wakhan became a piece in a larger game, a struggle for regional dominance between Russia and Britain. Russia annexed the Wakhan, thereby expanding its territory to share a border with the British Empire. To avoid the possible hazards of a shared border, the Wakhan was bestowed upon the Afghan Emir, but remained, to all intents and purposes, no man's land - a buffer zone between the two great powers.
It was not until 1964 that accurate maps of the Wakhan were completed, and borders with neighbouring countries delineated.
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Through participating in the experiences provided by this theme, the children may learn:
1.Types of Hats
2. Uses for hats.
3. Parts of a hat.
4. Recognize the Letter H
5. Write the letter H
**Concepts to learn
Hats are worn on our heads
Some hats keep us warm
Hats are made out of different materials
Hats com in different shapes, sizes, and colors
Some hats have special names
Some people wear hats when they are working and others wear them for fun or to keep us
warm or cool.
Whats a corner?
Big, bigger biggest, small smaller smallest
1. Collage Hats. Cut out a variety of large hats in different colors. Set out collage items and let the
kids create.
2. Cat in the Hat hats.
3. Sponge paint Create hat shapes out of sponges, potato’s, or string glued to tagboard. Set out
large sheets of paper and several colors of paint. Let children print away.
4. Still life. Set out a few hats and have the children draw what they see. Make sure not to judge.
After they draw their hats have them watercolor them.
5. Hat painting Old construction hat or baseball cap. Duck tape a paintbrush to the brim of the
hat. As the children wear the hat allow them to dip it into a tray of paint and use the hat brush to
paint at the easel.
6. Paper mache’ hats
7. Hat sewing
8. Fingerpainting Hs
9. Hat shapes with wrapping paper and cotton balls
1. Graphing Hats. Set out a large graph with mini hats. To make the mini Hats use old children’s
socks and cut foot part right before the heal. Roll up the brim and hot glue a pom pom to the
top. I also used the other half of the sock by tying one end with string.
2. Sequencing puzzles. I have a sequencing puzzle where the little girl is getting dressed. She
starts out in her underwear and ends with her hat. You could make one using a doll and taking
pictures of the doll through different stages of dressing.
3. Seriation. Cut out shapes of hats from felt, starting small and each one getting bigger. Have
children figure out which comes next, then from big to small. Real hats can also be used.
4.Work Job 1 Create 6 different hats numbered which ever numbers you are working on. Laminate
them. Find some sort of decal or jewel of your liking. Put the jewels in a basket or small box with
a couple tweezers. Have children place the amount of jewels to match the number on the hat. Store
these in a Ziploc baggie or a nice box. Instead of using jewels you could also cut out little H’s to
add to the hat shapes.
5.Work job 2 Create a 6 Hat trees out of cardstock with the amount of hooks you would like.
Laminate. Make little hats out of cardstock, felt, or fabric. Place the little hats in a basket or small
box and have the children add the hats to the hat tree. Store this in a Ziploc baggie or a nice box.
6. Work Job 3 Create pairs of standing Hat trees out of wood. Add hooks to match desired
number. Ex. Two hat trees next to each other, one has 2 hooks, the other has 3 hooks. Together
they equal 5. Add mini sock hats and paper and pen so the children can write their equations
7. Sorting. Place all your hats in a big pile on the floor. Have the children sort them. Talk about
the different colors, shapes, sizes, material used, the hats purpose (work, dress up, sun protection)
8. Matching hats. Cut out shapes of different hats. Cut out one shape of each hat that is a ‘shadow’
and the other hat decorate. Staple the ‘shadow’ hat on the wall. Put Velcro on both hats. Have the
children match the hat to it’s shadow.
1. Hat books. Create books or have the kids make books. Go through magazines and cut out
pictures of people wearing different hats. Ask the children to tell you about the picture and ask
why they are wearing that particular hat. Write it down for them in their books.
2.Paper hat with poem. Create newspaper hats for the kids and have them decorate. Print out the
Hat.’ Have the kids circle the Big H and the little h. Then tape it onto their Hat. Talk about the
poem and count the corners on their newspaper hat.
3. H at the playdough table. Create a big H and a little h and laminate them to your playdough
table. The children can roll or squish the playdough into the shapes.
4. H at the playdough table. Purchase the letter playdough stamps from lakeshore. The kids love
to stamp the letters into the playdough. We also use them with stamp pads.
5. Put books on tape. Record some of your favorite stories on tape. You could also send home a
book and tape player and have parents record the stories. The children could also help with sound
6. Phonics Board Use a 18x24 piece of tagboard. Collect 10 pictures of 3 different sounds you
want on the board. This way the board can be used 3 different times. Rubber cement the pictures
onto the board and cover with clear contact. Strengthen the edges with masking tape. Use 10
plastic bracelets or rings cut from heavy plastic. Ask questions about the pictures. Which ones
start with an H sound? Help the children sound out the words.
7. Sandpaper H rubbings
Circle Time
1. Who’s hat on popsicle sticks
2. Hat Hunting
3. My favorite hat day
4. Read Caps for sale. After use felt circles to represent the hats and stack them on top of their
hats. First the grey cap….slowly, slowly as to not disturb the caps.
Songs, Fingerplays, and games
1. Hats on a fence game Put a
2. Bean bag toss into hats
Stories including feltboard
1. A Hat for Minerva Louise
by Janet Morgan Stoeke
2. Who took the Farmers Hat?
By Joan L. Nodset
3. Whose Hat?
By Margaret Miller
4. Hats, Hats, Hats.
By Ann Morris
5. Caps for Sale
by Esphyr Slobodkina
6. A Three Hat Day
by Laura Geringer
7. Do you have a hat?
By Eileen Spinelli
8. The Cat in the Hat
by Dr. Suess
9. Blue Hat Green Hat
by Sandra Boynton
10. Hats!
By Kevin Luthardt
11. The Hat
by Jan Brett
12. Old Hat New Hat
by Stan Berenstain
13. Who took the Farmers Hat?
By Joan L. Nodset
Tumbling over the Edge by Bev Bos and Jenny Chapman
Don’t move the muffin tins by Bev Bos
The Ooey Gooey Handbook by Lisa Murphy
The Activity Idea Place
WorkJobs by Mary Baratta-Lorton
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St. Augustine
The classic Just-War Theory has its origins in Christian theology. Saint Augustine is usually indentified as the first individual to offer a theory on war and justice. The Saint referred to the Bible and regarded some wars as necessary to amend an evil. Saint Thomas Aquinas revised Augustine's version, creating three criteria for a just war: the war needed to be waged by a legitimate authority, have a just cause, and have the right intentions. The moral justifcations for a war are expressed in jus ad bellum; whereas, the moral conduct of the war is expressed in jus in bello. The Just-War Theory is a set of rules for military combat.
Principles of Just-War Theory
1. Last Resort
2. Legitimate Authority
3. Just Cause
4. Probability of Success
5. Right Intention
6. Proportionality
7. Civilian Casualties
St. Thomas Aquinas
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Rifted continental margins are strongly influenced by the location of zones of preexisting crustal weakness. Apatite fission track thermochronological data indicate that the Paleozoic lithospheric boundary between the Kanmantoo and Lachlan fold belts in western Victoria, Australia, was reactivated during Mesozoic rifting as a transfer fault. To the east of this boundary, 1-2 km of material was denuded during extension, while essentially no denudation took place during rifting to the west. The correlated tectonic boundary within the Bowers terrane of northern Victoria Land, Antarctica, was also reactivated upon rifting. During fragmentation of Gondwana, movement on this zone perpendicular to the direction of rifting probably determined the location of the Tasman Fracture Zone. When Australia and Antarctica are reconstructed along the trace of the Tasman Fracture Zone, the tectonic boundary in Victoria falls into precise alignment with the Bowers terrane.
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Most medieval manuscripts were written not on paper but on parchment, which typically was produced from the skins of calves, sheep, or goats. Parchment is sometimes referred to as vellum, although that term also may refer more specifically to finely finished calfskin parchment.
Takamiya MS 76: Letter: Rome, to Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg
Takamiya MS 76. Leo X, papal letter to Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg. Rome, 6 June 1520.
Parchment production is a complex process entailing many steps, which varied significantly according to region and period. In general, the process began with cleaning the selected animal skin, soaking it in a lime solution to loosen the hair, and then washing it in clean water. The skin was then scraped with a knife to remove as much hair as possible, after which it once again was washed in water. Next it was moved to a rack (or herse), where it was stretched, then left to dry for a prolonged period. While on the herse, the parchment maker scraped the skin once more, this time with a curved blade called a lunellum, which removed any remaining hairs or blemishes. Once they were taken down from the racks, some skins received final finishing with a pumice stone or treatment with a preparation of lime or chalk before they were cut to size for use by scribes. If everything had gone well, the end product might resemble the fine white parchment of Takamiya MS 76 (to the right), which is very thin and so white that you can just make out the skin’s vein structure.
Takamiya MS 92: Bible
Takamiya MS 92. Bible (“Bohun Bible”; fragment). England, c. 1345-1350.
A calfskin subjected to this labor-intensive process might produce as few as three and a half medium-sized writing sheets, and thus parchment was an expensive commodity. Often, imperfect parchment was used in the production of books, as exemplified by Takamiya MS 92, in which the rounded edge of the animal’s shape is still visible at the bottom of the folio. Sometimes holes are also visible in the parchment membrane. They could be original flaws or produced by stresses during the stretching or finishing processes. It is not uncommon to find that such holes were sutured to prevent further damage to the page, which also can be seen in this Bible leaf.
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How tropical storm gets name ‘Luban’
Muscat: Luban is the first tropical system that holds the Omani name, which might affect the sultanate. The name is inspired by the frankincense tree that had been known since the ancient times in Dhofar governorate. The best types of frankincense around the world are extracted from the trees in Dhofar and Hadramout in Yemen.
Frankincense is used a chewing gum and as an incense.
It is also used in some religious rituals of some ancient civilizations.
Moreover, it has many benefits in treating illness.
Tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones are named by various warning centers to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the public regarding forecasts and warnings.
The names are intended to reduce confusion in the event of concurrent storms in the same basin.
Generally once storms produce sustained wind speeds of more than 33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph), names are assigned in order from predetermined lists depending on which basin they originate. However, standards vary from basin to basin: some tropical depressions are named in the Western Pacific, while tropical cyclones must have a significant amount of gale-force winds occurring around the centre before they are named in the Southern Hemisphere.
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Problem statement and hypothesis
Continuum hypothesis - wikipedia
What are the degrees of freedom for this contingency test? Step 1: For a tiny data table like this, it is quite easy to just create the data by hand. First by creating a vector by reading the top row, the middle row, and then the last row. Then we can tell R that the data should be shaped as a 3 x 3 matrix. Open RStudio and execute the following code: c c(2, 4, 20, 8, 9, 1, 7, 9, 7) ; observed matrix(c, 3, 3, byrowtrue) ; print The observations were print(observed Step 2: Recall that the next step in a contingency test is calculating what we would expect. The null is that the treatment variable (quantity of oyster shells) is independent of the response variable (claw type).
"Differential reflex activity determines claw and where closer muscle asymmetry in developing lobsters." Science 233 (1986 354-357.). Problem 1 The two claws of juvenile lobsters are identical. By adulthood, however, typically the two claws have differentiated into a stout claw called a crusher and a slender claw called a cutter. A research team wanted to determine the effect of the environment on the differentiation process. They took juvenile lobsters and placed them in one of three experimental treatments: 26 were reared in smooth plastic trays, 18 were reared in trays with many oyster chips (i.e. Broken shells) which allowed the animals to exercise their claws, and 23 were reared in trays with only one oyster chip. The claw configurations of individual lobsters were then scored as adults: crusherR, cutterL crusherL, cutterR, both cutters. No chips 2 4 20, oyster chips 8 9 1 1 Oyster chip 7 9 7, did the rearing environment affect the development of the lobster claws? Question 1: State the null and alternative hypotheses. Question 2: What is the expected number of animals with two cutter claws in the smooth plastic treatment if the null hypothesis is true?
problem statement and hypothesis
Multiple comparisons problem - wikipedia
The chi-square contingency test is an important way to evaluate whether two variables are independent thank of each other. The simplest case is a table. The test can be extended, however, to any number of rows and columns. As usual, we will assume alpha.05 for all tests. For situations with only two variables and two outcomes per variable, we can also use the odds ratio to summarize the magnitude of the association between the variables. Lets consider an actual study (govind,. K., and joanne pearce.
problem statement and hypothesis
The Scientific Method - science made simple
He shared some incredible insight that is insanely relevant to today. So far, the response to this interview has been off the charts as people are calling it the most concise update of what's happening in our world today. Watch the interview here. Biol570 Lab 8: Chi-square contingency test. Learn how to do a chi-square contingency tests in r, including practicing the steps in hypothesis testing. Learn how data are typically recorded in a study, and how to convert such raw data into contingency tables. Practice working with odds ratios, review summary of the chapter.
Home 1 Eskom Expo
problem statement and hypothesis
Science fair - project Ideas
The articles linked below will show why i believe, without a doubt, that yes, there were. Ladies and gentlemen, my government, nasa, which many f us in the United States say stands for never a straight Answer, proceeded to love erase 40 rolls of the film of the Apollo Program the flight to the moon, the flight around the moon, the landings. They erased, for Christss sake, 40 rolls of film of those events. Ladies and gentlemen, my government, nasa, which many of us in the United States say stands for never a straight Answer, proceeded to erase 40 rolls of film of the Apollo Program — the flight to the moon, the flight around the moon, the landings. They erased, for Christs sake, 40 rolls of film of those events. Now were talking about several thousand individual frames that were taken that the so-called authorities determined that you did not have a right to see. Oh, they were disruptive, socially unacceptable, politically unacceptable.
Im a retired Command Sergeant Major. I was never famous for having a lot of patience. robert dean Articles On Mars you should Check out If you want to learn More ive written in-depth about Mars that go into more detail about the strange things surrounding the planet. Instead of all putting it in here, you can refer to the heavily sourced articles below for more information. University Physics Professor reveals Face On Mars Clearly has a mouth Full of teeth ex nasa Scientists Share concealed Information About The face pyramid found On Mars a ce podcast About The face on Mars, Strange Structures On The moon whats going On Up There.
Brandenburg was also the deputy manager of the Clementine mission to the moon, which was part of a joint space project between the ballistic Missile defence Organization (bmdo) and nasa. The mission discovered water at the moons poles in 1994. Source: page 16 of 18 source source according to Brandenburg, and his team of scientists/colleagues who have also published multiple papers with and alongside him concerning the subject, Analysis of recent Mars isotopic, gamma ray, and imaging data supports the hypothesis that perhaps two immense. Analysis rules out large unstable natural nuclear reactors, instead, data is consistent with mixed fusion-fission explosions. Imagery at the radioactive centres of the explosions shows no craters, consistent with airbursts. Explosions appear correlated as the site of an ancient planetary nuclear massacre, must now be considered.
Brandenburg identified isotopes with a weapons signature and showed the nuclear data, he claims it happened on the northern region of Mars. Here is a lecture by him explaining his findings. The above" is taken from the abstract of t his paper they published, and have presented multiple times. As with any other scientist, no matter how reputable, credible and accomplished, the instant you put out data and information that goes against the grain or has the ability to basically change peoples worldview paradigm, its instantly ridiculed and shut down, no matter how strong. That being said, all of this is happening for a reason, and more and more information like this will continue to emerge which has is questioning what we think we know. Ive written about Mars, in-depth, multiple times, and its a planet with no shortage of mysterious, and perhaps fibs, as we never really seem to be told the truth about anything. The thing is, if Mars was an Earth-like planet, was there intelligent life on it billions of years ago?
How to Write guide: Sections of the paper - bates College
The ratio between the amount of hydrogen and help deuterium on Earth gives a baseline to compare rations on other terrestrial ing the appropriately na, es Very large telescope (VLT) and the keck telescope, the researchers charted the abundance of H20 and hdo over the mars. This then enabled them to map out the deuterium/hydrogen (D/H) ration mapped across the how of Mars. This is great, but neither study knows exactly what happened on Mars to cause such a dramatic climate shift, what would cause an Earth-like planet to become what Mars has come today. Researchers hypothesize that it could have been a massive climatic shift, but there is no evidence to support that theory. One physicist has come forth with some actual evidence to support his theory, and thats. Hes well-known for working on space plasma technologies, nuclear fusion and advanced space propulsion. Microwave electro-Thermal plasma thruster that uses water propellant for space propulsion.
problem statement and hypothesis
What Happened On Mars? Mars is the planet most like earth(and in the past mars was a very different planet, it had an extensive atmosphere, and in fact, it had what we believe was a huge ocean, perhaps as large as two thirds the northern Hemisphere. And that ocean may have been as much as a mile deep. So keywords mars indeed three billion years ago had extensive water resources. Mars suffered a major climate change and lost its surface water. james Green, nasa director of planetary sciences. ( source one of the studies liked above, attempts to chart where mars lost the most water, which was done by tracking the water molecule (H2o and its deuterated equivalent hdo. According to, ifl, deuterium is heavy hydrogen, an isotope of our lightest element with an extra neutron in its centre. It exists in our own ocean, where about.0156 of the hydrogen atoms in water are actually their heavier counterpart.
Astrophysics, told npr. You can access the entire Italian study here. Many old, as well as several recently published results, have presented very strong evidence yet that there used to be much more water on Mars. In fact, in 2015, nasa held a press conference to announce the major discovery that the planet Mars experienced a massive climate shift in the past, that it actually used to be very earth-like, covered in oceans and greenery. You can view that entire conference here. Mars is not the dry, arid planet that we thought of in the past(and) liquid water has been found on Mars james Green, nasa director of planetary sciences. At this conference, scientists also stated that the possibility of life in the interior of Mars has always been very high. Theres certainly water somewhere in the crust of MarsIts very likely, i think, that there is life somewhere in the crust of Mars. What caused The massive climate Shift?
We see it everywhere in all subjects, especially in science, where the human race tends to hold on to what it thinks it knows while ridiculing a new discovery, only until it takes its place as fact within the mainstream. Quantum physics is a great example thats definitely challenging paperless the accepted framework of knowledge and academia, especially with its connection to consciousness and non-material science overall, in general. You can read more about the recent events surrounding ufo disclosure below: The us government Just Admitted to recovering Materials From ufos here Are The latest Updates. The same goes for planetary sciences, although we think we know a lot about our world and other planets, there is still so much to discover, and still a lot of information thats changing every single year which forces us to go back and re-write. A great example is Mars, and science is now showing that Mars wasnt always and isnt the dry, red, arid planet weve all been told it is, this theory was amplified recently by a team of Italian scientists, who are telling the world that they. The more we observe mars, the more information were getting that it really is a fascinating planet, from the curiosity rover we now know that Mars once was like a planet very much life earth, with long salty seas, with fresh water lakes, probably with. Right now, within mainstream planetary science, the debate and speculation of whether there was once life on Mars are huge, and this has sparked the debate once again since, from our level of understanding, we believe that liquid water is an essential ingredient for life. The evidence cited by the Italian study came from an instrument called marsis, which sits aboard the european Space Agencys (ESA) Mars Express spacecraft in orbit around the red Planet. Marsis is a special kind of radar called ground-penetrating radar.
Null Hypothesis Definition and Examples, how to State
The facts: Scientists have been publishing papers, this latest one out of Italy, showing how there is liquid water on Mars, as well as the fact that Mars essay used to be a very earth-like planet that might have harboured intelligent life. Reflect On: Why does any reputable renowned scientist who comes forward with evidence get vilified by the mainstream? Why are these questions and evidence regarding extraterrestrial life not answered? Why does science and evidence that defy belief get ignored? We are going to mars, our journey to mars is a science led expedition right now, but soon I hope well be sending humans to the red planet to explore and science will lead the way. And todays announcement of a really fascinating result about current water on Mars is one of the reasons why i feel its even more imperative that we send astrobiologists and plantary scientists to mars to explore the question of, is there current life on Mars? john Grunsfeld, five time space flown astronaut, Associate Administrator, head of nasa science mission Directive ( source history is written by the victors, and today, information that makes its way into the mainstream is carefully considered before being put out there. We are currently seeing this happen with ufo disclosure and other topics that dont really fit within the framework of accepted knowledge.
problem statement and hypothesis
All products 53 Artikelen
There could be a combination of explanations for the ufo problem. What is the extraterrestrial hypothesis?
5 Comment
1. So here are two datasets. Data analysis, bayesian inference, and computational physics, and he believes that elegant, transparent programming can illuminate the hardest problems. Theyve obviously known all along about James Gunns attitudes and statements.
2. Asked whether a certain np complete problem could be solved in quadratic or linear time10 The precise statement of the pnp problem was introduced in 1971 by Stephen cook in his seminal paper "The complexity of theorem proving. It's a fascinating story, go look. We are going to follow in John Snow's footsteps to learn about testing hypotheses.
3. Slack makes this promise through their mission statement and you will agree that this is something we all need. Conceptual thinking is the ability to understand a situation or problem by identifying patterns or connections, and addressing key underlying issues. He is a citizen scientist and is the author of the theory for the production of non impact craters: Crustonics, the hypothesis of Gravitational Rim Sag. 17 p versus np problem.
4. We provide our clients with the most effective problem statements that will reflect on our client's research, academics and career in a constructive and positive light. Research questions and/or Hypotheses and/or Null Hypotheses. Method and procedures, including problem statement /research question, hypothesis, theoretical/conceptual framework, sample and assumptions. The problem is that though necessary, these statements lack the inspiration they are intended to provide.
5. Contactez un reprsentant ds maintenant par courriel ou bien par tlphone. Problem cause esl dissertation hypothesis editing sites for mba solution essay dissertations on architecture uncsa undergraduate application essays bob marley. A good thesis statement for a research paper.
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PTE听力口语练习-科学60秒-special order bird sounds
Humans have always considered themselves special compared with other animals.
One reason is the complexity of our language—bounded by unique rules, such as syntax,
where we string words together in a specific order to create meaningful sentences.
But it turns out a bird may also vocalize with syntax rules—the Japanese great tit,
a bird that’s a close relative of North America’s very own chickadee.
Toshitaka Suzuki, of Japan’s Graduate University for Advanced Studies, has been listening to the calls of the Japanese great
tit for the past decade.
Suzuki has recorded at least ten alarm calls used by the bird.
These include, known as the ABC call, which alerts other great tits to the presence of a predator,
and the D call, which signals the birds to approach the caller.
Now Suzuki and his colleagues have found that the great tit uses those calls together to deliver both messages to other birds.
And they found that the order of that call was essential—only ABC-D made sense to the birds.
When the scientists intentionally reversed the order to create a D-ABC call, the birds did not respond.
The study is in the journal Nature Communications.
“I think the really interesting thing is why the order matters, and figuring that out I think
will be difficult but also potentially really, really interesting, because it’ll give a lot of insight…”
David Wheatcroft of Sweden’s Uppsala University, one of the study scientists.
“You wouldn’t expect sort of naively that it would matter.
Obviously it matters in human language, the order in which we say things, but it’s still somehow shocking when you find it in tits.
So I think understanding why it’s the case will be really interesting in the future.”
The work could help explain the evolution of the building blocks and structure of our own languages.
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"fasttext_score": 0.06251037120819092,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8748367428779602,
"url": "https://wenbo.tv/pte-listening-special-order-bird-sounds/"
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Molyneux’s problem Research Paper
Molyneux's problem
Molyneux’s problem
Molyneux’s problem
William Molyneux was an Irish natural philosopher and writer on politics. He was a contemporary of John Locke’s and after Locke had written The Essay Concerning Human Understanding Molyneux was very impressed and started a correspondence with Locke. In one of his letters, Molyneux presented Locke with the following thought experiment.
To summarize Molyneux is asking us to imagine a person who was blind from birth and was taught to distinguish shapes by touch. We then imagine that the shapes are placed before him and his sight is magically restored. Would he be able to distinguish the shapes he had learned by touch, using just his sense of sight?
Apply Locke’s empiricism and his distinction between primary and secondary qualities to a novel problem.
Discuss Locke’s epistemology with your peers.
How do you think Locke would answer Molyneux’s question? Explain why Locke would give that answer. What do you personally think the correct answer is and why? (write at least THREE paragraphs).
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Slide show: Proper lifting techniques
Photo of man kneeling to lift a box
Previous Next 1 of 6 Start in a safe position
Before you lift a heavy object, think through your task. Decide where you're going to place the object and how you'll get it there. If an object is too heavy to lift safely, ask someone to help you or make several trips carrying lighter weight.
When lifting an object from the floor, stand as close to the object as possible. Then kneel, resting one knee on the floor. Don't lift from a standing position with your waist bent or your knees locked.
See more Multimedia May 03, 2016
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"fasttext_score": 0.021120965480804443,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9372093081474304,
"url": "https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/multimedia/back-pain/sls-20076866"
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Weather forecasts are something that we take for granted in the 21st century. Most of us don’t give much thought to the science behind our weather apps, websites, or 24-hour television channels. But in fact the science of meteorology is a fairly recent one. Two hundred years ago there was very little understanding of the causes of weather phenomena.
Instruments like the thermometer and barometer were developed in the 17th century. But it wasn’t until the early 19th century that many scientists began to make large, systematic studies of weather patterns.
espy cover
Cover of James P. Espy’s Report on Meteorology (1850), donated to Wake Forest library in 1852 by weather enthusiast Samuel Jordan Wheeler.
James Pollard Espy (1785-1860) was a pioneer of American meteorology. Born in rural Pennsylvania, he became a teacher and moved to Philadelphia in the 1830s. There he became involved with the Franklin Institute and began a serious study of weather.
Espy came up with a plan to create a statewide (and eventually national) network of amateur meteorologists who were supplied with the necessary instruments to record their local weather data and send it back to him. Eventually Espy amassed enough data to begin longitudinal studies of weather patterns on the North American continent.
espy p 2
The introduction to James Espy’s Report on Meteorology gives a list of names and locations of his “meteorological correspondents.”
Espy’s most important contribution to the science of meteorology is his formulation of the convection theory—the observation that clouds and precipitation are caused by warm, moist air rising in a column from the earth’s surface. Espy laid out this “thermal theory” in his first published work, The Philosophy of Storms (1841). He became a popular feature on the 19th century American lecture circuit and earned the nickname The Storm King.
In 1847 Espy took up the post of meteorologist for the U.S. Navy, becoming the first officially appointed meteorologist in U.S. history.
espy title page
Title page from James Espy’s Report on Meteorology (1850)
His studies benefited from state-of-the-art lab facilities at the Smithsonian Institute, and he secured government funding for a network of over 100 “weather correspondents” stationed in various locations east of the Mississippi. Espy always emphasized the importance of these far-flung reporters:
The astronomer is, in some measure, independent of his fellow astronomer; he can wait in his observatory till the star he wished to observe comes to his meridian; but the meteorologist has his observations bounded by a very limited horizon, and can do little without the aid of numerous observers furnishing him contemporaneous observations over a wide-extended area. (Report on Meteorology, 16)
espy barometer map detail
Espy’s Report included charts of comparative barometric readings from all of his weather correspondents
Communication by telegraph, which became widespread by the mid-19th century, allowed weather observations to be shared quickly enough that actual forecasting became possible. This information was vital for the Navy, since avoiding storms at sea could be a matter of life or death for sailors.
espy map october 6 1844 detail
Espy’s weather map for October 6, 1844 records a large hurricane off the North Carolina coast. The storm killed over 100 people in Cuba but never made landfall on the continental U.S.
Espy provided regular meteorological reports to the Navy. ZSR Special Collections & Archives owns a copy of the compilation of his second and third reports, finished in 1849 and published in 1850. This publication is particularly important, as Espy explains his meteorological theories in some detail in the introduction.
espy p5
After studying several years’ worth of meteorological data, Espy began to formulate theories about North American weather patterns.
The 1850 report also introduces modifications in his weather maps, with numbers in red indicating precipitation amounts and red lines showing changes in barometric pressure.
espy map january 1844
According to Espy’s weather map, January 22, 1844 saw rain and snow in the Ohio Valley, but quiet weather along most of the east coast.
Of course, not all of Espy’s innovative theories were correct. He came in for considerable ridicule for his belief that smoke and ashes from large fires could alleviate drought. In his Report he proposed, as an experiment, deliberately setting huge summer wildfires throughout the Alleghany mountains in an attempt to produce rain on demand. Fortunately for the residents of the Alleghanies, the experiment was never carried out. Espy and his contemporaries made great progress in understanding our weather. But, as we’re well aware more than 150 years after his groundbreaking work, changing the weather to suit human needs is a much more difficult and complicated task.
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In-class worksheet 12
Feb 22, 2018
In this worksheet, we will use the libraries tidyverse, ggthemes, and plotROC:
theme_set(theme_bw(base_size=12)) # set default ggplot2 theme
library(ggthemes) # for scale_color_colorblind()
# install.packages("plotROC")
library(plotROC) # for geom_roc() and calc_auc()
1. True positive and true negative rates
We continue working with the two species virginica and versicolor from the iris data set. As was done in the previous class, the following code makes a reduced data set, fits a logistic regression model (this time using only Sepal.Length as predictor), and then combines the predicted probabilities and the known species identity into one data frame called pred_data:
# make a reduced iris data set that only contains virginica and versicolor species
iris.small <- filter(iris, Species %in% c("virginica", "versicolor")) %>%
mutate(Species = factor(Species)) # this makes R forget about the 3rd species
# fit logistic regression model
glm.out <- glm(Species ~ Sepal.Length,
data = iris.small,
family = binomial)
# combine fitted values and Species identity
pred_data <- data.frame(probability = glm.out$fitted.values,
Species = iris.small$Species)
Pick a probability cutoff at which you would decide that a specimen belongs to virginica rather than versicolor. Calculate how many virginicas you call correctly and how many incorrectly given that cutoff. Hint: use the functions filter() and tally().
# your R code goes here.
Now do the same calculation for versicolor.
# your R code goes here.
If we define a call of virginica as a positive and a call of versicolor as a negative, what are the true positive rate (sensitivity, true positives divided by all possible positives, i.e., by the total count of virginicas) and the true negative rate (specificity, true negatives divided by all possible negatives, i.e., by the total count of versicolors) in your analysis?
# your R code goes here.
Recalculate the true-positive rate and the true-negative rate for a different probability cutoff.
# your R code goes here.
2. ROC curves
Next we will calculate and plot ROC curves. We do this with the function geom_roc() from the package plotROC. Here is an example:
# fit the model
glm.out <- glm(Species ~ Sepal.Width,
data = iris.small,
family = binomial)
# make data frame of the linear predictor and the known truth
df1 <- data.frame(predictor = predict(glm.out, iris.small), # linear predictor
known_truth = iris.small$Species, # the known truth, i.e., true species assignment
model = "Sepal.Width") # an arbitrary name to distinguish different curves
# plot
# the aesthetic names are not the most intuitive
# `d` (disease) holds the known truth
# `m` (marker) holds the predictor values
ggplot(df1, aes(d = known_truth, m = predictor, color = model)) +
geom_roc(n.cuts = 0) +
coord_fixed() + scale_color_colorblind()
## Warning in verify_d(data$d): D not labeled 0/1, assuming versicolor = 0 and
## virginica = 1!
Now make a few additional models and then make a plot showing the various ROC curves in one graph. (Hint: combine the data frames from the different models into one using the function rbind().)
# your R code goes here.
3. If this was easy
Calculate the area under the ROC curve (AUC) for your first model, using the function calc_auc() from the plotROC package. This function needs to be called on a plot containing a geom_roc() statement.
# your R code goes here.
Now calculate the AUC values for all the ROC curves you generated earlier, using the function calc_auc() exactly once.
# your R code goes here.
Unfortunately, because of how ggplot works, we have now lost the model names and instead just have group numbers. We can recover the connection between model name and group number by calling unique(df_combined$model) to obtain the model names and order(unique(df_combined$model)) to obtain the corresponding group numbers. Use this information to generate a modified table that contains model name and AUC and is sorted in descending order of AUC.
# your R code goes here.
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Written by Arthur D. Radlein, PGHP
Edited by Alfonso Serrano, GSB
There have been many questions asked about the ballot:
Where did it originate?
Why do we elect by ballot?
Why are black balls really cubes?
The search for the beginning of election by ballot has led into many broken avenues. However, in the canonical works of which China has probably the oldest system (older than the writings of Confucius for they date back to the year 2000 BC which would be about 1,100 years before the building of the Temple by King Solomon). It states "by a count of the black over the white it was so decided among the nobles that the prince would be separated from his head". In the Rabbinical system it reads, "a man's life shall hang in the scales between the black and the white". The use of black and white balls or balls cast into different receptacles can also be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome, where voting for various purposes, even verdicts on juries, required the voters to march by and cast shells or pebbles in vases or jars. The English word ostracized comes from the practice of ancient Greece wherein one was banished or cleared according to the casting of the shells called ostraka.
First, let us seek the answer to why black and white; Black and white are extreme opposites. They are not considered colors; One is referred to as light the other absence of light. Some artists may consider them shades, but they present the most perfect symbols of complete opposites. Also they represent day and night, since the beginning of man's knowledge, black has been associated with night, while white has been the symbol of the day.
Also, in Masonry, and other schools of education, darkness has been the symbol of ignorance, while light has been the symbol of knowledge. These are also two exact opposites. A man may be color-blind to the different colors in the spectrum but no man is so blind to color that he cannot tell the difference between black and white unless he is totally blind.
As to the question why the ballot is made up of black and white balls, it must be remembered that from the beginning of man up into the period known as the dark ages and even later, the great majority of men could neither read nor write. This was a common fact even among the nobility; even kings had their scribes for the purposes of writing their letters and dispatches. Therefore it is only natural that a ballot of any secret nature could only be held by the simple process of a black and white pebble or stone, as the casting of a yes or no vote, as direct opposites there could be no question in counting the ballots. Also, a small pebble could be held out of site in the hand until deposited in a common bowl.
Why do we have a secret ballot? According to the Handbook of Masonic Law of New York, written by Brother Howard P. Nash section [545] (III) Ballot must be secret. The ballot on a petition should always be strictly secret and inviolable and should be so spread that no one present will know, how any other Brother has voted. Part of the Standard Works and Lectures of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons the State of New York contains the work of the ballot. In which is found an admonition to all members present who are eligible to vote by the Worshipful Master, "Brethren, you are about to exercise one of your most sacred rights as a Master Mason. Before you cast your ballot, I would remind you that it is important that you act in the best interests of Masonry. You must not allow personal prejudices or private piques and grudges to influence your ballot. You are to consider only the moral qualifications of the petitioner. There must be none among us who would cast a blemish on the Lodge and the whole Fraternity by balloting for an unworthy petitioner or by rejecting a worthy applicant". In casting your ballot as a Freemason it is every members duty to pay particular attention to the reading of the report from the investigation committee on a particular candidate. This committee is charged by the Worshipful Master to investigate the motives of the petitioner for wanting to join Freemasonry and determine whether he is a man freeborn, of lawful age and well recommended.
The Investigating Committee is the preparatory work of the ballot. I caution all present that if you are charged by the Master to investigate a petitioner be as thorough as you possibly can. Do not be hesitant to ask him or his family personal question within reason. I have always asked the petitioners spouse how she feels about her husbands desire to seek admission into the Masonic Fraternity. Toady the Masonic Fraternity is still feeling the effects of spurious men who have been admitted into its ranks. Among them are Leo Taxil who wrote many books about the Secrets of Freemasonry after he was expelled from the Loge Le Temple de L'Honnuer Francais in Paris, France. All of which were exaggerated and imagined rituals of Freemasonry one which is that the newly initiated Entered Apprentice is given a dagger and told that before him is a Mason who has violated his obligation and therefore must suffer the penalty of death. In his books he claims that a sheep is sheared down to the bare skin and placed before the candidate. So in a ceremony such as the one Taxil invented, if the initiate strikes, although he will plunge a dagger into a brute animal in his heart he has committed murder. Even though Taxil at a religious convention held in Paris on April 17, 1897 where he admitted that all of his books about Freemasonry were a hoax perpetrated on the Catholic Church for his own monetary gain.
Anti Masons today still quote from those books and others who use Taxil as a source of reference. In this light, had that particular Lodge refused admission to Taxil his desire to write these books may have been stopped because he never would have received the rank and title of Freemason. A Mason therefore may have to reject by casting a black ball, a relative, his own employer; his own minister, a local judge or even a private his general, if he knows them to be an immoral person. There are many reasons why a ballot must be secret, but above all a Mason's livelihood and peace of mind may be at stake if his ballot were to be discovered. The Handbook of Masonic Law of New York states the following in section [1399] (II) b. Particular Offenses – (I) Disclosing Ballot. The penalty for disclosing the manner of casting a ballot, the number of white or black balls cast or declaring how any other Brother balloted, is suspension for not exceeding one year.
How many black balls or cubes may reject? According to the Constitutions of the Grand Lodge of the State of New York, Section 354. The ballot on a petition for initiation, or for affiliation, can be taken only at a stated communication, and if the ballot shall contain three or more black cubes, the petitioner shall be rejected. Section 353. Also states that "after twelve months a rejected candidate may present a new petition for initiation, which shall take the same course as the previous one".
Who may vote upon the petition of a candidate? According to the Handbook of Masonic Law of New York [546] d. Who may or must vote—(I) All members present must—(A) Rule stated. Every member of a Lodge present at any balloting therein for initiation, advancement or affiliation must vote. No one can be excused, ask to be excused or state any reason for voting or not voting. [547] (B) Except Tiler who may. The Tiler, while attending to his duties, is not present in the sense that he must vote, but he should be accorded the opportunity to do so if he expresses the desire. In section [1167] (12) Refusal to Ballot on petition. Refusal of a brother, when present, to cast his ballot at any balloting for initiation, advancement or affiliation constitutes a Masonic offense.
As to why you may find black cubes instead of black balls in the ballot box. Many years ago in the early days of the Colonies, and even in England, the lighting in the Lodge was very poor. Candlelight was the best that the lodge could offer. To see into the ballot box was almost impossible for the elder members and even the younger men had a hard time trying to distinguish between a black ball and a very dirty white one. A member drawing forth a ball from the box to get a closer look at the color disclosed many a ballot. In desperation, measures had to be taken, so it was decided to cut square cubes and paint them black.
I would like to touch upon the destruction of the ballot so that if a Master decides to destroy a ballot without announcing the result and hold another ballot some of the new members would not be confused. According the to Section [551] f. Destruction of the Ballot before result is declared—(I) Rule stated. Although prior to 1920 there was no positive enactment governing the matter, it was deemed advisable that a ballot should be destroyed only once before announcing the results, but the destruction of two ballots is now permitted with announcement of the result of the third mandatory. If the Master wishes to consider a ballot a second time, he should destroy it as soon as he discovers that it is not clear and proceed with the new ballot without announcing the result of the ballot that he destroyed. In such case, the balloting must be continuos and uninterrupted by any other business or proceedings and before any Brethren who participated in the destroyed ballot have left the Lodge. I encourage all of the newer members who do not have a copy of the Handbook of Masonic Law of the State of New York to get one and study it for within those covers are found all of the statutes by which we as New York State Freemasons abide.
In closing I cannot stress the importance of a secret ballot and I offer you a quote from Brother Albert Mackey's Encyclopedia of Freemasonry; "Secrecy of the ballot is essential to its perfection as its independence. If the vote were to be given viva voce, it is impossible that the improper influences of fear or interests should not sometimes be exerted, and timid members be thus induced to vote contrary to the dictates of their own reason and conscience. Hence, to secure this secrecy and protect the purity of choice, it has been wisely established as a usage, not only that the vote shall in these cases be taken by a ballot, but that there shall be no subsequent discussion of the subject. Not only has no member a right to inquire how his fellows have voted, but is wholly out of order for him to explain his own vote. And the reason is evident. If one member has a right to rise in his place and announce that he deposited a white ball, then every other member has the same right; and in a Lodge of twenty members, where an application has been rejected by one black ball, if nineteen members state that they did not deposit it, the inference is clear that the twentieth Brother has done so, and thus the secrecy of the ballot is destroyed. Should a rejection occur and is announced by the Master, the Lodge should at once proceed to other business, and it's the sacred duty of the presiding officer to check any rising discussion on the subject. Nothing must be done to impair the inviolable secrecy of the ballot.
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(1824?–1903). William Barak was a prominent Australian Aboriginal leader and activist. He was the last ngurungaeta (traditional leader) of the Wurunderjeri clan. He was also a skilled artist.
Barak was born about 1824. His name at birth was Beruk Barak. His people, the Wurunderjeri, were the first inhabitants of the Yarra River valley (the Wurunderjeri called the river Birrarung). This land is now part of the city of Melbourne, Victoria. Barak was the son of Bebejan, a ngurungaeta of the Wurunderjeri. The Wurunderjeri were one of four clans who made up the Woiwurrung language group. The Woiwurrung, in turn, were part of the larger Kulin Nation. Barak’s mother, Tooterie, came from the Ngooraialum clan of central Victoria.
As a boy, Barak witnessed the signing of an infamous agreement between Wurunderjeri elders and John Batman, a pioneer settler. By the terms of the 1835 treaty, Batman was to “purchase” 500,000 acres (200,000 hectares) of land in the Port Phillip area from the Wurunderjeri. The price was 40 blankets, 30 axes, 100 knives, 50 scissors, 30 mirrors, 200 handkerchiefs, 100 pounds of flour, and 6 shirts. Among the elders who signed Batman’s Treaty was Billibellary, Barak’s uncle, who was another influential ngurungaeta. The treaty was based on the European notion of land ownership. Aboriginal peoples did not understand this concept, however, as they believed that land could not be bought or sold. The British colonial government declared the treaty invalid. Nevertheless, it set the tone for the treatment of the Aboriginal people as the Melbourne area was settled in the years that followed.
European settlement had an immense impact on the well-being and culture of the Wurunderjeri clan. Barak saw the dislocation of his people from their traditional lands as the settler population grew. The expansion of colonial farms made it increasingly difficult for the Wurunderjeri to find food. Diminishing food supplies and the introduction of foreign diseases by the colonists caused many deaths among the Wurunderjeri. This experience would inspire Barak’s later efforts to secure and protect his ancestral lands.
Barak’s formal education was limited to two years in the government’s Yarra Mission School, from 1837 to 1839. In 1844 he joined the Port Phillip Native Police Force, a unit of Aboriginal troopers under the command of a European officer. The establishment of the force was an attempt to “civilize” the Aboriginal members. It was hoped they would give up their traditional lifestyle and, in turn, pass these new ways on to their families and friends. It was during his time as a trooper, at age 19, that Barak changed his name to William. He remained a member of the Native Police Force until it was disbanded in 1853.
Within a decade of the arrival of Europeans in the Yarra River region, the Aboriginal population had been significantly reduced. Tribal elders tried to maintain their culture and ties to the land by searching for an area to establish as a reserve. In the 1840s Billibellary appealed to the government for a land grant, but his request was denied. When Billibellary died in 1846, his son Simon Wonga, Barak’s cousin, became ngurungaeta. He took over the responsibility of securing land for his people. After many failed attempts, the Wurunderjeri were finally given a reserve at Badger Creek, near the Yarra River. Wonga partnered with Barak to establish Coranderrk Aboriginal Station on June 30, 1863.
Under the leadership of Wonga and Barak, Coranderrk became a successful farming community. It produced and sold wheat, vegetables, and crafts in the Melbourne area. As Coranderrk prospered, local settlers became determined to take the prime farmland for themselves. By the mid-1870s officials were threatening to close the reserve and sell off the land. Barak, however, led a long fight to keep Coranderrk. He took over as ngurungaeta when Wonga died in 1874. He negotiated with settlers and government officials, earning a reputation as a skilled diplomat. His efforts succeeded in keeping Coranderrk intact.
Barak established a legacy not only as a leader but also as an artist. During his time at Coranderrk, he created unique paintings and drawings that told the story of his life and culture. His artworks are now highly prized. Many of them are now displayed in Australian galleries, including the National Gallery of Australia, the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery, and the Koorie Heritage Trust.
Barak died at Coranderrk on August 15, 1903. He was buried in the Coranderrk cemetery. In 2005 Barak was honored with the construction of a footbridge in Melbourne. It crosses the Yarra River and connects two major parks, Birrarung Marr and Yarra Park. It is called the William Barak Bridge.
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is a by Vincent Prat that provides utilities to ease validation and computation of credit cards, SIREN codes, and other use-cases for the Luhn .
The Luhn algorithm (Wikipedia), developed in the 1950’s by IBM scientist Hans Peter Luhn, is a “simple checksum formula used to validate a variety of identification numbers.” Such numbers range from credit card numbers to various types of government identification numbers such as NPI numbers issued to health care providers.
Using the Laravel Luhn package, you can validate numbers using the package’s validation rule:
$validator = Validator::make($data, [
'number1' => 'luhn', // Using shorthand notation
'number2' => new LuhnRule(), // Using custom rule class
The Luhn algorithm implementation using the provided facade includes three methods, including isValid(), computeCheckDigit(), and computeCheckSum():
Check out marvinlabs/laravel-luhn on GitHub for complete installation and usage instructions. If you are interested in learning more about the Luhn algorithm, the Luhn algorithm page on Wikipedia has some good information, even including some code examples of how the algorithm works.
Source link https://laravel-news.com/laravel-luhn-algorithm
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Please enter your name here
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Biogeochemical and genomic studies have suggested that the availability of trace metals has been essential to the progressive evolution of life on Earth. In particular, the evolution of eukaryotes to diverse complex multicellular life has been related to the availability of trace metals. The radiation of eukaryotes, and the evolution of sex, is timed as Mesoproterozoic, but at that time the metals may have been preferentially sequestered in a sulfidic deep ocean. However, the addition of a huge volume of new crust to form a supercontinent ca. 1.9 Ga, including an unprecedented episode of within-plate anorogenic magmatism, led to an extraordinary new flux of metals to the upper crust in the late Paleoproterozoic–Mesoproterozoic. The appearance of sulfate evaporites from ca. 1.7–1.6 Ga indicates extensive weathering of metallic sulfides. Erosion of the supercontinent into Mesoproterozoic sediments introduced key metals to near-surface reservoirs, providing an enhanced biogeochemical environment conducive to the expansion of an evolving biota.
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熱血時報 | Newton’s Laws: Cause and Effect
Newton’s Laws: Cause and Effect
Newton’s Laws: Cause and Effect
In our elementary physics class during high school, we all would have come across Newton’s laws of motion, but how many of us realise that the first and third laws apply to more than just physics? Those two laws apply to all manners of reality. For those who may have forgotten what those two laws are, the first and third Newton’s laws of motion state that: something at rest will remain at rest and something in motion will remain in motion, until acted upon by an external force; and for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
How does that apply to our daily lives? Two words summarise both laws: cause and effect. The first of Newton’s law tells us that people have a tendency for laziness, and if there is no cause to do something, then people will not do it. The third law states that when we do something, there will always be an equal but opposite reaction. Together the two laws represent the concept of karma, cause and effect.
So what’s the point of having an elementary physics lesson here?
Just a few weeks back, before the furore over whether Cantonese is Hong Kongers’ “mother tongue”, the social uproar in Hong Kong had been the SAR regime’s Education Department’s decision to revise the proposed social studies material for students in regards to the history of Hong Kong. One of the two revisions asserts that the historic reference – “Transfer of Sovereignty of Hong Kong” – is in fact erroneous, with the Education Department claiming that China never lost its sovereignty over Hong Kong, and that the city-state was merely “lent” to Britain. The other revision denies that there was a historical cause for the mass influx of Chinese into Hong Kong from 1949 to 1980 (the year when the Touch Base Policy was abolished), as if the people came to Hong Kong for no reason other than immigration.
The fallacy of the SAR regime’s argument can be exposed simply by applying the first and third Newton’s laws of motion.
Newton’s First Law of Motion
If China never lost its sovereignty, why then is there the event of Hong Kong “returning” to China’s fold? Before going any further, it must be stressed that Hong Kong’s sovereignty first belonged to the Manchurian Empire, also known as the Qing Dynastic Empire, and not the People’s Republic of China. When the former was overthrown in revolution by forces that would result in the government of the Republic of China (now in Taiwan), the statehood of the Qing Empire came to an end. When the government of the Republic of China (RoC) was overthrown in revolution by communist forces that resulted in the declaration of the People’s Republic of China, the RoC government went into exile in Taiwan, while the communists formally declared the FOUNDING of a NEW nation. This suggests that the PRC never owned Hong Kong, ever, and so there is no basis to say that Hong Kong “returned” to China in the first place.
But let us take a billion steps back. The definition of sovereignty, simply put, is “the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from outside sources or bodies.” Prior to First of July, 1997, could the PRC ever make legitimate acts over the governing of Hong Kong? Did the PRC ever have had the right to designate the Governor of Hong Kong? Could the PRC legally send their People’s Liberation Army across the Hong Kong border without a declaration of war on Britain? Did the PRC ever have the authority to issue command to the Royal Hong Kong Regiment (The Volunteers) which was Hong Kong’s military before 1997? Could the PRC legislate for Hong Kong’s domestic and international relation matters prior to 1997? The answer is an absolute NO. Her Majesty’s Government in Britain had a right to do all those things mentioned, so sovereignty was in the British government’s hand. You either have sovereignty or don’t; there is no in-between.
According to Newton’s first law of motion then, something at rest will stay at rest unless acted upon by an external force. If the PRC “always had” sovereignty over HK, why would the British government, under former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, hold talks with the PRC that was under the dictatorship of Deng Xiaoping (cursed be his name) at the time? Under the same Newton’s law of motion (something in motion will stay in motion unless acted upon by an external force), as Britain had had sovereignty over Hong Kong since 1841 (when HK was first founded), why would Her Majesty’s Government in Britain suddenly had to arrange talks with the PRC over the issue of sovereignty over Hong Kong, if the need for a “Transfer of Sovereignty of Hong Kong” never existed?
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
The SAR regime’s Education Department claimed that there was no particular historical reason why there was a mass influx of Chinese coming into British Hong Kong from 1949 to 1980 (which technically continued until 1997). However, according to Newton’s third law of motion, everything is but the reaction to the first act of creation (see Newton’s first law of motion), so the influx of Chinese coming through Hong Kong’s border must therefore have a cause; it cannot “just happen”. So what was the cause? What happened during 1949 that started a chain of influx of Chinese into Hong Kong up until the ’80s and ’90s?
Simply put, shit happened. More specifically, the Chinese Communist Party won the war against the Republic of China’s government and declared the founding of a new communist state. This one act ignited a chain of motions that forced many Chinese to flee their homes in China to make a new life in Hong Kong.
Just in case if any “blue ribbons” and Chinese declare anything I say to be figments of my own imagination, let’s use my own family’s case!
Not long after the PRC was formally established in 1949, the struggle against landowners began and my great grandfather’s family and his extended family were caught in it. My great grandfather was a landowner but a very righteous and kind-hearted one, who will not bully his tenant farmers nor extort undue payment out of them. Unlike other landowners, he requested rice as a form of payment regardless of whether money or rice was worth more, and often he would allow his tenants to defer payment if that year’s harvest was really bad across the board.
When the communists founded their socialist state and came to the Canton Province, they declared my great grandfather and his family to be “sinful” landowners that must be put to struggle sessions and denounced. One of my great aunts had to kneel on broken glass on one occasion, and be semi-submerged in a river during winter on another, in order to force her to “confess” that she and her extended family were devious landowners. The communist regime ordered that my great grandfather’s family were to be denied food and assistance from anyone else in the village, but luckily, due to his previous acts of charity, many villagers secretly supplied my great grandfather with essential supplies.
Due to the continuous persecution by the communists, my grandmother took my elder and younger aunts as well as my father (a toddler at the time) in hand to flee to the city of Canton itself, where she worked as a clothing factory worker until my grandfather (who had already moved to Hong Kong with his uncle during the war against Japan, prior to the communist takeover of China) could arrange to send for my grandmother and the rest of the family over to Hong Kong through Macau, aboard a smuggling ship. This was before the Touch Base Policy was employed. When the call for amnesty for any illegal resident came out in 1974, my grandfather immediately took his family to be registered and receive the right of permanent abode in Hong Kong. After this, my grandmother would continuously send my elder aunt back across the border on foot, with essential supplies to be delivered to her husband’s brothers and their families during the time of the Great Famine.
I’m sure that my family’s story as refugees fleeing the communists echoes many other Hong Kongers’ family history. Yet if history is as the SAR regime’s Education Department maintains – that there had been no persecution nor refugees fleeing from the communists – was my greater family’s ordeal just a figment of their own imagination?
There is a saying that there is no smoke without fire. In Newtonian terms, there is no reaction without a previous action, which could not come to be unless something broke from inertia to initiate an action in the first place.
The SAR regime’s Education Department, in denial of history, is in fact suggesting something was created out of nothing. Who do they think they are, God?
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History of Colonial Georgia
In the early eighteenth century between the Savannah and Alatamaha rivers, there was a region wholly unoccupied by white inhabitants at the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century. The South Carolinians proposed to erect a barrier between themselves and the Spaniards in Florida, by the planting of an English colony in that region. They asked the British government to do so. There were great obstacles in the way. Voluntary emigrants preferred a settled country away from immediate danger from foes; and a penal colony for British convicts was not desirable.
At that juncture, the subject of the condition of prisoners for debt in Great Britain, was attracting general attention. These men, unconvicted of any crime, were crowding the jails of the kingdom, and enduring sufferings more horrible than those inflicted upon negro slaves in the West Indies. Disease and moral degradation were making sad havoc among them. The hearts of the benevolent yearned to relieve them. A humane and wealthy citizen of London bequeathed his fortune to the government to be employed in liberating the most deserving insolvent debtors from the jails, where they were doomed to hopeless indigence and misery by the cruel laws oftentimes more cruelly administered.
This act caused the appointment of a committee by Parliament to inquire into the condition of prisoners for debt. It was done at the suggestion of Colonel James Edward Oglethorpe, a graduate of Oxford, a brave soldier, and then a member of Parliament. That was in the year 1728. Colonel Oglethorpe was made chairman of the committee, and they entered upon their duties with vigor. The revelations of the prisons were horrible and sickening. The writings of the afterwards illustrious Howard give us vivid pen-pictures of the scenes. The pencil of Hogarth has left us actual delineations of them. The English merchant, unfortunate in his business, was often suddenly plunged from a sphere of affluence and usefulness, to the dreadful dens called prisons, there to herd with the ignorant and vile in hopeless poverty and degradation.
Oglethorpe stood before one of these men who had been a distinguished alderman, in London, when he was a boy, and had been highly esteemed for his many virtues and practical benevolence. He had also been a "merchant prince," but had been ruined by great losses. His creditors sent him to prison. In an instant he was compelled to exchange a happy home and delightful society for a loathsome prison cell and the company of the debased. One by one his friends, who could aid him in keeping famine from his wretched abode, disappeared, and he was forgotten by the outside world. Twenty-three years he had been in jail. Gray-headed, haggard, ragged and perishing with hunger, he lay upon a heap of filthy straw in a dark, damp, unventilated room. His devoted wife, who had shared his misery eighteen years, had just starved to death, and lay in rags by his side, silent and cold. An hour before he had begged his jailor, with outstretched arms of supplication, to remove her body to the prison burying-ground. The inhuman wretch, who knew his history, refused with an oath, saying, with horrid irony: "Send for your alderman's coach to take her to the Abbey!"
The man expired when he had finished his sad story. There and then, inspired by God, Oglethorpe conceived a scheme of providing an asylum for such as these beyond the sea, where they might enjoy comfort and happiness. He also resolved to bring such jailors to punishment. The records of some of the English state trials show how earnestly he pursued these felons.
Oglethorpe proposed to plant the colony of unfortunates in the unoccupied country below the Savannah. His colleagues readily assented, and in his report to the House of Commons, he laid a scheme for the colony before that body. It promised the advantages of securing that domain to the British Crown, relieving the South Carolinians from danger, and doing good to a large class of worthy British subjects. The king and Parliament approved the project. An appropriation of money for the object was made, and on the 9th of June, 1732, the king granted a charter for founding a colony with the title of Georgia. That name was given in compliment to King George the Second, then the ruling monarch of England.
The management of the new settlement was entrusted to twenty-one "noblemen and gentlemen," who were constituted" Trustees for Settling and Establishing the Colony of Georgia." Colonel Oglethorpe was one of them. They were vested with legislative powers for the government of the colony for the space of twenty-one years, at the expiration of which time a permanent government was to be established by the king or his successors in accordance with British law and usage.
Oglethorpe generously offered to accompany the emigrants and assist them in making their first settlement. Every feature of the project commended itself to the hearts of the British people. Donations from all ranks and classes were freely given to assist the emigrants in planting comfortable homes in the wilderness. The Bank of England made a generous gift; and the House of Commons, from time to time, voted money, amounting in the aggregate, in the course of two years, to one hundred and sixty thousand dollars. Lord Viscount Percival was chosen president of the trustees, and a code of regulations for the colony, with agreements and stipulations, was speedily prepared.
All things being in readiness, thirty-five families-one hundred and twenty emigrants, men, women, and children-sailed from Gravesend for Georgia in the ship Anne, of two hundred tons burden, on the 6th of November, 1732. They were accompanied by Colonel Oglethorpe as governor, the Rev. Mr. Shubert, of the Church of England, as a spiritual guide, and a few Piedmontese silk-workers; for one of the projects of the trustees was the growing of silk in Georgia.
The Anne arrived at Charleston harbor at the middle of January, 1733, where the emigrants were received with joy by the inhabitants. The Assembly of South Carolina voted them a large supply of cattle and other provisions, for they were regarded as valuable auxiliaries. Their mutual aid was foreshadowed by the following lines which appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine:
"To Carolina be a Georgia joined! Then shall both colonies sure progress make, Endeared to either for the other's sake; Georgia shall Carolina's protection move, And Carolina bloom by Georgia's love."
The Anne was piloted from Charleston into Port Royal Sound, near Beaufort Island, whence the emigrants were to be conveyed to the Savannah River in small boats. From that point, Oglethorpe, accompanied by a guide furnished by the council of South Carolina, went forward to select a suitable place for a settlement. He chose Yamacraw Bluff, on the Savannah River, about ten miles from the sea, where Governor Moore, of South Carolina, had planted a small tribe of Creek Indians thirty years before, as owners of the soil. It was a high plain, its river front forty feet above the stream, and gently sloping to the swamps in the rear. There he laid out a town and returned to Beaufort, where the emigrants had landed, to conduct them to their final destination. They all arrived there on the first of February, and slept in tents that night.
The South Carolinians had sent boats with the additional provisions, and a body of rangers for the protection of the colonists while the latter should build cabins and a fort for their defence. The town projected by the governor was named Savannah, and there the emigrants soon had comfortable dwellings and a formidable military work armed with cannons. Concerning this spot, Oglethorpe wrote to the trustees:
"Upon the river side, at the centre of this plain, I have laid out a town, opposite to which is an island [Hutchinson's Island] of very rich pasturage, which I think should be kept for the trustees' cattle. The river is pretty wide, the water fresh, and from the key of the town you see its whole course to the sea, with the island of Tybee, which forms the mouth of the river. For about six miles up into the country the landscape is very agreeable, the stream being wide and bordered with high woods on both sides."
Before their departure from England, the colonists had received some military training from the sergeants of the guards, in London. Oglethorpe now formed them into a company of militia with officers; and he frequently exercised them that the Indians might be impressed with their military skill. The fort was soon completed and cannon mounted upon it. Then the governor turned his earnest attention to the important business of establishing friendly relations with the Indians. He was within territory claimed by the powerful Creek Confederacy, and not far from the seat of a tribe composed partly of Yamacraws and partly of Yamasees or Savannahs, over whom presided To-mo-chi-chi, a venerable chief. He had suffered banishment at the hands of his people, the Lower Creeks, but for what cause is unknown. He was then ninety-one years of age, of commanding person and grave demeanor. His power over his immediate followers was supreme, and his name had great weight throughout the Confederacy as a renowned warrior and wise sachem. Oglethorpe therefore sought an early interview with To-mo-chi-chi. It was held under the tall pines and wide-spreading live-oaks that covered Yamacraw Bluff, with Mary Musgrove, the half-breed Creek wife of a South Carolina trader, then at Savannah, as interpreter.
That interview was very satisfactory. To-mo-chi-chi pledged his unwavering friendship for the English, and assisted Oglethorpe in making arrangements for a general convention of the heads of the Confederacy. That convention assembled in one of the large houses at Savannah, late in May, 1733, and was attended by fifty chiefs representing eight tribes of the Creek Nation.
Oglethorpe addressed the assembled chiefs. He told them of the great power, wealth and wisdom of the English people, and of the advantages the Indians might derive by the cultivation of friendly relations between the two races. He expressed a hope that as the Indians had a superabundance of land, they would freely resign a portion of it to those who had come over the sea for their instruction and benefit. When the governor ceased speaking, the venerable To-mo-chi-chi arose and, in behalf of the Creek warriors present, he gave their cordial assent to Oglethorpe's proposition. "I was a banished man," he said. "I came here, poor and helpless, to look for good lands near the tombs of my ancestors, and the trustees sent people here. I feared you would drive us away, for we were weak and wanted corn; but you confirmed our land to us, gave us food and instructed our children." After further declaring the goodness of the English and expressing thanks, To-mo-chi-chi said, as he gave a buffalo-skin to the governor, on the inside of which were delineated the head and feathers of an eagle: "Here is a little present. I give you the skin of a buffalo adorned with the head and feathers of an eagle, which I desire you to accept, because the eagle is an emblem of speed and the buffalo of strength. The English are as swift as the bird and as strong as the beast; since like the former, they flew over vast seas to the uttermost parts of the earth; and like the latter, they are so strong that nothing can withstand them. The feathers of the eagle are soft, and signify love; the buffalo's skin is warm, and signifies protection; therefore I hope the English will love and protect our little families."
A satisfactory treaty was made by which all unoccupied lands within defined boundaries were assigned to the English. This treaty was ratified by the trustees on the 18th of October, 1733, when the English obtained sovereignty over the domain between the Savannah and Alatamaha rivers, westward from the Atlantic to the extent of tide-water, and all the islands but three from Tybee to St. Simons. Unfortunately the Indians were allowed to reserve for their use in hunting, bathing and fishing the islands of Ossabaw, Sapela and St. Catharines, which were within the limits of the English domain. This reservation was a source of trouble afterwards.
At the conclusion of the treaty, To-mo-chi-chi invited the members of the convention to his own town near by, where they spent the night in feasting and dancing. The treaty was signed on the 21st, when the governor distributed the following presents among the Indians: A laced coat and a laced hat and shirt to each of the chiefs; to each of the warriors, a gun and a mantle of duffils (a coarse woolen cloth with nap and fringe), and to all their attendants coarse cloth for clothing; a barrel of gunpowder; four kegs of bullets; a piece of broadcloth; a piece of Irish linen; a cask of tobacco pipes; eight belts and cutlasses with gilt handles; tape, and of all colors; eight kegs of rum to be carried home to their towns; one pound of powder, one pound of bullets, and as much provision for each one as they pleased to take for their journey home. Rum appears to have been freely used at first in Georgia. In the minutes of the trustees, under date of August 11, 1733, is the following record: "Read a letter from Mr. Oglethorpe with an account of the death of several persons in Georgia, which he imputed to the drinking of rum. Resolved, That the drinking of rum in Georgia be absolutely prohibited, and that all which be brought there be staved." This was a short but pretty effectual prohibitory law.
In the spring of 1734, Oglethorpe went to England, leaving the colony in the care of others. Believing that a sight of England, its inhabitants and evidences of its power, by some of the Indians, would increase the reverence of the Indians for Englishmen and add strength and permanence to the colony, he invited To-mo-chi-chi and some of his friends to go with him. The invitation was accepted, and the old Creek monarch with his queen, See-naw-ki; their adopted son and nephew, Too-na-ho-wi and five chiefs, went on the voyage. The vessel reached England in June, when Oglethorpe sent a letter to his friend, Sir John Phillips, in which he spoke of To-mo-chi-chi as an aged chief, "the mico or king of Yamacraw, a man of an excellent understanding, so desirous of hearing the young people taught the English language and religion, that, notwithstanding his advanced age, he has come over with me to obtain means and assistant teachers. He has brought with him a young man whom he calls his nephew and next heir, and who has already learned the Lord's prayer in the English and the Indian language." The reception of the governor and his dusky friends was cordial. The Indians were objects of great curiosity, none having been seen in England since Schuyler took some Mohawk kings to the court of Queen Anne. To-mo-chi-chi was made the subject of an ode of eleven stanzas of ten lines each, the first of which was as follows:
"What stranger this? and from what region far? This wondrous form, majestic to behold? Uncloath'd but arm'd offensive for the war, In hoary age and wise experience old? His limbs inured to hardiness and toil, His strong large limbs what mighty sinews brace! Whilst truth sincere and artless virtue smile In the expressive features of his face, His bold, free aspect speaks the inward mind, Arm'd by no slavish fear, from no vile passion blind."
On the first of August the Indians were conveyed in three of the royal coaches, each drawn by six horses, to Kensington palace, to have an interview with the king. They had been dressed at the office of the trustees in English costume. To-mo-chi-chi and his queen in scarlet and gold. The chiefs, less gorgeously attired, had their faces painted according to their home-custom. They were received at the door of the palace by the royal body-guard and conducted to the presence of the king and queen, who were seated on thrones. Then To-mo-chi-chi presented some eagle's feathers to the monarch, and said:
"This day I see the majesty of your face, the greatness of your house, and the number of your people. I am come for the good of the whole nation called the Creeks, to renew the peace which was long ago had with the English. I am come over in my old days, although I cannot live to see any advantage to myself. I am come for the good of the children of all the nations of the Upper and Lower Creeks, that they may be instructed in the knowledge of the English.
"These are the feathers of the eagle which is the swiftest of birds, and who flieth all around our nations. These feathers are a sign of peace in our land, and have been carried from town to town there; and we have brought them over to leave with you, O great king! as a sign of everlasting peace. O great king! whatsoever words you shall say to me, I will tell them faithfully to all the kings of the Creek nations."
The sovereign gave a gracious answer to this speech, assuring the old chief that he and his people might rely upon the friendship of the English. Then they withdrew. A cloud was upon their spirits. One of the chiefs, a brother of queen See-naw-ki, was very sick with the small-pox. He soon died, and was buried with the custom of his country as nearly as possible. Then Oglethorpe took the whole party to his estate, where they bewailed their loss for several days. After remaining four months in England, and becoming deeply impressed with the greatness of the English people, To-mo-chi-chi and his company returned to Georgia, in the company of a considerable number of new emigrants. The Indians were conveyed to the ship at Gravesend, in the royal coaches, bearing with them presents valued at two thousand dollars. The Prince of Wales had given to To-mo-chi-chi's heir a gold watch, with an injunction to call upon Jesus Christ every morning, when he looked on it. They reached Savannah late in December, 1734. Among the emigrants was an English baronet (Francis Parkhurst) and his family, and fifty-six Saltzburghers newly arrived from Rotterdam.
Oglethorpe did not return to Georgia until the beginning of 1736, when he was received with joy by the colonists and the Indians. He took with him several cannon and about one hundred and fifty Scotch Highlanders, well skilled in the military art, who constituted the first army in Georgia during its early struggles. With him also came the Rev. John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church, and his brother Charles, who came to preach the gospel to the heathen. To Mr. Wesley, To-mo-chi-chi remarked: "I am glad you are come. When I was in England, I desired that some one would speak the great word to me. I will go up and speak to the wise men of my nation, and hope they will hear. But we would not be made Christians as the Spaniards make Christians; we would be taught before we are baptized."
With a population of more than five hundred souls; with a military force, and with means for religious instruction, the foundations of the colony of Georgia were now firmly laid. And had the wisdom of the trustees been equal to their benevolence, immediate and great prosperity would have been visible. But they bound the colonists by such unwise rules and regulations that their energies were cramped, and it seemed, at one time, as if the grand object of the trustees, and the hopes of Englishmen, would be frustrated.
Return to Our Country, Vol. I
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Baillon’s Crake
Baillon’s Crake (Juvenile)
Scientific Name
Porzana pusilla
Arabic Name
المرعة الصغيرة
Kuwaiti name
دجاجة عدي
37.0 cm
19.0 cm
Least Concern
Similar species
Scarce passage migrant. Like its relative the Little Crake, it usually maintains a very secretive existence. When water levels are low, sometimes these toy-like birds may come out of the reeds to forage, often being extremely tame.
Where in Kuwait
A ground dwelling water-bird, found predominantly in reed habitat around brackish pools in the Jahra area. A versatile omnivore it forages alone or in small flocks of up to ten birds on mud and in shallow water for a variety of insects, worms, small fish, plant material and seeds.
In the world
This species has a huge range across much of southern and eastern Europe, north, east and southern Africa, Asia and Australasia. Populations in southern Africa and Australasia are mostly sedentary all year round, but elsewhere populations are largely migratory and breed at northern latitudes during the summer before travelling southwards ahead of the onset of winter.
Local threats
Wetland degradation and habitat loss
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McGavock Fell
McGavock Fell
(Jacob McGavock 1790-1868)
By Don D. Crawford, about his 3rd great grand uncle
Outnumbered ten to one, at that location of the battle, during a ferocious attack by war-hooping, war-painted, savage Red-Stick Creek Indians, 23-year-old Jacob McGavock strained and struggled, with the other members of the Nashville Volunteers Artillery Company, to complete a daunting task. The men had to drag their single cannon out of the creek, take the cannon off its timbers, drag and push the cannon to the top of a hill and fire the cannon into the advancing enemy, to repulse the overwhelming attack by hostile Indians on Andrew Jackson’s army. Both sides realized that the tide of battle would turn on whether the Red Sticks captured the cannon or whether the artillery company succeeded in firing the cannon.
The Red Sticks fired volley after volley from muskets and shot arrow after arrow from bows at members of Jacob’s unit, which created a relentless, deadly barrage. The duty to which Jacob and the other members of the artillery company committed themselves to complete, put these gallant patriots in the open and prevented the men from taking cover from the persistent storm of deadly projectiles. The savages brought down one member of this band of brothers after the other, yet the dwindling number of survivors bravely continued the task, risking death to accomplish the mission to save their brothers by firing the cannon. Keenly focused on their duty during the commotion and chaos of the fully engaged battle, the survivors managed to fire the cannon, just in time. After the first shot of the cannon, McGavock fell. Hamilton, Bradford and Lieutenant Armstrong, the commander of the artillery unit, also fell. Lieutenant Armstrong, exclaimed as he lay, “my brave fellows, some of you will fall, but you must save the cannon.” Gen. Andrew Jackson called the effort by the men in the artillery company the greatest act of bravery Jackson had ever witnessed. Jackson’s report of the battle affirmed, “Never was more bravery displayed than on this occasion.” Jackson’s Last Will and Testament, commemorated this iconic display of courage with a bequest to General Robert Armstrong of a sword and with words which recalled the Battle of Enotochopco and Armstrong’s memorable command to “save the cannon.”
For over 100 years before the American Revolution, which began in 1776, and for over 100 years after the American Revolution, which ended in 1783, pioneer Americans, who settled and who civilized the frontier backwoods during the Westward migration, faced many dangers. In addition to daily dangers, particularly from hostile Indians, national crises periodically called American sons to demonstrate their courage, their patriotism and their dedication to the preservation of liberty, by fighting large scale wars with Indians, sometimes combined with other wars of the nation. The Creek War and the War of 1812 presented such a time, particularly for Jacob McGavock and other brave sons of Tennessee.
The generation of Patriot Americans who fought the British and the British Allies in the American Revolution and the generation of Patriot Americans who fought the British and the British Allies in the War of 1812 represented two extraordinary generations of mankind. Their peers can rarely be found among modern Americans. These two generations, in the author’s opinion, were the greatest generations of Americans. The greatest generation was the American Revolution Generation, because the generation of the War of 1812 protected the liberties earned by their fathers and grandfathers and emulated the examples set by their fathers and their grandfathers.
The American victory in the War of the Revolution ranked as one of the most significant events in World History. The cause of freedom for the American Revolution ranked as the most noble of causes for war and the liberty subsequently practiced in America served as an example to the entire world. American Patriots, particularly those who had Scot Ancestry, may have drawn inspiration for their own courage from the examples set by William Wallace (1270-1305) and Robert the Bruce (1274-1329) who led Scotland’s War of Independence from England (1296-1328). Americans rose up, banded together and shook off the shackles of the royals, the nobility and the overlords. Many Christians considered the American Victory in the war to be nothing short of a miracle of God.
France’s attempt at emulation, during the French Revolution 1789-99, became marred by extreme cruelty and rampant executions. Since an ocean separated America from Britain, independence and liberty did not require the execution of royalty, nobles and the “ruling class.” This allowed the parallel development of American culture and British culture over the following centuries. This simultaneous development revealed how the American experiment in democracy fared when compared to the development of the culture of the mother country. America has fared quite well and became the most powerful country, with the most freedom for its citizens, among all other countries in the world. The victory in the War of the Revolution provided the opportunity for this example to the world.
The War of 1812 threatened the American way of life, this example of liberty and the continuation of the experiment in democracy for the descendants of the veterans of the War of the Revolution. Without the service, sacrifice and victory which marked the War of 1812 Generation of Americans, this story would be changed. This story is about Jacob McGavock, born September 20, 1790 in Virginia, a patriotic Scot-Irish-American fighting man who showed great courage in battles against the Creek Indians during the Creek War, which became part of the War of 1812. Jacob McGavock (1790), rightfully held a place among these honored men of the Generation of the War of 1812, because Jacob emulated Jacob’s father, Hugh McGavock (1761), and Jacob’s grandfather, James McGavock (1728), fighting for the liberty of America.
Many outstanding talents characterized Jacob and members of Jacob’s large family. Impressive achievements frequently marked members of Jacob’s family, but this element was not the criterion for selection of family members for discussion in this article. Connection to Nashville and Middle Tennessee became the required element for selection of the few of the numerous members Jacob’s family who are discussed in this article.
The McGavocks, like many of their Scot-Irish kin, had been often blessed with tall, strong physiques and superb minds. In addition, the McGavocks in America also typically strived to attain five important, practical goals in life: (1) faithful lives in the Presbyterian Church; (2) high character (virtue and honor); (3) respectable educations; (4) useful occupations and (4) large industrious families. Many McGavocks graduated from college, at a time when the inability to read or write was common. McGavocks who attained these goals of life displayed an effective combination of admirable attributes, which equipped these McGavocks for worthwhile lives, for success and for leadership.
Jacob McGavock (1790) successfully obtained all of these goals in life; faithfulness, character, education, occupation and family. In addition, Jacob was a handsome young man; with a ruddy complexion, reddish hair, steel grey eyes and a winning personality. Jacob also cultivated excellent communication skills and an eye for beauty, not only of the skin, but also of the heart. Jacob believed the old adage, “pretty is as pretty does.” This was never more evident than when Jacob McGavock asked Louisa Caroline Grundy (1798-1878) to marry him. Louisa was uncommonly talented, from a prominent family (the daughter of U.S. Senator and later U.S. Attorney General, Felix Grundy), full of promise to become a wonderful wife. The couple displayed every characteristic necessary to become exceptional parents. The genetic qualities and the life style, which this couple provided to their posterity, helped to create outstanding children and outstanding descendants. Jacob’s elated family, both those back home in Virginia and those in Tennessee, recognized Louisa as an ideal match for Jacob. The original McGavock American clan had been formed in Virginia, where two of Jacob’s most important role models lived and died; Jacob’s grandfather, James McGavock, and Jacob’s father, Hugh McGavock.
Jacob’s grandfather, James McGavock (1728-1812, the author’s 5G Grandfather), had immigrated in 1754 or 1755 from Antrim, Northern Ireland to the colonies (Augusta Co., Virginia), where James soon served on the British side in the French and Indian War 1754-1763. Fifty thousand British soldiers fought in the French and Indian War, including British regulars and colonial provincial regiments made up of men like Colonel George Washington[1732-1799] (English ancestry), Captain Griffith C. Rutherford (1721-1805) and James McGavock [1728] (both Scot-Irish ancestry).
During the French and Indian War, James married Scot-Irish Mary Cloyd in 1760, daughter of David Cloyd (1710-1792) and Margaret Campbell (1707-1764). These were dangerous times on the frontier in Virginia. Four years after the marriage of James and Mary, raiding Indians scalped Margaret Campbell Cloyd (1707) and killed John Cloyd (1737-1764), Mary’s brother, while David Cloyd was away. In 1771, after the British, with important aid from the colonists, defeated the French and the Indians, who allied with the French, James made a crucial business decision and purchased an important homestead, called “Fort Chiswell.” Ft. Chiswell, had been built in 1758 as an outpost, during the French and Indian War. In 1763, as a result of the British victory in the war, France surrendered to the British all of the lands east of the Mississippi River. The Seneca trail, on which Ft. Chiswell had been built, became, in 1763, the official boundary for the frontier beyond which King George III, who ruled Britain 1760-1801, forbid settlement. After James McGavock acquired the property, James built an inn which became an important stopping place for travelers on the Old Wilderness Road, particularly for those settlers headed for the western frontier.
American colonists had continued to be subjects of the British Crown, King George II, and on succession in 1760, King George III, during the French and Indian War. In 1774, when Thomas Jefferson, for 20 shillings, purchased 157 acres located in Botecourt County in the Colony of Virginia, which included the natural rock bridge, John Murray (1730-1809), also known as Lord Dunmore and as the 4th Earl of Dunmore, the last Royal Governor of the Province of Virginia, signed the deed, on behalf of King George III. Later, Jefferson and McGavock became owners of neighboring tracts, when James McGavock purchased a tract of land situated adjacent to the Natural Bridge tract of land owned by Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson, an attorney, represented James McGavock in legal matters. Jefferson and McGavock may have discussed the troubles which began to emerge in the relationship between the “mother country,” and the colonies.
Within a few years after the French and Indian War ended, tensions between the two peoples separated by the Atlantic Ocean developed and increased. The relationship between the colonists and the Crown seriously deteriorated when the Crown failed to redress legitimate grievances, such as “taxation without representation.” In 1775, the American population had grown to almost 2.5 million and had become a formidable force. When neither side would capitulate, the dispute erupted into a world-changing crisis, known as The American Revolution.
In 1775, before the Declaration of Independence was signed and before the Mecklenburg Declaration was signed, James and 14 other Patriots, almost all Scot-Irish Captains in the Virginia Militia, signed the Fincastle Resolution, which pledged their lives and risked their property in support of liberty. (See Appendix 07 – Fincastle Resolution). Scot-Irish Virginian Patriot Patrick Henry, who received a copy of the document, summarized the essence of the Fincastle Resolution with his famous pronouncement, “Give me Liberty or give me death.” Four of the signers of the Fincastle Resolution married three sisters of Patriot Patrick Henry; Colonel William Christian (1742-1786) married Anne Henry (1743-1790); Captain Thomas Madison (1744-1798), cousin to President James Madison, married Susannah Henry (1743-1831), and Colonel/General William Campbell (1744-1781), hero of the Battle of Kings Mountain, married Elizabeth Henry (1749-1825). After Gen. William Campbell died, Captain William Russell married William’s widow, Elizabeth Henry Campbell. In 1821, Tennessee honored Patrick Henry with “Henry County.”
Captain James McGavock (1728), like most of the Scot-Irish, served as a Patriot fighting for independence against the British in the War of the Revolution 1776–1783. A letter from Thomas Jefferson to James McGavock (1728), preserved in family records, once addressed James as “Major,” but no commission as such as been discovered. In the War of the Revolution, the American Patriots, through great hardships, personal risks and sacrifices, miraculously defeated the British and the British allies. British forces included; (1) British regulars, (2) loyalist American Tories and (3) some Indian tribes, which allied with the British. Indian Tribes which allied with the British, killed settlers and fought the Patriots included the following: Shawnee; Delaware; Mohawk and Cherokee.
During the American Revolution, Scot-Irish General Griffith C. Rutherford (the author’s 5G Grandfather) led an expedition against the Cherokee which eliminated any further serious Indian threat to the Patriots living in the Carolinas, during the War of the Revolution and which also gave the Cherokees reasons to regret their British alliance. General Rutherford’s first campaign in 1775-76, called the Snow Campaign had been against the Tories in South Carolina. In this campaign, Tories shot in the shoulder William Polk (1758-1834), the son of Gen. Thomas Polk (1730-1794) and the nephew of Ezekiel Polk (1747-1824). Ezekiel Polk became the grandfather of President James K. Polk. William Polk (1758) recovered from the wound in the shoulder, served as a Colonel in the Battle of Eutaw Springs and became the father of Confederate General Leonidas Polk (1806-1864). Another son of William Polk (1758) Lucius Polk (1802-1870), married Mary Eastin (1810-1847), the granddaughter of John Donelson (1725-1885), Co-founder of Nashville, Tennessee and father-in-law of President/Gen. Andrew Jackson. Bonds among Scot-Irish families during the American Revolution continued for generations, often creating Informal Clans, as demonstrated by the examples in this article.
Some similarities existed between the War of the Revolution and with the American Civil War, because loyalties to the Patriot Cause for independence and Tory loyalties to the Crown divided America and sometimes split families. For example, stories about the Battle of Kings Mountain revealed family members who fought against each other. No such division plagued the McGavocks or their closely related Scot-Irish families in southwest Virginia, who almost universally fought as Patriots. The important role of the Scot-Irish in Gen. Washington’s army has been often heralded. Gen. Washington has been often quoted as stating; “…if defeated everywhere else I will make my final stand for liberty with the Scotch-Irish of my native Virginia…”
(NOTE: During Colonial and early America, the “Scot-Irish” were simply called “Irish.” Regardless what label was employed, the Protestant Presbyterian Scots who settled in Northern Ireland, primarily during the Implantation, and who migrated to America before the American Revolution, are the same unique people. If Washington actually used the term “Irish,” rather than “Scot-Irish,” the modification in Washington’s quote can be justified to communicate Washington’s original intent. The complete term of “Scotch-Irish” became common after immigration of large numbers of Catholic Native Irish who fled the famines of the middle 1800s. Since readers today could believe that “Irish” referred both to Scot-Irish and to Native Irish, the insertion of “Scot-Irish” conveyed Washington’s original intent.)
Rockbridge County, Virginia, named for the natural rock bridge on Jefferson’s property, saw the births of many famous people who made important contributions to American History; from pioneer surgeon Dr. Ephraim McDowell (1771-1830) to Sam Houston (1793-1863). Gen. Sam Houston (1793), served as commander of the Texian Army which won the independence of Texas when it defeated Mexican General Santa Anna in the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836. Houston also served as U.S. Congressman, Governor of Tennessee, Governor of Texas and became the first President of the Republic of Texas. In the same year Houston was born in Rockbridge County, Stephen F. Austin (1793-1836), who became known as the “Father of Texas” was born in nearby Austinville, Wythe County, Virginia. Austinville had been the county seat of Fincastle County when the James McGavock signed the Fincastle Resolution at the Fincastle Courthouse located near some important lead mines. James McGavock became acquainted with Moses Austin and his brother who owned the lead mines. McGavock helped to defend the lead mines during the War of the Revolution because it was a critical source of supply for Washington’s munitions).
During the French and Indian War, during the peace which followed, during the American Revolution and during the peace which followed, James McGavock and Mary Cloyd McGavock raised a large family of five sons and five daughters, in the community known as Max Meadows, Virginia. Max Meadows became identified by different county names, as new counties had been formed and county boundary lines changed: originally Augusta County; Botecourt County in1770; Fincastle County in 1772; Montgomery County in 1777 and finally Wythe County in 1790. Mary gave birth to a son, Hugh McGavock, their first child, in 1761 during the French and Indian War. In 1787, Mary had the couple’s final child, a daughter named Sally, after America won independence from Great Britain and a couple of years before the election of the new nation’s first President, George Washington.
After paying for private tutors for the older children, in 1792 James McGavock helped establish an Academy at Wythe Courthouse, the first public school, and in the same year James helped found the Anchor and Hope Presbyterian Church, conveniently located between Ft. Chiswell and Max Meadows. A Presbyterian Church and a public school were the hallmarks of Scot-Irish settlements on the American frontier. James McGavock proudly demonstrated an excellent example of the Scot-Irish men of the American Revolution Generation and of the Scot-Irish settlers of the American frontier. Rev. Gray described James McGavock as follows, “who in stature was full six feet in height, stout of frame, and with a constitution to endure labor and stand exposure. ….McGavock came from that remarkable people, the Scotch-Irish, who have done so much for the liberties of this country, and for education generally, and for the dissemination of Presbyterian principles, especially in Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee. As an Old-Countryman he understood the solid value of land. Like an Old-Countryman, also, he wished to found a family with landed estates. In this he was eminently successful, acquiring by his aptitude for business and his industry and energy, large and valuable bodies of land. With credit to himself and general satisfaction of the public, he filled several important offices of honor and trust…. He was an affectionate husband, kind father, social companion and generous benefactor.” The example set for the family by James McGavock (1728) became emulated by his descendants.
Jacob’s father, Hugh McGavock (1761-1844) (the author’s 4G Grandfather) grew tall and fleet, then served as a Patriot in the War of the Revolution (private, ensign & lieutenant), like his father James. Examples abound of sons who joined fathers to fight in the War of the Revolution, particularly among Scot-Irish families. Hugh McGavock (1761) and James McGavock, Jr. (1764-1838), two sons of James (1728), both served in the war. General Griffith C. Rutherford (1721) also had two sons who fought with him in the Revolution; Major James Rutherford (1758-1781), who was killed on September l8, 1781, while gallantly leading a charge against the British in the Battle of Eutaw Springs, South Carolina and Henry Rutherford (1762-1847), who survived the war and married Mary Johnston.
Hugh McGavock (1761) served in the Virginia State Line under Colonel Joseph Crockett. In 1781, Crockett’s troops joined Gen. Rogers Clark in the expedition against the
Shawnee Indians at the Falls of the Ohio. Virginia Governor Patrick Henry commissioned George Rogers Clark (1752-1818) as Lieutenant Colonel of Virginia Militia and Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson promoted Clark to Brigadier General, making Clark the highest ranking military officer in the Old Northwestern frontier during the war. In part due to Clark’s successes against the British and against the Indians in the “Old Northwest Territory,” the British ceded the entire area to the U.S. in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The “Old Northwest Territory” included the land below the Great Lakes and between the Ohio River and the Mississippi River. This area had been included the territory the French ceded to the British in 1763.
After the War of the Revolution ended in 1783, Hugh, as James’ oldest son, returned to Max Meadows, Virginia, to be near and to assist the McGavock family and his father, at Fort Chiswell. James McGavock (1728) owned land at Max Meadows. Son Hugh settled in the upper tract of land and Son Joseph settled in the lower tract. For decades, James McGavock (1728-1812) and his family operated a popular inn (hotel) at the site of Fort Chiswell. A license was required to operate the inn called an “ordinary,” in which James agreed to provide “good wholesome and clean lodging and diet for travelers and stableage and provender or pasturage, as the season shall require, for horses…”. James also agreed, under this same license that James would not “suffer or permit any unlawful gambling in his house, nor on the Sabbath Day suffer any person to tipple or drink any more than is necessary.” James McGavock, Sr. (1728), when age made him less productive, turned management of Ft. Chiswell over to James McGavock Jr. (1764-1838), who inherited Ft. Chiswell, upon the death of his father. The McGavock Mansion, also called Ft. Chiswell Mansion, which was built in the mid-1800s by two sons of James McGavock Jr. (1764), Stephen McGavock (1807-1880) and Joseph Cloyd McGavock (1813-1886), can be visited today in Wythe Co., Virginia, located near the junctions of Interstate 77 and Interstate 81. President/General Andrew Jackson stayed at Ft. Chiswell on trips between Washington and Tennessee. Jacob McGavock (1790) and his eleven other siblings were all born and raised Max Meadows, Virginia, walking distance from Ft. Chiswell.
The McGavocks, including Jacob (1790), the hero of this story, represented Scot-Irish-Americans and can only be fully understood in the context of their race/ethnicity of Scot-Irish-Americans. The religion, political ideals, principles, values, virtues, attitudes, hopes, heroes, sense of common purpose and sense of community (common race, ethnicity, language & heritage) set apart the Scot-Irish-American frontiersmen from other groups of Americans. Their Sense of community – brought with them a cultural identity (not Scot or Irish [national identity] but Scot-Irish [tribal/local community identity]). The Scot-Irish organized themselves more as a tribe (hence the informal clan title) than on the basis of a political subdivision. The individual’s identity within the clan, did not change when the group migrated a cross the border of a state. The Scot-Irish identify with each other, wherever they may be.
Scot-Irish families in America have provided important stories in America History. Some of the most fascinating of these important stories described the roles played by the Scot-Irish families who formed the backbone of Gen. Washington’s Colonial army and who frequently could be found at the forefront of the Westward Migration. In some cases, families lived in the same areas of Scotland, next moved to the same areas of Northern Ireland, then later generations arrived at the same areas in America. Once settled in America, these families often migrated together in the vanguard of the Westward Settlement as the U.S. frontier advanced. Subsequent generations typically migrated, with related families (their Informal Clan), to Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and adjoining states, as well as other states.
Most Americans have learned the story in American History about how the Pilgrims in 1620 landed in America for the purpose of establishing a colony in America for Great Britain, under King James I of England (King James VI of Scotland). In comparison, fewer Americans have learned the story about how King James I of England (King James VI of Scotland) also implanted English and Scot families into Northern Ireland beginning about 1609 and how descendants from these families migrated to America and played important roles, sometimes pivotal roles, in American History.
As an introduction to the story about the Implantation, we begin with some geography followed by a brief history, admittedly which omitted many potential details. Historically, the country of Ireland had been divided into four provinces, approximately equal in size: (1) Munster in the south; (2) Leinster in the central east, (3) Connacht in the central west and (4) Ulster in the north. Ulster originally contained nine counties. The boundaries of Ulster, Ireland contained a relatively small area. All nine counties in the Province of Ulster added together only comprised an area of approximately 8,275 square miles (an area about 80 miles by 100 miles) and had a population of 2.1 million people (2011 estimate). The metropolitan area of the City of Houston, Texas is 10,062 square miles. The City of Houston alone has a population of 2.1 million people (2010 Census).
In 1603, on the death of Queen Elizabeth, King James VI of Scotland also inherited the throne of England (including Wales), to also become King James I of England. Within a few years after coronation, King James began the Implantation. King James had several purposes in planning the Implantation, but probably the two most important involved peace along the border between England and Scotland and peace between Britain and Ireland. In some cases, King James used inducements to encourage migration of English and Scot settlers from their native countries to Ireland. In other cases, King James used coercion to force removal of troublesome families to preserve the peace between England and Scotland by requiring removal to Ulster, such as in the instance of Lowland Border Scot families. There had been a tradition of reiving (raiding and stealing from the English) along the border between England and Scotland. The reiving families included approximately 100 surnames, such as the following: Armstrong; Bell; Burns; Chisholm; Davidson; Douglas; Graham; Grey; Hall; Henderson; Johnstone; Nixon; Reed; Rutherford; Scott; Taylor; Thompson; Wilson and Young. The culture for the reiving families extended back into the centuries and produced a uniquely battle-hardened group of people accustomed to violence. King James planned to use these border families to establish strongholds in Ireland in an effort to attain the elusive goal of “controlling the Native Irish.” There is a famous photograph of Neil Armstrong, the astronaut, Billy Graham, the evangelist, and President Richard Nixon, upon which a Scotsman was said to have remarked, “just three reiving families.”
The Implantation began in 1609 and continued over the following decades, bringing the newly arrived Scots, who generally were Presbyterian, and the English migrants, who tended to attend the Church of England (Episcopalian), to bear against the Native Irish, who were almost all Catholic. The Implantation led to the cultural and religious wars that continued between the Irish rebels and the British for the next three centuries. The Implantation impacted the population of the people inhabiting Ireland. Some estimates show that by 1672 the population in the entire country of Ireland consisted of about 800,000 Native Irish, with about 200,000 of English descent, scattered throughout the country, and about 100,000 of Scot descent, concentrated predominantly in Ulster. The Scots tended to intermarry amongst themselves and to migrate within the counties of the Northern Province in Ireland.
Although King James and his descendants ruled the contiguous countries of England, Wales and Scotland, the formal political union of England (including Wales) and Scotland was not enacted by the parliaments of England and Scotland until 1707. Under the Union Jack, Great Britain included three countries; England, Wales and Scotland. Although marked by periodic rebellions, England effectively controlled the Kingdom of Ireland for centuries, beginning with Norman invasions in the 1100’s.
The Implantation by King James also led to the terms “Scotch-Irish” and “Scot-Irish,” which both described the Scots implanted in Ireland, who maintained their Scot identity in Ireland, for up to a century or longer, then who migrated from Ireland to America. Scot families in Ireland and Scot-Irish families in America grew by geometric progression, with large families from 6 to 12 children being common. The Source; Guidebook of American Genealogy, by Kory L. Meyerink and Loretto Dennis Szuccs claimed that 135,000 Ulster Scots had immigrated to Colonial America. In contrast, other sources claimed that as many as 200,000 Ulster Scots migrated between 1715 and 1775 to Colonial America, and that the total Irish population in Colonial America was only 300,000 in 1790, including both the native Irish immigrants and descendants combined with the Scot-Irish immigrants and descendants. These estimates suggested that the Scot-Irish population greatly outnumbered the Native Irish population in early America. On the other hand, The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, claimed that in 1790, when the total American population was 3,929,326 (3.9 million), the Ulster (Scot-Irish) population totaled 200,000 and the Irish population from the remaining three provinces totaled 200,000. These estimates suggested that the Scot-Irish population equaled, but did not outnumber the Irish population. Regardless which estimates are more accurate, the total Scot-Irish population made up only a small portion of the total American population, probably 5% or less.
Although estimates on actual numbers varied, it is well established that the Scot-Irish migrated from Ulster (Northern Ireland) to Colonial America primarily from 1715 to 1775. Americans should recognize that the story of the influence of the Scot-Irish immigrants and their descendants on American culture certainly rivals, and by many measures excels, the influence of the Pilgrims and their descendants on American culture. The impact on American History made by the Scot-Irish families, mostly Presbyterian, from the Province of Ulster, who immigrated to the American Colonies is amazing, in light of the size of the earth and earth’s population and the size of Ulster and Ulster’s population. Some objective indications supported this proposition. Consider, for example, the disproportionate number of Scot-Irish who served in outstanding roles in governmental offices, including the following: as President; as cabinet members; as state governors; as U.S. Senators; as U.S. Representatives and as celebrated military officers.
One source which demonstrated the impact on American History made by the Scot-Irish is an article entitled “Scot-Irish,” at, claimed that out of 216 years of the presidency, presidents with Scot-Irish ancestry occupied the office for 113 of those 216 years. These presidents included the following: James Monroe 5th; Andrew Jackson 7th; James K. Polk 11th; James Buchanan 15th; Andrew Johnson 17th; Ulysses S. Grant 18th; … and so on. The list does not include presidents of Scot descent, whose ancestors failed to make the migration through Ireland, like Rutherford B. Hayes, who descends from the same family as Gen. Griffith C. Rutherford (1721). Gen. Griffith C. Rutherford’s branch made the Irish migration, but lineal ancestors in Hayes’ branch of Rutherfords did not move first to Ireland, before arriving in America.
Some ancestors of Presidents, with origins in Northern Ireland, not discussed in detail in this article, included the following: Andrew Johnson, an Ulster Presbyterian in about 1750 emigrated from County Antrim to North Carolina and became the father of 17th President Andrew Johnson. William Arthur was born in County Antrim and became the father of 21st President Chester A. Arthur. Thomas Milhous (1699) and James Moore (1777) were both born in County Antrim and were ancestors of 37th President Richard Milhous Nixon. James Wilson (1787) born in County Down is the father of 28th President Woodrow Wilson. John Simpson born 1738 in Northern Ireland is the great grandfather of 18th President Ulysses Simpson Grant. Michael Reagan, Catherine Mulcahey, Patrick Cusick, Patrick Mulcahey and Sarah Higgins are the ancestors of 40th President Ronald Reagan.
A surprising number of the most prominent Scot-Irish families identified in this article came from County Antrim. County Antrim and County Down were the two counties in Northern Ireland most heavily colonized in the 1600’s by the Scots, under the Implantation by King James I/VI. Today only County Antrim and County Down still have a majority Protestant population among the counties in Northern Ireland. Belfast, the capital of Northern Ireland, lies mostly in County Antrim, with the remainder in County Down. Residents of County Antrim loved and took great pride in the following: (1) the Glens of Antrim for beauty in landscapes; (2) the Giant’s Causeway for beauty in seascapes and (3) the castle at Carrickfergus for a medieval castle, with almost a millennium in history. The longest river in Ulster, the Bann River, separated County Antrim from County Derry. The Bann River Valley attracted families of Scots who moved to Ulster. County Antrim contained about 1,176 square miles, or an area about 34 miles by 35 miles. Every family from County Antrim mentioned in this article lived so near to each other as to require only a few minutes or at most perhaps a half hour car drive between the homes today. Many of the families discussed in this article came from the Bann River Valley in County Antrim and settled in river valleys in America, which may have reminded them of their homeland.
County Antrim families, discussed in this article, included the following: McGavocks, Jacksons, Crawfords, Hutchinsons, Robertsons, Houstons and McCrorys. County Donegal provided the Polks, Calhouns, Crocketts, Buchanans, Craigheads and Alexanders. County Derry provided the Campbells, Cloyds, Ewings, Rodgers, Pattons and Prestons. County Monaghan provided the Rutherfords, Carrolls and the Catheys. County Tyrone provided the Johnstons and County Down provided the Blairs. County Down contained about 952 square miles or an area about 32 miles by 30 miles. Members of these families also migrated to other Ulster counties. For example, common surnames from County Down included Campbell, Graham, Johnston and Smith. Practically none of the families discussed in this article came from the most southern portion of Ulster including; County Fermanagh, County Cavan and County Armagh. Some families identified as Scot-Irish, due to assimilation with Scot-Irish culture in America, included families such as the Hayes, who came directly from Scotland, and the Donelsons, who came from England, to the Colonies, then intermarried with predominantly Scot-Irish families.
In 1801, Great Britain formally united with Ireland to form The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The United Kingdom also included many other countries, such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand. In 1921, most of Ireland, basically the provinces of Connacht, Leinster and Munster, gained independence from Great Britain, but most of Ulster, about 2/3, remained part of Great Britain and became the separate country called “Northern Ireland.” Today, the country of Northern Ireland includes the following the six counties which originally were located in the Province of Ulster: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone. Today the three counties, which originally were located in the Province of Ulster, but which are now part of the Republic of Ireland include the following: Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan. In this article the original nine counties which formed “Ulster” are sometimes referred to as “Northern Ireland.” Ulster is located in the northern part of the island of Ireland, whether it is comprised of the original 9 counties or the present 6 counties of Northern Ireland.
Typically authors have described Scot-Irish traits in positive terms such as the following: deeply committed believers (typically Presbyterians); exceptionally effective leaders; exceedingly loyal; unusually strong; highly adaptable (versatile); unusually creative; realistically practical and uncommonly brave. On the other hand, pejoratives include the following; quick-tempered, stubborn, clannish hillbillies, with meager lives and caring little for beauty.
As shown by the Scot-Irish families portrayed in this article, many Scot-Irish were also brilliant, well educated, sophisticated pioneers, with excellent tastes, an eye for architectural beauty and abundant means. Many plantation homes, which have survived and which have attracted tourists to the Nashville, TN area for over the last century, were established by Scot-Irish families beginning almost two centuries ago. These incredible homes stand and attest to these remarkable, distinctive traits as well. Many of these antebellum homes were built by lineal descendants of James McGavock (1728). Although the Scot-Irish families followed herein, distinguished themselves from some negative Scot-Irish stereotypes, all Scot-Irish shared three important traits. Almost without exception, they: (1) fiercely defended their liberties; (2) consistently protected their independence and (3) took great pride in their family, their Informal Clan and their Scot-Irish ancestors and heritage.
In summary, the Scot-Irish set of values which evolved in America and set apart the Scot-Irish from most other peoples in the world can be outlined as follows: (1) Christian faith [evolved to Protestant Presbyterianism, which; advocated decent and orderly conduct, promoted democracy; empowered ruling elders, rejected the centralized power – no Pope or bishops and which promoted spiritual sovereignty of the individual, because it respected individual conscience]; (2) love of freedom [willingness to risk property and person and even to die in causes for liberty]; (3) loyalty [to friends, to family, to clan, to kin, to country and to God; (4) rule of law [governed by laws – not by men, no one is above the law, live decently and orderly]; (5) sovereignty of the individual [equal treatment under the law, inalienable rights from creator]; (6) personal dignity [defend honor, family honor, clan honor and honor of the country – don’t back down from a fight]; (7) respect for the dignity of others [don’t be mean or pick a fight] and (8) independence [self-reliance]; (9) diligence [Protestant Work Ethic]; (10) perseverance [if you are right, never give up]; and (11) wisdom [prudent reasoning and decisions].
The Scot-Irish excelled in leadership, in maintaining their Presbyterian Faith, in promoting education, in establishing the institutions of self-government and in creating prosperity out of wilderness. The Scot-Irish often could be found heavily represented in the ranks of many professions necessary for progress, such as the following; lawyers, doctors, educators, ministers and surveyors. Generally without government control, government contribution or government interference, the Scot-Irish built homes, schools and churches and set up a local government, often consisting only of a local Justice of the Peace and a Sheriff of the county. Scot-Irish settlements often offered a desirable environment, which included enforced codes of conduct and a prosperous economy. Settlers moved to these settlements and raised families on the frontier, in spite of dangers inherent to the wilderness (such as wild animals and savage Indians). The new arrivals combined with growth in the size of original families stimulated rapid population growth. Nashville provided a classic example of the spectacular development in Scot-Irish settlements on the American Frontier.
The American Scot-Irish viewpoint, measured the progress of civilization by the conversion of wilderness into productive land and by progress toward maximum freedom for the individual, while maintaining the proper balance between order and chaos. The Presbyterian maxim of “decently and in order,” provided an important guiding light for governing affairs, both in the church and in civil government. In America, the Scot-Irish sought to establish a cultural paradigm with the hierarchy of power in the following order: (1) Protestant Christianity (ideally Presbyterian) at the top of the pyramid of power; (2) the people in the middle and (3) finally at the bottom of the pyramid of power, a democratic (officials elected by the people), republican system of government (rule of law paramount – a nation of laws, not men -– no man above the law – every male citizen provided equal opportunity under the law). (NOTE: During early American history, this social system excluded male and female slaves and Anglo females from the highest levels of freedom, but still provided the most freedom for the largest group of people for any nation in the history of mankind. This was a monumental achievement, despite the criticisms which modern man may levy).
The following identified the primary purposes of government: (1) to provide safety; (2) to promote predictability in financial transactions and (3) to preserve and to protect the sovereignty of the individual. Within this cultural paradigm, the American Scot Irish favored a free market, laisse faire, capitalistic style economy. The Providence of God picked winners and losers, not the government. The popularly accepted slogan became, “God helps those who help themselves.” The “Protestant Work Ethic,” which other Calvinists [such as the Pilgrims and other Puritans] shared with the Presbyterians, helped make America prosperous. The Wealth of Nations (1776), established Adam Smith 1723-1790, a Scot, as the father of modern economics and a founder of free market economic theory. Paramount in the civil order, however, remained the sovereignty of God, with the Providence of God controlling God’s creation and the activities of man.
Under this cultural system, the Scot-Irish frequently acted under two sets of values; spiritual values (Christian – Protestant – Presbyterian, predominantly) and cultural values, which sometimes competed with spiritual values for decisions and actions. Cultural values included the ancient Scot-Irish values of a warrior; courage, honor, respect, generosity and wisdomGeneral Andrew Jackson exemplified all of these traits as the archetypical Scot-Irish leader. The Scot-Irish believed in the following features surrounding these cultural values. Courage comes from the strength of your will. Honor is a gift you give to yourself. Respect you earn and demand from others. Generosity is at the heart of good character. Wisdom is the proper foundation to make each value properly effective and the correct bond to associate these values into an integrated personality.
Cultural values guided decisions and actions which related to honor, to relationships and to national issues. The Scot-Irish understood and accepted that violence sometimes became necessary to defend honor or to protect the weak, the helpless, family members, clan members, neighbors and countrymen, particularly when they were women and children. When attacked or threatened, the Scot-Irish did not turn the other cheek. The Scot-Irish aggressively met the threat and avenged any losses or defeats. When any national crisis threatened, the Scot-Irish were usually among the first to confront the challenge and to join the fight to protect their families, their neighbors, their country and their cherished liberties.
The Scot-Irish often demonstrated an understanding of liberty, which can rarely be found among modern Americans, even among politicians holding national offices. As a way to attempt to define the Scot-Irish understanding of freedom, the following metaphor of a three legged stool has been employed. The seat of a stool supported by three legs represented American Liberty and American Prosperity. The three legs which support the seat of the stool are Christianity, Sovereignty of the Individual and Rule of Law.
First, Christianity (the cultural moral code – Protestant – ideally Presbyterian) formed one supporting leg.
Second, Sovereignty of the Individual (the significance of the individual/ individual liberty) formed the second supporting leg. Sovereignty of the individual can be considered in two dimensions; the spiritual dimension and the civil or social dimension. Historically, churches used punishments, up to burning at the stake, for beliefs which were outside orthodox church doctrine. Churches sometimes labeled an unorthodox belief as a blasphemy of God, which justified extreme punishments. This power of the church to control the thoughts and the practices of individuals in matters of church doctrine through punishments diminished the spiritual sovereignty of the individual. The Presbyterian Church, established in the Protestant Reformation in Scotland by Calvinist Theologian, Rev. John Knox (1513-1572), allowed church members to balance church doctrine with individual conscience. This elevated the significance of the individual, spiritually. This practice, in some important ways, elevated individual spiritual authority to the level of church authority in matter of conscience/doctrine. The implementation of sovereignty of the individual in spiritual matters in the Presbyterian Church became an important, if not a required, experiment before implementing sovereignty of the individual in civil government, for the American experiment. (NOTE: Although the author was raised in the Baptist Church, the author discovered and converted to the Presbyterian Faith, without any knowledge of the author’s Scot heritage, because the Presbyterian Church was a natural fit with the author’s nature.) Spiritual sovereignty obviously has been premised on bona fide (good faith) attempts to understand and to interpret the Bible and on conclusions which will be decent and avoid disorder. It is not a license to create chaos and to destroy order.
The Presbyterian Church also established a church government based on “ruling elders” and based on a distrust of central authority in government. This became the practice of democracy in church government, which encouraged the growth of sovereignty of the individual in the civil dimension. The implementation of democracy in Presbyterian Church government became an important, if not a required, experiment before implementing democracy in civil government, for the American experiment. Democracy in civil government became a hallmark of the American Experiment. The concept of sovereignty of the individual gave rise to the constitutional concepts of equal protection (the government may not create classes of citizens or favor one citizen over another or target one citizen differently than another) and equal treatment under the law (rule of law/no man above the law). The rights of others end, where the rights of any individual citizen begins. To create a group under any category; race, gender or otherwise, for the purpose of tipping the scales of justice/law or the effect of the law to favor a group over the rights of any single individual corrupts the sovereignty of the individual. Americans must only be viewed, considered and treated as individuals, for the American system to function in the manner it was founded and as it was understood by the early Scot-Irish.
Finally, Rule of Law (Constitution and a Democratic Republic form of government) formed the third supporting leg. Stability in the Rule of Law made consequences of decisions and choices predictable and also ensured safety of persons and security of property, which created an environment for prosperity.
Each of the three legs symbiotically also supported the other two legs. For example, Christianity (Protestant – ideally Presbyterian) provided the moral authority for the underpinnings of the Rule of Law and supported the spiritual significance of the individual. Sovereignty of the Individual meant that the government had no legitimate power to put anyone above the law because this violated equal protection under the law and it meant that the church had no legitimate power to force a particular doctrine on anyone. The Rule of Law supported the Sovereignty of the Individual and the free exercise of Christianity (freedom of conscience). Any attack on any one of the three; Christianity, the Sovereignty of the Individual or the Rule of Law simultaneously attacked the other two legs. Imagine a leather strap which attaches to all three legs, so if one leg is removed, it simultaneously pulls out the other two. Even if the legs
could be completely independent, which they are not, remove any single leg and the stool of American Liberty and American Prosperity falls.
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Changes From Vietnam to Now
The Selective Service System has changed a lot since the 1970s. A series of reforms during the latter part of the Vietnam conflict changed the way the draft operated to make it more fair and equitable.
Fair and Equitable Draft
If a draft were held TODAY, there would be fewer reasons to excuse a man from service. It would be different from the one held during the Vietnam War. It would be the most equitable draft in history.
Before Congress reformed the draft in 1971, a man could qualify for a student deferment if he could show he was a full-time student making satisfactory progress in virtually any field of study. He could continue to go to school and be deferred from service until he was too old to be drafted.
More Representative Boards
If a draft were held TODAY, local boards would better represent the communities they serve.
Before 1971, state and local boards used a “quota system” under which they assigned a certain number of men to the draft. Because the boards determined who would be drafted, there were instances when personal relationships and favoritism played a part in deciding who would be drafted.
Today, the Uniform National Call ensures that men will be treated the same, no matter which board they are assigned to.
Lottery for Call of Order
A draft held TODAY would use a lottery to determine the order of call.
Before the lottery was implemented in the latter part of the Vietnam conflict, there was no system in place to determine order of call besides the fact that men between the ages of 18 and 26 were vulnerable to being drafted. Local boards called men classified 1-A, 18-1/2 through 25 years old, oldest first. This lack of a system resulted in uncertainty for the potential draftees during the entire time they were within the draft-eligible age group. All throughout a young man’s early 20’s he did not know if he would be drafted.
A draft held today would use a lottery system under which a man would spend only one year in first priority for the draft—either the calendar year he turned 20 or the year his deferment ended, whichever came first. Each year after that, he would be placed in a succeedingly lower priority group and his liability for the draft would lessen accordingly. In this way, he would be spared the uncertainty of waiting until his 26th birthday to be certain he would not be drafted.
Guaranteed Appeal Appearance
If a draft were held TODAY, a registrant would be guaranteed a personal appearance before his board if he wanted to appeal his classification.
Before 1971, a draftee was not guaranteed this right, and so some decisions about whether a man would be drafted were made based on paperwork. Today, if a man wanted to appeal to his Local Board for an exemption or deferment, he could speak to them directly.
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This activity is suitable for students of all age groups, you can download a free, printable PDF version here.
How reliable are sources like paintings and descriptions as evidence of the past?
Tell students the story of the Kongorou painting
When Captain Cook and his crew voyaged to Australia in the late 1700s, they saw ‘alien species’ – animals and plants they had never encountered before. They brought back drawings and descriptions to show people in Europe what they had seen. Joseph Banks, one of the scientists who went on the trip, asked the artist George Stubbs to paint a picture of a kangaroo to show other people what it looked like. George Stubbs had never seen a kangaroo in his life (and never did)! He painted the picture from Joseph Banks’ description and from studying a kangaroo pelt that Banks brought back with him.
Choose an object from the collection. Working in pairs or groups, one student describes the object while their partner, or the rest of the group, draws it from the verbal description their partner is giving them. Only when they have finished drawing can they see the object that was being described.
How accurate is their drawing?
What other information would have been useful?
How useful would their drawing be as a piece of historical evidence?
How useful to people living in Britain in the late 1700s was The Kongorou by George Stubbs as evidence of Australian wildlife?
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Tuesday, November 19, 2019
Kumaon Lesser Himalaya- Lessons In Mountain Building
Mountain belts like the Himalaya and the Alps formed when continental crust was squeezed, deformed and uplifted during the collision of two continental plates. The Himalaya, which is the deformed edge of the Indian continental plate is made up of different terrains. The Tethyan Himalaya is the northernmost terrain whose northern edge meets the Asian continental plate. The Greater Himalaya and the Lesser Himalaya are the two terrains successively to the south of the Tethyan Himalaya.
The Tethyan Himalaya are made up of rocks of Cambrian to Eocene in age (542 -50 million years old) and have suffered the least burial and metamorphism. The Greater Himalaya are rocks which were buried as deep as 20-25 kilometers, suffering the highest degree of metamorphism and even partial melting. They range in age from the Neoproterozoic to the Ordovician (1000 -450 million years old). The Lesser Himalaya rocks were subjected to an intermediate level of burial and metamorphism. They span the Paleoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic in age (1840 -800 million years old).
The Siwalik ranges that occur to the south of the Lesser Himalaya are made up of sediments that were derived from the erosion of the rising Greater and Lesser Himalaya. They range in age from about 12 million to 0.5 million years.
So, exactly what happens when the crust gets caught up in such a continent-continent collision?
A recent paper by Subhadip Mandal and colleagues in Lithosphere explains the structural architecture and mechanisms of crustal deformation of the Kumaon fold and thrust belt. They propose a resolution of some long standing problems in Kumaon geology, namely the interrelationships between the different fault systems and exposed terrains.
See the map which shows part of the Kumaon and Gharwal Himalaya. Before India Asia collision, the crust between the two orange lines would have been ~575 kilometers wider! ....Squeeeze!
How did the crust get 'shortened' during India- Asia collision? In the schematic that I have drawn below, shortening of a particular length of crust takes place by folding it or by breaking it up into blocks and stacking them. The Himalaya have formed by a combination of such folding and thrust stacking.
Off course, the Himalaya is not one big fold, nor is it a stack of blocks forming a tower like the way I've drawn it. Rather, think of inclined books on a shelf. The books are inclined towards the right, or north. There are 4 books. From right to left they are the Tethyan Himalaya, Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and the Siwaliks.
A shelf with books inclined to the right will grow by shelving from left to right. The Himalaya have grown in exactly the opposite manner.
Imagine four books lying flat forming a chain on a bookshelf. The rightmost book (Tethyan Himalaya) made contact with Asia and was thrust up. Then the book to its left was thrust up (Greater Himalaya), then the Lesser Himalaya and finally the Siwaliks. Deformation moved from right to left, or in the real world, from north to south.
But enough of abstraction! In the real world.. A has been crumpled up to form B. A in the figure below is the original disposition of rock units of the Indian plate. B shows those units as they are today, folded and faulted after the collisional process. The Greater Himalaya is the topmost pink layer. The Lesser Himalaya layers are shown in green, blue and orange. The Siwalik ranges are fawn colored. The Tethyan Himalaya not shown in this figure.
Source: Subhadip Mandal et.al. 2019
The structure looks like a mangled disordered heap of strata. But there is an order to this apparent chaos. As in our book analogy, these units were deformed in a sequence. The cross sections below shows the sequence of deformation and how the structural architecture evolved.
Source: Subhadip Mandal et.al. 2019
The collision of the Indian and Asian plates has been timed to around 55-50 million years ago. The first significant topography formed with the uplift of the Tethyan Himalaya between 45-35 million years ago. The rocks that became the Greater Himalaya were buried the deepest during continental collision. They were uplifted between 23-16 million years ago. This crustal block was moved along a giant fault system known as the Main Central Thrust. In the two figures above you can see the Greater Himalaya as the pink layer overlying the Lesser Himalaya.
The Lesser Himalaya rocks which show imprints of a shallower buried state were lifted up between 16 - 4 million years ago. This rise of the rocks of the Lesser Himalaya took place in two broad phases. In the first phase, the oldest rocks of the Lesser Himalaya were thrust up along another big fault system known as the Ramgarh-Munsiyari Thrust. In the figure, these oldest Lesser Himalaya rocks are the thick green layers immediately below the pink Greater Himalaya. Subsequently, more and more of the younger Lesser Himalaya strata got caught up in the deforming pile of rocks. Slices of the younger Lesser Himalaya were moved along thrust faults and stacked in a southerly growing fold and thrust belt.
Initially, the Greater Himalaya and the oldest Lesser Himalaya were placed atop the younger Lesser Himalaya along very low angle faults in a manner similar to the stacked blocks I showed in the beginning of the post. Later, the growth of the younger Lesser Himalaya lifted, tilted at steeper angles, and folded the overlying Greater Himalaya and the older Lesser Himalaya thrust sheets in a series of broad domes (anticlines) and troughs (synclines).
The Greater Himalaya and the oldest Lesser Himalaya domes were more susceptible to erosion. As a result, these domes were removed over time, leaving behind synclinal remnants known as klippen. Isolated outcrops of Greater Himalaya and the oldest Lesser Himalaya rocks sit atop younger Lesser Himalaya at many places along the Lesser Himalaya belt. For example, the town of Almora in Uttarakhand is on a klippen of Greater Himalaya rocks. Further to the east the small town of Askot is on a klippen of the oldest Lesser Himalaya.
And finally, sediments which were being deposited in a southerly moat in front of the rising Greater and Lesser Himalaya rose to become the Siwaliks beginning around 1-0.5 million years ago.
Mandal and colleagues work clarifies to a great extent the structure of Kumaon Himalaya and the mechanism of how fold and thrust mountain belts are constructed. I have simplified the story here. The paper has more nuanced details of the methods and techniques used to reconstruct a long and complicated process.
When you travel next across the Kumaon region, think of inclined books (thrust sheets) and their sequential uplift.
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Statistics How To
Wallenius’ Distribution: Definition, Examples
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Probability Distributions > Wallenius’ Distribution
What is Wallenius’ Distribution?
The Wallenius’ Distribution, more formally called the Wallenius’ noncentral hypergeometric distribution, is a distribution with biased sampling. It is usually described as an urn model without replacement and with bias.
wallenius' distributionIn a general urn model, a set of balls is placed into an urn, and the balls are removed one at a time without replacement. If the balls are identical, then the process is not biased and will follow a hypergeometric distribution. However, a biased urn model where the balls are different weights or sizes will affect the probability of an individual ball being chosen and will therefore produce a Wallenius’ Distribution.
An urn model that follows this distribution has the following characteristics:
1. Items are chosen one by one from a fixed population of different items (e.g. 100 different colored balls).
2. There are a fixed number of independent trials (e.g. balls to be chosen).
3. Items are chosen randomly and without replacement.
4. The probability of picking any particular item is equal to its fraction of the total weight or volume of all the items. In other words, a heavier or bigger ball will have a higher probability of being picked.
5. The bias of an ball (e.g. its weight or volume) depends only on it’s color. In other words, all blue balls weigh the same, all red balls weigh the same, all green balls weigh the same etc.
Another example of Wallenius’ distribution (one that doesn’t involve urns!):
You are picking 50 crickets with a pair of large tweezers, one at a time, from a small cage filled with green, black and white crickets. The green crickets are the largest, followed by the black and then the white crickets. As the green crickets are larger, they have a higher probability of being chosen. The distribution of types of crickets caught will equal the Wallenius’ noncentral hypergeometric distribution.
The distribution is generally regarded as inefficient and numerically unstable. Outside of modeling theoretical biased sampling scenarios, it is only applicable to a few, very narrow areas like:
• Selective predation and survival in ecology and evolutionary biology,
• Vacccine efficacy.
Other Distributions
A related distribution is Fisher’s noncentral hypergeometric distribution, which uses the same urn model except that the balls are taken independently from each other. A set of balls can be taken at the same time, while in the Wallenius’ model, balls are taken one by one.
Fog, A. Biased Urn Theory. Retrieved July 15, 2016 from:
Hernandez-Suarez, C. M. and Castillo-Chavez, C. (2000). Urn models and vaccine efficacy
estimation. Statistics in Medicine 19, 827-835.
Manly, B. F. J. (1985). The Statistics of Natural Selection on Animal Populations. London:
Chapman and Hal
Wallenius, K. T. (1963). Biased Sampling: The Non-central Hypergeometric Probability
Distribution. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University (Also published with the same title as
Technical report no. 70). Department of Statistics, Stanford University.
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Definition of marrow:
part of speech: adjective
part of speech: noun
The connective tissue filling up the cylindrical cavities in the bodies of long bones, and the spaces of the cancellous tissue, differing in composition in different bones.
part of speech: noun
The oily tissue which fills the open canals of bones; the real meaning or significance of anything.
part of speech: noun
The soft, fatty matter in the cavities of the bones: the pith of certain plants: the essence or best part.
Usage examples for marrow:
Word of the day
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0902P ʻAilāʻau The Forest Eater
Describing Things with Kāhulu
INSTRUCTIONS: This lesson follows 0901P: Practice Describing Things, so be sure you have done that one first. Now, take a few minutes to read the brief story about ʻAilāʻau shown below. Then read the directions and see my examples in the grey box. I have included some suggestions for vocabulary that you can use below the story. You will be creating kaʻi + memeʻa + kāhulu structures that match elements in the story. If you would like to download the original book from which this story came, please go to Google Books and search for either Westervelt or the name of the book (shown below).
ʻAilāʻau, The Forest Eater
From “Hawaiian Legends of Volcanoes” by W. D. Westervelt (1916), with slight spelling modifications for Hawaiian language students by Kaliko Beamer-Trapp.
When Pele came to the island Hawaiʻi, seeking a permanent home, she found another god of fire already in possession of the territory. ʻAilāʻau (ʻAi-lāʻau) was known and feared by all the people. ʻAi means the “one who eats or devours.” Lāʻau means “tree” or a “forest.” ʻAilāʻau was, therefore, the fire-god devouring forests. Time and again he laid the districts of South Hawaiʻi desolate by the lava he poured out from his fire-pits.
He was the god of the insatiable appetite, the continual eater of trees, whose path through forests was covered with black smoke fragrant with burning wood, and sometimes burdened with the smell of human flesh charred into cinders in the lava flow.
ʻAilāʻau seemed to be destructive and was so named by the people, but his fires were a part of the forces of creation. He built up the islands for future life. The process of creation demanded volcanic activity. The flowing lava made land. The lava disintegrating made earth deposits and soil. Upon this land storms fell and through it multitudes of streams found their way to the sea. Flowing rivers came from the cloud-capped mountains. Fruitful fields and savage homes made this miniature worldbuilding complete.
ʻAilāʻau still poured out his fire. It spread over the fertile fields, and the natives feared him as the destroyer giving no thought to the final good.
He lived, the legends say, for a long time in a very ancient part of Kīlauea, on the large island of Hawaiʻi, now separated by a narrow ledge from the great crater and called Kīlaueaiki (Kīlauea-iki, Little Kilauea). This seems to be the first and greatest of a number of craters extending in a line from the great lake of fire in Kīlauea to the seacoast many miles away. They are called “The Pit Craters” because they are not hills of lava, but a series of sunken pits going deep down into the earth, some of them still having blowholes of sputtering steam and smoke.
After a time, ʻAilāʻau left these pit craters and went into the great crater and was said to be living there when Pele came to the seashore far below.
In one of the Pele stories is the following literal translation of the account of her taking Kilauea:
“When Pele came to the island Hawaiʻi, she first stopped at a place called Keahialaka (Ke-ahi-a-Laka) in the district of Puna. From this place she began her inland journey toward the mountains. As she passed on her way, there grew within her an intense desire to go at once and see ʻAilāʻau, the god to whom Kīlauea belonged, and find a resting-place with him as the end of her journey. She came up, but ʻAilāʻau was not in his house. Of a truth he had made himself thoroughly lost. He had vanished because he knew that this one coming toward him was Pele. He had seen her toiling down by the sea at Keahialaka. Trembling dread and heavy fear overpowered him. He ran away and was entirely lost. When Pele came to that pit she laid out the plan for her abiding home, beginning at once to dig up the foundations. She dug day and night and found that this place fulfilled all her desires. Therefore, she fastened herself tight to Hawaiʻi for all time.”
These are the words in which the legend disposes of this ancient god of volcanic fires. He disappears from Hawaiian thought and Pele from a foreign land finds a satisfactory crater in which her spirit power can always dig up everlastingly overflowing fountains of raging lava.
Kikino (noun-like words)
ka mokupuni island
ka home1 home (residence)
ka hale house (building)
ka poʻe people (singular kaʻi but plural meaning)
ke ahi fire
ka ʻāina territory
ka nahele2 forest
ka pele3 lava
ka lua pele fire-pit (crater)
ka uahi smoke
ke ola life
ke one ʻā volcanic cinder (lit., burnt sand)
ke kahena pele lava flow
ka lepo earth (soil)
ke kahawai stream
ka ua rain
ka ua nui rain storm
ka lua puhi pit-based blowhole
ka māhu steam
ka lihi ʻāina the edge of the land (eg. seashore)
ka ʻiʻini, ke ake the desire to see or have something
ka huakaʻi journey
ke kahua foundation
ka ʻaʻā4 ʻaʻā lava (the broken and very rough type)
ka pāhoehoe5 pāhoehoe lava (the smooth, rippled type)
• 1. Obviously, the word "home" is from English. Pronounce it in a Hawaiian way, however.
• 2. Be careful to use no kahakō in "nahele". Only "nāhelehele" has a kahakō, as do many words reduplicated in such a fashion (eg. malama, mālamalama)
• 3. Pele capitalized is the woman; pele uncapitalized is the lava she creates.
• 4. Be sure to pronounce this as shown, with the second kahakō.
• 5. Most non-Hawaiian language speakers mispronounce this; be sure to pronounce the kahakō and stress evenly the three main pieces: "pā-", "hoe", and "hoe". Do not only stress the first "-hoe-".
ʻAʻano (words describing a state or condition)
paʻa permanent; complete
kamaʻāina acquainted, familiar with something
makaʻu afraid
ʻōneanea cleared (as desolate land)
pōloli hungry
hauna stinky
ʻeleʻele black
pulu wet (soaked)
momona fertile (of soil)
makaʻu afraid
kahiko ancient
kaʻawale separated
mua first (in sequence)
hope last (in sequence)
hohonu deep
nui intense (eg. ka ʻiʻini nui)
lōʻihi long
hakahaka empty (of a space)
nalowale lost (disappeared), vanished
paʻahana very busy with work
makaʻu fearful
mau abiding (permanent); fastened tight
fulfilled; completed
kūpono satisfactory; proper, appropriate
ʻā fiery, burning, alight
Hehele (action words without an object)
hele to travel (on two feet)
holo to travel (on a canoe); to run
huakaʻi to travel (a journey)
hōʻea to arrive (at a destination)
kahe to flow (as water)
ua to rain
noho to live, reside somewhere; sit, stay in a single spot
to stop at a location; to stand still; to stand upright
piʻi to climb up; to go uphill
iho to descend; to go downhill
Hamani (action words which act upon something or someone)
ʻimi to search for something
ʻai to eat something
hoʻokumu to found something (to begin the creation of sth.)
luku to destroy something
unuhi to translate something
hana to make or do something
hoʻoholo to decide on something; to plan to do something
ʻeli to dig into something
As you did in the last lesson (0901P: Practice Describing Things), take the vocabulary words and write them onto index cards or into your notebook and study them until you start to remember them. You don't have to be perfect at recalling them at this time because you can look them up anytime!
Although it is possible to print this page right from your computer, I think you'll find that writing the words will (1) make you see each word better, and (2) help you to see its shape better so you can recognize it later on.
If you did not do the practice numbered 0901P, or you do not know what a kaʻi + memeʻa + kāhulu sequence is, then you should go back to the start of the 0900 series with 0900: Basic Kāhulu, Introduction and also find videos about this subject in the Coursework Index.
The goal of this lesson is to be able to read the story in English and then create kaʻi + memeʻa + kāhulu sequences from parts of the story. I have provided many vocabulary words for you, so you should be able to have fun all day without having to look up even one word from the online dictionary!
Some important points for this, the second homework lesson about kaʻi + memeʻa + kāhulu sequences:
• kaʻi: the leading word before a memeʻa, such as ka, ke, nā, kekahi, and he.
• memeʻa: a content word which could be any one of four types, kikino, ʻaʻano, hamani, or hehele
• kāhulu: a memeʻa word functioning as an adjective or adverb, meaning that it adds a description to the preceeding memeʻa. ʻAʻano are very frequently used as kāhulu.
Make up as many combinations as seem to make sense using the vocabulary in this lesson, and any other memeʻa you might know already or look up in the online dictionary.
I am not asking you to try to translate the story; that would be very hard indeed at this stage! All you should try to do is synthesize in your mind some short three-word kaʻi + memeʻa + kāhulu sequences based on the story content, write them down, and say them to yourself over and again.
Here are some examples from the first paragraph:
When Pele came to the island of Hawaiʻi, seeking a permanent home, she found another god of fire (=a fire god) already in possession of the big island. ʻAilāʻau (ʻAi-lāʻau) was feared by the Hawaiian people at that time. He was indeed an ancient god, a hungry god, living in the deep pit up on the mountain. …
Some Example Sentences
he home mau a permanent home
kekahi akua ahi another god of fire (lit. another fire god)
ka ʻāina nui the great territory; the huge land
ka poʻe makaʻu the fearful people
ke akua 'ai the eating god
ka mea luku the destroyer (lit., the one who destroys)
Now here's the fun part! Go and try the quiz for the kikino vocabulary words (0902Q.1: Vocabulary Quiz #1 for ʻAilāʻau) to see how many you remembered.
The final part to this lesson is to now go out and try to use these kaʻi + memeʻa + kāhulu combinations. Think about the story and recall, in mini kaʻi + memeʻa + kāhulu fragments, your feelings about some of the elements in the story. Perhaps you will even be able to make up some more on the fly! I hope so.
aloha ʻāina
Pane mai
Send comments about this page to Kumu Kaliko.
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An image or sign that represents something else, because of convention, association, or resemblance and is not, in this context, something of the real world. Symbolism as an art movement is linked to a late 19th-century group of French poets led by Baudelaire, Mallarme, Rimbaud and Verlaine. They, in turn, were influential on French painters Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Odilon Redon, Gustave Moreau and James Ensor. They never formed a cohesive group but shared a common interest in mystical and spiritual expression in their art and a rebellion against realism and impressionism that depicted the observable world. In American art, Symbolist Painting was a movement from 1890 to 1925. Exponents drew from a variety of religions and philosophies including Theosophists led by Madam Blavatsky and teachings of Emmanuel Swedenborg. American Symbolist painters include William de Leftwich Dodge, Reginald Machell, Maxfield Parrish, Abbott Handerson Thayer, Arthur Mathews, Charles Rollo Peters, Rex Slinkard, Mabel Alvarez, Agnes Pelton, Gottardo Piazzoni, Kahlil Gabran, Pamela Colman Smith, John White Alexander, Elizabeth Alexander, and Magda Heuermann. Many Native American artists have employed Symbolism for centuries and today continue to reference their religion and traditions. Exemplary twentieth-century Indian symbolists include Fritz Scholder, Allan Houser, Fred Kabotie and Pablita Velarde. Sources: "Phaidon's Dictionary of Twentieth Century Art"; Kimberley Reynolds and Richard Seddon, "Illustrated Dictionary of Art Terms"; AskART database
Sample of artists connected with 'Symbol/Symbolism'
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Unit A6 – Articulation
By the end of unit A6, students should be comfortable playing basic staccato and legato notes. They should also:
• be able to spot staccato dots in their pieces
• be able to differentiate between the staccato dot and the dot of a dotted minim
• be able to spot legato slurs in their pieces
• be able to add dots/slurs to pieces, as they wish.
Students only need to be able to play staccato OR legato notes. But they should be able to play a piece that includes both staccato notes AND legato notes separately.
• Explore staccato and legato sounds at the piano. Discuss how these sounds are made. Link the sounds to characteristics of different things (e.g. animals, weather, moods, dance or other sports, nature).
• For staccato sounds ask students to imagine the keys are hot (so they bounce off).
• A traditional method for developing staccato at the piano is to get students to imagine they are bouncing a ball, or knocking on a door, and then transfer that wrist movement to the piano.
• For legato sounds ask students to imagine joined up writing (this works well with young students who have recently learned to write in joined up handwriting).
• If a student is struggling with legato sounds try getting them to exaggerate the overlap between notes. This will help them connect the feeling of the sustained sound with the motion. Gradually get them to reduce the amount of overlap until they get a good legato sound.
We sell our worksheets through our Payhip store. The links below take you directly to the relevant product pages
Stage A The Stave and Symbols Quiz
This worksheet tests theoretical knowledge of the stave, bars, bar lines, time signatures, and concepts learned in Stage A: crotchets, minims, dotted minims, semibreves, crotchet rests, staccato, legato, piano, and forte.
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CoCubes Reasoning Questions
DIRECTIONS for the questions 1 to 5: After a few statements, conclusion/conclusions is/are given. Mark your answer as
1. If the conclusion is true
2. If the conclusion is False
3. If the conclusion is probably true
4. If the conclusion is probably false
5. Data is inadequate to reach conclusion
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1. Statement: If all the saucepans were made with diamond we could never fry eggs.
Conclusion: Therefore, no saucepan is made with diamond.
Answer: Option C
Since we can fry eggs we can conclude that there must be at least one saucepan that is not made of diamond. Hence, to say that NO saucepan is made of diamond is very drastic, though possible.
2. Statement: Only butterflies can fly. Anything made with butter is a butterfly. Helicopters are certainly not made with butter.
Conclusion: Helicopters cannot fly
Answer: Option E
The Venn diagram may be (though not necessarily): B = Butterfly, b = butter F = Fly H = Helicopter We do not know the relation
3. Statement: All Christians are Jews. No Jew is a Hindu. Every Hindu is an Eskimo.
Conclusion: Therefore some Eskimos are not Christians.
Answer: Option A
At least those Hindus who are Eskimo's will not be Christians.
4. Statements: Some text-books have no centrifugal force. Anything with centrifugal force is a jelly-fish. Some jelly fishes are textbooks.
Conclusion: Therefore, some jelly — fish have no centrifugal force.
Answer: Option C
It is not necessary that the jelly fish that are text books overlap with text books which have no centrifugal force. Hence this conclusion is only a possibility.
5. Statements: All books are soap-cases. All soap-cases are bird's nests.
Conclusion: Therefore, all books are bird's nests.
Answer: Option A
If all X are Y and all Y are Z, then all X are Z.
DIRECTIONS for the questions 6 to 8: Solve the following question and mark the best possible option.
1. If 'wind' is called 'stone', 'stone' is called 'water', 'water' is called 'breeze', 'breeze' is called 'rain', 'rain' is called 'hot' and 'hot' is called cold' in a certain language, what do we wash our hands 'with', in that language?
1. Water
2. Breeze
3. Cold
4. Stone
5. None of these
Answer: Option B
"We wash our hands with water and water is called breeze.
So therefore we wash our hands with breeze."
1. If 'dust' is called 'air', 'air' is called 'white', 'white' is called 'yellow', 'yellow' is called 'water' and 'water' is called 'red', then where do the birds fly in?
1. Yellow
2. White
3. Air
4. Water
5. Green
Answer: Option B
Birds fly in the air and the air is called white. Therefore correct answer is white.
2. If 'water' is called 'food', 'food' is called 'tree', 'tree' is called 'well', 'well' is called 'sky', on which of the following grows a flower?
1. Water
2. Tree
3. Food
4. Sky
5. Well
Answer: Option E
Flower grows on tree and as given tree is called well.
Therefore correct answer is well. .
DIRECTIONS for the questions 9 to 10: Answer the following question as per the best of your ability. From among the given five figures 1 to 5, choose the figures that represent the relationship among the three given classes in the questions that follow
1. Writers, Cellists, Musicians
Answer: Option B
"Cellists are people who play cello (a musical instrument)
Therefore all the people who play cello must be musicians. Further, musician can also be a writer, therefore B shows it accurately."
2. Horses, Young animals, Filly
Answer: Option A
Filly is a young female horse. So all Fillies would be Horses as well as young animals and some horses will also be young animals. Hence first option will be the best answer.
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Joseph #2
1. Children should be able to tell the dreams of the butler, the baker, and Pharoah.
2. Children should know the story of Joseph’s forgiving his brothers.
3. Children should know how the people of Israel came to live in the land of Egypt.
Possible Lesson Plan:
1. Open with prayer.
1. Review the story of Joseph from last week.
1. Read the story of Joseph in either in the Children’s Bible Reader, pages 54-71, or the Children’s Bible pages 68-87.
1. True/False questions:
True False
Joseph was a slave of Potiphar in Egypt. Joseph was taken to China as a slave.
The butler dreamed of grapes and a cup. The butler dreamed of apples.
The baker dreamed of bread and birds. The baker dreamed of apple pies.
The butler was freed by Pharoah. The baker was freed by Pharoah
Pharoah dreamed of fat and thin cows. Pharoah dreamed of fat elephants.
1. Talk about slavery and prison: What would it be like? Are there slaves now? Prisoners? What did Jesus say about how we should treat slaves and prisoners?
1. Talk about dreams: Do we have dreams? What kind of dreams? Are there other important dreams in the Bible? (Jacob’s ladder, Joseph and Mary)
1. Make a Signet Ring: Take a piece of
oven-hardening clay. Form a long snake
and a flattened circle and put together
as a ring. Inscribe with child’s name or
a symbol. Put them in the oven as per
directions on the package. While baking,
take some beeswax (Father has old
candles.) and melt it on the hotplate. Write a friendly card to a prisoner.
Use wax and ring to seal the card. Send
to the Orthodox Prison Ministry. Keep the
ring to use at home for cards and letters.
1. Close with prayer.
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Home Page
Good morning Dosbarth Gwern 😊
Wednesday 20th May
English Please continue reading Charlotte’s Web or/and watch the film. You can read the book for free on
Here is an activity to work on similes. A simile is when you compare one thing with another thing
As busy as a bee, as light as a feather, as cold as ice etc
Or big like a gigantic giant, small as a tiny ant….
Think of your own similies and put then into sentences about Charlotte’s Web.
Today we are carrying on with multiplication, using the grid method. Using the grid below or draw the grid on paper or insert a table on a word document.
Can you answer some of these sums?
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Habitat in Focus; Ffridd
ffridd conservation grazing with cattle pont cymruffridd conservation grazing pont cymruFfridd habitat is an upland habitat, defined as the fringe between more intensively managed upland fields and the open mountain habitats, at altitudes between 100m and 450m [2]. It can include a matrix of different habitats including heath, acid grassland, bog, bracken, rocky outcrops and trees. Generally ffridd habitat has remained unimproved due to a lack of accessibility. This mix of habitats makes ffridd a very biodiverse habitat, supporting many species of plants and wildlife.
In Wales, our ffridd habitat supports bird species such as ring ouzel yellowhammer and linnet, which are found in higher densities here than in any other habitat in the UK [1]. Acid grassland with a matrix of heath or bracken provides sheltered conditions for butterflies such as the dark green fritillary and for reptiles such as adder. Rare Welsh clearwing moth can be found in ffridd, for example at Gilfach Nature Reserve near Rhayader. Rocky outcrops and tree branches also support important lichens and bryophytes.
yellowhammer ffridd conservation grazing pont cymruFfridd habitats require grazing as a lack of grazing can lead to over-dominance of bracken and gorse. Ffridd in Wales is threatened by both lack of grazing and tree planting, which can lead to a loss of the rich mosaic of habitats. We are helping to establish or manage grazing on ffridd sites across Wales, such as Coity Wallia Commons in Bridgend, South Wales and on the Carneddau Mountains in North Wales.
Get in touch for assistance with managing ffridd habitat with grazing animals.
[1] Ffridd- A habitat on the Edge. RSPB
[2] Habitat Survey of Wales (1979-1997)
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Chertsey Abbey 15th century, 1432
(E 164/25 f.222)
View in image library
What was Chertsey like in the Middle Ages?
Chertsey is an old medieval town that is mentioned in the Domesday Book. It owes its existence to the Abbey which dominated the village in the Middle Ages. These maps provide us with a way of finding out about Chertsey. Study the maps of Chertsey. What can they tell us about Chertsey in the Middle Ages?
1. This is a medieval map of Chertsey.
• Find the following buildings on the medieval map (use the transcript if you need to). Briefly say what activity took place there.
• Oxlake Mil
• Monastery of Chertsey
• bridge
• the village of Laleham
• Burghwey Barn
• Redewynd Causeway
• track leading to mill
• What is the largest building on the map?
• What does the size of the Abbey tell you about religion in the Middle Ages?
• How accurate do you think this map is?
2. Look at this map of Chertsey drawn in the 20th century. Compare it to your map of medieval Chertsey.
• Which parts of medieval Chertsey are still standing today?
• List all the differences you can see
• What buildings do you think are the most important ones in Chertsey today?
• How accurate do you think this map is?
Present day Chertsey sits on the river Thames. In the 15th century several streams also ran through it. The lands and the buildings shown on the map belonged to the Benedictine Abbey which created Chertsey. The block of houses at the top represent the village of Laleham.
Medieval picture maps like this one are rare. This one shows most of the major buildings expected in a medieval village: church, barn, mill, wooden bridge as well as a road and track. The medieval map was used to settle a dispute between the abbey and three people who rented lands from the abbey. This explains the labels on the fields which give the name of the tenant, the field’s size and what the field was used for.
Map drawing in the Middle Ages was rather primitive. There were no agreed symbols for buildings as there are today. The cartographers who drew these maps drew little pictures of the key buildings. Distances were estimated and scales were not used. Nonetheless, the maps still indicated where things were in relation to each other. What is important for historians is that this map shows the buildings that existed at the time. From the buildings we can begin to make conclusions about what went on in the village and how the people in Chertsey lived.
Teachers' notes
This lesson provides pupils with a glimpse of a medieval village. By using a printout of the outline above, pupils can identify the major buildings and make inferences about medieval village life. Medieval picture maps are not accurate but they do give pictorial representations. The writing on fields gives details about their size and their use. There is commonland, meadow and land belonging to the abbey. Pupils could research the nature of holding land in feudal times. A further task may be to ask the pupils to draw a modern day map of medieval Cherstey using standard symbols. Finally, pupils are encouraged to make a comparison between medieval and modern village life. They can see areas of continuity as well as change.
Medieval Map : E 146/25 f.222
Modern Map : Ordnance Survey
External links
Chertsey Museum Explore Chertsey Museum’s interactive web site
Chertsey Abbey Pictures and information about Chertsey’s medieval abbey
Back to top
Related resources
Domesday Book
What can we learn about England in the 11th century?
Mapping the City
How and why does an area change over time?
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June 22, 2005 - Emotion in Words
Today on Wordmaster with Rosanne Skirble, the emotions behind the words we say.
RS: Think of how many emotions our voices are able to convey. English teacher and Wordmaster contributor Lida Baker says meaning changes by modifying the tone of voice in subtle ways. Take this simple sentence:
LIDA BAKER: "The words are: 'you cut your hair.' Now I am going to quiz you, Rosanne. I am going to say those four words in certain ways and you tell me what the emotion is that I am trying to convey. Ready?"
RS: "OK. Ready."
LIDA BAKER: "OK here we go:
"You cut your hair!
RS: "Surprise!"
LIDA BAKER: "Yes! How about this one: 'You cut your hair?'"
RS: "You don't sound like you are too happy with me. You don't like my haircut."
LIDA BAKER: "Right. Or what about this one? 'YOU CUT YOUR HAIR!' I'm sorry for shouting. Let me give you another example. The words are: 'I got 75 percent on a test.' All right, here we go again: (HAPPY TONE) 'I got 75 percent on a test.'"
RS: "You sound like the happiest (person) in town.
LIDA BAKER: "That's right. This is a student who has to work really hard to get average grades. So this student is quite pleased about the 75 percent, or else it was just a very hard test and nobody did very well and the person is just happy to have passed it."
RS: "Right because 75 percent isn't the greatest grade."
LIDA BAKER: "No. How about this one? [SURPRISED TONE] 'I got 75 percent on a test?'"
RS: "You should have gotten 100 percent, which means that you should be surprised, at least in that sentence it sounds like it."
LIDA BAKER: "Yeah. That's what I intended! Or, [SAD, DISAPPOINTED TONE] 'I got 75 percent on a test.'"
RS: "You are not happy. You are disappointed with your results.
LIDA BAKER: "Yeah. OK so, you are able to read me very well, even though you can't see my face and there is no story surrounding any one of those sentences. So it is quite amazing that you knew exactly what I was trying to convey without any other clues."
So how can a student of English as a foreign language learn these clues? Lida Baker says you can use visual cues - like facial expressions and gestures - or audio cues like pitch, volume and intonation.
LIDA BAKER: "I was thinking for example about disappointment, and I noticed that when I said 'you cut your hair' the intonation tends to be flat throughout that slightly glides down at the end. 'You cut your hair.' And confusion can often be expressed in the form of a question, don't you think?"
RS: "You cut your hair?"
LIDA BAKER: "Or, I got 75 percent on a test? -- go ahead."
RS: "I was just going to ask you, you know we have pitch and volume and intonation -- three cues that we can watch for -- but as you said it is very subtle and very hard for English learners to get. How can teachers help out?"
LIDA BAKER: "The first thing the teacher really needs to do is to teach students to look at context clues that can help students derive meaning from a situation such as people's facial expressions. I think knowing the relationship between speakers is helpful, and of course listening to what the people have been talking about prior to the utterance."
RS: "What I hear you saying, though, is that context is so important and might be the key (to understanding) here."
LIDA BAKER: "Yes it is."
RS: "Now, when you don't have a context, like when you are talking on the telephone, what are you to do?"
LIDA BAKER: "A valuable teaching aid is to bring in video clips, just little segments and have students look at them and try to analyze the emotional content of this little small segment. First use only the audio and try to figure out what the speakers mean, and then add the visual and see what additional cues are provided when they have the visual available to them and are trying to figure out logically what the speakers could be feeling. And it just takes an enormous amount of practice."
RS: "Practice, practice and more practice."
LIDA BAKER: "Right, and I am always advocating role playing. Put the students in pairs and give them the same script. But one pair of students, give them the instruction that they are to express disappointment or sadness."
RS: "And the other (pair) approval."
LIDA BAKER: "Exactly. That's great. And then have the other students in the class guess what is going on. So then it becomes very interactive."
RS: "That's great!"
LIDA BAKER: "And not to forget, (use) compensation strategies. Where all else fails, ask the person, 'What do you mean?'"
Lida Baker teaches in the American Language Center at the University of California, Los Angeles, and is featured in the Wordmaster archives at voanews.com/wordmaster. Our e-mail address is word@voanews.com. Avi Arditti will be back next week. I'm Rosanne Skirble.
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Punch (tool)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For punches used in punch presses, see Punching.
A punch is a hard metal rod with a shaped tip at one end and a blunt butt end at the other, which is usually struck by a hammer. Most woodworkers prefer to use a ball-peen hammer for using punches. Punches are used to drive objects, such as nails, or to form an impression of the tip on a workpiece. Decorative punches may also be used to create a pattern or even form an image.
pin punch
A pin punch is used to remove metal pins from a hole. First use a starter punch to loosen metal pin then use a pin punch to finish removing the pin from hole...
A center punch
A centre punch is used to mark the center of a point. It is usually used to mark the centre of a hole when drilling holes. A drill has the tendency to "wander" if it does not start in a recess. A centre punch forms a large enough dimple to "guide" the tip of the drill. The tip of a centre punch has an angle between 60 and 90 degrees.[1] When drilling larger holes, and the web of the drill is wider than the indentation produced by a centre punch, the drilling of a pilot hole is usually needed.
An automatic centre punch operates without the need for a hammer.
Prick punch[edit]
A prick punch
A prick punch is similar to a center punch but used for marking out. It has a sharper angled tip to produce a narrower and deeper point. It is also known as a dot punch. The mark can then be enlarged with a centre punch for drilling. The tip of a prick punch is 40 degrees (the angle depends on what type of prick punch you are using.)[1]
transfer punch
A transfer punch is a punch (usually in an index set) of a specific outer diameter that is non-tapered and extends the entire length of the punch (except for the tip). It is used to tightly fit the tolerances of an existing hole and, when struck, precisely transfer the center of that hole to another surface. It can be used, for example, to duplicate the hole patterns in a part, or precisely set locations for threaded holes (created by drilling and tapping) to bolt an object to a surface.
drift punch
Main article: Drift pin
A drift "punch" is misleadingly named; it is not used as a punch in the traditional sense of the term. A drift punch, or drift pin, or lineup punch, is used as an aid in aligning bolt or rivet holes prior to inserting a fastener. A drift punch is constructed as a tapered rod, with the hammer acting on the large end of the taper. The tapered end of a drift punch is placed into the semi-aligned bolt holes of two separate components, and then driven into the hole. As it is driven in, the taper forces the two components into alignment, allowing for easy insertion of the fastener. Unlike most punches, force is never (and should never be) applied to the tip, or end of a drift pin.
Spring or roll pins[edit]
Roll Pin Punches
Spring punches, also called roll pin punches, are used to drive roll pins. Standard pin punches should never be used on a roll pin. Because of the hollow, thin wall construction of a roll pin, a standard pin punch will often collapse, mar or distort the end of the pin or be driven into, and jammed inside, the hollow core of the roll pin. When choosing a roll pin punch, select one that is no larger than the compressed diameter of the pin. If a punch is used that is larger than the pin,the surrounding metal in which the pin is seated can be damaged. Also, a roll pin punch should not be used which is smaller than the compressed diameter of the pin. If this occurs, it may be possible to drive the punch through the hollow center of the roll pin.
Roll pin punches are designed with a small projection in the center of the pin tip to support the circumference of the roll pin. The tips of roll pin punches are not flat and should never be used on regular solid pins. If a roll pin punch is used on a solid pin, it will mar or mark the pin.
If the end of a roll pin punch is damaged or deformed, it should be discarded. It is virtually impossible to regrind the tip of the roll pin punch and properly shape the center projection. When using a roll pin punch, make sure the axis of the shank of the roll pin punch is in line with the axis of the roll pin. Do not cant the roll pin punch off to one side. When you strike the roll pin punch, hit it directly on the top of its head. If you strike the head of the roll pin punch at an angle you may bend the shank.
Punches with a decorative motif have been used to create patterns or images on metals and various other materials, notably leather. In goldsmithing, bookbinding and armour-making the technique is called pointillé. In printmaking punches were used to create most of the image in the plates for printing metalcuts.
Letter stamps
Also known as letter stamps or number stamps. These are used to emboss the impression of a letter or number into a workpiece. They are most common in the reverse image, this allows the end result to be immediately readable, however they may be made as a positive image. This is essential in the case of die or mold making and ensures that the finished product will be readable, as a die is a negative image.
Tablet press[edit]
These punches are a part of tablet press. Unlike most punches, tablet press punches have a concave ending in the shape of the desired tablet. There are the lower and the upper punches to compress the powder in between.
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b Fournier, Ron; Fournier, Sue (1989), Sheet metal handbook, HPBooks, pp. 21–22, ISBN 978-0-89586-757-5
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coordinate División en sílabas: co·or·di·nate
Definición de coordinate en inglés:
Pronunciación: /kōˈôrdəˌnāt/
[with object]
1Bring the different elements of (a complex activity or organization) into a relationship that will ensure efficiency or harmony: he had responsibility for coordinating Chicago’s transportation services
Más ejemplos en oraciones
• This option is, however, impractical for larger organizations where it is more cost effective to develop control rules as a means to coordinate the activities of organizational members.
• This partnership has a key role in co-ordinating activities across public organisations, and it is through this group that transport issues affecting access to health care will be addressed.
• A joint leadership group of officials from both organizations will coordinate these activities.
organize, arrange, order, systematize, harmonize, correlate, synchronize, bring together, fit together, dovetail
1.1 [no object] Negotiate with others in order to work together effectively: you will coordinate with consultants and other departments on a variety of projects
Más ejemplos en oraciones
• There are many people working together to plan, coordinate, and make the necessary preparations for the unit's activation.
• The superintendent also has plans to coordinate with the police to cover areas that might be considered between jurisdictions.
• As long as they don't directly coordinate with a political party, these groups are free to use unlimited contributions however they please.
co-operate, liaise, collaborate, work together, negotiate, communicate, be in contact
1.2 [no object] Match or harmonize attractively: the stud fastenings are colored to coordinate with the shirt (as adjective coordinating) a variety of coordinating colors
Más ejemplos en oraciones
• Belts need to match or closely coordinate with your shoes.
• The few flowers coordinate with leaf accent colors.
• And they come in patterns and colors to coordinate with any decor.
match, complement, set off;
harmonize, blend, fit in, go
2 Chemistry Form a coordinate bond to (an atom or molecule): the sodium atom is coordinated to two oxygen atoms
Más ejemplos en oraciones
• In quartz, each silicon atom is coordinated to four oxygen atoms.
• Despite the presence of sodium ions initially, no sodium ions are coordinated to this ‘cross-like’ structure after it forms.
• These sequence patterns are confined to the regions adjacent to the residues which coordinate metal ions in the active center.
Pronunciación: /kōˈôrd(ə)nət/
Volver al principio
1Equal in rank or importance: cross references in the catalog link subjects that may be coordinate
Más ejemplos en oraciones
• Incidentally, someone asked me whether Judge Goodwin's reactions were unjudicial or showed undue contempt for coordinate branches of government.
• By so deferring, we show proper respect to a coordinate branch of government.
• Judicial contempt for the coordinate branches on this scale is simply staggering.
1.1 Grammar (Of parts of a compound sentence) equal in rank and fulfilling identical functions.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• The linked units that result are said to be coordinated or coordinate: for example, a coordinate clause.
• A coordinate construction of the form ‘A, or B, and both’ is neither grammatical nor clearly interpretable.
• We're supposed to express coordinate ideas in parallel form.
2 Chemistry Denoting a type of covalent bond in which one atom provides both the shared electrons.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• However, in a more restricted sense, complex ions are charged species in which a metal atom is joined by coordinate covalent bonds to neutral molecules and/or negative ions.
• The particles have functional sites for forming a hydrogen bond or a coordinate covalent bond.
Pronunciación: /kōˈôrd(ə)nət/
Volver al principio
1 Mathematics Each of a group of numbers used to indicate the position of a point, line, or plane.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• It happened when he came across a theorem which stated that points in the plane could be specified with a single coordinate.
• The points at sea-level were all lined up: the east-west coordinate was the same for every point.
2 (coordinates) Matching items of clothing.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• As a testament to the camp shirt's ongoing popularity, manufacturers and suppliers continue to provide new twists on camp shirt colors, coordinates and styles for 2004.
• Outrageously colored coats of layered fabrics were worn over ugly, contradictory coordinates.
Pronunciación: /kōˈôrdəˌnādiv/
Oraciones de ejemplo
• Oxfam's strong feeling is that the UN offers a legitimate, coordinative effort which - if it were to disappear - would only be replaced by confusion.
• David Beaver had meanwhile gone beyond this, citing a complete coordinative listing of the 230 members of a high school graduating class.
• A large section of the economics profession concluded that government fine-tuning did more to destabilize the economy than to provide positive coordinative benefits.
Mid 17th century (in the senses 'of the same rank' and 'place in the same rank'): from co- 'together' + Latin ordinare (from ordo 'order'), on the pattern of subordinate.
Palabras que riman con coordinate
subordinate inordinate, subordinate, superordinate
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Iron Embrasures for the Batteries on Morris Island
Another problem faced by the engineers and artillerists preparing the breaching batteries on Morris Island was the embrasures through which the guns pointed over the parapets. As the embrasure is an opening in the fortification, these are always weak points in the works. But without them, the gun crew must work the gun over the parapet and might be exposed to enemy fire. In defensive works, with more time devoted to perfection of the opening, engineers used wood planking to define the embrasure. Normally, for earthworks such as seen around Vicksburg, Petersburg, or other siege lines of the Civil War era, the engineers used gabions filled with dirt.
But the nature of Morris Island presented a problem with that practice, as Major Thomas Brooks explained in Note No. 12 of his report:
Gabions, fascines, and hurdle work, when used for revetting the cheeks of embrasures, were found to leak the fine dry sand used in the construction of our works, unless filled or backed with sandbags. This remedy adds to the expense and labor, and is, besides, not very durable. Sods suitable for revetting are very scarce on this coast.
Sand-bags alone lasted a long time in Battery Hays, but its guns were fired at an elevation of 5° and upward. These high elevations gave a far less injurious cone of blast than low ones. The raw hides used for lining sand-bag embrasures were soon blown out (particularly by the Wiard gun), in spite of our efforts to make them fast by means of notched pickets.
Looking for a more durable solution Brooks made the most of the materials on hand. Remember this wreck between Folly and Morris Island?
The Ruby looks picked over. And more than just damage done while recovering the blockade runner’s goods. She was practically scrapped in place as the Federal engineers turned salvaged materials into something to resolve the embrasure problem:
To overcome these difficulties, a boiler or sheet-iron casing or lining was made from iron plates obtained from the wreck of an iron ship (a blockade-runner) which came ashore at Light-House Inlet. The splay, the dimensions of the throat, size of cheeks, length and inclination of sole, and thickness of plates used, were varied to suit the case. For direct firing, the splay may be 25°, or even less.
To set the casing, the genouillère is first finished, and the sole of the embrasure given its proper slope. On this sole is placed the iron casing, its directrix having the proper direction. Sand-bag merlons were built on each side, to which the lining was anchored by means of wires and crooked iron rods which were made fast to its cheeks and rings.
Brooks provided an illustration of these improvised embrasures.
Brooks recorded the iron as a quarter-inch thick, weighing 10.4 pounds per square foot. Eight of these went in to the second parallel. The illustration helps explain a mantlet configuration used for one of the gun positions in Battery Rosecrans:
This mantlet is of bullet-proof iron plate, arranged as a hanging door, which closes the throat of the embrasure. In this door is a cut or slot for the double purpose of allowing the rammer and sponge staves to pass through when loading, and for sighting the piece. A small scantling of hard wood, with a rope attached to its upper end, is made fast to one side of the door, and acts as a lever to raise the door when the gun is fired. The swing bar of 1-inch round iron, upon which the hinges of the door are hung, has a collar at each end, to enable the cheeks of the carriage to resist lateral pressure. The sole was given a counter slope of 5°. The wings prevent the casing from being carried out by the force of the blast.
The one gun position supplied with a mantlet was active against Fort Sumter during the bombardments through September. Because of the elevations required to reach that target, the gun crew might otherwise be exposed to Confederate sharpshooters. The mantlet arrangement allowed the crew to work with some measure of safety.
In conclusion, Brooks suggested, “The satisfactory results obtained from the use of these casings indicates that sheet and boiler iron should form part of the siege material furnished for military operations in a sandy country.” He added that the plate was later easily converted to Sibley stoves during the winter months.
An inglorious end for once sleek blockade runner.
(Citations and illustration from OR, Series I, Volume 28, Part I, Serial 46, pages 321-2.)
3 responses to “Iron Embrasures for the Batteries on Morris Island
1. This explains a lot about the picked-over carcass of the Ruby in that wonderful photo. I had wondered why there didn’t appear to be any hull plates or framing left around the remains of the engine room. I think that the embrasures he illustrates were almost certainly made of sheet-iron hull plates, though, not boiler plates. While of similar thickness, boiler plates would have been curved in various ways, as shown by the surviving boiler in the background of the photo. Hull plates, on the other hand, were relatively flat and square.
The Banshee, built in early 1863, was the first steel-hulled runner, and had hull plates just 1/8″ thick- said to be “half the thickness of the usual iron plates” of contemporary blockade runners. They were so thin that they buckled on the transatlantic journey and had to be repaired in Nassau. In 1861 boiler plate was produced for the U.S. Navy in 3/16, 1/4, 3/8 and 5/16 thicknesses (according to the US Senate document publishing all the naval supply contracts for 1860-61), usually in sheets 4-fleet long by 30 inches wide.
By comparison the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond could only roll plates 8 inches wide by ten feet long, which were a maximum of 2 inches thick for the armor plate installed on the CSS Virginia. Armor plate made for the USS New Ironsides was 4 1/2 inches thick, and the railroad iron used on southern ironclads later in the war was 2 1/2 inches wide by 1 1/2 inches thick. So quarter-iron sheet iron was barely bullet-proof by comparison.
An inventive idea by Brooks- but I’m glad I wasn’t one of the enlisted men out there in the sun busting the heads off rivets to canabalize the Ruby that June and July!
2. Pingback: 150 years ago: Captain Suess completes the surf battery | To the Sound of the Guns
3. Pingback: “I decidedly prefer the rope mantlets.”: Hunt and Abbot prepare for a siege | To the Sound of the Guns
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Fort Churchill
Fort Churchill
During World War Two, North American forces realized that they needed more training and experience in cold weather warfare. This led to the establishment of a military base first as a tent camp at Akludlik Marsh then as a military community at Fort Churchill and a series of cold weather tests on personnel, munitions and equipment.
Exercise Muskox was the largest and most widely reported of these operations. This exercise, beginning in Feberuary 1946, tested over-snow track vehicles on a pan-arctic journey across northern Canada. From Churchill, the vehicles travelled north to Cambridge Bay across to Victoria Island and finally down to Edmonton, Alberta. It was also the first arctic military exercise which relied on air support, based out of Churchill, Manitoba and Baker Lake, NWT (now Nunavut).
It was made up of 45 personnel of all ranks who made the main journey of the exercise. The exercise was designed to study Army-Air Force cooperation, the mobility of over-snow vehicles under various conditions and the feasibility of establishing landing strips on the barren ground.
The Moving Force left Churchill on February 15, 1946 with temperatures dipping to -44F. Eleven snowmobiles and one American Weasel, M-29 crossed the rough pressure ridges of the Churchill River estuary.
This exercise found that hoar frost would saturate clothing and sleeping bags, caribou skins were used as floor matting, water was scarce and army rations were difficult to cook.
Fort Churchill eventually was decommissioned in the mid-seventies. Military personnel had essentially been withdrawn in the mid-1960s and by the late seventies, Fort Churchill was a ghost town. In 1981, it was declared officially closed and was dismantled. Today, only the road grid and a few buildings, including the Polar Bear Compound and Airport Hangars, signal its existence.
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Polar Bear Blog and Churchill Manitoba Travel Guide
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Triboluminescence is an optical phenomenon in which light is generated through the breaking of chemical bonds in a material when it is pulled apart, ripped, scratched, crushed, or rubbed (see tribology). The phenomenon is not fully understood, but appears to be caused by the separation and reunification of electrical charges. The term comes from the Greek τρίβειν ("to rub"; see tribology) and the Latin lumen (light). Triboluminescence can be observed when breaking sugar crystals and peeling adhesive tapes.
Triboluminescence is often used as a synonym for fractoluminescence (a term sometimes used when referring only to light emitted from fractured crystals). Triboluminescence differs from piezoluminescence in that a piezoluminescent material emits light when it is deformed, as opposed to broken. These are examples of mechanoluminescence, which is luminescence resulting from any mechanical action on a solid.
An Uncompahgre Ute Buffalo rawhide ceremonial rattle filled with quartz crystals. Flashes of light are visible when the quartz crystals are subjected to mechanical stress in darkness.
Uncompahgre Ute Indians[edit]
The Uncompahgre Ute Indians from Central Colorado are one of the first documented groups of people in the world credited with the application of mechanoluminescence involving the use of quartz crystals to generate light.[1][2] The Ute constructed special ceremonial rattles made from buffalo rawhide which they filled with clear quartz crystals collected from the mountains of Colorado and Utah. When the rattles were shaken at night during ceremonies, the friction and mechanical stress of the quartz crystals impacting together produced flashes of light visible through the translucent buffalo hide.
Later descriptions[edit]
The first recorded observation is attributed to English scholar Francis Bacon when he recorded in his 1620 Novum Organum that "It is well known that all sugar, whether candied or plain, if it be hard, will sparkle when broken or scraped in the dark."[3] The scientist Robert Boyle also reported on some of his work on triboluminescence in 1663. In the late 1790s, sugar production began to produce more refined sugar crystals. These crystals were formed into a large solid cone for transport and sale. This solid cone of sugar had to be broken into usable chunks using a device known as sugar nips. People began to notice that as sugar was "nipped" in low light, tiny bursts of light were visible.
A historically important instance of triboluminescence occurred in Paris in 1675. Astronomer Jean-Felix Picard observed that his barometer was glowing in the dark as he carried it. His barometer consisted of a glass tube that was partially filled with mercury. Whenever the mercury slid down the glass tube, the empty space above the mercury would glow. While investigating this phenomenon, researchers discovered that static electricity could cause low-pressure air to glow. This discovery revealed the possibility of electric lighting.[4]
Mechanism of action[edit]
Materials scientists have not yet arrived at a full understanding of the effect, but the current theory of triboluminescence — based upon crystallographic, spectroscopic, and other experimental evidence — is that upon fracture of asymmetrical materials, charge is separated. When the charges recombine, the electric discharge ionizes the surrounding air, causing a flash of light. Research further suggests that crystals which display triboluminescence must lack symmetry (thus being anisotropic in order to permit charge separation) and be poor conductors. However, there are substances which break this rule, and which do not possess asymmetry, yet display triboluminescence anyway, such as hexakis(antipyrine)terbium iodide.[5] It is thought that these materials contain impurities, which confer properties of asymmetry to the substance.
A diamond may begin to glow while being rubbed. This occasionally happens to diamonds while a facet is being ground or the diamond is being sawn during the cutting process. Diamonds may fluoresce blue or red. Some other minerals, such as quartz, are triboluminescent, emitting light when rubbed together.[6]
Ordinary Pressure-sensitive tape ("Scotch tape") displays a glowing line where the end of the tape is being pulled away from the roll.[7] In 1953, Soviet scientists first observed that unpeeling a roll of tape in a vacuum produced X-rays.[8] The mechanism of X-ray generation was studied further in 2008.[9][10][11]
Also, when sugar crystals are crushed, tiny electrical fields are created, separating positive and negative charges that then create sparks while trying to reunite. Wint-O-Green Life Savers work especially well for creating such sparks, because wintergreen oil (methyl salicylate) is fluorescent and converts ultraviolet light into blue light.[12][13]
Fractoluminescence is often used as a synonym for triboluminescence.[14] It is the emission of light from the fracture (rather than rubbing) of a crystal, but fracturing often occurs with rubbing. Depending upon the atomic and molecular composition of the crystal, when the crystal fractures a charge separation can occur making one side of the fractured crystal positively charged and the other side negatively charged. Like in triboluminescence, if the charge separation results in a large enough electric potential, a discharge across the gap and through the bath gas between the interfaces can occur. The potential at which this occurs depends upon the dielectric properties of the bath gas.[15]
EMR propagation during fracturing[edit]
The emission of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) during plastic deformation and crack propagation in metals and rocks have been studied. The EMR emissions from metals and alloys have also been explored and confirmed. Molotskii presented a dislocation mechanism for this type of EMR emissions.[16] Recently, Srilakshmi and Misra reported an additional phenomenon of secondary EMR during plastic deformation and crack propagation in uncoated and metal-coated metals and alloys.[citation needed]
EMR during the micro-plastic deformation and crack propagation from several metals and alloys and transient magnetic field generation during necking in ferromagnetic metals were reported by Misra (1973–75), which have been confirmed and explored by several researchers. Tudik and Valuev (1980) were able to measure the EMR frequency during tensile fracture of iron and aluminum in the region 1014¬¬ Hz by using photomultipliers. Srilakshmi and Misra (2005a) also reported an additional phenomenon of secondary electromagnetic radiation in uncoated and metal-coated metals and alloys. If a solid material is subjected to stresses of large amplitudes, which can cause plastic deformation and fracture, emissions such as thermal, acoustic, ions, exo-emissions occur. With the discovery of new materials and advancement in instrumentation to measure effects of EMR, crack formation and fracture; the EMR emissions effect becomes important.
Deformation induced EMR[edit]
The study of deformation is essential for the development of new materials. Deformation in metals depends on temperature, type of stress applied, strain rate, oxidation and corrosion. Deformation induced EMR can be divided into three categories: effects in ionic crystal materials; effects in rocks and granites; and, effects in metals and alloys. EMR emission depends on the orientation of the grains in individual crystals since material properties are different in differing directions.[17] Amplitude of EMR pulse increases as long as the crack continues to grow as new atomic bonds are broken and it leads to EMR. Pulse starts to decay when crack halts.[18] Observations from experiments showed that emitted EMR signals contain mixed frequency components.
Test methods to measure EMR[edit]
Most widely tensile test method is used to characterize the mechanical properties of materials. From any complete tensile test record, one can obtain important informations about the material’s elastic properties, the character and extent of plastic deformation, yield and tensile strengths and toughness. These informations which can be obtained from one test justifies the extensive use of tensile test in engineering materials research. Therefore, investigations of EMR emissions are mainly based on the tensile test of the specimens. From experiments, it can be shown that tensile crack formation excites more intensive EMR than shear cracking, increasing the elasticity, strength and loading rate during uniaxial loading increases amplitude. Poissions ratio is a key parameter for EMR characterization during triaxial compression.[19] If the poissions ratio is lower, it is harder for the material to strain transversally and hence higher is the probability of new fractures. Mechanism of plastic deformation is very important for safe operation of any component under dynamic conditions.
Uses and applications[edit]
This EMR can be utilized in developing sensors/smart materials. This technique can be implemented in powder metallurgy technique also. EMR is one of these emissions which accompany large deformation. If an element can be identified which gives maximum EMR response with minimum mechanical stimulus then it can be incorporated into main material and thus set new trends in the development of smart material. The deformation induced EMR can serve as a strong tool for failure detection and prevention.
See also[edit]
1. ^ BBC Big Bang on triboluminescence
2. ^ Timothy Dawson Changing colors: now you see them, now you don't Coloration Technology 2010 doi:10.1111/j.1478-4408.2010.00247.x
3. ^ Bacon, Francis. Novum Organum
4. ^ See Wikipedia's article: Barometric light.
5. ^ W. Clegg, G. Bourhill and I. Sage (April 2002). "Hexakis(antipyrine-O)terbium(III) triiodide at 160 K: confirmation of a centrosymmetric structure for a brilliantly triboluminescent complex". Acta Crystallographica Section E 58 (4). Retrieved 21 September 2013.
6. ^ "Rockhounding Arkansas: Experiments with Quartz". Retrieved 2012-10-09.
7. ^ Nature (journal). Sticky tape generates X-rays
8. ^ Karasev, V. V., Krotova, N. A. & Deryagin, B. W. (1953) "Study of electronic emission during the stripping of a layer of high polymer from glass in a vacuum" [in Russian], Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR (Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences) 88: 777-780.
9. ^ Camara C. G., Escobar J. V., Hird J. R., & Putterman S. J. (2008) "Correlation between nanosecond X-ray flashes and stick-slip friction in peeling tape," Nature 455: 1089-1092.
10. ^
11. ^ Katherine Bourzac (2008-10-23). "X-Rays Made with Scotch Tape". Technology Review. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
12. ^
13. ^ "Science News Online - This Week - News Feature - 5/17/97". 1997-05-17. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
14. ^ "IUPAC Gold Book - triboluminescence". 2012-08-19. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
15. ^ Note: This phenomenon can be demonstrated by removing ice from a freezer in a darkened room, under conditions in which the ice makes cracking sounds from sudden thermal expansion. If the ambient light is dim enough, flashes of white light from the cracking ice can be observed.
16. ^ Chauhan, V.S.1 (2008), "Effects of strain rate and elevated temperature on electromagnetic radiation emission during plastic deformation and crack propagation in ASTM B 265 grade 2 titanium sheets", Journal of Materials Science 43: 5634–5643, Bibcode:2008JMatS..43.5634C, doi:10.1007/s10853-008-2590-5
17. ^ KUMAR, Rajeev (2006), "Effect of processing parameters on the electromagnetic radiation emission during plastic deformation and crack propagation in copper-zinc alloys", Journal of Zhejiang university science A 7 (1): 1800–1809, doi:10.1631/jzus.2006.a1800
18. ^ Frid, V. (2006), "Fracture induced electromagnetic radiation", Journal Applied physics 36: 1620–1628
19. ^ Frid, V. (2000), "Electromagnetic radiation method water-infusion control in rockburst-prone strata", Journal of Applied Geophysics 43 (1): 5–13, Bibcode:2000JAG....43....5F, doi:10.1016/S0926-9851(99)00029-4
External links[edit]
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False Ceilings
A company that specialises in fitting false ceilings uses a design based on 1m2 ceiling tiles arranged in a grid.
Each tile is supported by metal strips that slot together.
Find the total length of metal strips required to fit this design in a room measuring 3 m by 4 m.
Consider the 4x3 grid.
The grid consists of 5 vertical strips of 3 units and 4 horizontal strips of 4 units.
So total length of metal strips = 5 times 3 + 4 times 4 = 15 + 16 = 31 m.
What if the room measured m x n?
What if m or n are not integers?
Problem ID: 59 (Dec 2001) Difficulty: 1 Star
Only Show Problem
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Marcial Fire in New Mexico
1726 of 4033
Marcial Fire in New Mexico
April 26, 2013
Just to the south of the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge along the Rio Grande in southwestern New Mexico, a large fire was billowing out a thick plume of smoke when the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite passed overhead on May 4, 2006. The actively burning area that MODIS detected is outlined in red. According to a local news report, the fire is burning in salt cedar along the banks of the river, and fire fighters were conducting “burn out” operations (carefully burning vegetation in the fire’s path to starve it of fuel) to prevent the spread of the fire northward into the refuge. Salt cedar, also known as tamarisk, is the common name for several species of non-native, small trees or shrubs that have invaded river and streambank ecosystems in many places in the United States. Nowhere is their impact more severe than in the Southwest, where their persistent ability to survive drought, flood, and fire allows them to rapidly colonize riparian (river- and stream-bank) habitat and prevent native plants from germinating. The loss of native plants has a cascading effect on the rest of the ecosystem. Salt cedar was introduced to the United States from Asia as an ornamental plant in the early 1800s, and its spread has radically transformed riparian ecosystems throughout the Southwest. Credit: NASA image courtesy the MODIS Rapid Response Team, Goddard Space Flight Center
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Restoring An Endangered Species To It's Native Habitat
3:46 PM, Nov 11, 2012 | comments
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The restoration of endangered species to their native environment has become more critical as man's impact on the planet increases. Biologists world wide are working hard to help many species living on the edge of extinction, and such was the case recently as a collaboration of biologists released 1200 juvenille fish into the Allegany River near Olean. The Gilt Darter, so named for it's brilliant spawning colors, is a small fish in the Perch family that has been absent from the region for 75 years. The recent release represents a collaboration between several agencies, including the NY DEC, which led the effort. The darter was lost to the river due to poor water quality and the creation of the Allegany reservoir. In addition to the scientific imperative, the restoration efforts are seen by some involved as correcting a past mistake. John Foster Of SUNY Cobleskill helped raise the darters. " There's the kind of the moral side of it in that they were extirpated due to our activities. With water pollution and siltation, and building the dam, we've harmed a species, and we ought to try and make it right for them."
The Gilt Darter is a species that is very sensitive to adverse water conditions and so fell prey to earlier degradation of the Allegany River. The reintroduction is good news for both fish and humans. It means that the river is now much cleaner than it was in the past. Doug Fischer is a Fisheries Biologist with the PA Fish & Boat Commission.They provided some fish from Pennsylvania waters." Water quality has increased, the habitat exists, and for man's part, it takes a relatively minimal effort to restore it."
Although not too much is known about the Gilt Darter, it is believed that the tiny fish can help expand the mussel population in the river, which also will contribute to the Allegany's health. Mussels are important in filtering water, thus creating a stronger system. The process itself is an amazing example of symbiosis in nature. Mike Clancy is Fisheries Mgr. with the NY DEC, which led the project." What mussels do is, they don't swim around, they're in the sediment, but they attract darters to them, and then lay their eggs in their gills, and the darters swim up the system farther , the eggs drop out and you have a new population farther up the system. So without the darters, we wouldn't have freshwater mussels."
Because of their sensitivity to water conditions,the little fish are also a bellwether to the conditions of the river, says Clancy.
" If through the stocking, they start thriving, doing well, and we do regular monitoring, if we start seeing a problem, start losing some fish species, this will probably be one of the first ones it will show up in. We'll know we have a problem."
For the DEC, the success of this project could lead to restoration of other endangered species. But perhaps the larger lesson to be learned here is that all species, no matter how small are important in the intricate web of life. " Just a tiny fish," says Clancy"And most people say, why bother, what are you doing this for, but this makes NY waters healthier, it's great to have a complete community out there."
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catch, also called Round, perpetual round MR-2/8/-7perpetual canon designed to be sung by three or more unaccompanied male voices, especially popular in 17th- and 18th-century England. Like all rounds, catches are indefinitely repeatable pieces in which all voices begin the same melody on the same pitch but enter at different time intervals. The name may derive from the caccia, a 14th-century canonic form, or may refer to each singer’s “catching” the tune in turn. Catch texts were often humorous or ribald, and in . In some instances a pause in the melody in of one voice was filled in by the notes and text of another, creating a pun or change of meaning; this interplay of the voices created new, often bawdy, meanings.
Literary evidence shows that catch singing was a popular social activity in the 16th century, although the first published collection was Thomas Ravenscroft’s very successful Pammelia (1609). Two other publications of his also contained catches: Deuteromelia (1609), which included “Three Blind Mice,” and Melismata (1611). Perhaps the most famous of such publications was John Hilton’s Catch That Catch Can (1652).
The zenith of the catch came after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, when the finest composers vied with one another in lavishing ingenuity and indecency on the form. Henry Purcell ranks supreme on the first account and very high on the second.
During the 18th century, catch clubs became popular (e.g., the Noblemen’s and Gentlemen’s Catch Club, founded 1761). The genre became textually more polite and musically insipid, although it remained popular. Most later editions of Restoration catches were bowdlerized, but since the 1950s occasional unexpurgated editions have appeared.
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. .
Yaquina Head Natural Area
Teacher-led Tide Pool Programs (Mid-June through March)
We offer a number of useful resources to help plan a tide pool field trip program whether it be at Yaquina Head, or at another tide pool site. This includes various grade-based scavenger hunts, a student guide, and inquiry questions for adults to help stimulate student exploration and discussion. Outlines of each of our ranger-led programs also describe step-by-step instructions that may be utilized at most tide pool sites. Don't forget to check out the pre-and post-visit classroom activities!
Tide Pool Scavenger Hunts and Resources
Sea-Crets Student Guide (PDF): The student booklet offers an introductory activity to zonation, a tidal zonation scavenger hunt, and a place to draw or write about student experiences. An excellent guide for exploring tide pools, it can be used in conjunction with, or separate from the ranger-led program.
Sea-Crets Tide Pool Hunt (PDF): Students make hypotheses, correlating species with tide pool zones, use the scavenger hunt to explore the tide pools and identify common invertebrates, and compare their findings with those on their hypothesis.
Wealthy Tide Pools
Wealthy Tide Pools Scavenger Hunt (PDF): Copy of the scavenger hunt used in conjunction with the program.
Yaquina Head Tide Pool Hunt (PDF): Students can look for invertebrates and algae while earning points; a fun and challenging way to explore the tide pools.
Between a Rock
Inquiry Question Cards (PDF): Use inquiry questions about tide pool animals to engage the students in cognitive thinking. Encourage students to ask questions regarding adaptations of invertebrate species.
Between a Rock and a Wet Place
"Between a Rock and a Wet Place" (Kindergarten - 3rd Grade)
Students use their five senses to discover different tide pool species and their unique adaptations: Through a memory game, students recall each animal shown and discuss adaptations, they become tide pool detectives to find species and conduct hands-on discovery, play a game that summarizes what they learned, and participate in a reflective activity.
Sea-crets of Tide Pools
"The Sea-crets of Tide Pools" (4th - 5th Grade)
Students participate in skits, hypotheses, artwork, hands-on exploration and discussions using their senses to discover the different zones and habitats within the intertidal area: They will create an artistic representation of the different zones of the intertidal area, make a scientific hypothesis, complete a scavenger hunt to find and observe species within each zone, participate in a lively review of student results, and spend personal time reflecting upon their surrounding environment.
Wealthy Tide Pools
"Wealthy Tide Pools" (6th - 8th Grade)
Students will interact with the Cobble Beach tide pool area as junior ecologists to monitor the relative species richness of the intertidal zones, while learning about the scientific method, tide pool safety, ecology, and biology in a diverse physical environment. This program aims to engage the students’ hands, minds, and hearts, as well as to encourage lifelong stewardship of this unique ecological resource.
For more information contact:
Education Program Coordinator
541-574-3211 • blm_or_YH_education@blm.gov
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Explore highlights
Cuneiform tablet inscribed with omens
Length: 19.680 cm
Width: 12.060 cm
ME 96948
Room 56: Mesopotamia
Cuneiform tablet inscribed with omens
Old Babylonian, about 1800-1600 BC
Probably from Sippar, southern Iraq
Resulting from the shape and colour of a sheep's stomach
The Babylonians believed that the world was controlled by gods and that they could give indications of coming events. One of the most widespread means of prediction was the sheep's stomach omen, in which an animal was killed and its stomach was examined by a specialist priest, the baru. He would ask a particular question and the answer would be supplied by the interpretation of individual markings or overall shape of the stomach. One could then take steps to avoid danger.
We know from ancient texts that the baru was one of the most important scholars in Mesopotamia. He had to be the descendant of a free man and be healthy in mind and body. He played an important part in decision making at all levels but particularly where the king was concerned. The baru was consulted before a military campaign, building work, or the appointment of an official, and to monitor the king's health.
U. Jeyes, Old Babyloniane extispicy: ome (Leiden, 1989)
J. Black and A. Green, Gods, demons and symbols of -1 (London, The British Museum Press, 1992)
Browse or search over 4,000 highlights from the Museum collection
On display: Room 56: Mesopotamia
Shop Online
Sumerian and Akkadian texts, £45.00
Sumerian and Akkadian texts, £45.00
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Marsquake? How Rumblings Could Bolster Hope for Life on Mars
In an e-mail exchange, Roberts explains that the inspiration for using boulders as surrogates for estimating quake activity came during a conversation he was having with a colleague. The colleague asked about detecting earthquakes on Mars and Roberts recalls regaling him with the Viking story. The colleague then asked: "Can you not see evidence of landslides triggered by marsquakes?"
Earthquakes, for instance, can trigger boulder falls that show a distinctive pattern. They dislodge a large number of bigger boulders on a slope at the epicenter. The number and size of dislodged boulders drop with distance along the fault on either side of the epicenter, where shaking is weaker.
For the Roberts' team, the quintessential examples involved rock falls associated with a 1981 quake in Greece, which occurred far enough from populated areas that the boulder falls the quake triggered have remained undisturbed, and rockfalls from the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake in central Italy.
Prior to the arrival of NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter at the red planet in March 2006, the answer to the colleague's question about spotting boulders and boulder trails in the dust would have been: No. Cameras aboard previous orbiters weren't able to produce images of sufficient detail to spot boulder-sized features. The HiRISE camera aboard MRO, however, can detect objects as small as 8 inches across.
"They are really amazing images," Roberts says.
The team analyzed MRO images taken along a nearly 200-mile stretch of the parallel graben. Sloped walls on either side of these large gashes can rise as high as 1,600 feet. The researchers focused on walls that showed evidence of being fault scarps. The team found boulder falls that not only fit the pattern seen in quake-triggered boulder falls on Earth. In one location, boulder trails were clearly visible in the Martian dust the boulders rolled through. The deep graben could be sheltered from Martian winds, allowing old trails to look like new for long periods of time. Or the trails could indicate recent activity. The team sites other geological evidence that, combined with the trails, suggests recent activity.
One alternate explanation for the boulder falls centers on melting ice near the surface along graben rims, the researchers acknowledge. Such slides have been seen elsewhere on Mars. Slumping soil following the melt would send boulders tumbling down slope. But the distribution of sizes along the length of the graben would be far more random than the distribution the team saw.
In addition, an enormous impact crater sits in the vicinity of Cerberus Fossae – a crater estimated to have formed some 2 million years ago. But the boulders taper off in size and number along a line in the crater's direction. If a smack to the crust had triggered the rockfalls, bigger rocks would appear more frequently in the sections of the grabens closest to the impact site, Roberts says. Since this tapering off indicates weak shaking, the boulder falls would have occurred after the impact that formed the crater.
The team concludes that a series of earthquakes during the past 2 million years are a plausible explanation for the distribution of boulders they see in the graben, with quakes occurring at different times and places along the length of the southernmost graben of the two they examined.
Brown University's Dr. Head says that quake activity needn't be tied to active volcanism. He notes that quakes could come from long-term cooling of the conduits whose roofs collapsed to form the grabens.
But Roberts and his colleagues note that if the faults along Ceberus Fossae are still active, and if the activity is driven by the movement of magma through subsurface dikes, Mars could still be volcanically active – at least at this corner of the planet.
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<urn:uuid:9221198f-f093-430b-b4f6-69c61cf11ff1>
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{
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"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.026069283485412598,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9497575163841248,
"url": "http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/marsquake-rumblings-bolster-hope-life-mars/story?id=15785262&page=2"
}
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Common Salvinia
Salvinia minima
Common salvinia is native to South America. It is a small free-floating plant that grows in clusters and develops into dense, floating mats or colonies in quiet water, undisturbed by wave action. The floating leaves of salvinia are more or less round (1/2 to 3/4 inch) with a distinct midrib along which the leaf may fold forming a cup-shaped appearance. Salvinias have stiff leaf hairs on the upper surface of the leaves. In common salvinia the leaf hairs have a single stalk that divides into four separate branches. Underwater the leaves are modified into small root-like structures. The entire plant is only about 1 inch in depth. Salvinias are ferns and have no flower. Common salvinia can reproduce by spores or by fragmentation and is an aggressive invader species. If colonies of common salvinia cover the surface of the water, then oxygen depletions and fish kills can occur. These plants should be controlled.
Dense salvinia colonies provide Habitat for micro invertebrates but if salvinia completely covers the surface of a pond it will cause dissolved oxygen depletions and fish kills. These colonies will also eliminate submerged plants by blocking sunlight penetration. Salvinias have no known direct food value to wildlife and is considered an exotic and highly undesirable species.
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<urn:uuid:3c52504e-c33d-4913-9973-51b6f6c348a3>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.6875,
"fasttext_score": 0.3228248357772827,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9386512637138367,
"url": "http://aquaplant.tamu.edu/plant-identification/alphabetical-index/common-salvinia/"
}
|
A yellow submarine traveling horizontally at 11 m/s uses sonar witha frequency of 5270 Hz. A red submarine is in front of the yellowsubmarine and moving 3 m/s relative to the water in the samedirection. A crewman in the red submarine observes sound waves("pings") from the yellow submarine. Take the speed of sound inseawater as 1531 m/s. **The question is long so I would appreciatehelp with any parts of it you can solve!!!**
1.) Which submarine is the source of the sound?
2.) Which submarine carries the observer?
3.) Does the motion of the observer's submarine increase ordecrease the time between the pressure maxima of the incoming soundwaves? How does that affect the observed period? The observedfrequency?
4.) Should the sign of vo be positive or negative?
5.) Does the motion of the source submarine increase or decreasethe time observed between pressure maxima? How does this motionaffect the observed period? The observed frequency?
6.) What sign should be chosen for vs?
7.) Substitute the appropriate numbers and obtain the frequencyobserved by the crewman on the red submarine.
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No answer yet. Submit this
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<urn:uuid:533ba95a-4463-4477-90a6-09fede0bf7b4>
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"edu_score": 3.609375,
"fasttext_score": 0.9970974326133728,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8733300566673279,
"url": "http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/yellow-submarine-traveling-horizontally-11-m-s-uses-sonar-witha-frequency-5270-hz-red-subm-q783720"
}
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Northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods was a critical landmark for the boundary between U.S. territory and the British possessions to the north. This point was referred to in the Treaty of Paris in 1783[1] and in later treaties including the Treaty of 1818. This point lies at the corner of the Northwest Angle of Minnesota and is thus the northernmost point in the lower 48 United States. After Canadian Confederation, the point became the basis for the border between Manitoba and Ontario.
Example demonstrating how the most northwest point of the Lake of the Woods was determined
The "northwesternmost point" of the lake had not yet been identified when it was referenced in treaties defining the border between the US and Britain; it was simply an easily described abstraction based on a large landmark. The best maps at the time of the original negotiation depicted the lake as a simple oval.[2] However, although the southern portion of the lake is easily mapped, to the north it becomes a complex tangle of bays, peninsulas, and islands, with many adjacent bodies of water separated or connected by narrow isthmuses or straits. An 1822 survey crew declared the referenced point impossible to determine.[2] In 1824, British explorer David Thompson was hired to identify it. Thompson mapped the lake and found four possibilities, but did not conclude which one it was.[2]
In 1825, British astronomer Dr. Johann Tiarks surveyed the lake. Tiarks identified two possibilities for the "northwesternmost" point on the lake, based on Thompson's maps: the Angle Inlet and Rat Portage. To determine which point was the most northwestern, he drew a line from each point in the southwest-northeast direction. If the line intersected the lake at any point, it was not the most northwestern point, as shown in the example diagram here. Tiarks determined that the only such line that did not intersect the lake was at the edge of a pond on the Angle Inlet.[3] (A 1940 academic study documents this point as being in the immediate vicinity of 49°23′51.324″N 95°9′12.20783″W / 49.39759000°N 95.1533910639°W / 49.39759000; -95.1533910639 (NAD83).)[4][5]
Under the 1783 treaty, the international border would have run due west from this point to the Mississippi River. As this was determined to be geographically impossible (the Mississippi begins further south), under the 1818 treaty the international border instead ran from the point determined by Tiarks, to the 49th parallel. (It was not known at the time whether that was to the north or – in fact – the south.)[2] From there it ran due west to the Rocky Mountains (and later, the Pacific coast).
Tiarks' point, however, created problems, due to the fact that the 1818 treaty called for the border to run directly north-south from it. South of that point, the channel of the Northwest Angle Inlet meandered east and west, crossing the border five times, thereby creating two small enclaves of water areas totaling two and a half acres that belonged to the United States but were surrounded by Canadian waters. A 1925 treaty addressed this by adopting the southernmost of the points where the channel and the border intersected – approximately 5000 ft. south of Tiarks' point – as the new "northwesternmost point".[4] The new northwesternmost point thus became 49° 23′ 04.14″ N, 95° 09′ 11.34″ W, based on the NAD27 datum,[6] which is equivalent to 49° 23′ 04.12373″ N, 95° 09′ 12.20783″ W under the modern NAD83 datum.[7]
1. ^ "The Paris Peace Treaty of 1783". University of Oklahoma College of Law. 2009. Retrieved 28 Oct 2009.
2. ^ a b c d Lori Nelson. "Drawing the Line… The Canada-U.S. Border". Retrieved 15 Oct 2009.
3. ^ William E. Lass (1980). Minnesota's Boundary with Canada: Its Evolution Since 1783. Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-87351-153-0. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
4. ^ a b Boggs, Samuel Whittemore (1940). International boundaries: a study of boundary functions and problems. Columbia University Press. pp. 48–49. Retrieved 2013-04-27.
5. ^ "Map of the vicinity of the northwesternmost point of Lake of the Woods". Retrieved 2013-08-19.
6. ^ International Boundary Commission (1937). "Joint Report upon the Survey and Demarcation of the Boundary between the United States and Canada from the Gulf of Georgia to the Northwesternmost Point of Lake of the Woods". p. 332.
7. ^ United States National Geodetic Survey. "North American Datum Conversion, NAD 27 to NAD 83, NADCON Program Version 2.11". Retrieved 2013-10-28.
Coordinates: 49°23′04″N 95°09′12″W / 49.384479°N 95.153391°W / 49.384479; -95.153391
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"fasttext_score": 0.038007140159606934,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.925642192363739,
"url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_point_of_the_Lake_of_the_Woods"
}
|
, Volume 26, Issue 6, pp 399-402
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Vocalizations of free-ranging North Atlantic pilot whales were studied in different behavioral contexts to gain insight into the function and biological significance of different sound types. Simple whistles (with no frequency inflections) were heard more frequently when whales were “milling,” a restful behavior type. During “surface active” behavior, energetic, often coordinated activity probably representing feeding, many sound types, especially complex whistles (with more frequency inflections) and pulsed sounds, occurred with greater frequency than when this behavior was absent. Greater numbers of most whistle types were produced when whales were spread over a larger area and when more subgroups were present. Thus, in pilot whales, there is a significant relationship between their sounds and their behavior, with vocalizations possibly serving to maintain contact and coordinate movements of the herd.
Offprint requests to: L.S. Weilgart at the current address
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9719206690788269,
"url": "http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00170896"
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|
Araxes (Greek Ἀράξης): river in ancient Armenia, modern Aras.
The Araxes, close to the Turkish-Armenian border
The Araxes, close to the Turkish-Armenian border
The name of the river is probably related to Rakhsh, which means "fast" and "brilliant". It is mentioned in several ancient sources. The most famous of these can be found in the Histories by the Greek researcher Herodotus of Halicarnassus:
The Araxes is said by some to be larger and by others to be smaller than the Danube. They also say that there are many islands in it, some of them as large as Lesbos [...]. It flows from Matiene [...], and discharges itself by forty branches, of which all except one end in swamps and shallow pools. The one remaining branch of the Araxes flows with unimpeded course into the Caspian Sea.note
There is no river that matches this description, but it is very plausible that Herodotus has combined information about the Araxes, which indeed can be said to have its source in Matiene (northern Cappadocia) and empties itself in the Caspian Sea, with the Oxus.
The "real" Araxes is also mentioned by Strabo, Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, and Ptolemy.note
The Araxes near Jolfa (the border of Iran and Nakhchivan)
The Araxes near Jolfa (the border of Iran and Nakhchivan)
It has its sources near modern Erzurum, which is, as the ancients more or less correctly observed, not far from the sources of the Euphrates.note Flowing to the east, it passes south of Yerevan (the ancient Armenian capital of Artaxata) and joins the Kura river (the ancient Cyrus) shortly before reaching the Caspian Sea. Its total length is is just over 1,070 kilometers.
The Roman general Lucullus, attacking Armenia in 68 BCE, was the first Roman to cross the river; not much later, it was Pompey's turn. He built a bridge across the Araxesnote that greatly impressed his contemporaries. The poet Virgil calls the river the pontem indignatus Araxes ("the Araxes, angry at having been bridged"),note which became a stock phrase, also used by later poets. The word "Araxes" could also be used metonymically for Armenia.note
This page was created in 2010; last modified on 28 March 2014.
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"url": "http://www.livius.org/place/araxes/"
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Surface Treatments
After the vessel had been formed, it was allowed to dry for several days. A final treatment was given to the surface before the vessel was painted and fired.
Plain and Painted Wares
In some cases, this simply involved smoothing with a gourd rind or simple tool. More elaborate pottery might be polished with a stone, giving it a glossier finish. If an even finer surface was required, or if a specific color which differed from the clay paste color was desired, a slip was added. A slip is a highly diluted clay wash, made from better clays with known firing properties. The most common slip colors were white and red, each made from different clays which reacted differently to the firing process.
Some vessels seem to have been left unfinished. The result was a rather irregular surface from which temper protrudes, giving the vessel a rough finish.
The surface of most vessels was at least smoothed, either with a gourd rind or some other kind of tool. On many sites, pottery fragments, or worked sherds, were used in the smoothing process. These tools are recognizable because their edges show signs of shaping, as along the lower edge of the sherd shown at the upper left. Smoothing gives the vessels a flat, matte finish, but one that lacks lustre.
To achieve a lustrous, reflective surface, a vessel was polished. This was done using a smooth river stone such as the one shown at left. A good polishing stone was highly prized, and might be passed from mother to daughter. The polishing process could bring up the sheen of a plainware vessel, but was more effective on those which had a fine slip, like the San Francisco Red vessel shown here.
By controlling the firing conditions, potters were able to convert certain minerals in the clay of interior slips to a black color. This "smudging" was often polished to a lustrous finish, as seen in the example here.
Some of the earliest attempts at providing slips to vessels were less than successful. Slips did not adhere well to the walls of the vessel under the low firing temperatures that were employed at that time. The slips would then rub or wash off over time. The only evidence of these is a ghostly red cast to the surface of some of these vessels.
Potters eventually learned that by adding a wash of highly diluted, fine-grained clay to the surface of the vessel, a higher polish could be achieved, as in the San Francisco Red vessel above. By adjusting the slip material and firing technique, white slips could be achieved. These could then be painted with black or red designs. In this example, the original vessel color is visible along the rim.
Corrugated Wares
In many vessels, particularly the daily-use vessels such as cookware, the exterior surface of the coils was never smoothed, leaving corrugations. This was probably to improve the manageability of these vessels, as in many cases they are only corrugated where they would be picked up. There were, however, a number of ways these corrugations could be visually enhanced.
Vessels whose corrugations have no additional treatment are called plain corrugated. Coils range from about a centimeter wide to extremely narrow, as in this example.
Quite often only the necks of jars were left corrugated, while the remainder of the vessel was smoothed. Two mathods were used to achieve this. If the coils are simply rings stacked one on top of the next, the vessels is termed neck banded. If the coils spiral up around the neck, as in the example here, they are called neck corrugated.
Sometimes neck corrugations were enhanced by the addition of incised decoration. A sharp tool would be drawn through the wet clay, creating patterns that complemented the natural pattern of the corrugations.
Another way of introducing more visual interest in the coils was by punching rows of dots into the wet clay with a sharp tool.
In many of the later vessels, the corrugations have been indented. This was usually done with the finger, and is sometimes refered to as finger- indented. This treatment not only gave the vessel an interesting, rippling surface, but may have helped to bind together the coils more effectively.
By combining plain and indented corrugations, interesting patterns could be achieved. Sometimes bands of indented and plain corrugations would alternate up the vessel. In the example here, a diamond pattern has been indented into an otherwise plain corrugated vessel.
The fillet rim is perhaps the bowl's version of neck corrugation. To a plain, smudged bowl, two or three rows of indented corrugation were provided near the rim.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9780378937721252,
"url": "http://www.beloit.edu/logan_online/exhibitions/virtual_exhibitions/north_america/southwest/surface.php"
}
|
Merriam-Webster Logo
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verb elic·it \i-ˈli-sət\
Simple Definition of elicit
• : to get (a response, information, etc.) from someone
Source: Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary
Full Definition of elicit
1. transitive verb
play \i-ˌli-sə-ˈtā-shən, ˌē-\ noun
play \i-ˈli-sə-tər\ noun
Examples of elicit in a sentence
1. If ever there was a two-way pleasure street, it's the delight a baby takes in being tickled and the joy the parent experiences in the tumble of laughter it elicits. —Jeffrey Kluger, Time, 17 Jan. 2005
2. Gingrich elicits perhaps the greatest sympathy when he talks about the challenge of graduating from a rabble-rousing backbencher in the House minority to presiding over (and trying to control) the first Republican majority in 40 years. —Richard L. Berke, New York Times Book Review, 17 May 1998
3. In a wild, captive wolf that is not socialized to man, approach will elicit flight and, if the wolf is cornered, a defensive reaction may be triggered, which is termed the critical-distance reaction. —Michael W. Fox, The Soul of the Wolf, 1980
4. She's been trying to elicit the support of other committee members.
5. My question elicited no response.
6. She's been unable to elicit much sympathy from the public.
Did You Know?
Elicit derives from the past participle of the Latin verb elicere, formed by combining the prefix e- with the verb lacere, meaning "to entice by charm or attraction." It is not related to its near-homophone, the adjective "illicit" - that word, meaning "unlawful," traces back to another Latin verb, licēre, meaning "to be permitted." Nor is "elicit" related to the verb "solicit," even though it sounds like it should be. Solicit derives from Latin sollicitare ("to disturb"), formed by combining the adjective sollus, meaning "whole," with the past participle of the verb ciēre, meaning "to move."
Origin and Etymology of elicit
First Known Use: 1605
Synonym Discussion of elicit
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up elicit? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
a very small amount
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8728917837142944,
"url": "http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/elicitation"
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|
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Lohengrin
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LOHENGRIN (lō'en-grin), the hero of an old High German poem, written in the end of the 13th century. He was the son of Parzival, and a knight of the Grail. At King Arthur's command he was taken by a swan through the air to Mainz, where he fought for Elsa, daughter of the Duke of Brabant, overthrew her persecutor, and married the lady. Then he accompanied the emperor to fight against the Hungarians, and subsequently warred against the Saracens. On his return home to Cologne, Elsa, contrary to his prohibition, persisted in asking him about his origin. After being asked a third time he told her, but was at the same time carried away by the swan back to the Grail. Rückert's edition (1857) of the poem is the best. The poem is a continuation of Wolfram von Eschenbach's “Parzival.” Wagner made it the subject of his great opera, “Lohengrin” (1848).
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"url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Collier%27s_New_Encyclopedia_(1921)/Lohengrin"
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It doesn't happen often but there are times when its unclear if a football crosses the goal line for a touchdown. If a quarterback attempts a sneak, for example, and the line pushes forward, he may be under too many players to be seen.
All the referees can do is pull people off and look at where the ball is, though there is no idea if that's where it was when his knee touched the ground. A Disney Research team, in collaboration from NC State and Carnegie-Mellon, developed a system that can track a football in three-dimensional space using low-frequency magnetic fields.
Previous attempts to design technology that tracks the position of a football have used high frequency radio waves, but these high frequency waves can be absorbed by players, making them less useful in pile-ups, when the ball is obscured by players, or thwarted by the complex physical environment of a football stadium. Low frequency magnetic fields don't interact very strongly with the human body, so they are not affected by the players on the field or the stadium environment.
Researchers have developed a system that can track a football in three-dimensional space using low-frequency magnetic fields. Credit: David Ricketts
The researchers designed and built a low frequency transmitter that is integrated into a football, and is within the standard deviation of accepted professional football weights. In other words, the football that has the built-in transmitter could be used in a National Football League game. Antennas, placed around the football field, receive signals from the transmitter and track its location.
But the researchers also had to address another complicating factor.
When low frequency magnetic fields come into contact with the earth – such as the playing surface – the ground essentially absorbs the magnetic field and re-emits it. This secondary field interacts with the original field and confuses the antennas, which can throw off the tracking system's accuracy.
"We realized that we could use a technique developed in the 1960s called complex image theory," says Dr. Darmindra Arumugam, lead author of the paper at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Complex image theory allows us to account for the secondary fields generated by the earth and compensate for them in our model."
"We're still fine-tuning the system, but our goal is to get the precision down to half the length of a football, which is the estimated margin of error for establishing the placement of the football using eyesight alone," says Dr. David Ricketts, an associate professor of electrical and computer engineering at NC State and senior author of a paper describing the research.
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<urn:uuid:90da6873-cff8-48e6-a0a9-303f2b555a46>
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"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.1310548186302185,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9635639786720276,
"url": "http://www.science20.com/news_articles/complex_image_theory_magnetic_field_tracks_football_in_3d_space-138519"
}
|
Word hunt
Give your child a colored highlighter or marker and an old catalog or newspaper. To practice letter recognition, ask him to find and highlight the letters in his name, or to find the uppercase and lowercase of different letters. Reward his successes! Challenge him to highlight the CVC words (consonant-vowel-consonant), such as cat, that he knows.
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<urn:uuid:ff84d67d-040d-4036-9216-d988c3e40f89>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.84375,
"fasttext_score": 0.8064851760864258,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9420453906059265,
"url": "http://www.leapfrog.com/en-us/learning-path/tips/learning-tip-word-hunt"
}
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Cephalanthus occidentalis
(Cephalanthus occidentalis)
Distribution Map to Right
Counties in blue contain tree
Distribution Map
Shape and Distribution
Buttonbush is a shrub, typically less than 10 feet tall. It requires wet soils and is occurs along swamps, small ponds, and streams throughout the eastern half of the United States. In Illinois, it is common along streams and is present around the swamps in extreme southern Illinois.
Interesting Facts
Buttonbush is the only truly aquatic shrub in central Illinois. It takes its common name from the fact that the flowers, which are clustered together in ball-shaped structures at the ends of twigs, look like buttons. The wilted leaves reportedly can poison livestock.
Identifying Features
Buttonbush typically has opposite, but sometimes whorled leaves in groups of 3 or 4 leaves. Leaves are up to 3 - 6 inches long, and lance-shaped with a pointed tip. The leafstalks are red and the twigs are rounded and smooth.
The flowers are white, tubular, and clustered into rounded heads at the ends of the twigs.
The Fox (Mesqwaki) people used a concoction made from the inner bark as an emetic. It was considered a very important medicine. Early European settlers used the bark as a substitute for quinine to treat malaria. Malaria was actually quite common in areas around the wet depressions on prairies and along the big rivers in Illinois.
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<urn:uuid:03fd9e21-0e9f-4b57-afc2-dbb48bb8c253>
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"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.023242294788360596,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9435163736343384,
"url": "http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/forest/htmls/trees/Cel-occidentalis.html"
}
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Main Page > Connections > Science and Medicine
Science and Medicine
Scientific knowledge grew as never before in the years after the Halifax Explosion. One of the most profound changes came in the 1940’s with the beginning of the nuclear age.
During World War II, Allied scientists developed a weapon end the war in the Pacific and change the world. Their research into what had gone before--including the Halifax Explosion--gave them insight into the potential of a nuclear bomb.
Other developments in the physical sciences have led to new understanding of the Explosion's effects. For example, advances in underwater mapping have ended some debates and started others.
In 1917, medicine was a world away from the field we know today. Specialties were few; most physicians were either general practitioners or surgeons. Emergency medicine, ophthalmology, surgery and anaesthesiology, and psychiatry are just some of the areas that draw on the experiences of those turn-of-the-century doctors and nurses.
Nuclear Bomb
Researcher Alan Ruffman notes in Ground Zero: A Reassessment of the 1917 Explosion in Halifax Harbour:
“…it is clear that the Halifax experience (helped scientists to) gauge the range of air blast effects and to estimate any possible tsunami created by a blast in a populated harbour city.”
Ruffman says the Halifax Explosion helped the scientists in their decision to detonate bombs in mid-air at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to produce a greater range of devastation.
The nuclear bomb exploded over Hiroshima was almost five times more powerful than the blast that levelled much of Halifax and Dartmouth, and radiation caused additional damage.
Underwater Mapping
The last decade of the twentieth century literally changed the face of the sea floor—at least, the face as we can see it from land.
For centuries, ocean charts offered rough estimates and guesses of depth, obstructions and seabed terrain.
Modern ocean mapping combines single- and multi-beam sonar, photography, video, computer imaging, and global positioning systems (GPS).
Researchers can now develop 3-dimensional computer pictures of the ocean floor.
Many of the graphics and animations on this site draw on materials from the Geological Survey of Canada’s . Its remarkably detailed map of Halifax Harbour and its approaches proves, for example, that contrary to legend the Mont-Blanc explosion did not create a huge crater in the harbour bottom.
It also shows what is believed to be the surviving pilings of Pier 6, where Mont-Blanc drifted ashore, and what may be the wreck of another "Explosion ship" nearby.
Divers are still looking for evidence and artifacts from December 6, 1917 on the floor of Halifax Harbour and Northwest Arm.
Emergency Medicine
Modern emergency medicine has its roots in wartime. In the Napoleonic wars and in the terrible carnage of World War I, military doctors and surgeons developed new treatments and procedures for dealing as efficiently as possible with large numbers of badly wounded soldiers, often while still in the field.
But triage and field medicine had not been used in a civilian situation before the Halifax Explosion. Doctors worked in the open air to save lives. Even the hospitals, filled to overflowing, sorted patients by how likely they were to be saved.
World War II and the Korean and Vietnam wars accelerated the growth of emergency medicine and pre-hospital care. In civilian life, most hospital admissions through the 1950’s were elective and emergency departments only became common in the 1960’s.
Flying glass caused hundreds of eye injuries in the Explosion. Yet surgeons were able to save many people’s vision.
Ophthalmic surgeons from Harvard University were on the first relief train from Boston, but local doctors had already performed most of the urgent surgeries.
Even in recent years, eye specialists in Halifax see an occasional patient whose vision was damaged in 1917.
Surgery and Anaesthesia
Surgery and anaesthesia were both quite basic compared with what we know today.
In 1865 Joseph Lister realized the role bacteria play in infection, but it took years before the rules of "antiseptic surgery" were rigidly enforced in the world's operating rooms. By 1917, those arguments were largely over. Lister's standards were well entrenched in Nova Scotia, where one of his students, Dr. John Stewart, was president of the provincial Medical Society.
Methods for anaesthesia had only recently moved beyond knockout doses of ether or chloroform. Some of the leading lights in the new study of anaesthesia were at Harvard University and its partner hospitals in Boston. Their knowledge travelled on the Massachusetts relief trains, and would have grown from the American doctors' experience.
Modern psychiatry was born in the 1800’s, when Sigmund Freud and others began to view mental illness as something other than demonic possession or a weakness of character.
World War I was the first “modern” war, with previously unheard-of casualties. For soldiers in the trenches, it was a catalogue of horrors. Many suffered from what doctors then called “shell shock.” Today we would see it as various forms and degrees of post-traumatic stress.
Many people who survived the trauma of the Halifax Explosion later suffered from their memories of it. Problems ranged from startling or crying at sudden noises to sleeplessness, depression and even suicide.
Some doctors recognized the problem…but at the time there wasn’t much they could do. Today there is extensive counseling for, and awareness of, delayed reactions to disaster.
Page Feature: Helen Creighton Remembers
Helen Creighton was a teenager living in Dartmouth in 1917. Today Creighton is famous for her research work on Nova Scotia folk music. Her collection included an estimated 16,000 songs from the province's cultural and ethnic communities, including its unofficial anthem, "The Nova Scotia Song"--better known as "Farewell to Nova Scotia."
The collection also included at least one song about the Explosion.
Did you Know
Dr. John Stewart: In the 1860's, the Scottish doctor Joseph Lister discovered the connection between infection and germs and bacteria in the operating room. The development of "antiseptic surgery" practices saved countless lives. Surgery became more common as it became safer.
One of Lister's early assistants was a Nova Scotian. Dr. John Stewart was head of president of the province's medical society in 1917. He later became dean of Dalhousie University's medical school.
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Techniques & Technologies
Early use of ether on a patient at the Massachusetts General Hospital, 1847
Credits:Wellcome Library, London.
Ether is a colourless liquid which causes unconsciousness. Ether had been discovered in 1275, and its hypnotic effects noted in 1540 by the German botanist and chemist Valerius Cordus (1515-44). His contemporary Paracelsus also noted that it could be used to produce sleep.
Ether began being used as a medical treatment in 1794, and had a reputation as a recreational drug in the 1800s. From the 1840s ‘ether frolics’ involved the inhalation of ether at parties, which were often held by medical students. The use of ether specifically as an anaesthetic in dental and surgical procedures began in the 1840s. Its history was marked by bitter quarrels over who had first begun to use it this way. The Boston dentist William Morton was particularly active in attempting to patent its use.
Ether drinking was common in Scotland, Norway, Russia and France. But it was particularly popular in Ireland, where the Catholic Church promoted abstinence from alcohol. People pledged not to drink alcohol but from the mid-1840s the Irish consumed ether as a way to get around their pledge - it was drunk neat and the mouth was washed out with cold water before and after.
The British government had worked hard to prevent the illegal distillation of alcohol, but ether was a legal substitute. Like alcohol, it was sold in pubs. It was also available from shops, and groups of women would hold ether parties in their houses. From 1890 the sale of ether was strictly limited in Ireland by the British government after it was classified as a poison. By the 1840s, most surgeons used chloroform instead of ether.
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Bertil Lindblad (1962) noticed that Omega - kappa/2 for angular rotation rate Omega and epicyclic frequency kappa was about constant with radius in galaxy disks. He suggested that spirals are fixed patterns with an angular rotation rate Omega - kappa/2, moving through a disk of stars with a radial variation in the stellar rotation rate Omega. Thus stars and gas move through the spiral pattern. This was the beginning of spiral density wave theory, although it was not quite right yet. Lindblad showed rotation curves for 3 galaxies, Omega versus kappa, and a nearly constant Omega - kappa/2. Rotation curves were difficult measurements at that time, and derivatives in the rotation curves, as in the evaluation of kappa, were highly inaccurate.
The main problem with Lindblad's theory was that it had no forcing. Also, Omega - kappa/2 is not quite constant. Lin & Shu (1964) introduced a more dynamically correct spiral density wave theory. They realized that Omega - kappa/2 could be forced by the spiral's gravity to a radial-constant value, even if it was not constant from the average rotation curve. Then the stellar orbits could be closed for a wide range of radii at a fixed pattern speed. The angular pattern speed would be slightly different from Omega - kappa/2, and where it equaled this value, there would be a resonant interaction between the forcing from the spiral and the stellar epicyclic motions. This resonance would absorb wave energy and put it into random stellar motions, causing the wave to stop propagating at this place. This position became known as the inner Lindblad resonance. Another resonance position is where Omega + kappa/2 equals the spiral pattern speed. This is the outer Lindblad resonance. Other resonances at Omega - kappa/3 and Omega + kappa/3, occur as well, limiting the range for three-arm spirals in this case. There are similar limits for 4 arm spirals, etc., and finally the last resonance where Omega itself equals the pattern speed. This is the corotation resonance, where the same stars are always inside the wave crest, following it around at the same angular speed.
The Lin-Shu mechanism works because just inside an arm, spiral gravity pulls a star outward for short time, slowing it down a little as it rises in its epicyclic path. Just outside an arm, spiral gravity pulls the star inward, speeding it up as it falls inward in its epicyclic motion. These slow-downs and speed-ups cause the ends points of each epicycle to advance a little, closing the orbits in a rotating frame with a rate Omegap such that Omega - kappa/2 < Omegap < Omega + kappa/2. The gravitational effect can be seen in the dispersion relation written by Toomre (1969):
Equation 2.1 (2.1)
where omega is the rate of change of the spiral phase in a fixed coordinate system, equal to m times the pattern speed, m is the number of symmetric spiral arms, Sigma is the mass column density in the disk, k is the wavenumber, and F is an integral over stellar motions that depends on chi = k2 sigmau2 / kappa2 for rms radial speed of the stars sigmau. Lindblad's theory did not have the last term on the right, which is from disk gravity. Traveling waves exist for Toomre parameter Q > 1, i.e., for disks that are stable to radial perturbations.
Toomre (1969) noted that although the Lin-Shu dispersion relation for spiral waves has a phase velocity equal to the proposed pattern speed, it also has a group velocity which causes the wave crests to move inward, i.e., the spirals wrap up. Thus the "quasi-stationary" spiral density wave theory of Lin, Shu, Roberts, Yuan, and other collaborators at that time, did not work as they originally proposed. Toomre showed that for a flat rotation curve, disk-dominated gravity, and constant stability parameter Q, the Lin-Shu dispersion relation becomes relatively simple,
Equation 2.2 (2.2)
for radius r and corotation radius rCR. In this case, the time derivative of the dimensionless wavenumber increases at a rate equal to half the rate of change in the phase, omega/2. When the wavenumber increases with time, the spirals get closer together, which means they migrate inward. This is a fast migration, almost as fast as purely material arms would wrap up from shear.
Toomre (1969) proposed that spirals are not quasi-stationary, but transient, provoked either by interactions (Toomre & Toomre 1972) or noise (Toomre & Kalnajs 1991). Kormendy & Norman (1979) noted that "grand design" spirals are either in barred galaxies, in the rising parts of rotation curves (where Omega - kappa/2 ~ 0) or in interacting galaxies. This would be consistent with Toomre's picture. Toomre (1981) identified the cause of transient spirals as "swing amplified instabilities." Many groups have studied these instabilities numerically (e.g. Fuchs et al. 2005).
The quest for a theory of quasi-stationary spiral structure was not over, though. Mark (1974), Lau et al. (1976), and Bertin et al. (1989) proposed a "modal theory" in which inward-moving waves reflect or refract off of a bulge or bar and come back out as leading (WASER2; reflection) or trailing (WASER1; refraction) spiral arms. When they reach the corotation resonance moving outward, they amplify. Part of the wave then turns around to come back in and another part of the wave keeps going outward. The result is a standing wave pattern, amplified from initial disk noise at corotation and forming a long-lived grand-design spiral. The corotation radius is where the outward-moving wave meets the inward-moving wave on the opposite side of the galaxy for a two-arm spiral. If the outward moving wave is leading, then at the meeting place, the swing amplifier can transform this leading wave into a strong trailing wave. For example, an inward moving wave starting at corotation in one arm of a two-arm spiral can reflect off of a bulge and move back out as a leading wave until it meets the other arm at the same radius where it started. It amplifies as it is converted into a trailing arm, adds to the original trailing arm, and then a stronger trailing arm comes in again. Trailing waves that start at different radii will not reflect and meet the opposite arm at the same radius, and so will not add to the original wave after amplification. Thus, out of all the disk noise and small spirals that they initiate, only the spiral with the ability to amplify reflected or refracted waves and reinforce itself will grow. This defines the corotation radius. Bertin et al. (1989) described this process in detail.
Spiral wave modes could exhibit an interference pattern between the inward and outward moving waves. Interference acts to modulate the amplitudes of the main arms or it may introduce slight phase shifts in the main arms. Such modulation is present in the model solutions shown by Bertin et al. (1989). Elmegreen et al. (1992) reported such interference patterns, but a more modern analysis is needed.
The various theories of spiral wave formation may be reduced to four basic types: random and localized swing-amplified spirals that are primarily in the gas (because the stellar disk is somewhat stable); random and localized swing-amplified spirals that are in the stars and the gas together; transient global waves that are in the stars and gas, and standing wavemodes that are in the stars and gas. The first type produces flocculent spiral arms and a smooth underlying stellar disk (e.g., NGC 5055), the second type produces multiple stellar and gaseous arms (e.g., NGC 3184), the third type produces long spiral arms in the stars and gas (e.g., NGC 628), and the fourth type produces strong two-arm spirals in the stars and gas, usually in response to some global perturbation like a galaxy interaction (e.g., M51, M81). Aside from M81, these galaxy examples were chosen from the THINGS survey (Walter et al. 2008).
A spiral wavemode may be compared to the pure-tone ringing of a bell after some multi-frequency impact disturbs it (e.g., it is hit by a hammer or bowed by a violin string). Random swing-amplified spirals have been called spiral chaos. They are the primary response to gravitational instabilities in the stars and gas and therefore have a strong connection with star formation and the origin of interstellar turbulence in the absence of global wavemodes (e.g., Thomasson et al. 1992, Bournaud et al. 2010). Global spiral waves or wavemodes also have a connection with star formation because of the way they force the gas into a dense molecular phase in the dust lanes (which are shock fronts) and organize it to follow the underlying stellar spiral.
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In Mesopotamia, the region centered in present-day Iraq near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, a veil was a rectangular piece of cloth woven of linen, wool, or cotton and worn by women to hide their faces from public view. While the veils worn by the wealthiest women could be beautiful, veils were not worn for fashionable reasons alone. Veils were one of the first legally enforced garments.
The first use of the veil dates back to the Assyrians, the rulers of Mesopotamia from about 1380 to 612 B.C.E. The Assyrian empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea and reached into Egypt. Assyrian legal writings preserved on engraved stone tablets detail the first laws concerning the concealment of women's faces. The basis of these laws is found in the very different legal status of Assyrian men and women. Assyrian men enjoyed a great deal of power, while women had none. Women were considered property and legally belonged to their fathers until marriage, when ownership passed to their husbands. Assyrian laws about veils enforced the different status of men and women and also defined the differences between types of women.
Assyrian law dictated that wives, daughters, and widows must wear a veil, but prostitutes and slave women were forbidden from wearing a veil. The veil thus served as a way of protecting a father or husband's interest in his daughter or wife. The alluring face of a married or marriageable woman could not tempt men from beneath a veil. Wives, daughters, and widows would be severely punished for not covering their faces in public. But punishments also extended to male observers. If a man recognized a prostitute or slave woman wearing a veil and did not report her to an authority, he could be publicly flogged (beaten), mutilated (having his hand chopped off, for example), or imprisoned.
The tradition of veiling continues into the twenty-first century. The Muslim religion, which is practiced by millions of people across the globe, encourages the use of veils by women. Modern-day women who follow the Muslim religion customarily wear veils, and some countries, such as Saudi Arabia, have Muslim governments that enforce laws concerning women wearing veils.
User Contributions:
Veils - Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages forum
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Main sections
Definition: Bronchoconstriction
Definition: Bronchoconstriction
The airways are lined with a type of muscle called smooth muscle. In people with asthma, these muscles often tighten in reaction to things like allergies, cold weather, or smoke. When this happens, the airways become narrower, blocking the flow of air and making it harder to breathe. This narrowing of the airways is known as bronchoconstriction.
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The Medieval walls of Lefkosia
The first walls surrounding Lefkosia (Nicosia) in the 14th century were built by the Franks and enclosed a much larger area than the 16th Venetian Walls that still surround the old town. When the Venetians occupied Cyprus, they decided to demolish the Frankish Walls because they were old and did not offer adequate defence against new weapons such as artillery. The Frankish Walls were also too big to be manned by the Venetian army and too close to the hills in the east and southeast of the city.
Forming a circle, the walls built by the Venetians were fortified by eleven heart - shaped bastions and protected by an 80 metres wide moat. They were built of mud - brick, with the lower part only buttressed by stone. When the Ottomans occupied Lefkosia (Nicosia), they repaired the walls and covered the upper part with stones. The moat around the walls now has many different uses, serving as sports fields, public gardens, an open - air sculpture exhibition, car parks etc..
Walking Tour within the Walls City Route
Explore the old Lefkosia
The Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia
The Historical Museum of Nicosia
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New & Noteworthy
Yeast on the Brink
July 2, 2012
How scientists are using baker’s yeast to discover the warning signs of impending financial, climate, and species collapse.
Yeast might help us recognize when we are on the edge of a cliff.
Tipping points are all the rage these days. They are discussed with regard to global warming, financial collapses, ecosystems and lots of other situations too.
A tipping point is a point from which something can’t return to what was before. In other words, it is the point at which a new equilibrium is reached.
One of the more interesting tipping points occurs when a population of organisms becomes so low that it may collapse and not be able to recover. This can happen because the beasts are all so interrelated that a disease can wipe them all out. Or they become so few in number that potential mates have trouble finding one another. Many other reasons can bring a population to this point.
Theory makes a number of predictions about how populations at the tipping point will behave. Dai and coworkers decided to create a model system using S. cerevisiae to study what populations at the tipping point actually look like experimentally. And to perhaps find easy to study signs that a population is veering close to one of these tipping points.
Their experiments ended up faithfully reproducing a population in the lab that was at a tipping point. This is a big deal in and of itself. But while they were able to identify signs that a population was at a tipping point, none would be very easy to spot in a wild population.
Their model system involved using dilutions of yeast grown in sucrose. Since sucrose is hydrolyzed by yeast outside of the cell, a sucrose molecule hydrolyzed by one yeast cell can be used by another. This cooperative effect means that yeast grow better in sucrose at higher cell densities than they do at lower ones. This mimics the effects of low population density in other systems.
The researchers then did a set of simple dilution experiments with this system. They diluted a starting population of yeast by varying amounts into replicate samples and determined how each sample did with subsequent dilutions over time. They found that they reached their tipping point in their system at dilutions of between 500 and 1600. At these dilutions, some replicates survived while others went extinct.
They confirmed they were at a tipping point by shocking their cultures with high salt. If a population is near a tipping point, it is less able to survive environmental shocks compared to a more robust system. The researchers found that those samples near the tipping point were indeed more vulnerable to salt shock.
Taken together, these two findings suggested that the researchers had successfully engineered a model system for tipping points. They were now ready to study their population at or near its tipping point to look for any tell tale warning signs.
They found that their model system agreed with a lot of the theory. As a population neared the tipping point it tended to fluctuate more, and to take longer to reach a new stable population. Unfortunately, neither of these is an obvious sign of an impending tipping point. Both effects require lots of observations over a long time period to see.
Given the consequences of going past a tipping point (sea level rise, coral bleaching, the Great Recession, species extinction), recognizing when we are getting close to one is of paramount importance. Perhaps research like this will help us see the warning signs before it is too late to pull back from the brink.
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By Bureau of Reclamation
What is large, hairy, and 72,000-plus years old? Why a Wooly Mammoth, of course! In August 2010, several ancient animal tracks were discovered on a Bureau of Reclamation project site in Southeastern Idaho by vertebrate paleontologist and Reclamation volunteer, Steve Robison.
Due to natural sloughing off of the cliff and water erosion from the reservoir, most of the tracks were lost. Therefore, Reclamation (along with the Idaho Museum of Natural History, Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, and U.S. Forest Service) worked to uncover the remaining partial tracks and hoped that more would be discovered. The data that has been collected will be studied and compiled into an exhibit that will be displayed at the Idaho Museum of Natural History in Spring 2012.
Read more
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Preventing Hazardous Waste Problems
Hazardous waste pollution is regulated by the Superfund Act.
Practice Preventing Hazardous Waste Problems
Practice Now
The Berkeley Pit
The Berkeley Pit
Credit: NASA
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Berkeley_Pit_Butte,_Montana.jpg
License: CC BY-NC 3.0
The Berkeley Pit in Butte, Montana was mined between 1955 and 1982. Since then the pit has become a toxic lake. It is the largest Superfund site in the United States – and it’s a tourist attraction, too.
Why It Matters
• The Berkeley Pit was the first open pit mine. It is one mile long, one-half mile wide and has a depth of 1,780 feet.
• The water that fills the pit is from a groundwater aquifer that is currently above lake level.
• During mining pumps kept the water out. The pumps were turned off when mining stopped.
• Lake water is very acidic (pH 2.5) and high in oxygen. The acidic water leaches heavy metals from the rock creating a toxic soup.
• Steps must be taken to ensure that the lake does not contaminate the aquifer when the lake level reaches that elevation.
Explore More
With the links below, learn more about the Berkeley Pit. Then answer the following questions.
1. Why was the underground mine at Butte, Montana made into an open pit mine?
2. What is in the lake water? What useful item was mined directly from the lake water?
3. What is a slough? Why is an event like this common in open pit mines?
4. When approval was given for the Berkeley Pit, what was not considered but should have been and why?
5. What is the current water level in the pit? What is the critical level? How many more feet can lake level rise before it reaches the critical level? What is the estimated date that Critical Level will be reached?
Image Attributions
1. [1]^ Credit: NASA; Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Berkeley_Pit_Butte,_Montana.jpg; License: CC BY-NC 3.0
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Original text
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A modern map showing the location of Krasnoyarsk within Russia.
Shrouded in secrecy since its birth in 1950, Krasnoyarsk-26 remains a cloaked legacy of Soviet operations during the Cold War. The military-industrial complex that characterized the USSR in the latter half of the 20th century spawned the development of closed cities such as Krasnoyarsk-26 (later renamed Zheleznogorsk) that endure to this day.
The name “Krasnoyarsk-26” is actually a postal code that refers to an area some miles away from the true location of the town. Until 2002 no official census had been taken of the city, though recent official estimates put the population around 85,500 people. When Josef Stalin ordered its construction in 1950, residents were recruited from across the USSR to inhabit the city and staff its military production facilities. In exchange for constant KGB surveillance and heavy isolation, these residents were provided with a high standard of living. Food, wages, and housing in the secret cities were the best in the USSR and thus attracted the best and brightest Soviets. However, the trade-off meant these citizens were subject to extreme control and monitoring on behalf of the government. The concrete wall that surrounds Krasnoyarsk-26 is a staunch reminder of the limits that confronted residents.
All this secrecy was meant to hide the fact that the city was home to a weapons-grade plutonium reactor, one of ten nuclear reactors in Soviet-era Russia. The Krasnoyarsk industry produced enough power to create more than 10,000 nuclear bombs from 1964 until 1998. The plant was primarily used to power the city after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, but it was not officially shut down until April of 2010.
With the end of the Cold War and the scaling down of nuclear activities, Russian secret cities are facing many new challenges. Former closed cities that depended on the military-industrial complex for their sustenance are struggling to provide services and jobs to residents whose livelihoods vanished alongside the Berlin Wall. The dissatisfaction that plagues Russia’s top nuclear scientists has the West worried too. The United States has pumped thousands of dollars in aid into these crumbling cities in the hopes of discouraging any nuclear workers from defecting to Iran or North Korea.
A sign indicating the presence of a nuclear reactor in Krasnoyarsk-26.
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Digitalfire Ceramic Troubleshooting Database
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Glaze Pinholing, Pitting
'Pinholes' are small holes in the fired glaze surface penetrating down to the body below, often into a surface pore or opening. 'Pits' are smaller, they mar the surface but to not penetrate all the way down. Pinholes or pits are often no larger than the head of a pin. During firing bodies typically generate gases associated with the decomposition of organic materials and other minerals, escape of crystal water, etc. If ware is glazed these gases may need to bubble up through the glaze melt, depending on how early it begins to melt. The causes of pinholes can often be similar to those of blistering. Keep in mind also that larger pinholes may actually be crawling (see links to other articles). In the following I may confuse pinholing and pitting or may neglect to mention one or the other, I apologize for this.
When pinholes or pits occur there are often more than one contributing factor. Generally a true pinhole is a problem with the body that extends up into the glaze whereas a pit could be considered a problem with the glaze or the firing. Still most strategies to eliminate these involve attack on several fronts:
• Reducing burn-off by higher bisque or cleaner body (less lignite for example)
• Distributing body out-gassing by finer grinding
• Giving the gases more time to escape by slower firing or using a fast-fire glaze that melts later
• Giving the glaze time to heal by soaking or slower cooling
• Providing more kiln draft to oxidize and carry away products of decomposition coming from the body or glaze
• Making the glaze more fluid or altering its surface tension to enable it to better heal itself
• Selecting glaze materials that decompose to form less gases
• Being careful to apply a dense even lay down of glaze.
Hobby and small scale producers have the flexibility to do much longer firings and generally must do so for the lack of fast-fire equipment and materials. Industrial producers must find ways to fire quickly, often in an hour or less. Strangely, even though small scale producers fire much slower, they can have just as many problems with pitting and pinholing. Some are using prepared bodies and/or glazes and thus have less flexibility to change things. Keep this factor in mind as you read the material below, the world you are in will determine the validity of the comments being made.
If a pitting or pinholing problem has started to happen and it has not occurred before do not assume that there is some new problem. If reading this article makes it clear that there are some things that you have been overlooking, then the success you have had up until now might be accidental. This may be an opportunity to make your process better and more stable.
Is the body the problem?
Are large particles or gas producing materials present?
Do a sieve analysis of the body to determine if large particles are present. Weigh, fire to cone 04, and re-weigh a sample of the coarse particle material to see if it loses significant weight (due to decomposition and associated gas generation). If the particles are volatile (i.e. lignite, sulfur compounds) they will generate high volumes of gases at individual sites, possibly overwhelming the glaze's ability to heal itself there. The most practical solution is to either remove the implicated material from the body batch in favor of a finer particle grade (to distribute gas generation to more sites of less volume) or use a cleaner alternative (by cleaner I mean low-lignite and low-sulphur ball clays).
Are the particles melting vigorously?
Use a sieve to isolate some of the coarser particles and fire them to body temperature. Fire to see fi any of them are active melters. Examine pinholes under the microscope so see if a glassy pool exists at its base. If this is the case it is possible that a combination of vigorous melting activity and the resultant creation of a glass chemistry that resists pinhole healing could be occurring. In this case, the offending particles in the body must be eliminated or ground more finely.
Troublesome materials in the body?
If you can see 'white spots' and dimples on the glaze surface this suggests that pinholes and imperfections existed but have healed incompletely (these may also suggest that the glaze melt does not flow as well as its glossy surface might suggest, more flux or later melting might be needed). Even fine particled bodies can gas badly, especially if they contain materials like talc, dolomite, or whiting that release high volumes of gas. It is common for some talc to be used as a flux in middle fire bodies (e.g. 2-5%) and there is not really a practical alternative that is as effective and inexpensive. That means that the firing curve must take the decomposition of talc into account slowing down the firing when this occurs.
Are there soluble salts in the body?
Does the bare fired clay have a glassy film? Soluble salts within the body can move out to the surface during drying. If these are high in fluxing oxides they can act as a reactive intermediate layer between glaze and body. This can amplify existing pinhole contributors or produce glaze surface irregularities that are akin to pinholing. Add barium carbonate to the body mix to precipitate the solubles within the body or substitute implicated materials in the body batch.
Is the body too open?
What is the fired porosity of the body? Does it have an open porous structure resulting from many coarser particles or laminations and air pockets (e.g. from poor pugging or sand, grog, shale, unground clay in the batch)? If pores are networked in a body that produces alot of gases on firing then these gases escaping from within are channeled into the network and converge at high volume surface vents (gas volume may be too large for the glaze to heal). Use a finer particled body or perhaps a fine slip between glaze and body.
Is the body lacking maturity (not vitrifying)? For example, using a body intended for cone 10 used at cone 6 can actually impede the melt of the glaze since body silica and alumina can rob the glaze of some of its fluxes and therefore impede its ability to smooth out.
Is the body bisque surface rough or irregular?
If the body surface is rough (because it contains grog or sand, or the ware has been mechanically trimmed during leather hard stage opening imperfections in the surface), pinholes often occur as the glaze dries on the body. This is a poor lay-down and these raw pinholes may turn out as fired pinholes. In addition, a rough surface exposes pore networks inside the body to larger volume 'exit vents' that produce pinholes in glazes. You can prevent this by using a finer body, smoothing the body surface in the leather hard state after trimming, or by applying a fine-grained slip. You can also wash bisque ware (do not soak it) prior to glazing, this will tend to make the wet glaze application fill surface irregularities rather than compress air into the voids then have it blow back out as a raw pinhole a few seconds later.
Do you understand the gas evolution profile of the body?
There are many ways to study the characteristics of your body in this regard so that you can adjust your firing to slow down during the high gas evolution phases.
Is there a problem with the glaze recipe?
Do you use binders?
Glaze binders have been known to produce serious pinholing and pitting problems. Some decompose at higher temperatures than you might think. Switch to another binder that decomposes at a lower temperature, eliminate it if there is adequate clay to harden the dry glaze layer, or reformulate the glaze to melt later and more quickly using a fast-fire frit. Once again I ask, do you really need a binder, or could bentonite do the same job?
Are any glaze materials contributing to the problem?
Some glaze materials produce large volumes of gases as they decompose during firing (e.g. whiting, dolomite, talc, coloring carbonates like copper, cobalt). These materials can decompose as late at 1000C, if this is after the glaze has started to melt it means trouble. In serious cases the glaze may not just pit or pinhole, but it may blister, the problem can be reduced or eliminated by employing other sources of the needed oxides (i.e. wollastonite for CaO, frits for MgO, stains or coloring oxides for carbonates). Calculation will be required to make the substitution (so that the formula stays the same).
Do you need a fast-fire glaze
In industry the chemistry of fast-fire glazes is well understood (e.g. they have zinc and lower boron, this produces a later melt). If you are fast firing and are not using a glaze formulated for fast fire then you will almost certainly be having glaze pitting and surface imperfections.
Is the glaze melt is too viscous?
If the glaze melt is too thick it will resist flow, impede the passage of gas bubbles, tending to trap them in its matrix. Most often a glaze melt is viscous because it is not melting enough. However even well melting glazes can have a chemistry that makes them resist flow (i.e. high alumina content) or they may contain a material like Zirconium that stiffens the melt because it does not go into solution. Using melt flow testers to gauge the melt mobility of your glaze is a good idea, it is very difficult to detect melt flow changes by simple inspection of a glaze layer. You might think that the melt is fluid enough, but only a melt flow test will say for sure.
Increasing flux content to produce a more fluid melt often works well to combat pinholes and pits. Sometimes very small additions of ZnO, SrO, or Li2O can have a dramatic effect on glaze flow. Sourcing fluxes from frit or using a finer particle size material will improve the melt flow also. Or, you could simply fire higher.
Likewise, a decrease in the Al2O3 content will make a glaze more fluid but could add unwanted gloss if you are using a matte. As already noted, if the glaze contains a melt stiffener like zircon, check to see if trading off some of it for tin oxide helps.
It is possible that the glaze may be melting too much and blisters associated with glaze boiling may contribute to surface imperfections, however this is more likely to cause blisters or be associated with soluble salts from the body boiling below the glaze. Try adding Al2O3 to the formulation and note an improvement to confirm this.
Is the glaze melt and sealing the surface too early?
Ideally the body should expel its gases before the glaze melts. Modern fast fire frits are specially formulated to melt much later. The modern whiteware industry is build on this premise and glaze formulations have been completely transformed in recent times. Fusion frit 300 is an example. If you are using early melting high boron frits reformulate your glaze to take advantage of fast fire formulations even if you don't fast fire.
Is there a problem with glaze application?
If a glaze layer is too thin pinholes may be a product of a simple lack of glaze to heal them. Increasing the glaze thickness may dramatically reduce the pinhole population (of course your glaze must be stable enough not to run if applied thicker and it must fit well enough not to start crazing due to increased tension between it and the body). Keep in mind that what may appear to be pinholes may actually be blistering, this is often evident when increased glaze thickness reduces the pinhole count but reveals the remnants of many healed blister craters (dough nut shaped rounded bumps on the surface when viewed at an angle in the light).
It is possible that improper application could contribute to pinhole formation. Such pinholes will usually be larger and possibly not be true pinholes, and they may be accompanied by crawling. To deal with this make sure your glaze slurry does not have too much water, that it lays down into a dense layer on the body and that it bonds well to produce a homogeneous dried surface with minimum airspace. To encourage the production of a good surface during drying make sure ware is clean and dust free and that glaze does not form pinholes during drying (try prewetting the ware slightly if the latter happens). Many companies deflocculate their glazes to get a denser lay down.
Is the glaze contaminated?
If pinholes are isolated and few in number it may be possible that a contaminant is getting into the glaze. Pour a sample through a fine screen to check. Do not underestimate the value of ball milling to improve fired glaze surface qualities, many a problem with pinholing and blistering has been solved this way. Many companies ball mill up to 12 hours for best results.
Is the ware once-fire?
Once-fired ware is much more prone to crawling and pinholing because the glaze-body bond is more fragile after application and much more gas is generated during firing than for a body that has already be bisquit fired. Thus, while crawling is the most frequent complaint in once-fire glazed ware, pinholes are more common because of the significant out gassing associated with first-fire. If you add fast-fire to this mix sometimes it is a wonder that it is even possible to get a nice fired surface on a glaze! Try bisque firing to see if this eliminates the problem. If it does then the gases of firing a raw body are not being passed by your glaze; reassess the whole process to reduce all contributing factors as much as possible. Use a fast-fire glaze. See the article on blisters for related information.
Is there problem with the glaze firing?
If ware is fired too rapidly the glaze melt may not have a chance to smooth over. If thicker or protected sections of ware have more pinholes this is usually an indication that slower more even firing will improve the surface over the entire piece. Also, if glaze does not pit or pinhole in sections opposite an unglazed surface that it is clear that body gases are the problem and firing needs to be compensated at the right time (of the body needs to use cleaner materials).
You need to consider both the needs of the glaze and body to determine where in the firing curve to fire more slowly. In most cases non-fast-fire settings fire slower toward the high end (i.e. an hour per cone at cone 6), soak if possible, and slow the initial cooling phase. If the glaze contains an early melting material (i.e. a high boron low alumina frit) you may need to slow the firing just before the frit begins to fuse to allow as much gas to vent as possible before continuing. Most frit suppliers supply melting or softening temperature information.
Modern automatic kiln firing devices make it very easy to control the firing curve. Serious pinholing problems have often been completely eliminated after studying the gas evolution characteristics of body and glaze and employing a firing curve that slows down at appropriate times. Many engineers in industry specialize in the study of firing curves and the programming of automatic kilns. For an example of a TGA (thermal gravimetric analysis) curve, see Copper Carboante and Copper Oxide on this site).
A very important factor to consider also is that modern industrial kilns supply a lot of airflow to the chamber and this carries away products of decomposition. If you are using a kiln without adequate ventilation then there may be not be enough oxygen available at the glaze surface to oxidize and carry away the carbon products of decomposition. Ventilation systems can be added to kilns but that does not mean they are adequate, the air may not be passing over all sections of the ware or at a great enough rate. Some industrial kilns have so much airflow that taller ware can actually blow over if it is not set correctly! If you are doing fast-fire this is critical, a fast fire kiln absolutely must have good air flow. If you are using an electric kiln without airflow, then expect glaze imperfections unless you are firing very slowly. This is especially true if you are firing heavy masses of ware in an electric kiln, that ware may simply not be heating up as fast as your firing schedule might mislead you to believe; heat it up slower.
Another factor to consider is that surface pitting can occur even on cool down (e.g. high sulphur bodies). Thus you may need to adjust the kiln firing program to cool more slowly until the glaze stiffens.
Is the problem with the bisque firing?
Since most pinholes are the product of escaping gases, it is logical to bisque as high and as long as possible to eliminate the bulk of gases during that firing. The only disadvantage of bisquing higher is that ware will be less absorbent and thus may not be as easy to glaze. Find a good compromise temperature. Also, do not stack ware too tightly in the bisque and make sure there is good airflow in the kiln.
It is important that the bisque fire be conducted in an oxidation atmosphere. If not Fe2O3 within the body may be reduced to FeO, a strong flux. During the glaze firing an active glass will be formed within the body and the associated decomposition processes will generate gases that may cause bloating, blistering, or pinholing.
Is the problem spit-out?
If the surface of the glaze is covered with minute broken blisters then the problem is probably spit-out, a condition caused by expulsion of trapped water vapor inside porous ceramics on refire for luster decoration. It is amazing how long it can take to drive off all the water in a fast firing, it may still be coming off past red heat! Make sure the ware you put in a glaze firing kiln is dry.
Pinholes in a glaze at cone 10 reduction in an insufficiently melted glaze.
Pinholes and tiny blisters in a cone 6 glossy white glaze
Testing for pinholes and dimples is often best done using a transparent glaze over a large surface and looking at the surface in the light.
Right: Fired to cone 6 and soaked 15 minutes. Left: Fired to cone 6, soaked 15 minutes, then cooled 100 degrees and soaked 45 minutes. Pinholes and dimples are gone, the clay is more mature, and the glaze is glossier and melted better.
Pinholes often happen on trimmed surfaces
Pinholing is often related to the smoothness of the underlying body surface. The lower half of this vase was tooled during the leather hard stage, all the pinholes occur there. Even though this glaze contains 10% grog, the pinholes are not appearing on the upper half because the slip generated during throwing has left a smooth surface.
Out Bound Links
• (Troubles) Glaze Blisters
Questions and suggestions to help you reason out t...
• (Troubles) Glaze Crawling
Ask yourself the right questions to figure out the...
In Bound Links
• (Materials) Copper Carbonate Basic - CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Cupric Carbonate, Copper (II) Carbonate, Azurite
• (Glossary) Pinholing
A glaze defect where tiny holes are present in the...
By Tony Hansen
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Chapter 2:
1) What is the difference between a Tory and a Patriot?
2) Why does Tim begin to cry as he and Sam argue about the "Brown Bess"?
3) In this chapter, what side do you think Tim is on, the British or the Patriots?
4) Why do you think Tim couldn't answer the question about being a Tory or a Patriot?
5) Why does Sam want Tim to listen for information at the tavern?
Home Page:
Files to Download:
Colonial flag
Additional Resources:
1. What Was Life Like in Connecticut During Colonial Times?
2. Daily Life in the Colonies
3. Occupations and Customs of the Colonists
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Psychology of the Mandala
Hugging Twins
Mandalas are circular designs that reflect the wholeness of the person creating them. According to Carl Jung (pronounced Yoong), ” a mandala is the psychological expression of the totality of the self” (1973: 20). Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, discovered the significance of mandalas through his own inner work.
“I sketched every morning in a notebook a small circular drawing, a mandala, which seemed to correspond to my inner situation at the time. With the help of these drawings I could observe my psychic transformations from day to day…My mandalas were cryptograms…in which I saw the self—that is, my whole being—actively at work.” (1965: 195-196).
How can it be that circular drawings symbolize the wholeness of a person? Is there some unique quality about circles that makes them important in the psychology of human beings? We know that circles have signified the idea of wholeness among many traditional peoples (Arien, 1992). Why should modern people feel compelled to draw circles and create mandalas? A review of research in psychology and child development suggests that circles are part of the fundamental structuring of personal identity.
Circles and Self
Research with infants has shown that we are born with a desire to look at circles. Infants less than a week old prefer to look at curved lines when given a choice between straight and curved ones (Fantz and Miranda, 1975). Babies three to five weeks old fix their eyes on the oval hairline framing a face (Haith, Bergman, and Moore, 1977). Babies at three months or even younger choose to look at simple, complete forms, such as circles, rather than complicated shapes with jumbled parts and pieces (Slater, 1997). And it has been found that two-month-old infants can tell the difference between circles with patterns suggesting a face and circles with scrambled patterns (Goren, Sarty, and Wu, 1975). It is thought that these abilities to seek out circular face-like stimuli help babies bond with their care givers.
The ability to recognize circles is built into our visual apparatus. Researchers have found that our eyes organize visual input into patterns even before transmitting perceptions to the brain (Horowitz, 1983). According to Gestalt psychology, simple, closed forms, such as circles, are more quickly perceived and recognized as meaningful (Kohler, 1992). Because of this circles come forward out of a confusing mass of random visual input and are recognized as something known and familiar.
Circles are registered by the eye and passed directly to the visual cortex without intermediate processing (Horowitz, 1983). Because circles look the same whether right side up or turned upside down, the brain does not have to do intermediate processing to recognize a circle as it does when identifying a square or some other form that has been rotated. This ease of identification gives circles an advantage over other forms competing for our full attention.
The spherical form of the eye itself means that our visual information is literally taken in through a circle. The shape of the eyeball determines that the arrangement of rods and cones, the cells in the eye that receive and register light, is circular. What we are seeing at any given moment consists of a center area in sharp focus (with the exception of the blind spot where nerve pathways leave the eyeball) and a peripheral area that fades to the limits of vision. Because the eyeball is spherical, the total area of sight, the visual field, is circular.
James Gibson (1986) suggests that the circular field of vision plays an important part in the development of a sense of self beginning quite early in infancy. With what a baby can see in his visual field, he can develop the simple awareness of himself as that which is always present. The baby’s nose is a constant, unchanging object in his visual field. His arms, legs, and trunk change in appearance as he moves. However, with experience, he can identify them, too, as things that are always there.
By coordinating what he sees within the circular field of vision with kinesthetic messages from his body, he forms a sense of himself as a physical being. This rudimentary sense of self as an object is refined through experience and maturation. Nevertheless, it seems to endure into adulthood. The feeling we have that “I” reside in my head is probably a result of this same visual information, framed in the circular field of vision. It would seem logical that this basic sense of self is our core self-image, one to which we refer often without being aware that we do so. Because the field of vision is circular, circles have become associated with this basic visual experience of our physical self.
Children’s Art
Child’s mandala
Circles appear early on in children’s art. Children’s art expression begins as random scribbling. Kellogg (1967) has documented children’s progress from scribbling to drawing circles as early as age two. By age three children learn to draw circles without scribbling and begin to assign meaning to their circular forms. By the age of three or four, children’s drawings evolve into more elaborate forms. Without any teaching by adults they spontaneously create radiant suns, flowers, mandalas, and people with arms and legs sprouting from large circular heads.
The people drawings young children make appear to have little resemblance to the human body, given our own adult perspective. They make sense, however, as a rendering of the visually based sense of self described by Gibson. Take a moment to test this yourself. Look down at your body and consider how you would draw what you see. Are not children’s drawings a surprisingly accurate image of this view? The circle is not a head, but an attempt to draw what the whole body looks like when viewed from above, framed by the circular boundary of the field of vision.
While a child’s drawing skills are developing, she is also developing a sense of herself as an agent of activity rather than as the passive recipient of others’ actions. Self-awareness that unites feeling, willing, and thinking occurs by the age of three when children stop speaking of themselves in the third person as “baby,” and begin using first person words “me” and “I” to refer to themselves (Kagan, 1981). I saw this process of development unfolding when a little girl in a family art therapy group drew a circle. Apparently delighted with what she had drawn, she pointed to the circle and exclaimed, “Baby!” the name she called herself. This reflected the importance of the circle in her discovery of herself as a person, as an individual.
The suns, flowers, mandalas, and people children draw are elaborations of circles and reveal the natural occurrence of the circle as an organizing principle while children are learning about themselves and their world. Children in cultures all over the world progress from creating scribbles to drawing circles, mandalas, and people (Kellogg, 1967). This suggests that drawing circles is an integral part of the process of maturation. Drawing mandalas may even be necessary for the development of a psychological sense of self.
From the moment of birth the circle is associated with healthy physical and psychological development. Drawing mandalas taps into our natural affinity for circles and recalls some of our earliest experiences. We respond to a circle as once we responded to our parent’s face. Circles remind us of the fundamental fact that we exist, and make us aware of our primary identity as a physical being that occupies space. Circles recall the pleasure of learning to draw, when directing our crayon the way we wanted became a celebration of ourselves, our own beingness.
When we adults draw circles, we revisit these childhood discoveries. As we grow and develop ever more complex ideas about who we are, creating circular mandalas is a way back to our primary sense of self. Mandalas provide a bridge between earlier self-images and our present experience of our self. The mandalas we create function as a sort of home base, a container where we create and re-create our sense of who we are.
Drawing mandalas helps us center psychologically. A circle is a soothing touchstone in the lifelong process of growth and change. Creating or coloring a mandala helps us orient ourselves, integrate new information about ourselves, and re-formulate our identity. This is a continuation of the process that begins when we are children drawing circles and creating mandalas.
The psychological order created by drawing a circular mandala extends outward to help us orient ourselves within our present life situation (Wertheimer, 1959). The orderly pattern of thought stimulated by creating and coloring mandalas helps us know our place within the web of relationships in our family circle, our circle of friends, and our work circle. That sense of order expands beyond our face to face relationships to help us relate to our physical surroundings as well: to know ourselves in relation to our neighborhood, our country, and our world. Mandalas give us a sense of belonging and help us find ourselves in relation to the powerful rhythms of the universe. In this, our mandalas are like those of Eastern peoples.
Mandalas in the East
Tibetan sand mandala
In the East, mandalas help people grasp the way things come to be and their rightful place in the order of things. Mandalas communicate complex philosophical ideas and convey the insights of mystics. Mandalas are used in special meditation practices for attaining and integrating non-ordinary states of consciousness. To learn more about Eastern mandalas, let us look at the practices of Tibetan Buddhism.
The Buddhist devotee wishing initiation to the way of the mandala must be well along on his inner work in order to be accepted for training. Work with the mandala is undertaken with the tutelage of a guru who judges the readiness of the devotee and instructs him in the techniques at a propitious time and place. The mandala tradition to which the aspirant is initiated depends upon the knowledge of the guru, his judgment of the needs of his pupil, and the signs or auguries of the occasion.
A space on the ground is cleared in a secluded place. A proper attitude is induced in the pupil through ritual cleansing, meditation, fasting, and chanting. The pupil is given colored threads and instructed in the procedures for laying out a circle divided in four equal sections. The mandala is created using paints, inks, or colored sand. Traditional designs and colors are used, yet there is opportunity for some individual variation within the standards. Materials, such as lapis lazuli ground for blue pigment, contribute their own symbolic meaning in the ritual.
Once the colorful stylized form of the Tibetan mandala is completed, the devotee is guided through steps of meditation. These are designed to move him through encounters with aspects of himself that hamper his full realization of pure consciousness. Part of the technique requires deepening his understanding of the traditional symbols in the mandala through personal experience. This inner work is facilitated by visualization based on the mandala. The devotee calls up a mental image of figures in the mandala. In his mind’s eye he concentrates on these images, moving them through prescribed changes in relationship to himself.
Through training and repeated practice the devotee learns to call to mind a vivid image of the mandala. The devotee uses this mental image as a means of bringing about his return from the world of separateness to the realm of unity where he is in communion with pure consciousness. Thus, the mandala serves Tibetan devotees as a pathway to and from desirable states of consciousness. The act of creating the mandala works upon the psychology of the devotee in ways that are beneficial. In the West the benefits of creating mandalas were first identified by Carl Jung.
Jung on the mandala
Carl Jung explored the psychological meaning of mandalas. He saw mandalas as symbolic of the inner process by which individuals grow toward fulfilling their potential for wholeness. In the mandalas created by his patients, Jung saw a natural process of generating and resolving inner conflicts that brings about greater complexity, harmony, and stability in the personality. Mandalas are important indicators of the process of personal growth that moves you toward fulfilling your particular identity and purpose in life. The mandalas we create indicate our:
According to Jung, the powerful, generative center of our inner reality is the Self. This point of focus within us cannot be directly known. It remains outside of awareness, in the unconscious, and yet its pattern guides our psychological development throughout life. The Self is the true center of personality, but we are much more familiar with the ego, that which we know as “I.” The ego seems to us to be of central importance because we can know it directly with our conscious mind.
Whether or not you are aware of the Self, it exerts a powerful influence on your life. The quality of your conscious existence–your level of energy, your sense of harmony or confusion, and whether or not your life feels meaningful–all are largely determined by the connection between ego and Self. When ego and Self are in harmony, much energy is freed for thinking, caring, and creating. When ego and Self are not closely connected, life can seem flat and boring. There is little energy available for accomplishing things in the outer world.
The Self exists from the beginning of life and guides the development of your ego. Your ego develops within the matrix of the Self and even after it separates from the Self–when, as a child, you begin to speak of yourself as “I”– your ego remains connected to the Self (Edinger, 1987). Throughout life the Self acts as a guarantor for your ego. When stress, inner conflicts, or expanding consciousness challenge your ego, the natural order of the Self comes forward and restores harmony.
Sometimes the Self instigates change when your ego is stuck in a pattern that is not in keeping with your true character. This can feel like a disaster to the ego that resists change. The intervention of the Self in your life can seem like the visitation of a higher power. Indeed, Jung considered the Self to be like the image of God within each of us. Just as Job struggled to submit to the harsh love of his God, so we may flounder when the divine works its ways through us in the directives of the Self.
During such times we feel compelled to create mandalas. Jung found that, “mandalas usually appear in situations of psychic confusion and perplexity” (Jung, 1973:vi). People who have little training in art suddenly find themselves drawing and painting mandalas because it just feels right to do so. Instinctively they turn to mandalas to contain their experience, to open themselves to the guidance of the Self, and to listen to the voice of God within.
Creating Mandalas
The mandalas you create may take strange and wonderful forms. They may be circular gardens, arrangements of stones, colorful designs of flowers from the garden, lines traced in sand at the beach, elk hide stretched to make a drum, or mandalas created by your circular motions as you stir rich soup on a winter afternoon. You may dream mandalas, as well, in the form of abstract designs, or in dream activities such as sitting around a table with a group of people, or circling a mountain on a dream pilgrimage.
There is no need to wait until moments of stress to enjoy and benefit from creating mandalas. You can nurture the dialogue between your ego and the Self by making time to create and color mandalas. Mandalas carry information between conscious and unconscious, between ego and Self. The language is symbolic. It takes some patience to learn this language, but once you know it, you can align your conscious choices with the natural wisdom of the Self.
The mandala is a symbol and an instrument of natural energy within you that both gives you stability and pulls you beyond yourself to become more whole, more completely who you really are. The mandalas you create symbolize you: your body, your psychological state, and your place in the world. Mandalas also contain within their circular form the essence of the universe, the seasons, and cycles of nature. Mandalas translate the vast mysteries of human life to a scale that can be apprehended. May you come to experience mandalas as a source of healing and wholeness in your life.
Psychology of the Mandala Bibliography
Arrien, Angeles. (1992). Signs of Life. Sonoma, CA: Arcus Publishing.
Edinger, Edward F. (1987). Ego and Archetype. New York: Viking Penguin.
Fantz, R.L., & Miranda, S.B. (1975). Newborn infant attention to form and contour. Child Development, 46, 224-228.
Fincher, Susanne F. (1991). Creating Mandalas: For Insight, Healing, and Self-Expression. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications.
Gibson, James J. (1986). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Goren, C.G., Sarty, M., & Wu, P.Y.K. (1975). Visual following and pattern discrimination of face-like stimuli by new-born infants. Pediatrics, 56: 544-549.
Haith, M.M, Bergman, T., & Moore, J.J. (1977). Eye contact and face scanning in early infancy. Science, 198: 853-855.
Horowitz, Mardi Jon. 1983. Image Formation and Psychotherapy. New York and London: Jason Aronson, Inc.
Jung, C.G. (1965). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Ed. Aniela Jaffe. Trans. Richard and Clara Winston. New York: Random House.
(1973). Mandala Symbolism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Kagan, Jerome. (1981). The Second Year: The Emergence of Self- Awareness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kellogg, Rhoda. (1967). Psychology of Children’s Art. CRM, Inc.
Kohler, Wolfgang. (1992). Gestalt Psychology: An Introduction to New Concepts in Modern Psychology. New York: Liveright.
Slater, Alan. (1997). Visual perception and its organization in early infancy. In Bremner, Gavin, Slater, Alan, & Butterworth, George (eds.). Infant Development: Recent Advances. Hove, East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press. pp. 31-51.
Tucci, Guissepe. (1961). Theory and Practice of the Mandala. London: Rider and Company.
Wertheimer, Max. 1959. Productive Thinking. New York: Harper.
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Normal gait
2 Normal gait
In order to understand pathological gait, it is necessary first to understand normal gait, since this provides the standard against which the gait of a patient can be judged. However, there are two pitfalls which need to be borne in mind when using this approach. Firstly, the term ‘normal’ covers both sexes, a wide range of ages and an even wider range of extremes of body geometry, so that an appropriate ‘normal’ standard needs to be chosen for the individual who is being studied. If results from an elderly female patient are compared with normal data obtained from physically fit young men, there will undoubtedly be large differences, whereas comparison with data from healthy elderly women may show the patient’s gait to be well within normal limits which are appropriate to her sex and age. The second pitfall is that even though a patient’s gait differs in some way from normal, it does not follow that this is in any way undesirable or that efforts should be made to turn it into a ‘normal’ gait. Many gait abnormalities are a compensation for some problem experienced by the patient and, although abnormal, they are nonetheless useful.
Having said all that, it is very important to understand normal gait and the terminology which is used to describe it, before going on to look at pathological gait. The chapter starts with a very brief historical review and then gives an overview of the gait cycle, before going on to study in detail how the different parts of the locomotor system are used in walking.
Walking and gait
As walking is such a familiar activity, it is difficult to define it without sounding pompous. However, it would be remiss not to attempt a definition. Normal human walking and running can be defined as ‘a method of locomotion involving the use of the two legs, alternately, to provide both support and propulsion’. In order to exclude running, we must add ‘at least one foot being in contact with the ground at all times’. Unfortunately, this definition excludes some forms of pathological gait which are generally regarded as being forms of walking, such as the ‘three-point step-through gait’ (see Fig. 3.21), in which there is an alternate use of two crutches and either one or two legs. It is probably both unreasonable and pointless to attempt a definition of walking which will apply to all cases – at least in a single sentence!
Gait is no easier to define than walking, many dictionaries regarding it as a word primarily for use in connection with horses! This is understandable, since quadruped animals have a repertoire of natural gaits (walking, trotting, cantering, galloping, etc.), as well as some artificial ones, such as that learned by ‘Tennessee Walking Horses’ in the area where one of the authors lives. Most people tend to use the words gait and walking interchangeably. However, there is a difference: the word gait describes ‘the manner or style of walking’, rather than the walking process itself. It thus makes more sense to talk about a difference in gait between two individuals than about a difference in walking.
The history of gait analysis has shown a steady progression from early descriptive studies, through increasingly sophisticated methods of measurement, to mathematical analysis and mathematical modelling. Only a brief account of the development of the discipline will be given here. Good reviews of the early years of gait analysis have been given by Garrison (1929), Bresler and Frankel (1950) and Steindler (1953). The more recent history of gait analysis, and of clinical gait analysis in particular, was covered in three excellent review papers by Sutherland (2001, 2002, 2005).
Two pioneers of kinematic measurement worked on opposite sides of the Atlantic in the 1870s. Marey, working in Paris, published a study of human limb movements in 1873. He made multiple photographic exposures, on a single plate, of a subject who was dressed in black, except for brightly illuminated stripes on the limbs. He also investigated the path of the centre of gravity of the body and the pressure beneath the foot. Eadweard Muybridge (born in England as Edward Muggeridge) became famous in California in 1878 by demonstrating that, when a horse is trotting, there are times when it has all four of its feet off the ground at once. The measurements were made using 24 cameras, triggered in quick succession as the horse ran into thin wires stretched across the track. In the next few years, Muybridge made a further series of studies, of naked human beings walking, running and performing a surprising variety of other activities!
The most serious application of the science of mechanics to human gait during the nineteenth century was the publication in Germany, in 1895, of Der Gang des Menschen, by Braune and Fischer. They employed a technique similar to Marey’s, but using fluorescent strip-lights on the limbs instead of white stripes. The resulting photographs were used to determine the three-dimensional trajectories, velocities and accelerations of the body segments. Knowing the masses and accelerations of the body segments, they were then able to estimate the forces involved at all stages during the walking cycle.
Further valuable work on the dynamics of locomotion was done by Bernstein in Moscow in the 1930s. He developed a variety of photographic techniques for kinematic measurement and studied over 150 subjects. Particular attention was paid to the centre of gravity of the individual limb segments and of the body as a whole.
Muscle activity
For a full understanding of normal gait, it is necessary to know which muscles are active during the different parts of the gait cycle. The role of the muscles was studied by Scherb, in Switzerland, during the 1940s, initially by palpating the muscles as his subject walked on a treadmill, then later by the use of electromyography (EMG). Further advances in the understanding of muscle activity and many other aspects of normal gait were made during the 1940s and 1950s by a very active group working in the University of California at San Francisco and Berkeley, notable among whom was Verne Inman. This group later went on to write Human Walking (Inman et al., 1981), published just after Inman’s death, which to many people is the definitive textbook on normal gait. This has now gone through several editions, the latest edition of this being Rose and Gamble (2005). Another classic text on EMG is Muscles Alive: Their Functions Revealed by Electromyography by John Basmajian, which unfortunately has not been updated since 1985.
The use of EMG in gait analysis has received much attention but perhaps the most influential paper published was ‘The use of surface electromyography in biomechanics’ by Carlo De Luca in 1997, which gave a summary of recommendations but perhaps more importantly a summary of problems which at the time needed resolution. Further standardisation was achieved through the SENIAM (Surface ElectroMyoGraphy for the Non-Invasive Assessment of Muscles) project coordinated and managed by Hermie Hermens and Bart Freriks from Enschede, which is now considered by many as the definitive recommendations for electrode configuration and sensor positioning on specific muscles.
Mechanical analysis
A major contribution to the mechanical analysis of walking, also from the Californian group, was made by Bresler and Frankel (1950). They performed free-body calculations for the hip, knee and ankle joints, allowing for ground reaction forces, the effects of gravity on the limb segments and the inertial forces. The analytical techniques developed by these workers formed the basis of many current methods of modelling and analysis.
An important paper describing the possible mechanisms which the body uses to minimise energy consumption in walking, again from California, was published by Saunders et al. (1953). Further important work on energy consumption and in particular the energy transfers between the body segments in walking, was published by Cavagna and Margaria (1966), working in Italy. By 1960, research began to concentrate on the variability of walking, the development of gait in children and the deterioration of gait in old age. Patricia Murray, working in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, published a series of papers on these subjects, including a detailed review (Murray, 1967).
Mathematical modelling
Once the motions of the body segments and the actions of the different muscles had been examined and documented, attention passed to the forces generated across the joints. Although limited calculations of this type had been made previously, the study by Paul (1965) was the first detailed analysis of hip joint forces during walking. A subsequent paper by the same author also included an analysis of the forces in the knee (Paul, 1966). Since then there have been many mathematical studies of force generation and transmission across the hip, knee and ankle.
The 1970s and 1980s saw great improvements in methods of measurement. The development of more convenient kinematic systems, based on electronics rather than photography, meant that results could be produced in minutes rather than days. Reliable force platforms with a high-frequency response became available, as well as convenient and reliable EMG systems. The availability of high-quality three-dimensional data on the kinetics and kinematics of walking, and the ease of access to powerful computers, made it possible to develop increasingly sophisticated mathematical models. Gait laboratories now routinely measure joint moments and powers for the hip, knee and ankle. Somewhat less reliably, estimates can also be made of muscle, ligament and joint contact forces.
The 1990s and 2000s have seen the emergence of increasingly powerful systems, higher speed cameras, greater portability, smaller markers and a wide variety of marker sets, and larger volumes of area that data can be attained from.
Clinical application
From the earliest days, it has been the hope of most of those working in this field that gait measurements would be found useful in the management of patients with walking disorders. Many of the early workers made studies of people who walked with abnormal gait patterns and some (notably Amar, Scherb and the Californian group) attempted to use the results for the benefit of individual patients. However, the results were not particularly impressive.
Since 1960, there has been a more serious attempt to take gait analysis out of the research laboratory and into the clinic. With the improvements in measurement and analytical techniques, the major limitation now is not the ability to produce high-quality data but knowing how best to use these data for the benefit of patients. It is fair to say that in the early days, far more progress was made in scientific gait analysis, particularly as applied to normal subjects, than in the application of these techniques for the benefit of those with gait disorders. However, since about 1980, there has been a steady increase in the effective use of gait analysis in the clinical management of patients.
As well as a gradual increase in the clinical use of scientific gait analysis, there has also been a growing interest in the use of observational or visual gait analysis. This has become much easier to perform since digital video cameras have become widely available, which is reviewed in more detail by Sutherland (2001, 2002, 2005).
Terminology used in gait analysis
The gait cycle is defined as the time interval between two successive occurrences of one of the repetitive events of walking. Although any event could be chosen to define the gait cycle, it is generally convenient to use the instant at which one foot contacts the ground (‘initial contact’). If it is decided to start with initial contact of the right foot, as shown in Figure 2.1, then the cycle will continue until the right foot contacts the ground again. The left foot, of course, goes through exactly the same series of events as the right, but displaced in time by half a cycle.
The following terms are used to identify major events during the gait cycle:
These seven events subdivide the gait cycle into seven periods, four of which occur in the stance phase, when the foot is on the ground, and three in the swing phase, when the foot is moving forward through the air (Fig. 2.1). The stance phase, which is also called the ‘support phase’ or ‘contact phase’, lasts from initial contact to toe off. It is subdivided into:
The swing phase lasts from toe off to the next initial contact. It is subdivided into:
The duration of a complete gait cycle is known as the cycle time, which is divided into stance time and swing time. Unfortunately, the nomenclature used to describe the gait cycle varies considerably from one publication to another. The present text attempts to use terms which will be understood by most people working in the field; alternative terminology will be given where appropriate. Wall et al. (1987) pointed out that the usual terminology is inadequate to describe some severely pathological gaits.
Gait cycle timing
Figure 2.2 shows the timings of initial contact and toe off for both feet during a little more than one gait cycle. Right initial contact occurs while the left foot is still on the ground and there is a period of double support (also known as ‘double limb stance’) between initial contact on the right and toe off on the left. During the swing phase on the left side, only the right foot is on the ground, giving a period of right single support (or ‘single limb stance’), which ends with initial contact by the left foot. There is then another period of double support, until toe off on the right side. Left single support corresponds to the right swing phase and the cycle ends with the next initial contact on the right.
In each double support phase, one foot is forward, having just landed on the ground, and the other one is backward, being just about to leave the ground. When it is necessary to distinguish between the two legs in the double support phase, the leg in front is usually known as the ‘leading’ leg and the leg behind as the ‘trailing’ leg. The leading leg is in ‘loading response’, sometimes referred to as ‘braking double support’, ‘initial double support’ or ‘weight acceptance’. The trailing leg is in ‘pre-swing’, also known as ‘second’, ‘terminal’ or ‘thrusting’ double support or ‘weight release’.
In each gait cycle, there are thus two periods of double support and two periods of single support. The stance phase usually lasts about 60% of the cycle, the swing phase about 40% and each period of double support about 10%. However, this varies with the speed of walking, the swing phase becoming proportionately longer and the stance phase and double support phases shorter, as the speed increases (Murray, 1967). The final disappearance of the double support phase marks the transition from walking to running. Between successive steps in running there is a flight phase, also known as the ‘float’, ‘double-float’ or ‘non-support’ phase, when neither foot is on the ground. A detailed study of gait cycle timing was published by Blanc et al. (1999).
Foot placement
The terms used to describe the placement of the feet on the ground are shown in Figure 2.3. The stride length is the distance between two successive placements of the same foot. It consists of two step lengths, left and right, each of which is the distance by which the named foot moves forward in front of the other one. In pathological gait, it is common for the two step lengths to be different. If the left foot is moved forward to take a step and the right one is brought up beside it, rather than in front of it, the right step length will be zero. It is even possible for the step length on one side to be negative, for example, if the left foot never catches up with the right foot, the distance between the left and right feet will be negative. However, the stride length starting with the left heel strike must always be the same as the stride length starting with the right heelstrike, unless the subject is walking around a curve where the inside leg will have a shorter stride length than the outside leg. This definition of a ‘stride’, consisting of one ‘step’ by each foot, breaks down in some pathological gaits, in which one foot makes a series of ‘hopping’ movements while the other is in the air (Wall et al., 1987). There is no satisfactory nomenclature to deal with this situation.
The walking base (also known as the ‘stride width’ or ‘base of support’) is the side-to-side distance between the line of the two feet, usually measured at the midpoint of the back of the heel but sometimes below the centre of the ankle joint. The preferred unit for stride length and step length is the metre and for the walking base, millimetres. The pattern of walking known as ‘tandem gait’ involves walking with the heel of one foot placed directly in front of the toes of the other, i.e. with a walking base close to zero. Although this pattern is not typically seen, even as a pathological gait, it requires good balance and coordination and it is often used by the police as a test for intoxication!
The toe out (or, less commonly, toe in) is the angle in degrees between the direction of progression and a reference line on the sole of the foot. The reference line varies from one study to another; it may be defined anatomically but is commonly the midline of the foot, as judged by eye.
It is common experience that you need to walk more carefully on ice than on asphalt. Whether or not the foot slips during walking depends on two things: the coefficient of friction between the foot and the ground, and the relationship between the vertical force and the forces parallel to the walking surface (front-to-back and side-to-side). The ratio of the horizontal to the vertical force is known as the ‘utilised coefficient of friction’ and slippage will occur if this exceeds the actual coefficient of friction between the foot and the ground. In normal walking, a coefficient of friction of 0.35–0.40 is generally sufficient to prevent slippage; the most hazardous part of the gait cycle for slippage is initial contact. There is a fairly extensive literature on foot-to-ground friction and slippage, e.g. Cham and Redfern (2002) and Burnfield et al. (2005).
Cadence, cycle time and speed
The cadence is the number of steps taken in a given time, the usual unit being steps per minute. In most other types of scientific measurement, complete cycles are counted, but as there are two steps in a single gait cycle, the cadence is a measure of half-cycles. The normal ranges for both cadence and cycle time in both sexes at different ages are showed in Table 1 at the end of this chapter, where we consider the effect of age in more detail.
The speed of walking is the distance covered by the whole body in a given time. It should be measured in metres per second. Many authors use the term ‘velocity’ in place of ‘speed’ but this is an incorrect usage of the term, unless the direction of walking is also stated, since velocity is a vector. The instantaneous speed varies from one instant to another during the walking cycle, but the average speed is the product of the cadence and the stride length, providing appropriate units are used. The cadence, in steps per minute, corresponds to half-strides per 60 seconds or full strides per 120 seconds. The speed can thus be calculated from cadence and stride length using the formula:
If cycle time is used in place of cadence, the calculation becomes much more straightforward:
The walking speed thus depends on the two step lengths, which in turn depend to a large extent on the duration of the swing phase on each side. The step length is the amount by which the foot can be moved forwards during the swing phase, so that a short swing phase on one side will generally reduce the step length on that side. If the foot catches on the ground, this may terminate the swing phase and thereby further reduce both step length and walking speed. In pathological gait, the step length is often shortened, but it behaves in a way which is counterintuitive. When pathology affects one foot more than the other, an individual will usually try to spend a shorter time on the ‘bad’ foot and correspondingly longer on the ‘good’ one. Shortening the stance phase on the ‘bad’ foot means bringing the ‘good’ foot to the ground sooner, thereby shortening both the duration of the swing phase and the step length on that side. Thus, a short step length on one side generally means problems with single support on the other side.
When making comparisons between individuals, particularly with children, it is useful to allow for differences in size. This is done by dividing a measurement by some aspect of body size, such as height (stature) or leg length, a procedure generally known as ‘normalisation’. It is thus fairly common to see walking speed expressed in ‘statures per second’ or to see measures such as ‘step factor’, which is step length divided by leg length (Sutherland, 1997).
Since walking speed depends on both cadence and stride length, it follows that speed may be changed by altering only one of these variables, for instance by increasing the cadence while keeping the stride length constant. In practice, however, people normally change their walking speed by adjusting both cadence and stride length. Sekiya and Nagasaki (1998) defined the ‘walk ratio’ as step length (m) divided by step rate (steps/min) and found that it was fairly constant in both males and females over a range of walking speeds from very slow to very fast. Macellari et al. (1999) made a detailed study of the relationships between gender, body size, walking speed, gait timing and foot placement.
Outline of the gait cycle
The purpose of this section is to provide the reader with an overview of the gait cycle, to make the detailed description which follows a little easier to follow. The cycle is illustrated by Figures 2.4 and 2.102.18, all of which are taken from a single walk by a 22-year-old normal female, weight 540 N (55 kg, 121 lb), walking barefoot with a cycle time of 0.88 s (cadence 136 steps/min), a stride length of 1.50 m and a speed of 1.70 m/s. The individual measurements from this subject do not always correspond to ‘average’ values, because of the normal variability between individuals, although they are all close to the normal range. The measurements were all made in the plane of progression, which is a vertical plane aligned to the direction of the walk; in normal walking it closely corresponds to the sagittal plane of the body. The data were obtained using a Vicon motion system and a Bertec force platform. It should be noted that different laboratories use different methods of measurement, so that other publications may quote different values for some of the measured variables. The reader should thus concentrate on the changes in the variables during the gait cycle, rather than on their absolute values.
Fig. 2.10 • Typical activity of major muscle groups during the gait cycle. Abbreviations as in Figure 2.5. The timings of the events of the gait cycle are typical and not derived from a single subject.
When examining diagrams of the joint angles through the gait cycle, it is essential to understand how the angles are defined. Generally speaking, the knee angle is defined as the angle between the femur and the tibia and there is usually no ambiguity. The ankle angle is usually defined as the angle between the tibia and an arbitrary line in the foot. Although this angle is normally around 90°, it is conventional to define it as 0°, dorsiflexion and plantarflexion being movements in the positive and negative directions. In this book, dorsiflexion is a positive angle, but in some other publications it is negative. The ‘hip’ angle may be measured in two different ways: the angle between the vertical and the femur, and the angle between the pelvis and the femur. The latter is the ‘true’ hip angle and is usually defined so that 0° is close to the hip angle in the standing position. Forward flexion of the trunk appears as hip flexion when the hip angle is defined with reference to the pelvis, but not when it is defined with reference to the vertical.
The descriptions which follow assume that symmetry is present between the two sides of the body. This is approximately true for normal individuals, although detailed examination shows that everyone has some degree of asymmetry (Sadeghi, 2003). Such subtle asymmetries are negligible, however, when contrasted with the majority of pathological gaits.
Some gait studies are performed barefoot and some with the subject wearing shoes. Oeffinger et al. (1999) found small differences in some of the gait parameters between these two conditions in children, but did not consider them to be clinically significant. It is usually at the discretion of the investigator whether or not shoes are worn, although in some cases (e.g. when an ankle–foot orthosis or an orthotic insole is used) this may be dictated by the subject’s condition.
During gait, important movements occur in all three planes – sagittal, frontal and transverse. However, this introductory text will concentrate on the sagittal plane, in which the largest movements occur. For information on the motion in other planes, the reader is referred to more detailed texts, such as Perry (1992), Inman et al. (1981) or Rose and Gamble (1994). Figure 2.4 shows the successive positions of the right leg at 40 ms intervals, measured over a single gait cycle. Figure 2.5 shows the corresponding sagittal plane angles at the hip, knee and ankle joints and Figure 2.6 shows the sagittal plane angular velocity of the hip, knee and ankle joints.
Figure 2.7 shows the internal joint moments (in newton-metres per kilogram body mass) and Figure 2.8 the joint powers (in watts per kilogram body mass). Different authors have used different units for the measurement of moments and powers; those used here are scaled for body mass, but not for the length of the limb segments. In Figure 2.8, the annotations H1–H3, K1–K4 and A1–A2 refer to the peaks of power absorption and generation described by Winter (1991).
Figure 2.9 shows a ‘butterfly diagram’, described by Pedotti (1977). This is a plot of the ground reaction vectors and is made up of successive representations, at 10 ms intervals, of the magnitude, direction and point of application of the ground reaction force vector. The vectors move across the diagram from left to right and create a shape that resembles the wings of a butterfly.
Figure 2.10 gives the typical activity of a number of key muscles or muscle groups during the gait cycle. It is based largely on data from Perry (1992), Inman et al. (1981) and Rose and Gamble (1994). Similar, though not identical, data for these and other muscles were given by Sutherland (1984) and Winter (1991). Although Figure 2.10 shows a typical pattern, it is not the only possible one. One of the interesting things about gait is the way in which the same movement may be achieved in a number of different ways and this particularly applies to the use of muscles, so that two people may walk with the same ‘normal’ gait pattern but using different combinations of muscles. The pattern of muscle usage not only varies from one subject to another but it is also affected by fatigue and varies with walking speed, in a single person. The muscular system is said to possess ‘redundancy’, which means that if a particular muscle cannot be used, its functions may be taken over another muscle or group of muscles. A good review of muscle activity in gait was provided by Shiavi (1985).
Figures 2.112.19 show the positions of the two legs and the ground reaction force vector beneath the right foot (where present), at the seven major events of the gait cycle and at two additional points – near the beginning of the loading response (Fig. 2.12) and halfway through mid-stance (Fig. 2.14). The description is based on a gait cycle from right initial contact to the next right initial contact. However, the gait cycle could just as easily have been defined using the left leg.
Throughout the text, references will be made to the position of the ground reaction force vector relative to the axis of a joint and to the resulting joint moments. This approach, known as ‘vector projection’, is an approximation at best, since it neglects the mass of the leg below the joint in question (especially important at the hip) and also ignores the acceleration and deceleration of the limb segments (which primarily lead to errors in the swing phase). However, the author has used this approach since it makes it much easier to understand joint moments. The graphs for joint moments (Fig. 2.7) and joint powers (Fig. 2.8) were calculated ‘correctly’, using a method known as ‘inverse dynamics’, which is based on the kinematics, the ground reaction force and the subject’s anthropometry. Wells (1981) discussed the relative merits of these two methods for estimating joint moments.
Upper body
The upper body moves forwards throughout the gait cycle. Its speed varies a little, being fastest during the double support phases and slowest in the middle of the stance and swing phases. The trunk twists about a vertical axis, the shoulder girdle rotating in the opposite direction to the pelvis. The arms swing out of phase with the legs, so that the left leg and the left side of the pelvis move forwards at the same time as the right arm and the right side of the shoulder girdle. Lamoth et al. (2002) made a detailed study of the relative motion between the pelvis and the trunk at different walking speeds. Murray (1967) found average total excursions of 7° for the shoulder girdle and 12° for the pelvis, in adult males walking at free speed. The fluidity and efficiency of walking depend to some extent on the motions of the trunk and arms, but these movements are commonly ignored in clinical gait analysis and have been relatively neglected in gait research. The whole trunk rises and falls twice during the cycle, through a total range of about 46 mm (Perry, 1992), being lowest during double support and highest in the middle of the stance and swing phases. An approximation to this vertical motion can be seen in the position of the hip joint in Figure 2.4. The trunk also moves from side to side, once in each cycle, the trunk being over each leg during its stance phase, as might be expected from the need for support. The total range of side-to-side movement is also about 46 mm (Perry, 1992). The pelvis, as well as twisting about a vertical axis, also tips slightly, both backwards and forwards (with an associated change in lumbar lordosis) and from side to side. The spinal muscles are selectively activated so that the head moves less than the pelvis, which is important for providing a stable platform for vision (Prince et al., 1994).
The hip flexes and extends once during the cycle (Fig. 2.5). The limit of flexion is reached around the middle of the swing phase and the hip is then kept flexed until initial contact. The peak extension is reached before the end of the stance phase, after which the hip begins to flex again.
The gait cycle in detail
Each of the following sections begins with some general remarks about the events surrounding a particular event in the gait cycle and then describes what is happening in the upper body, hips, knees, ankles and feet, with particular reference to the activity of the muscles. These sections are very detailed and may be too much to comprehend in one ‘pass’. It is suggested that the reader should skip the moments and powers on the first reading, but should go back to them later, to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanical processes underlying the gait cycle. The figures shown in this section represent the normal positions of the lower limbs and pelvis at different events during gait and the ground reaction force vector expected.
More detailed descriptions of the events of normal gait are given by Murray (1967), Perry (1992), Inman et al. (1981) and Rose and Gamble (1994).
Initial contact (Fig. 2.11)
3 Hip:
The attitude of the legs at the time of initial contact is shown in Fig. 2.11. The maximum flexion of the hip (generally around 30°) is reached around the middle of the swing phase, after which it changes little until initial contact. The hamstrings are active during the latter part of the swing phase (since they act to prevent knee hyperextension); gluteus maximus begins to contract around the time of initial contact and together these muscles start the extension of the hip, which will be complete around the time of opposite initial contact (Fig. 2.5).
4 Knee:
The knee extends rapidly at the end of the swing phase, becoming more or less straight just before initial contact and then starting to flex again (Figs 2.5 and 2.11). This extension is generally thought to be passive, although Perry (1992) states that it involves quadriceps contraction. Except in very slow walking, the hamstrings contract eccentrically at the end of the swing phase, to act as a braking mechanism to prevent knee hyperextension. This contraction continues into the beginning of the stance phase.
Dec 26, 2016 | Posted by in MANUAL THERAPIST | Comments Off on Normal gait
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In 1952, another person named A.S.Douglas was passing his PhD degree at the University of Cambridge (United Kindgom). At that time, the university had an EDSAC vaccuum-tube computer, which used a cathode ray tube to display the contents of one of the 32 mercury delay lines (which stored the programs and data). The display was organized as a matrix of 35 by 16 dots, hence a 35x16 pixel display. A.S. Douglas wrote his thesis on the Human-Computer interraction, and illustrated it with a graphic Tic-Tac-Toe game displayed on a cathode ray tube. This is the earliest graphical computer game known to exist. The game was played against the machine, which used special algorithms to win whenever possible. This game can be played nowadays using the EDSAC simulator, which includes a copy of the original game.
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10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt Perimeter.
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Presentation on theme: "10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt Perimeter."— Presentation transcript:
2 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt 10 pt 15 pt 20 pt 25 pt 5 pt Perimeter and Area Graphs and Tables Computation and Estimation GeometryPotpourri
3 8 cm. The isosceles triangle pictured to the left has a total perimeter of 20 centimeters. This is the distance of the bottom segment, which is marked x. x
4 What is 4 centimeters?
5 Of the following expressions, this is the one that could be used to find the area of the figure to the left. A.4 + 4 + 4 + 4 B.5 + 5 + 4 + 4 C.5 x 4 D.5 x 5 x 4 x 4 = 1 square unit
6 What is C. 5 x 4?
7 Ted was very excited because his mom said he could put a Cleveland Browns border around his room. In order to buy the correct amount, this is what he needs to know about his room. A.The area of his walls added together. B.The height of the ceiling. C.The volume of the room. D.The perimeter of his room
8 What is D. The perimeter of his room?
9 A parallelogram is shown on the grid below: This expression represents the area of the parallelogram: A. 6 + 6 + 4 + 4 B. 8 + 8 + 4 + 4 C. 6 x 4 D. 8 x 4
10 What is D. 8 x 4?
11 The right isosceles triangle pictured to the left has dimensions as shown. This is the area of the triangle. 10 cm.
12 What is 50 square centimeters? Explanation: To find the area of a triangle, you need to multiply the base (10 cm. ) by the height (10 cm.) and then divide by 2.
13 Type of Ice CreamNumber of Votes Vanilla Chocolate Strawberry Mint Chelsea asked the students in her room which type of ice cream they liked. The above graphic shows the results. Of the following, this is what Chelsea used to show her data. A.Bar Graph B.Frequency Table C.Line Graph D.Histogram
14 What is B. Frequency Table?
15 SeasonNumber of Votes Fall10 Winter12 Spring18 Summer60 Bob surveyed 100 classmates to find out their favorite season of the year. The data is in the table at the top of this slide. He then created a circle graph using the same data, but forgot to label the different areas. According to the information given, this is season represented by the blue part of the pie chart.
16 What is Spring?
17 Number of Leighton Students Who Bought Ice Cream at Lunch on Monday According to the bar graph, this is the mean number of girls in each grade level that bought ice cream on Monday.
18 What is 30 girls? Explanation: The mean is another word for average. According to the graph, 30 3 rd grade girls, 35 4 th grade girls, and 25 5 th grade girls bought ice cream on Monday. To find the average, you need to find the sum of the three numbers, which is 90, and then divide by 3, since there are three numbers.
19 Mrs. Lambacher collected data from the school in the canned food drive. She wanted to find out which grade brought in the most canned food and what the percentages were. After looking at the data, she made the circle graph below. However, she forgot to fill in the percentage for the 5 th graders. This is the percent she should have filled in.
20 What is 55%?
21 The graph below shows annual sales at Bernie’s Bakery during its first four years of business. Of the choices below, this is the best prediction for the annual sales in 2004. A. $80,000 B. $90,000 C.$100,000 D.$120,000
22 What is C. $100,000?
23 Every day on his way to work, Bill stops at the doughnut shop and gets two doughnuts and one large cup of coffee. One doughnut costs $0.99 and a cup of large coffee costs $2.09. This is about how much money Bill spends after 30 trips to the coffee shop.
24 What is $120? Explanation: Bill spends about $4 each day at the doughnut shop. 4 x 30 = 120
25 Maddie measured the length and width of the rectangle above. She said the length of the rectangle was 2 1/8 inches long. The width of the rectangle was 1 1/4 inches long. This is the total perimeter of the rectangle.
26 What is 6 ¾ inches?
27 Four different fifth grade girls decided to sell candy bars to raise money for the homeless. Their goal was to sell a total of 1000 candy bars. Mary sold 237 candy bars, Liz sold 293 candy bars, and Jackie sold 268 candy bars. How many bars does the fourth girl, Lucy, have to sell in order to reach their group goal?
28 What is 202 candy bars?
29 There are 6,965 library books spread out over 70 different shelves in a library. If each shelf has about the same number of books, this is a reasonable estimate for how many books are on each shelf.
30 What is 100 books?
31 The Smith family went on a family vacation. It took them 4 days to get to their destination by car, which was 1,003 miles away. This is the about the average number of miles they had to drive each day to arrive at their destination.
32 What is 250 miles?
33 Sam drew a triangle and measured each of the angles. He said one angle measured 90 degrees, one angle measured 40 degrees and the third angle measured 60 degrees. His friend, Tony, said those measurements weren’t possible. This is the reason Tony said that.
34 What is Those 3 angles total 190 degrees, but the sum of all the angles in any triangle has to be exactly 180 degrees?
35 This is the sum of all the angle measurements in the figure shown below.
36 What is 360 degrees? Explanation: The sum of all the angles in any quadrilateral is always 360 degrees.
37 Joan has two gardens in her yard. One garden is in the shape of a circle and has a diameter of 5 feet. The other garden is in the shape of a square and the length of one side of the square is 5 feet. Joan wants to put fencing around both gardens. This is about how much fencing Joan will need.
38 What is Joan needs about 35 feet? Explanation: To find the amount of fencing Joan needs for the circle, you need to know its circumference. To find about what the circumference is, you need to multiply the diameter by 3, so the circumference is about 15 feet. To find the amount of fencing for the square, you need to find its perimeter. Since one side of the square is 5 feet, its perimeter is 20 feet. 15 feet + 20 feet = 35 feet
39 Of the four shapes pictured below, these are the two that appear to be congruent to each other. A.B. C. D.
40 What is Shapes A and B? Explanation: Congruent means two shapes that have the same size and shape. Even though shape B has been rotated slightly, it is still the same size and shape as shape A.
41 The two lines pictured above cross at a 90 degree, or right angle. This is the word that means crossing at a 90 degree angle.
42 What is perpendicular?
43 This is the median number of the following: 0.341/3 3/80.3 2/5
44 What is the 0.34? Explanation: The median is the middle number in a set of data after the numbers have been put in order. The numbers in order are 0.3 1/3 0.34 3/8 2/5 so the middle number is 0.34
45 Ten balls are placed in a bucket. The balls are numbered 1 – 10. Jill takes one ball out of the bucket. This is the probability, expressed as a percent, that the ball she takes out has a number on it that is a factor of 10.
46 What is 40% Explanation: The factors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and 10. Since 4 of the balls are factors of 10 and there are 10 balls, she has a 40% chance.
47 Bill is at a party and needs to make a sandwich. There are two different kinds of bread that he can choose from – wheat or rye. There are three different types of meat he can choose from – bologna, ham, or turkey. There are three different types of cheese he can choose from – Swiss, American, or cheddar. Bill can only make one choice from each category. This is the number of different types of sandwiches Bill could actually make.
48 What is 18 different types of sandwiches? Explanation: There are 2 different types of bread, 3 different types of meat, and 3 different types of cheese. To find the total number of combinations, you multiply those three numbers together. (2 x 3 x 3 = 18)
49 20 – 2 3 x 2 + 3 = This is the answer to the problem below:
50 What is 7?
51 A spinner is divided into 5 equal sections. The sections are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Sally spins the spinner 100 times. According to theoretical probability, this is how many times out of the 100 spins, Sally should get a prime number.
52 What is 60 spins? Explanation: A prime number is a number that has exactly 2 factors. 2, 3, and 5 are all prime numbers. According to theoretical probability, Sally should get each number 20 times. Since there are three prime numbers, she should spin a prime number a total of 60 times.
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TBH Lesson Plan
Lesson Title:
Aldridge Sawmill – The Story in Numbers
Subjects: mathematics, Texas history and geography
Grade level: 7th
Rationale: To practice math skills while becoming familiar with Texas’ “Boom & Bust” economy and the natural history of the east Texas Piney Woods
Lesson Duration: Two 45 minute class periods or one 90 minute block period
Activity - Part 1
Step 1: Place “Zones of Annual Precipitation in Texas” map transparency on the overhead. Explain to students that Texas is large enough to have a wide range of rainfall zones within its borders. Looking at the map, ask students which area of Texas they think is most likely to contain dense forests. Point out that the Piney Woods region receives between 45-55 inches of precipitation annually, the highest in the state, and averages about 245 days of growing season a year.
Step 2: Place “Natural Regions and Subregions” of Texas map on the overhead. Point out the Piney Woods subregion of the Gulf Coastal Plains region on the border between Texas and Louisiana. Explain that the East Texas Piney Woods is part of a pine forest that covers the entire southern United States from the Atlantic Ocean to Texas and today contains the Sam Houston, Davy Crockett, Angelina, and Sabine National Forests, as well as many commercial lumber companies and sawmills.
Step 3: Point out that at the beginning of the twentieth century, lumbering was the state's largest manufacturing enterprise, first among Texas industries in generating income, and the largest employer of labor in Texas. Today the Texas lumber industry continues to be a large and important contributor to the state economy.
Step 4: Have the students explore the Aldridge Sawmill site at: www.texasbeyondhistory.net/aldridge/
Activity - Part 2
Step 1: Explain that in this part of the lesson, students will learn more of the Aldridge Sawmill story that they began in Part 1.
Step 2: Distribute the student handout, Aldridge Sawmill – The Story in Numbers. Direct students to circle the correct answer for each question. Students may work alone or with a partner.
Modification: Highlight pertinent information in each question and identify functions needed to answer each question.
Student Product: Solutions to 10 math problems
Closure: Have students list all the mathematical functions they used to answer the handout questions. If time allows, go over correct answers with students.
Assessment: Ask students what is meant by “Boom and Bust.”
Daily Assessment for Part 2: Students will be expected to answer 10 math questions with at least 70% accuracy.
Extension: Have students view the following website: www.texasbeyondhistory.net/kids/caddo/
“World of the Caddo” is a children's exhibit on Texas Beyond History focused on perhaps the first "loggers" of East Texas, the Caddo Indians. In the section, “Living in Grass Houses,” students can learn how these ancient people constructed huge beehive-shaped houses and temples using tall pine poles covered with bundles of grass. There is also a teacher's lesson plan keyed to “World of the Caddo”.
Carol Schlenk
Education Editor
Texas Beyond History
University of Texas Archeological Research Laboratory
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What's new in exploration ///
Remote eruptions. Some of the same techniques in remote sensing that allow oil fields to be found can be used to pinpoint where, on a volcano, an eruption is likely to occur. It was noticed more than 20 years ago that, even with the relatively few and coarse bandwidths available in earlier versions of Landsat satellites, they nevertheless would sometimes reveal images showing the precise outline of an oil field. Most often, this would happen within a narrow timeframe in the spring or fall, in a heavily wooded area, when the colors of the plants were changing. Stresses on the vegetation caused by microseepage from the reservoir far below would produce a color change at a different time than the surrounding vegetation. A similar phenomenon has been found for determining exactly where on a volcano’s mount and surrounding area it is likely to erupt.
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In European culture, it is widely accepted that magpies (Pica pica) are the thieves of the bird kingdom, attracted to sparkly things and prone to stealing them for their nests.
But psychologists at the Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour (CRAB) at the University of Exeter have analyzed magpies and found that the species is actually frightened of new and unfamiliar objects rather than attracted to them.
The researchers carried out a series of experiments with both a group of magpies which had come from a rescue center, and wild magpies in the grounds of the University. The birds were exposed to both shiny and non-shiny items and their reactions recorded.
Magpies get a bad rap, according to animal psychologists.
Credit: Ed Shephard
Dr. Toni Shephard, lead author of a new paper on magpie malfeasance, said, "We did not find evidence of an unconditional attraction to shiny objects in magpies. Instead, all objects prompted responses indicating neophobia – fear of new things – in the birds.
"We suggest that humans notice when magpies occasionally pick up shiny objects because they believe the birds find them attractive, while it goes unnoticed when magpies interact with less eye-catching items. It seems likely, therefore, that the folklore surrounding them is a result of cultural generalization and anecdotes rather than evidence."
The test objects were shiny metal screws, small foil rings and a small rectangular piece of aluminum foil. Half of the screws and rings were painted blue with matt paint, and the rest left in their original shiny silver color, as was the piece of aluminum foil.
After control tests without objects had been carried out, two loose piles of food (nuts) were placed on the ground with two piles of objects (shiny and non-shiny), each placed 30 cm from a nut pile. Magpies only made contact with a shiny object twice in 64 tests. Both times a silver ring was picked up and immediately discarded. The birds either ignored or avoided both shiny and blue objects, often exhibiting wary behavior and feeding less in the presence of the items.
Dr. Natalie Hempel de Ibarra, co-author of the article, said, "Surprisingly little research has investigated the cognitive mechanisms of magpie behavior. Similarly to other large-brained members of the crow family with complex social systems, magpies are capable of sophisticated mental feats, such as mirror self-recognition, retrieval of hidden objects and remembering where and when they have hoarded what food item. Here we demonstrate once more that they are smart – instead of being compulsively drawn towards shiny objects, magpies decide to keep a safe distance when these objects are novel and unexpected."
Article: "'The thieving magpie'? No evidence for attraction to shiny objects", Animal Cognition. Source: University of Exeter
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On the way to the Moon, the Apollo astronauts passed a pointafter which the Moon's gravitational pull became stronger than theEarth's.
A. Determine the distance of this point from the center of theEarth.
B. What is the acceleration due to the Earth's gravitation atthis point?
Expert Answer
Get this answer with Chegg Study
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Xanthochromia is a pale yellow substance in the
cerbebrospinal fluid (CSF). The CSF is a cushiony fluid
that protects the brain and spine. Xanthochromia is
usually associated with a subarachnoid hemorrhage
(SAH). An SAH is bleeding between the first two layers
that cover the brain. The presence of xanthochromia
can indicate the presence of an SAH if the brain CT
scan is negative (normal) after 12 hours and the person
has symptoms suggested an SAH (e.g., sudden and
severe headache). The yellow color is caused by red
blood cells that that enter the CSF during bleeding. The
cells are destroyed by the body which produces an
oxygen carrying molecule. This is destroyed by
enzymes which degrade it into a yellow-green pigment
known as bilirubin. An enzyme is a type of protein that
helps produce chemical reactions in the body.
Xanthochromia on the left.
Normal cerebrospinal fluid
color on the right.
FEATURED BOOK: Neurology for the Non-Neurologist
Xanthochromia is also the occurrence of yellow colored patches in the skin that resemble
a condition known as xanthoma. Whereas xanthoma on the skin takes the form of yellow
plaques or nodules, xanthochromia does not. Plaques and nodules are both areas on or
in the body that appear different from other tissue, with nodules being more swollen. In
this sense of the word, xanthochromia is also known as yellow skin, xanthoderma,
cholesterodoma, xanthochroia, xanthopathy, yellow disease, and yellow skin.
Xanthocromic means pertaining to xanthochromia. Xanthochromia comes from the Greek
word "xanthos" meaning "yellow," and the Greek word "chroma" meaning "color." Put the
two words together and you have "yellow color."
"Where Medical Information is Easy to Understand"™
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