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Horseshoe Crab
(Limulus polyphemus)
Facts about this animal
The Horseshoe Crab can reach a length of 60 cm and a weight of 1.8 kg, the male being smaller. The brown to grey body is horseshoe-shaped and separated in a carapace (prosoma) and an abdomen (opisthosoma) – both being unspanned above – , the later carrying a long, movable caudal spine or tail (telson). The carapace is strongly armoured and bears two prominent compound eyes and 7 simple eyes (one pair behind the compound eyes, 3 at the front and one ventral pair near the mouth). On the underside of the shell there are 5 pairs of walking legs, the anterior 4 pairs ending in forceps-like claws. In front of them there is a pair of chelicerae to feed. The mouth is located between the hips of the walking legs which have projections to help feeding. Behind them there is a pair of chilaria forming a kind of lower lip. The abdomen has 6 ventral pairs of rowing legs of which the posterior 5 pairs carry book gills with about 150 lamellae each. The first pair covers them and bears the genital apertures. Hemocyanin makes the blood of the Horseshoe crab blue.
The Horseshoe Crab is nocturnal and is usually buried in the ground by day. By night it feeds on bivalves and other mollusks, worms, other benthic invertebrates and pieces of fish which it finds digging into the ground by means of chemo receptors to the hips of the walking legs. Because there are no jaws there is a gizzard containing sand and gravel. Nevertheless, indigestible parts are expelled. It can swim belly up but rarely does. As defending tactic it can curl itself up or hide buried in the ground by means of the horseshoe-like front of the carapace.
In late spring the Horseshoe Crabs come to the shore for spawning in the tidal zone but protected from surf. Males clasp on the back of their females by means of specially formed forelegs which have bulbous claws. Depending on body size the females lay their 15’000-90’000 and 2-3 mm large eggs divided in 20 clutches into 15-20 cm deep and 30 cm wide self-made pits forming rows which are 4 m long. Each clutch is inseminated and covered with sand. The first instar larva is called trilobite larva and has just 9 pairs of legs and no anal spine. It is a free swimmer for about 5-7 days. The second instar, called presterichia, already looks like the adult and lives near the shore. Maturity is reach after about 16-18 moults at the age of 9-12 years. Moulted skins wash up on beaches. Horseshoe Crabs can live for as long as 31 years. Lost limbs are regenerated after some moults.
The blood of the Horseshoe Crab contains cells called amebocytes which release a clotting substance if they scent bacterial endotoxins. This is used in the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) test to detect contamination of pharmaceuticals with bacterial endotoxins and to test for several bacterial diseases. “Milked” Horseshoe Crabs are subsequently released where they were captured and recover within a few weeks.
Populations of the Horseshoe Crabs have decrease since they are used as bait in whelk and conch trapping. Consequently, some predators of the Horseshoe Crabs also became rare like the Red Knot and the Atlantic Loggerhead Turtle.
Did you know?
that, despite its name, the Horseshoe Crab is more closely related to spiders than to crabs? that only 4 very similar species of this 400 million year old Arthropod class are still living viz. L. polyphemus, Tachypleus tridentatus, T. gigas and Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda? that Horseshoe Crab is of commercial importance because its blue blood is used in the pharmaceutical industry? that the Horseshoe Crab has been extensively used in research into the physiology of vision?
Name (Scientific) Limulus polyphemus
Name (English) Horseshoe Crab
Name (French) Limule
Name (German) Pfeilschwanzkrebs, Königskrabbe
Name (Spanish) Cangrejo herradura, Ostrorep, Cangrejo cacerola
Local names Español (add.): Cacerolita del mar, Cangrejo bayoneta, Tanquecito panishde mar, Cucaracha marina, Límulo
CITES Status Not listed
CMS Status Not listed
Photo Copyright by
Gerald Dick
Range Found on the east coast of North America from Nova Scotia (Canada) over the United States south to the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). Stray individuals are occasionally found in Europe.
Habitat Shallow sandy coasts down to 30 m depth (rarely 200 m), ground dweller. Intertidal sand flat areas are needed for spawning and early stages.
Wild population Several tens of millions but counts or estimates, if done at all, are inconsistent. Studies have shown that 10 to 15 percent of the individuals bled for LAL die.
Zoo population 175 reported to ISIS (2008)
In the Zoo
Horseshoe Crab
Find this animal on ZooLex
Photo Copyright by
Gerald Dick
Why do zoos keep this animal
Horseshoe Crabs are long-lived and – despite their size – harmless dwellers of shallow waters which can be displayed in touch pools. They can be used in education either to show a living fossil having hardly changed during the last 400 million years surviving all global catastrophes since or to point out its importance for modern medicine using its blood to test for contamination of pharmaceuticals.
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coproporphyrinogen oxidase
The CPOX gene provides instructions for making an enzyme known as coproporphyrinogen oxidase. This enzyme is involved in the production of a molecule called heme. Heme is vital for all of the body's organs, although it is most abundant in the blood, bone marrow, and liver. Heme is an essential component of iron-containing proteins called hemoproteins, including hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in the blood).
The production of heme is a multi-step process that requires eight different enzymes. Coproporphyrinogen oxidase is responsible for the sixth step in this process, the removal of carbon and oxygen atoms from coproporphyrinogen III (the product of the fifth step) to form protoporphyrinogen IX. In subsequent steps, two other enzymes modify protoporphyrinogen IX and incorporate an iron atom to produce heme.
At least 45 mutations in the CPOX gene have been found to cause porphyria. Mutations in this gene can cause two types of porphyria: hereditary coproporphyria and a variant known as harderoporphyria.
Most CPOX gene mutations change single protein building blocks (amino acids) in coproporphyrinogen oxidase. A single mutation appears to be responsible for harderoporphyria; this genetic change replaces the amino acid glycine with the amino acid glutamic acid at position 404 (written as Lys404Glu or K404E). Mutations in the CPOX gene reduce the activity of coproporphyrinogen oxidase, allowing compounds called porphyrins to build up in the body. These compounds are formed during the normal process of heme production, but reduced activity of coproporphyrinogen oxidase allows them to accumulate to toxic levels. This buildup, in combination with nongenetic factors such as certain drugs, alcohol, and dieting, leads to the signs and symptoms of hereditary coproporphyria and harderoporphyria.
Cytogenetic Location: 3q12, which is the long (q) arm of chromosome 3 at position 12
Molecular Location: base pairs 98,568,448 to 98,593,684 on chromosome 3 (Homo sapiens Annotation Release 108, GRCh38.p7) (NCBI)
• Coprogen oxidase
• Coproporphyrinogen III oxidase, mitochondrial
• Coproporphyrinogen III Oxidases
• coproporphyrinogen oxidase (coproporphyria, harderoporphyria)
• Coproporphyrinogen:oxygen oxidoreductase (decarboxylating)
• Coproporphyrinogenase
• COX
• CPO
• CPX
• HCP
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Digital elevation models (DEM)
Last update: Oct. 2016
How the DEM impacts radiation?
Topography impacts the solar radiation values at ground levels in two ways: the variation of the optical path length and the shadowing effect due to the horizon. Indeed, according to the atmospheric layer tickness crossed by sun rays when reaching the ground, the radiation is modulated: the higher the elevation of a point, the narrower the atmospheric optical layer, and finally the higher the radiation.
Another way to impact the quantity of solar energy received at a given location is the horizon. If a station or installation is located nearby hills or mountains, they can affect the radiation by decreasing the received energy. This is named the shadowing effect due to the "far horizon", to oppose to the "close horizon" due to the trees and buildings which is not available in DEM models.
Successive DEMs in HelioClim
Originally, the DEM named TerrainBase 5' (TB5) was exploited in HelioClim. Available worldwide with an approx. spatial resolution of 10 km (5 seconds of arc), this is the default value stored in HelioClim-1 and HelioClim-3.
The spatial resolution of TB5 is smaller than HelioClim-1 (20 km). As a consequence, several Meteosat pixels had the same TB5 value, as depicted on Fig. 1.
With the time, DEMs with higher spatial resolution were available; successively BTOPO (1 km), and more recently SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission). With a spatial resolution of approx. 90 m and an uncertainty of 10 m, this resource is successfully widely used in solar energy. The spatial resolution is smaller than the one of Meteosat, so each pixel exhibits a different SRTM value, as depicted by Fig. 2.
In HelioClim-3, SRTM is exploited in two ways:
• The HelioClim-3 values are modulated using the SRTM value at the exact location requested by the user
• The user has now the option to take into account (or not, input parameter set to "True") the shadowing effect due to the far horizon.
A webservice of elevation (TB5, GTOPO and SRTM) is available at this link.
Fig. 1: Corsica - Meteosat pixels with TB5 values
Fig. 2: Corsica - Meteosat pixels with SRTM values
Other DEMs
ASTER: free, 30 meters. You just have to be register, use the adequate credits, and you are not allowed to resell the data.
IGN: the database BD alti is free for everybody for the spatial resolution 250 m, 500 m, and 1 000 m. Its free use is restricted to public service and Research application. The link to the prices for commercial use is available on the left side of the page.
The product RGE alti is a DEM of 1 meter of spatial resolution, with at least 50 cm of precision. Please find here a summary of the conditions for a free use of all the services of IGN is available.
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The directional movement of an organism or a living motile cell in response to certain diffusible chemicals in the environment
Chemotaxis is a response of motile cells or organisms in which the direction of movement is affected by the gradient of a diffusible substance. It differs from chemokinesis in that the gradient alters probability ofmotion in one direction only, rather than rate or frequency of random motion. There are two major types of chemotaxis: (1) positive chemotaxis, i.e. the movement is toward a higher concentration of the diffusible substance, and (2) negative chemotaxis, i.e. the movement is in the opposite direction.
Chemotaxis is a kind of taxis, in which bodily cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (for example, glucose) by swimming towards the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from poisons (for example, phenol).
In multicellular organisms,chemotaxis is critical to development as well as normal function. In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during cancer metastasis. Certain cells release chemotactic cytokines (or chemokines) to attract motile cells such as T cells towards the direction of the chemokines.
Word origin: chemo- (of chemicals) + Ancient Greek táxis (arrangment, order)
See also:
Retrieved from ""
First | Previous (Chemotactic) | Next (Chemotaxonomy) | Last
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"url": "http://www.biology-online.org/bodict/index.php?title=Chemotaxis&redirect=no"
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A king has a chest that is filled with pearls. He wants to find a good and reliable treasurer to take care of his pearls. As such, he created a riddle for his villagers to solve; whosever solved it correctly first will become the new royal treasurer. The riddle is as follows:
"In this chest I have a number of pearls.
If I remove one, the number becomes a perfect square.
If I remove 2, the number becomes a multiple by 9.
If I divide these pearls amongst 5 knights equally, there is 1 left over.
If I divide them amongst 8 knights, then there are 5 left over.
The number of pearls is prime."
What is the minimum number of pearls in the king's chest?
Image credit: Flickr OSU Special Collections And Archives.
Problem Loading...
Note Loading...
Set Loading...
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Codes That Changed The World
show more detailshow less detail
The history of computing is dominated by the hardware; the race for speed and power has overshadowed how we've devised ways to instruct these machines to do useful tasks.
In this 5 part series Aleks Krotoski tells the story of the languages we've used to talk to the machines. FORTRAN is the oldest of what are called high level languages and marked a revolution in computing. With its invention programmers no longer had to work at the level of the machine in ones and zeroes but could talk in terms of the problem they wanted solved. And those problems were the calculations that allowed everything from the space race to nuclear power to become a reality.
Inefficient, verbose and ugly, yet by the 1990s, 80 per cent of the world's business software was written in Cobol. Aleks Krotoski explores why.
Basic is the little language that could. As language of choice for home computing in the 1980s, it became iconic.
Aleks Krotoski introduces the programming language that people probably interact with on a daily basis more than any other.
05 LASTThe Tower Of Babel20150410
Today's digital world is a reverse tower of Babel. It takes all sorts of different languages to build it. It is this phenomenon that Aleks Krotoski explores in this final edition.
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Hopi Creation Myths
By Robert Morningside
The Hopi believe the Creator of Man is a woman.
The Sumerians believed the Creator of Man was a woman.
The Hopi believe the Father Creator is KA.
The Sumerians believed the Father Essence was KA.
The Hopi believe Taiowa, the Sun God, is the Creator of the Earth.
The Sumerians believe TA.EA was the Creator.
The Hopi believe two brothers had guardianship of the Earth.
The Sumerians believed two brothers had dominion over the Earth.
The Hopi believe Alo to be spiritual guides.
The Sumerians believed AL.U to be beings of Heaven.
The Hopi believe Kachinas (Kat'sinas) are the spirits of nature
and the messengers and teachers sent by the Great Spirit.
The Sumerians believed KAT.SI.NA were righteous ones sent of God.
The Hopi believe Eototo is the Father of Katsinas.
The Sumerians believed EA.TA was the Father of all beings.
The Hopi believe Chakwaina is the Chief of Warriors.
The Sumerians believed TAK.AN.U was the Heavenly Destroyer.
The Hopi believe Nan-ga-Sohu is the Chasing Star Katsina.
The Sumerians believed NIN.GIR.SU to be the Master of Starships.
The Hopi believe Akush to be the Dawn Katsina.
The Sumerians believed AK.U to be Beings of light.
The Hopi believe Danik to be Guardians in the Clouds.
The Sumerians believed DAK.AN to be Sky Warriors.
The Hopi believe Sotunangu is a Sky Katsina.
The Sumerians believed TAK.AN.IKU were Sky Warriors.
The Hopi name for the Pleaides is ChooChookam.
The Sumerians believed SHU. SHU.KHEM were the supreme Stars.
The Hopi believe Tapuat is the name of Earth.
The Sumerians believed Tiamat was the name of Earth.
The Hopi call a snake Chu'a.
The Sumerians called a snake SHU.
The Hopi word for "dead" is Mokee.
The Sumerians used KI. MAH to mean "dead."
The Hopi use Omiq to mean above, up.
The Sumerians used AM.IK to mean looking to Heaven.
The Hopi believe Tuawta is One Who Sees Magic.
The Sumerians believed TUAT.U was One from the Other World.
The Hopi believe Pahana was the Lost Brother who would
one day return to assist the Hopi and humankind.
The Sumerians would recognize PA.HA.NA
as an Ancestor from heaven who would return.
Myth 2
In the beginning there were only two: Tawa, the Sun God, and Spider Woman (Kokyanwuhti), the Earth Goddess. All the mysteries and the powers in the Above belonged to Tawa, while Spider Woman controlled the magic of the Below.
There was neither man nor woman, bird nor beast, no living thing until these Two willed it to be.
In time they decided there should be other gods to share their labors, so Tawa divided himself and there came Muiyinwuh, God of All Life Germs and Spider Woman divided herself and there came Huzruiwuhti, Woman of the Hard Substances (turquoise, silver, coral, shell,etc.).
Huzruiwuhti became the wife of Tawa and with him produced Puukonhoya, the Youth, and Palunhoya, the Echo, and later, Hicanavaiya, Man-Eagle, Plumed Serpent and many others.
Then did Tawa and Spider Woman have the Great Thought, they would make the Earth to be between the Above and the Below. As Tawa thought the features of the Earth, Spider women formed them from clay.
Then did Tawa think of animals and beasts and plants, all the while Spider Woman formed them from the clay. At last they decided they had enough, then they made great magic and breathed life into their creatures. Now Tawa decided they should make creatures in their image to lord over all the rest. Spider Woman again formed them from clay. Again the Two breathed life into their creations. Spider Woman called all the people so created to follow where she led.
Through all the Four Great Caverns of the Underworld she led them, until they finally came to an opening, a sipapu, which led to the earth above.
How the Great Chiefs Made the Moon and the Sun
Once upon a time, when our people first came up from the villages of the underworld, there was no sun. There was no moon. They saw only dreary darkness and felt the coldness. They looked hard for firewood, but in the darkness they found little.
One day as they stumbled around, they saw a light in the distance. The Chief sent a messenger to see what caused the light. As the messenger approached it, he saw a small field containing corn, beans, squash, watermelons, and other foods. All around the field a great fire was burning. Nearby stood a straight, handsome man wearing around his neck a turquoise necklace of four strands. Turquoise pendants hung from his ears.
"Who are you?" the owner of the field asked the messenger.
"My people and I have come from the cave world below," the messenger replied. "And we suffer from the lack of light and the lack of food."
"My name is Skeleton," said the owner of the field. He showed the stranger the terrible mask he often wore and then gave him some food. "Now return to your people and guide them to my field."
When all the people had arrived, Skeleton began to give them food from his field. They marvelled that, although the crops seemed so small, there was enough food for everyone. He gave them ears of corn for roasting; he gave them beans, squashes, and watermelons. The people built fires for themselves and were happy.
Later, Skeleton helped them prepare fields of their own and to make fires around them. There they planted corn and soon harvested a good crop.
"Now we should move on," the people said. "We want to find the place where we will live always."
Away from the fires it was still dark. The Great Chiefs, at a council with Skeleton, decided to make a moon like the one they had enjoyed in the underworld.
They took a piece of well-prepared buffalo hide and cut from it a great circle. They stretched the circle tightly over a wooden hoop and then painted it carefully with white paint. When it was entirely dry, they mixed some black paint and painted, all around its edge, completing the picture of the moon. When all of this was done, they attached a stick to the disk and placed it on a large square of white cloth. Thus they made a symbol of the moon.
Then the Great Chiefs selected one of the young men and bade him
to stand on top of the moon symbol. They took up the cloth by its corners and began to swing it back and forth, higher and higher. As they were swinging it, they sang a magic song. Finally, with a mighty heave, they threw the moon disk upward. It continued to fly swiftly, upward and eastward.
As the people watched, they suddenly saw light in the eastern sky. The light became brighter and brighter. Surely something was burning there, they thought. Then something bright with light rose in the east. That was the moon!
Although the moon made it possible for the people to move around with less stumbling, its light was so dim that frequently the workers in the fields would cut up their food plants instead of the weeds. It was so cold that fires had to be kept burning around the fields all the time.
Again the Great Chiefs held a council with Skeleton, and again they decided that something better must be done.
This time, instead of taking a piece of buffalo hide, they took a piece of warm cloth that they themselves had woven while they were still in the underworld. They fashioned this as they had fashioned the disk of buffalo hide, except that this time they painted the face of the circle with a copper-coloured paint.
They painted eyes and a mouth on the disk and decorated the forehead with colours that the Great Chiefs decided upon according to their desires. Around the circle, they then wove a ring of corn husks, arranged in a zig zag design. Around the circle of corn husks, they threaded a string of red hair from some animal. To the back of the disk, they fastened a small ring of corn husks. Through that ring they poked a circle of eagle feathers.
To the top of each eagle feather, the old Chief tied a few little red feathers taken from the top of the head of a small bird. On the forehead of the circle, he attached an abalone shell. Then the sun disk was completed.
Again the Great Chiefs chose a young man to stand on top of the disk, which they had placed on a large sheet. As they had done with the moon disk, they raised the cloth by holding its corners. Then they swung the sun disk back and forth, back and forth, again and again. With a mighty thrust, they threw the man and the disk far into the air. It travelled fast into the eastern sky and disappeared.
All the people watched it carefully. In a short time, they saw light in the east as if a great fire were burning. Soon the new sun rose and warmed the earth with its kindly rays.
Now with the moon to light the earth at night and the sun to light and warm it by day, all the people decided to pick up their provisions and go on. As they started, the White people took a trail that led them far to the south. The Hopis took one to the north, and the Pueblos took one midway between the two. Thus they wandered on to the places where they were to live.
The Hopis wandered a long time, building houses and planting crops until they reached the mesas where they now live. The ruins of the ancient villages are scattered to the very beginnings of the great river of the canyon--the Colorado.
How the Hopi Reached Their World
When the world was new, the ancient people and the ancient creatures did not live on the top of the earth. They lived under it. All was darkness, all was blackness, above the earth as well as below it.
There were four worlds: this one on top of the earth, and below it three cave worlds, one below the other. None of the cave worlds was large enough for all the people and the creatures.
They increased so fast in the lowest cave world that they crowded it. They were poor and did not know where to turn in the blackness. When they moved, they jostled one another. The cave was filled with the filth of the people who lived in it. No one could turn to spit without spitting on another. No one could cast slime from his nose without its falling on someone else. The people filled the place with their complaints and with their expressions of disgust.
Some people said, "It is not good for us to live in this way."
"How can it be made better?" one man asked.
"Let it be tried and seen!" answered another.
Two Brothers, one older and one younger, spoke to the priest- chiefs of the people in the cave world, "Yes, let it be tried and seen. Then it shall be well. By our wills it shall be well."
The Two Brothers pierced the roofs of the caves and descended to the lowest world, where people lived. The Two Brothers sowed one plant after another, hoping that one of them would grow up to the opening through which they themselves had descended and yet would have the strength to bear the weight of men and creatures. These, the Two Brothers hoped, might climb up the plant into the second cave world. One of these plants was a cane.
At last, after many trials, the cane became so tall that it grew through the opening in the roof, and it was so strong that men could climb to its top. It was jointed so that it was like a ladder, easily ascended. Ever since then, the cane has grown in joints as we see it today along the Colorado River.
Up this cane many people and beings climbed to the second cave world. When a part of them had climbed out, they feared that that cave also would be too small. It was so dark that they could not see how large it was. So they shook the ladder and caused those who were coming up it to fall back. Then they pulled the ladder out. It is said that those who were left came out of the lowest cave later. They are our brothers west of us.
After a long time the second cave became filled with men and beings, as the first had been. Complaining and wrangling were heard as in the beginning. Again the cane was placed under the roof vent, and once more men and beings entered the upper cave world. Again, those who were slow to climb out were shaken back or left behind. Though larger, the third cave was as dark as the first and second. The Two Brothers found fire. Torches were set ablaze, and by their light men built their huts and kivas, or travelled from place to place.
While people and the beings lived in this third cave world, times of evil came to them. Women became so crazed that they neglected all things for the dance. They even forgot their babies. Wives became mixed with wives, so that husbands did not know their own from others. At that time there was no day, only night, black night. Throughout this night, women danced in the kivas (men's "clubhouses"), ceasing only to sleep. So the fathers had to be the mothers of the little ones. When these little ones cried from hunger, the fathers carried them to the kivas, where the women were dancing. Hearing their cries, the mothers came and nursed them, and then went back to their dancing. Again the fathers took care of the children.
These troubles caused people to long for the light and to seek again an escape from darkness. They climbed to the fourth world, which was this world. But it too was in darkness, for the earth was closed in by the sky, just as the cave worlds had been closed in by their roofs. Men went from their lodges and worked by the light of torches and fires. They found the tracks of only one being, the single ruler of the unpeopled world, the tracks of Corpse Demon or Death. The people tried to follow these tracks, which led eastward. But the world was damp and dark, and people did not know what to do in the darkness. The waters seemed to surround them, and the tracks seemed to lead out into the waters.
With the people were five beings that had come forth with them from the cave worlds: Spider, Vulture, Swallow, Coyote, and Locust. The people and these beings consulted together, trying to think of some way of making light. Many, many attempts were made, but without success. Spider was asked to try first. She spun a mantle of pure white cotton. It gave some light but not enough. Spider therefore became our grandmother.
Then the people obtained and prepared a very white deerskin that had not been pierced in any spot. From this they made a shield case, which they painted with turquoise paint. It shed forth such brilliant light that it lighted the whole world. It made the light from the cotton mantle look faded. So the people sent the shield-light to the east, where it became the moon.
Down in the cave world Coyote had stolen a jar that was very heavy, so very heavy that he grew weary of carrying it. He decided to leave it behind, but he was curious to see what it contained. Now that light had taken the place of darkness, he opened the jar. From it many shining fragments and sparks flew out and upward, singeing his face as they passed him. That is why the coyote has a black face to this day. The shining fragments and sparks flew up to the sky and became stars.
By these lights the people found that the world was indeed very small and surrounded by waters, which made it damp. The people appealed to Vulture for help. He spread his wings and fanned the waters, which flowed away to the east and to the west until mountains began to appear.
Across the mountains the Two Brothers cut channels. Water rushed through the channels, and wore their courses deeper and deeper. Thus the great canyons and valleys of the world were formed. The waters have kept on flowing and flowing for ages. The world has grown drier, and continues to grow drier and drier.
Now that there was light, the people easily followed the tracks of Death eastward over the new land that was appearing. Hence Death is our greatest father and master. We followed his tracks when we left the cave worlds, and he was the only being that awaited us on the great world of waters where this world is now.
Although all the water had flowed away, the people found the earth soft and damp. That is why we can see today the tracks of men and of many strange creatures between the place toward the west and the place where we came from the cave world.
Since the days of the first people, the earth has been changed to stone, and all the tracks have been preserved as they were when they were first made.
When people had followed in the tracks of Corpse Demon but a short distance, they overtook him. Among them were two little girls. One was the beautiful daughter of a great priest. The other was the child of somebody-or-other She was not beautiful, and she was jealous of the little beauty. With the aid of Corpse Demon the jealous girl caused the death of the other child. This was the first death.
When people saw that the girl slept and could not be awakened, that she grew cold and that her heart had stopped beating, her father, the great priest, grew angry.
"Who has caused my daughter to die?" he cried loudly.
But the people only looked at each other.
"I will make a ball of sacred meal," said the priest. "I will throw it into the air, and when it falls it will strike someone on the head. The one it will strike I shall know as the one whose magic and evil art have brought my tragedy upon me."
The priest made a ball of sacred flour and pollen and threw it into the air. When it fell, it struck the head of the jealous little girl, the daughter of somebody-or-other. Then the priest exclaimed, "So you have caused this thing! You have caused the death of my daughter."
He called a council of the people, and they tried the girl. They would have killed her if she had not cried for mercy and a little time. Then she begged the priest and his people to return to the hole they had all come out of and look down it.
"If you still wish to destroy me, after you have looked into the hole," she said, "I will die willingly."
So the people were persuaded to return to the hole leading from the cave world. When they looked down, they saw plains of beautiful flowers in a land of everlasting summer and fruitfulness. And they saw the beautiful little girl, the priest's daughter, wandering among the flowers. She was so happy that she paid no attention to the people. She seemed to have no desire to return to this world.
"Look!" said the girl who had caused her death. "Thus it shall be with all the children of men."
"When we die," the people said to each other, "we will return to the world we have come from. There we shall be happy. Why should we fear to die? Why should we resent death?"
So they did not kill the little girl. Her children became the powerful wizards and witches of the world, who increased in numbers as people increased. Her children still live and still have wonderful and dreadful powers.
Then the people journeyed still farther eastward. As they went, they discovered Locust in their midst.
"Where did you come from?" they asked.
"I came out with you and the other beings," he replied.
"Why did you come with us on our journey?" they asked.
"So that I might be useful," replied Locust.
But the people, thinking that he could not be useful, said to him, "You must return to the place you came from."
But Locust would not obey them. Then the people became so angry at him that they ran arrows through him, even through his heart. All the blood oozed out of his body and he died. After a long time he came to life again and ran about, looking as he had looked before, except that he was black.
The people said to one another, "Locust lives again, although we have pierced him through and through. Now he shall indeed be useful and shall journey with us. Who besides Locust has this wonderful power of renewing his life? He must possess the medicine for the renewal of the lives of others. He shall become the medicine of mortal wounds and of war."
So today the locust is at first white, as was the first locust that came forth with the ancients. Like him, the locust dies, and after he has been dead a long time, he comes to life again-- black. He is our father, too. Having his medicine, we are the greatest of men. The locust medicine still heals mortal wounds.
After the ancient people had journeyed a long distance, they became very hungry. In their hurry to get away from the lower cave world, they had forgotten to bring seed. After they had done much lamenting, the Spirit of Dew sent the Swallow back to bring the seed of corn and of other foods. When Swallow returned, the Spirit of Dew planted the seed in the ground and chanted prayers to it. Through the power of these prayers, the corn grew and ripened in a single day.
So for a long time, as the people continued their journey, they carried only enough seed for a day's planting. They depended upon the Spirit of Dew to raise for them in a single day an abundance of corn and other foods. To the Corn Clan, he gave this seed, and for a long time they were able to raise enough corn for their needs in a very short time.
But the powers of the witches and wizards made the time for raising foods grow longer and longer. Now, sometimes, our corn does not have time to grow old and ripen in the ear, and our other foods do not ripen. If it had not been for the children of the little girl whom the ancient people let live, even now we would not need to watch our cornfields whole summers through, and we would not have to carry heavy packs of food on our journeys.
As the ancient people travelled on, the children of the little girl tried their powers and caused other troubles. These mischief-makers stirred up people who had come out of the cave worlds before our ancients had come. They made war upon our ancients. The wars made it necessary for the people to build houses whenever they stopped travelling. They built their houses on high mountains reached by only one trail, or in caves with but one path leading to them, or in the sides of deep canyons. Only in such places could they sleep in peace.
Only a small number of people were able to climb up from their secret hiding places and emerge into the Fourth World. Legends reveal the Grand Canyon is where these people emerged. From there they began their search for the homes the Two Brothers intended for them.
These few were the Hopi Indians that now live on the Three Mesas of northeastern Arizona.
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feet of birds
feet of birds defined in 1930 year
feet of birds - Feet of birds;
feet of birds - Hardly less diversified in form are the feet of birds. The skeleton of this part of the body is dealt with on another page; here we are concerned only with the external form of the feet and legs. Aquatic birds often have webbed feet, but not always. The Dipper, for example, is a bird which lives largely on and under the water, but its feet are not in the least like those of a Duck or Grebe. The webbed foot presents us with at least two varieties. In the Pelican tribe (fig. 1) the extreme of web-footedness is to be seen. Here all the toes (four) are connected by a webbing. In the Duck only three of the toes are webbed Another kind of webbed foot is termed palmate. In the Coots, for example, each toe is fringed with a broad membrane, but there is no connection between the fringes of successive toes. The toes of birds are apt to be differently disposed. In most birds (fig. 2) there are three toes which are turned forwards, and one, the great toe (hallux), which is turned backwards. But in the Trogons and others two toes are turned forwards and two backwards, thus producing a very efficient mechanism for holding on tightly to the bough of a tree, a mechanism which is shared by that, in some other respects, bird-like lizard, the chameleon. A foot pf this kind is technically called ' zygodactyle.' A singular modification of the foot is seen in the Kingfisher (fig. 3) where the two middle toes are enclosed in the same fold of skin; this is called syngenesious.'
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Sunday, 10 July 2016
A commonly accepted source of the name Senegal is 'sunu gaal' meaning 'our canoe' in the local Wolof language. It is said that the name resulted from a miscommunication between the 15th-century Portuguese sailors and Wolof fishermen. But Senegal - the name, predates 15th century. Others believe the river's name is derived from the compound of the Serer term Sene (from Roge Sene, Supreme Deity in the ancient Senegalese religion and O Gal meaning 'body of water'. The 'gal' is close to the Sanskrit 'jala' meaning 'water'. Much like other ancient pagan religions and Hinduism, the Serer religious beliefs encompass ancient chants and poems, veneration of and offerings to deities as well as spirits, astronomy, Initiation rites, medicine, and cosmology.
A strong challenge to the above theory is that 'Senegal' derives from 'Singhanah', a city described by the Arab historian al-Bakri in 1068. In his map the town of Singhanah is shown to be located by the mouth of the Senegal River, the city straddling both banks of the river Senegal. (The map belongs to a time when it was believed that the river Senegal was connected to Niger).
Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068). Al-Bakri (c. 1014–1094) was an Andalusian Muslim geographer and historian.
But then what does 'Singhanah' mean! Edward Pococke states in his book 'India in Greece', " Let it be granted that the names given to rivers, mountains and towns have a meaning, let it be granted that the language of the name-givers expressed that meaning, let it be granted that the language of the name-giver will explain that meaning...". So who named the town on al-Bakri's map Singhanah, in what language, and what meaning did it have in that language. There are no answers to any of these questions.
Surprisingly, many of the names on al-Bakri's map are Sanskritic. Ghanah and Singhanah have possibly Sanskrit origins. There are many cognates to these words in Sanskrit. Ghana (घन ) means 'complete', 'profound' , 'compact' or 'fortunate'. Sanghanah (सङ्घना) means 'condensation of water'.
Sangha (सङ्घ) means 'union' or 'association' and is linked to Buddhism - an association of monks is known as 'sangha'. Edward Pococke was of the view that Buddhist monks and Buddhists who had left India in droves around 2000 years back, carried their culture and language with them, travelled across Western Asia, Europe and Africa, and had a compelling influence on the local inhabitants and tribes. Buddhist settlements had sprung up in many parts of Europe and Africa which explains Indian-Sanskritic-Buddhists names in these parts of the world. Examples - there is the town of Bihar in Hungary, Gaya in Nigeria, another Gaya - in Niger, a Trikala in Greece, a Sangam in Sierra Leone; the towns of Kanika- Yamina- Gangu- Calimana on the river Niger and so on....
Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154) was a Muslim geographer, cartographer and Egyptologist who lived in Palermo, Sicily at the court of King Roger II. Muhammed al-Idrisi was born in Ceuta, then belonging to the Moroccan Almoravids.
Any of the names in the al-Idrisi's map above can be exact Sanskrit words with a mild tweaking, but that is not the intent. The question still remains what exactly do the names mean in the local language. The fact remains that these names have no meaning without considerable tweaking in the Wolof and Mande group of languages either.
But Sanskrit can explain some of these names without any tweaking. Sama-khanda which appears on both the maps above, has the meaning of 'even land'; another town on the river is named Ghanah (घन), Sanskrit for 'thick' or 'cloud', alternatively 'ghaNa' (गण) or 'tribe' etc.
The argument is not that the names have a meaning in Sanskrit. The question is why do these names not have a meaning in the local languages.
The Senegal was also known as the 'Sanaga'. There is another river in Africa (in Cameroon) known as the 'Sanaga'. Two rivers, Djerem River and Lom River unite to make this river. As stated above 'Sangha' is Sanskrit for 'union'. Djerem, a cognate of 'jharim' means 'river' in Sanskrit.
There are other bits and pieces of interesting derivations from the Sanskrit point of view. However, there is no data or known history to confirm this in any way. For example the ancient name of Senegal's largest lake , Lac de Guiers, was Pania Fuli, Fuli being the name of a Senegalese tribe. The meaning of 'Pania' is unknown, however 'pan' is the Sanskrit word for 'drink' which makes the name of the lake mean 'Drink of the Fuli people'. On this lake lies the town of Keur Momar Saar. 'Sara' is the Sanskrit word for 'lake' or 'spring'.
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Introduction to Gold
1 07 2011
During the 1860’s, New Zealand entered a prosperous new period in its history. There were widespread changes, particularly in the South Island, as new towns, new cultures, and new lifestyles were established. The catalyst for these changes was the discovery of gold in the southern areas, particularly Otago and the West Coast. The gold and the associated rushes proved to be very influential, and greatly affected New Zealand’s makeup in terms of the economic, political and social patterns of the time.
There have been many gold rushes around the world, and we can make comparisons with other goldrushes in places such as Australia, South Africa and California. When we look at size of the New Zealand rushes relative to the rushes of other countries, we can see the reason why some historians downplay the importance of the gold found in the South Island. The argument regarding the size of the impact these rushes made in terms of New Zealand’s development is still one of our nation’s major historical debates, and it warrants discussion amongst historians and common folk alike.
There is little doubt that the gold rushes affected New Zealand greatly whilst they were happening, but the majority of the debate centres on the long term effects and the implications the gold rushes had for modern day New Zealand. Some historians (such as Keith Sinclair) argue that the majority of the influence the gold had was temporary, and that current day New Zealand remains largely unaffected by the gold that used to be present in our earth. Others would say that today’s New Zealand would not be the same without the lingering effects of the golden 1860’s.
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ETHNONYMS: Self-designation: Lezgi (pl., Lezgiar)
Identification. The Lezgins are the descendants of Caucasic peoples who have inhabited the region of southern Daghestan since at least the Bronze Age. The Lezgins are closely related, both culturally and linguistically, to the Aghuls of southern Daghestan and, somewhat more distantly, to the Tsakhurs, Rutuls, and Tabasarans (the northern neighbors of the Lezgins). Also related, albeit more distantly, are the numerically small Jek, Kryz, Khaput, Budukh, and Khinalug peoples of northern Azerbaijan. These groups, together with the Lezgins, form the Samurian branch of the indigenous Caucasic peoples.
Prior to the Russian Revolution, the Lezgins did not have a common self-designation as an ethnic group. They referred to themselves by village, region, religion, clan, or free society. Before the Revolution, the Lezgins were called "Kyurintsy," or "Akhtintsy," or "Lezgintsy" by the Russians. The ethnonym "Lezgin" itself is quite problematic. Prior to the Soviet period, the term "Lezgin" was used in different contexts. At times, it referred only to the people known today as Lezgins. At others, it referred variously to all of the peoples of southern Daghestan (Lezgin, Aghul, Rutul, Tabasaran, and Tsakhur); all of the peoples of southern Daghestan and northern Azerbaijan (Kryz [Jek], Khinalug, Budukh, Khaput); all Daghestani peoples; or all of the indigenous Moslem peoples of the northeastern Caucasus (Daghestanis, Chechens, and Ingush). In reading pre-Revolutionary works one must be aware of these different possible meanings and scope of the ethnonym "Lezgin."
Location. The Lezgins inhabit a compact territory that straddles the border area of southern Daghestan and northern Azerbaijan. It lies for the most part, in the southeastern portion of Daghestan (in Akhti, Dokuzpara, Kasumkent, Kurakh, Magaramkent, and Rutul districts) and contiguous northeastern Azerbaijan (in Kuba, Nukha, and Shemakha districts).
The Lezgin territories are divided into two physiographic zones: a region of high, rugged mountains and the piedmont (foothills). Most of the Lezgin territory is in the mountainous zone, where a number of peaks (like Baba Dagh) reach over 3,500 meters in elevation. There are deep and isolated canyons and gorges formed by the tributaries of the Samur and Gulgeri Chai rivers. In the mountainous zones the summers are very hot and dry, with drought conditions a constant threat. There are few trees in this region aside from those in the deep canyons and along the streams themselves. Drought-resistant shrubs and weeds dominate the natural flora. The winters here are frequently windy and brutally cold. In this zone the Lezgins engaged primarily in animal husbandry (mostly sheep and goats) and in craft industries.
In the extreme east of the Lezgin territory, where the mountains give way to the narrow coastal plain of the Caspian Sea, and to the far south, in Azerbaijan, are the foothills. This region has relatively mild, very dry winters and hot, dry summers. Trees are few here also. In this region animal husbandry and artisanry were supplemented by some agriculture (along the alluvial deposits near the rivers).
Demography. The Lezgins are the second-most numerous of the Daghestani peoples. In 1979 their population was 382,611, of whom 49.3 percent lived in the Daghestan ASSR and 41.3 percent in neighboring Azerbaijan. Many of the Lezgins in Azerbaijan no longer inhabit their traditional rural areas in the northern part of that republic, having moved to important urban centers there (Baku, Sumgait, Shemakha, Kuba, and others). Since the environment in the traditional Lezgin territories is so harsh, the Lezgins have had to lead their flocks of sheep and goats into winter pastures in Azerbaijan and to find seasonal employment there. The Lezgins have therefore been strongly influenced by the Turkic-speaking Azerbaijani people and their culture. The Lezgins are the most culturally Turkicized Daghestanis. Most Lezgins are traditionally bilingual (Lezgin and Azerbaijani), and over the centuries many southern Lezgins were totally assimilated by the Azerbaijanis. This process of Turkicization of the southern Lezgins continued well into the 1930s. Had the Soviet regime not decided to actively suppress this process and support the Lezgins as a distinct nationality, the current Lezgin population and the number of Lezgin speakers would be much lower. In the north, however, the Lezgins exerted a major influence on the Aghuls, Rutuls, and Tabasarans. Most of these peoples spoke Lezgin in addition to their own languages, and many were being culturally and linguistically assimilated by the Lezgins. In the early Soviet period the regime actively supported the "Lezginization" of the Aghuls and Rutuls.
Linguistic Affiliation. The Lezgin language belongs (along with Aghul, Rutul, Tsakhur, Tabasaran, Budukh, Khinalugh, Jek, Khaput, Kryz [K'rits'], and Udi) to the Lezgian or Samurian Group of the Northeast Caucasian (Checheno-Daghestani) Language Family. The Lezgin language is comprised of three closely related (mutually intelligible) dialects: Kurin (also referred to as Gunei or Kurakh), Akhti, and Kuba. The Kurin dialect is the most widespread of the three and is spoken throughout most of the Lezgin territories in Daghestan, including the town of Kurakh, which, historically, was the most important cultural, political, and economic center in the Lezgin territory in Daghestan and is the former seat of the khanate of Kurin. The Akhti dialect is spoken in southeastern Daghestan. The Kuba dialect, the most Turkicized of the three, is widespread among the Lezgins of northern Azerbaijan (named for the town of Kuba, the cultural and economical focus of the region).
History and Cultural Relations
The ancestors of the Lezgins have occupied the areas of Daghestan and Azerbaijan since at least the Bronze Age. Little, however, is known about their early history. According to legend, the Islamic religion was first introduced among the Lezgins by Arab conquerors in the eighth century. The final conversion of the Lezgins to Islam, however, came in the mid-fifteenth century with the conquest of their territory by the Shah of Shirvan, Khalil Ulloi. As a result of the long influence of the Turkish khanates of northern Azerbaijan on the Lezgins, a Lezgin feudal principality, the khanate of Kurin, was formed in 1775 with its center in Kurakh. This khanate, however, included only a relatively small part of the what was then Lezgin territory and exerted only a minor influence on the Lezgins. The majority of Lezgins continued to live in free societies, although others lived, at different times, under the khanates of Kuba, Derbent, and Kazikumukh. In 1812 the Kurin Khanate became a Russian protectorate, and in 1864, with its abolition, the Lezgin territory became an integral part of the Russian Empire. In the mid-nineteenth century, under the leadership of Shamil and his Murids, the Lezgins played a major role in the Caucasus Wars against imperial Russia.
Language and Literacy
Until the mid-nineteenth century the Lezgins, like all Muslim peoples of Daghestan and neighboring Chechnia, used the Arabic language as their only literary language. The first attempts to create a Lezgin literary language, written in Arabic script appropriating the dialect spoken in Kurakh, were made in the mid-nineteenth century. Despite efforts to establish a distinct Lezgin literary language, Arabic remained the dominant written language of the Lezgins through the early Revolutionary period (i.e., into the 1920s); it was used both for religious and secular purposes by virtually all of the intellectuals in Daghestan. Early attempts at writing this language in the Cyrillic script in 1904-1905 met with utter failure. As part of the anti-Islamic campaign of the 1920s, the Soviets changed Lezgin (and all other literary languages of the Moslem peoples of the USSR) from the Arabic to the Latin script. Then, as part of the Russification policy initiated in 1938, the literary form was changed from Latin to Cyrillic script. A major attempt was also made to replace Arabic and Persian words with Russian words. Lezgin is currently one of the nine official languages of Daghestan. Between the 1920s and 1960s Lezgin served as the language of instruction through the fifth grade among the Lezgins of Daghestan and among the Aghuls. Since the 1960s all education among the Lezgins of Daghestan has been in Russian only. Although books and journals are printed in the Lezgin language, most are translations of works from other languages (few works are written in Lezgin). Most of these translations are from the Russian language and, to a lesser extent, from other Daghestani languages. The Lezgins have a long literary tradition; however, most works by Lezgin authors of the past were written in Arabic or Azerbaijani Turkish, and contemporary works are written in Russian. Among the more renowned writers of Lezgin origin are the theologian Sa'id of Kochkhur, the mystical poet Etim Emin, the Azerbaijani historian Hasan Alkadari, and the poets Saifullah Chobanzade, Emir Arslan, and Hadji of Akhti. Soviet literature began with Sulaiman Stal'ski (the "national" poet of Daghestan) and has been followed by others, such as Tahir Alimov of Khurug, Alibek Fatahov, Shah Emir Maradov, and others.
Subsistence and Commercial Activities. Agriculture has never been of primary importance in the traditional Lezgin lands, which are too mountainous and dry to support farming. The raising of sheep and goats, and also of some horses, mules, and water buffalo, was more important to the Lezgin diet, which consisted primarily of meat and milk products. In better-watered areas and especially in the foothill regions, grains (wheat, rye, barley, and millet), garden vegetables (potatoes, peas, cabbage, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes), and fruits were also grown. Because of the general rural poverty and the shortage of good agricultural land, transhumant sheepherding was widespread, requiring the males to migrate annually to the lowlands (mostly southward into Azerbaijani territory) to pasture their animals. In addition, many Lezgin males found seasonal employment in the towns and cities of northern Azerbaijan (Shemakha, Kuba, Shirvan, and others), coastal Daghestan (in the Azerbaijani-dominated town of Derbent), and in and around Baku. As a result, the Lezgins fell under a strong Azerbaijani influence and virtually all Lezgins were bilingual (Lezgin and Azerbaijani).
Industrial Arts. Lezgin women were famous throughout the Caucasus for their fine woven carpets. The Lezgins, however, were less well known, in general, for handicrafts and artisanry than the other peoples of Daghestan (Dargins, Laks, Avars, Kubachins, etc.). Because the Lezgin territories are so poor in economic potential, traditional economic enterprisesfood processing (meat, cheese, butter), leather working, and textile productionstill dominate the economy. Many Lezgins, however, work in the industrial areas of Azerbaijan and Daghestan and continue the tradition of economic out-migration. One notable alteration in the traditional economic pattern is that animals are now trucked between winter and summer pastures; in the past they were accompanied by shepherds on foot. Another is that the animals, which in the pre-Soviet period were wintered in Azerbaijan, are now driven far to the north (around Astrakhan). This was part of a Soviet policy aimed at diminishing Azerbaijani influence in southern Daghestan, and has strengthened the Russian influence on the Lezgins at the expense of the Azerbaijani influence.
Land Tenure. Traditionally, lands and herds were owned communally by extended families. Agricultural land was in short supply, and the pastures were used communally. The Lezgins had a stronger sense of land usership than of ownership. Although this should have made collectivization somewhat easier, the Lezgins openly resisted collectivization and Sovietization.
Kinship and Sociopolitical Organization
Although a weak feudal structure had developed in the region of Kurakh, the majority of the Lezgins lived in free societies. These free societies, ruled by the village adat (traditional Daghestani customary law that predates Islam), were comprised of large extended patriarchal clans (tukhum ). The largest of the free societies were the Akhty-para, Alty-para, Dokuz-para, and Rutul (the Rutul free society was comprised of Lezgin and Rutul clans). Some Lezgin tukhums were, at different times, under foreign feudal overlordship (e.g., the Lak Khanate of Kazikumukh and the Azerbaijani khanates of Shemakha, Kuba, and Derbent). The Lezgin tukhum, a large extended family with a living or recently deceased common ancestor, owned all property. The elder patriarch or the elder male members made the major decisions for the clan. Members of the tukhum supported each other in their work and their family affairs and bore mutual responsibility for vendettas, which came under adat. Today, with modernization and out-migration, tukhums are becoming less important than they once were.
Marriage and Family
Most Lezgin marriages were within the clan even though clan exogamy was allowed. Families traditionally arranged marriages (the elder women were the most important in these decisions). The groom's family paid a bride-price (kalïm ). This custom is still followed in some areas but is becoming rarer, and the kalïm is now more of a symbolic payment.
Religion and Expressive Culture
The Lezgins are primarily Sunni Muslims of the Shaft school. Given the strong Azerbaijani influence on them, however, there is a sizable Shiite minority among the Lezgins. In addition to mainstream Islamic traditions, there are many surviving pre-Islamic traditions. Many Lezgins preserve the names of pagan deities that have become synonymous with Allah. There are also many local pilgrimage sites that predate Islam. During the spring, several ancient spring rituals are also commonly practiced (e.g., young people jumping over bonfires). Bones of animals are thought to have magical and healing powers. Many pre-Islamic planting, harvest, and other rituals related to the cycles of animal husbandry are still practiced. Sufism has thrived among the Lezgins as a mystical underground movement within the Sunni superstructure. It has served as an alternative to the centralized authority of both the Islamic clergy and the Soviet government. Sufi orders provided group solidarity and protection from the Soviet system. Members provide mutual assistance in finding employment, housing, and positions in schools; help arrange marriages and pay the kalïm; maintain burial societies; and alleviate local disputes.
Akiner, Shirin (1986). Islamic Peoples of the Soviet Union: An Historical and Statistical Handbook. 2nd ed., 138-143. London: KPI.
Bennigsen, Alexandre (1967). "The Problem of Bilingualism and Assimilation in the North Caucasus." Central Asian Review 15(3):205-211.
Bennigsen, Alexandre, and S. Enders Wimbush (1986). Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide, 168. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Geiger, Bernhard, et al. (1959). Peoples and Languages of the Caucasus. The Hague: Mouton.
Wixman, Ronald (1980). Language Aspects of Ethnic Patterns and Processes in the North Caucasus. University of Chicago Department of Geography Research Paper no. 191.
Wixman, Ronald (1984). "Daghestanis." In The Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey. 2nd ed., edited by Richard V. Weekes, 212-219. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
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The Lezgins are an ethnic group of which half resides in the Dagestani Republic. According to the 1989 census they numbered 240,000 within that republic, a little more than 11 percent of the population. All told, some 466,006 Lezgins lived in the Soviet Union, with most of the rest residing in Azerbaijan. Of the total, 91 percent regarded Lezgin as their native language and 53 percent considered themselves to be fluent in Russian as a second language. Within Dagestan the Lezgins are concentrated mainly in the south in the mountainous part of the republic.
The Lezgin language is a member of the Lezgin group of the Northeast Caucasian languages. In Soviet times they were gathered in the larger category of the Ibero-Caucasian family of languages. The languages within this family, while geographically close together, are not closely related outside of its four major groupings. This categorization has become understood more as a part of the Soviet ideology of druzhba narodov (friendship of peoples). The other Lezgin languages are spoken in Azerbaijan and Dagestan. They are generally quite small groups, and the term "Lezgin" as an ethnic category has sometimes served to cover the entire group. Ethnic self-identity, calculated with language and religion, has been a fluid concept.
The Lezgin language since 1937 has been written in a modified Cyrillic alphabet. Following the pattern of other non-Slavic languages in the Soviet Union, it had a Latin alphabet from 1928 to 1937. Before that it would have been written in an Arabic script. A modest number of books have been published in the Lezgin language. From 1984 to 1985, for example, fifty titles were published. This compares favorably with other non-jurisdictional ethnic groups, such as their fellow Dagistanis, the Avars, but less so with some nationalities that possessed some level of ethnic jurisdiction, such as the Abkhazians.
The Lezgins long gained a reputation as mountain raiders among people to their south, particularly the Georgians. Again, precision of identity was not necessarily a phenomenon in naming raiders as Lezgins. The Lezgins and the Lezgin languages were likely a part of the diverse linguistic composition of the Caucasian Kingdom of Albania. Much has been said of Udi in this context.
In the post-Soviet world the Lezgins have been involved in ethnic conflict in both Azerbaijan and Dagestan. They form a distinct minority in the former country and experience difficulty in the context of this new nation's attempt to define its own national being. In Dagestan the Lezgins, located in the mountains and constituting only 15 percent of the population, find themselves generally alienated from the centers of power. They are also in conflict with some of the groups that live more closely to them.
See also: dagestan; ethnography, russian and soviet; nationalities policies, soviet; nationalities policies, tsarist
Karny, Yo'av. (2000). Highlanders: a Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Paul Crego
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"Lezgins." Encyclopedia of Russian History. . 17 Aug. 2017 <>.
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Linguistic Researcher; Dean of Arts and Sciences, Bentley University; Author, How Language Began
Peircean Semiotics
The course followed by humans on the path to language was a progression through natural signs to human symbols. Signs and symbols are explained in reference to a theory of "semiotics," the study of signs, in the writings of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914, usually known simply as C.S. Peirce). Peirce was perhaps the most brilliant American philosopher who ever lived. Bertrand Russell said of him, "Beyond doubt ... he was one of the most original minds of the later nineteenth century, and certainly the greatest American thinker ever."
He contributed to mathematics, to science, to the study of language, and to philosophy. He is the founder of multiple fields of study, including semiotics, the study of signs, and pragmatism, the only uniquely American school of philosophy, further developed by William James and others.
Peirce's theory of semiotics outlines a conceptual progression of signs from indexes, to icons, to human-created symbols. This progression moves to an increasing complexity of types of signs and the evolutionary progression of Homo species' language abilities. A sign is any pairing of a form (such as a word, a smell, a sound, a street sign, or Morse code) with a meaning (what the sign refers to). An index, according to Peirce, as the most primitive part of the progression, is a form that has a physical link to what it refers to. The footprint of a cat refers us, makes us think of, a cat. The smell of a grilling steak brings to mind the steak and the grill. Smoke indicates fire. An icon is something that is physically somehow like what it refers to. A sculpture represents the real-life object it is about. A portrait likewise is an icon of whatever it was painted of. An onomatopoeic word like "bam" or "clang" bears an iconic sound resemblance to another sound.
It turns out that Peirce's theory also predicts the order of language evolution we discover in the fossil record. First, we discover indexes being used by all creatures, far predating the emergence of the genus Homo. Second, we discover the use of icons by Australopithecines in South Africa some 3 million years ago. And finally, through recent archaeology on their sea voyages, settlement, and burial patterns, we discover that 1.9 million years ago the first Homo, erectus, had and used symbols, almost certainly indicating that human language—the ability to communicate most anything that we can communicate today in principle—began far before our species appeared. What is most fascinating is that Peirce's semiotics is a theory of philosophy that inadvertently makes startlingly accurate predictions about the fossil record.
The influence of Peirce's semiotics throughout world philosophy, influencing figures such as Ferdinand de Saussure, among others, extends to industry, science, linguistics, anthropology, philosophy, and beyond. Peirce introduced the concept of "infinite semiosis" long before Chomsky raised the issue of recursion as central to language.
Perhaps only Peirce, in the history of inquiry into human language, has come up with a theory that at once predicts the order of language evolution from the earliest hominins to Homo sapiens, while enlightening researchers from across the intellectual spectrum about the nature of truth, of meaning, and the conduct of scientific inquiry.
Peirce himself was a cantankerous curmudgeon. For that reason he never enjoyed stable employment, living in part off of the donations of friends, such as William James. But his semiotics has brought intellectual delight and employment to hundreds of academics since the late 19th century, when he first proposed his theory. His work on semiotics is worthy of being much more widely-known as relevant to current debates. It is far more than a quaint relic of 19th century reflection.
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Why did William Pitt the Younger dominate politics in the period 1783-93?
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• Created by: Holly
• Created on: 14-04-12 13:17
Pitt was an extraordinary politician who possessed a remarkable ability for financial management and for administration.
The disastrous American War of Independence had drained Britain's finances and had led to a humiliating loss of face for George III.
Pitt had several advantages, the most important was the support of the monarch. Pitt was able to survive until March 1784, at which point he achieved a famous election victory, the Whigs lost a great deal of support and public sympathy.
Financial policy.
Defeat in the American war of independence had created a major financial crisis. The national debt had risen to £242 million by 1784.
Imports and exports: in 1784 Pitt introduced two measures. A communication Act was deigned to lower the import on tea and so make smuggling less profitable, the introduction of a Hovering Act allowed smugglers' vessels to be searched up to 12 miles out to sea.
In 1785-87 duties on items such as brandy were reduced.
Taxation: Pitt realised that the best…
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The Harfoots are one of the three races of Hobbits.
Harfoots were the most common type of Hobbits, and in their earliest known history they lived in the lower foothills of the Misty Mountains, in the Vale of Anduin, in an area roughly bounded by the Gladden River in the south and the small forested region where later was the Eagles Eyrie near the High Pass to the north.
They were browner of skin than the other Hobbits, had no beards, and did not wear any footwear. They lived in holes they called Smials, a habit which they long preserved, and were on very friendly terms with the Dwarves, who travelled through the High Pass on the Great Road.
The Harfoots were the first to migrate westward into Arnor, and it was to them that the name Periannath or Halflings was first applied by the Dúnedain when they were first recorded in Arnorian records around TA 1050 of the Third Age. They tended to settle down for long times, and founded numerous villages as far as Weathertop.
The Harfoots were joined between TA 1150 and TA 1300 by the Fallohides and some Stoors. The Harfoots took Fallohides, a bolder race, as their leaders.
When The Shire was colonized in TA 1601 most of its people were Harfoots.
Small Wikipedia logo This page uses content from Wikipedia. The original article was at Harfoots. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with The One Wiki to Rule Them All, the text of Wikipedia is available under the Commons Attribution-Share Alike license.
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English sentences are built upon the foundation of an independent base clause consisting of two parts, a subject and a predicate. This simple pattern may be expanded in three ways. First, subordinate modifiers may be added to one of the main elements or to the base clause as a whole. Second, words or phrases may be coordinated with existing elements. Third, you may sometimes want to substitute a word group for an individual word. Finally, you can often use subordination, coordination, and substitution together to expand a single base clause.
4.3 Write five simple sentences (S V/C) without modifiers. Exchange and compare them.
4.4 Add modifiers to the base elements of the sentences you received in Activity 4.3, return the sentences, and discuss them again.
4.5 Underline and label (S, V, or C) the main word clusters in each of the following sentences.
a. The maturing tadpole slowly grows legs.
b. Slow dancing is much more fun.
c. An elderly woman picked out a bright red hat.
d. The freshly lit match touched the pile of dry woodchips.
e. The clear water cooled her cheeks and forehead.
f. Small aspen leaves flickered and danced in the bright morning air.
g. Most team members brought their own gloves.
h. The swirling dust almost obscured the distant horizon. i. Some old cars get pretty good mileage.
j. That wily old carp wouldn't even consider my shiny new spinner.
4.6 Use modification, coordination, or substitution to expand each of the following sentences.
a. Donnie devoured his waffles.
b. The teachers played football.
c. Rain flooded my basement.
d. Those boys won the trophy.
e. Doris is a mechanic.
f. The horses ate hay.
g. Clouds spilled their rain.
h. The semi snapped a stop sign. i. Cowboys love horses.
j. The cheerleaders did handsprings.
4.7 Rewrite any three of the sentences you expanded for Activity 4.6, this time expanding them even further.
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8: Trenches (1)
The main element of the Western Front was the linear, hand-dug trench. Several parallel lines were usually dug, for accommodation, reserves and supplies, behind the front line. The latter was dug to just above head height, with a parados mound behind, a parapet in front and usually a fire-step cut into the front from which to shoot. The trench’s potential as a feature in the urban landcape would seem to be limited, but in the Fifties it began to crop up regularly.
Fire trench sectionChurchill trench
Section of a fire trench; Churchill Gardens, Pimlico
Architect’s intention: At Churchill Gardens, it is to provide a public green space between the flats and the road.
Effect in practice: The result is a strip of land too small for any practical use. Being common land it belongs to no one so it would also leave any potential user feeling insecure. It can only be accessed with difficulty from the road and so is of little use for people walking by.
Visual effect: A sunken trench, of little use to anyone, has become part of the urban landscape. Inhabitants looking out from the ground floor windows can only see a wall blocking their view.
Phenomenological effect: To walk along the grass evokes the same feelings as walking along a trench in one of the front’s quieter periods. Above and beyond the wall one can sense a more dangerous world, while the experience of being down here is to feel safer but cut off.
Discussion: For a time when function was paramount it is difficult to imagine a less functional use of land, especially when land use is a primary urban value. Too insecure to hang clothes in, too cramped to sunbathe, it isn’t suitable for any obvious function, except as something to look at, and to experience being in. The question is whether the emotions and sensations evoked by this experience, in matching those that would have been experienced while living in a First World War trench, is coincidental or significant.
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Sep 102012
The extreme isolation of the Tarahumara (until recent years) and their adaptation of some elements of the alien Spanish/Mexican culture have enabled them to survive in what most observers would regard as an extraordinarily hostile natural environment. The effects of this isolation are reflected in their culture, in their relatively equal gender roles in terms of their economy, their flexibility of work schedule, lack of economic specialization and their willingness to share available food when necessary to ensure survival.
Their isolation has also hindered the emergence of any well‑defined leadership system. A lack of any “official” hierarchy make it much more difficult to resolve any serious disputes. It has also meant that the shy and politically naive Tarahumara have found it difficult to counteract intruders, whether they are government officials or drug‑dealers. As more roads are improved, even the furthest, most remote sanctuaries, of the Tarahumara come under threat.
Some Tarahumara have adopted more mestizo culture than others; the “gentile/baptized” distinction, first recognized by Lumholtz, with all its associated differences in settlement patters and lifestyle arose from the resistance of many Tarahumara to the imposition of a Spanish/mestizo culture that they considered “alien”. The more traditional Tarahumara still prefer to live in relative isolation and not to resettle into fixed villages where there would be insurmountable pressure on their culture. The mestizos in the Copper Canyon region, who occupied the best land by force and formed villages in the European‑derived tradition, have far more links with modern Mexico, and have preserved their economic dominance over the Indians.
None of this means that the traditional Tarahumara way of life has remained unchanged or will not continue to undergo modifications in the future. Any changes to the environment can have serious adverse impacts on their abilities to find sufficient food. The main drivers of environmental change have been drug-growing, forestry, mining and tourism.
In addition, they have to manage changes which, to some extent, have been thrust upon them by some of the government and other efforts aimed at helping them. For example, modern medicine and education threaten to change the Tarahumara population balance. Today, more infants survive to adulthood and fewer adults die as a result of accidents. The problem for the Tarahumara is how to feed and support an ever‑growing population using existing methods of cultivation and herding.
Equally important is the transformation of the traditional Tarahumara system of wants by contact with mestizos. Prior to these contacts, the Tarahumara had little or no access to commercially-made alcohol. Tarahumara tesgüino took considerable time and effort to make and had to be consumed rapidly, meaning that Tarahumara could get drunk occasionally, but could not remain drunk for long. The ready availability of commercial alcohol has completely changed this dynamic.
Slightly over a decade ago, an innovative, women-led project reportedly changed the 3500-inhabitant community of Arareco (8 km from the town of Creel) for the better. Kari Igomari Niwara, a 200-member women’s organization, began in 1992, and is celebrating its 20th anniversary this year. It has often been quoted as an outstanding example of what the Raramuri (Tarahumara) can do if left to their own devices and allowed to control their own resources. In this project, they have sought encouragement and support, rather than direction and dependence. By 1997, Kari Igomari Niwara had organized a health center, primary school, bilingual literacy program, drinking water system, bakery, three small food supply stores, a handicrafts business, a restaurant and collective transportation for the village.
One of the first collective efforts of the Kari Igomari Niwara group was to get the cantinas (bars) of Creel closed at 4pm in the afternoon, so that their husbands wouldn’t get so drunk. Almost 70% of Arareco women reported having been beaten by their husbands, the vast majority of attacks coming when their husbands were drunk. After the initial cantina victory, the men became even more repressive, but the women persisted and four years later managed to persuade the church to build them a small health center despite the objections of their local male-dominated council. The women have already reduced nutrition-related infant mortality to 25% of its former level and have brought birth rates down by 50% (Nauman, 1997).
The deforestation of the Copper Canyon region has a long history and has significantly changed the resource base of the Tarahumara to the point where their traditional way of life in the canyons is probably impossible to sustain in the future. Deforestation was started by mining companies who cut trees to make pit props and burn as fuel. In the 1890s, the region started to supply timber to the USA, via concessions given by Chihuahua state governor Enrique Creel to companies such as the Sierra Madre Land and Lumber Company, owned by William Randolph Hearst. Today, many of the local ejidos continue to cut more timber than they can ever replant, and there are more sawmills in operation than could ever be sustainable.
In many places, there are clear signs of the immense environmental destruction wrought by timber cutting, often on slopes so steep that there is little chance of reforesting them in the future. Soil erosion is rampant in some areas and satellite imagery reveals huge areas that are no longer forested.
Recent droughts have not helped, and one NGO, Alternative Training and Community Development (ALCADECO) has explored their links with deforestation and migration. The NGO’s director, Laura Frade, argues that the long-term effects of drought go far beyond the obvious. Poor crops in times of drought results in the abandonment of traditional lands. Families become dependent on poorly-paid jobs in the timber industry, or on drug plantations, or dependent on the sale of handicrafts to tourists. Many of those that fail to make ends meet then become the unwilling recipients of blankets and food from charity organizations. Others move to cities like Chihuahua, where they try to survive by begging or turn to alcohol.
New and improved roads
The development of forestry required the development of roads and vehicle tracks. Road development continues to this day and is not necessarily a beneficial thing. Improved road access has opened up new areas for lumbering, mining and tourism. In turn, small stores spring up, even in remote areas, selling mestizo items such as radios, carbonated drinks, cigarettes, and manufactured clothing. The use of money has become more widespread. Better roads have enabled traders to build a credit relationship with Tarahumara Indians, offering them non-traditional goods in exchange for a share of the next maize harvest. This has led to typical problems of indebtedness and exploitation.
Further reading:
Related posts:
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The Gupta Dynasty
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Liz Abbott
on 3 March 2014
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Transcript of The Gupta Dynasty
The Gupta Empire reunified northern India in 320 CE. During the 200 year reign Ancient India expanded in Culture and Art. The Empire was believed to have been started by a wealthy family from Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Chandra Gupta I is given credit for establishing the dynasty. The Gupta Empire was at its most powerful stage during the Golden Age.
Society in the Golden Age was ordered to match with the Hindu beliefs. They had religious freedom and weren't very strict. They were also given free medical care. Criminals were not sentenced to death or punished but instead they were fined for their crimes. The people of the Gupta Empire were happy during this period of time.
Social Structure:
The Gupta Empire’s social structure was based on the Caste system. The system is associated with Hinduism and was originally based on the person’s occupation. Later on, the system changed and each person was born into an unchangeable status.
The four different parts of the Caste system were:
1. Brahmin: The priests.
2. Kshatriya: The warriors and nobility.
3. Vaishya: The farmers, traders and artisans.
4. Shudra: Tenant farmers and servants.
The people who were born outside or below the system were called the “Untouchables”. People believed that if an “Untouchable” drunk water from a public well, he or she would pollute to water, therefore no one could use it. Most “Untouchables” were not even allowed to step foot in a temple to prevent ‘pollution’.
People who violated the social laws would be punished by being made into an “Untouchable”.
When the Gupta Empire had just been established, Buddhism was the main religion although a large group of people were practising the religion of Hinduism. As time passed and the empire grew bigger, Hinduism started to absorb some of the characteristics of Buddhism. Eventually it became the main religion of the Gupta Empire.
The main gods of the Hindu religion were:
- Brahma (creator)
- Vishnu (preserver)
- Shiva (destroyer)
Although Buddhism gradually faded away, it quickly spread to central,
China and then to South- East Asia.
335-370 CE
380 CE
335 CE
335-370 CE
Samudragupta introduces the gold coin
380 CE
Chandragupta II takes the throne
413 CE
Vaishnavite Tigawa temple at Jaeal Pur is built.
320 CE
Chandra Gupta I founded the Gupta dynasty and the Golden Age starts.
335 CE
Samudragupta takes the throne.
320 CE
Kumaragupta I takes the throne
Sumadragupta took over his father, Chandragupta in 335. Early in his reign, he took over many kingdoms and by his death in 380; he had successfully incorporated over twenty kingdoms in his empire. He gave himself titles such as King of Kings and World Monarch.
Sumadragupta was a great supporter of art and literature and was a poet and musician.
He had a strong belief in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu (preserver). He was also very considerate of other religions.
Sumadragupta followed the policy of ‘Dig-Vijaya’ in which the opposing rulers were defeated, captured and then liberated. He created a Southern campaign in which he planned to take over as many kingdoms as possible, to extend the Gupta Empire. During this campaign he successfully defeated twelve kings.
Map of Gupta Empire
415 CE
425 CE
425 CE
The entire Indian subcontinent including the present day Sri Lanka comes under the Gupta Control.
450 CE
450 CE
Invasion of the Huns
452 CE
Karmaragupta defeated the Huns but were not able to capture them
452 CE
500 CE
Most of the North west of the Empire is conquered by the Huns.
540 -550 CE
Invasion of the Huns lead to decline of the Gupta Empire
540 CE - 550 CE
Invention of the Gold Coins
During the Gupta Dynasty the gold coin that was made was called Dinara named after the Roman currency Denarius aureus. Even though the coin was named after the Romans the designs were completely Indian. The unique coin design shows a horse. This was to show respect for the horse sacrifice.
During this ritual a stallion was released to wander for a year out in the open. The Royal court followed it made sure it didn't mate. At the end of the year the horse was looked after by Royal women and then sacrificed by the King using a gold dagger. The other side of the coin shows a goddess, most likely the goddess of good fortune.
Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II ruled from 380-415CE and was the son of Sumadragupta. He is considered to be one of the most important rulers of the Gupta Dynasty.
During his reign, arts and architecture flourished and the cultural development increased successfully. Art was so highly valued, that unlike most civilisations, people were paid for their work.
He continued the policies of his father by extending control over many neighbouring kingdoms. Chandragupta II was described as vigorous and a well qualified leader. He strongly believed in the Hindu religion but tolerated Buddhism and Jain religions.
Government Structure
The government system of the Gupta Empire was run by the rulers (emperors). It was quite a relaxed and loose system compared to other civilisations. The government let the citizens manage their cities, villages and farms themselves. The government also provided water and police service.
The prices of the taxes were relatively low which shows that the rulers were not greedy and took great care of their people.
Criminals were not severely punished and there was no death penalty. The harshest punishments were having a hand, nose or eat cut off.
Literature flourished under the rule of Chandragupta II. Most of the literature produced was poetry and drama. Religious and meditative writing and lyric poetry was created to educate and entertain the people. Essays were also written on subjects ranging from grammar to maths and astronomy.
The most famous essay written in this time was the Kamasutra, which was written about the rules of love and marriage according to the Hindu laws. One of the most famous scholars of the Gupta Dynasty was Aryabhatta, who was a scientist. He had proposed that the earth was a rotating sphere, centuries before Columbus.
All these ideas have influenced the modern world today and the Gupta Empire has left us with a continuous inspiration.
Social Pyramid
Contact between Gupta's society and others
The Gupta Empire traded with a lot of countries. They would send ships around the Arabian sea, China sea and Indian ocean they also went and traded with parts of East Africa. They also had ox carts and other animals pulling carts filled with goods for the road. Trade with so many cultures caused their culture to expand and the belief of buddhism to spread to other countries. The trades earned them a lot of money and they also had specific laws for trade so the country would make a profit.
The Huns Invasion: Fall of the Empire
The Huns were violent tribes who invaded the Gupta Empire during the reign of Sandragupta. The Huns were warlike tribes known for their cruelty. The Gupta Empire made their military smaller after a long time of peace and good fortune.
The Huns started to Invade India and because the Gupta Empire did not have strong military forces, they did not have the power to fight back. When the Huns attacked, they forced the empire out and that allowed the empire to decrease in size and eventually they disappeared.
The Gupta Dynasty
Temple built during the Gupta Dynasty
Full transcript
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Japan and the War of the Meiji Restoration
Japanese ironclad Kōtetsu.
Stonewall-Class (French Ironclads, 1864) A class of two ironclad rams built in France for the Confederate government during the United States Civil War. One of these, the Stonewall, reached Confederate hands. Her sister was unnamed and never completed. Laid down in 1863 under the cover name of Sphinx, the Stonewall was launched in June 1864. Two months earlier French officials had decided that she would not be given to the Confederacy and had arranged for her sale to Denmark instead. Renamed the Staerkodder, she was intended for service in Denmark’s 1864 war with Prussia and Austria. But when the Danes lost the war, Danish officials refused her, and she was returned to France as the Olinde. The French builders were then able to arrange her transfer to the Confederacy, and she was commissioned at sea in January 1865. The Stonewall displaced 1,390 tons and measured 186’9? (oa; 157’6? bp) x 32’6? x 14’3?. She was propelled by two direct-acting engines on two screws and was capable of 10.8 knots. She had a crew of 135 men. Fitted with a pronounced ram bow, she mounted 3 rifled guns: 1 x 11-inch/300-pounder in the bow to fire directly ahead and 2 x 5-inch carried aft in a turret. The Stonewall escaped Ferrol, Spain, in late March 1865 and reached Cuba, where her crew learned that the Civil War was over. Handed over to the United States, she was sold to the shogun of Japan. Seized by forces loyal to the emperor when she arrived at Yokohama in April 1868 and renamed Kōtetsu, she led the assault on the shogun’s stronghold at Hakodate in July 1869. Renamed Adzuma in 1881, she was struck from the active list of the Japanese navy in 1888.
After the Perry expedition of 1853 opened Japan to trade with the United States, other naval powers pressured the Tokugawa shogun with similar exercises in gunboat diplomacy. Countries securing trade treaties in the late 1850s included Britain, France, and Russia, and in 1861, Prussia, the latter after sending its only operational screw corvette and three sailing ships to Tokyo Bay. The shogunate wisely recognized that Japan lacked the technology to resist even a third-rate Western navy, but the concessions to foreigners rankled in a country with a proud warrior tradition. An attempt to return to isolationism in 1863 brought British, French, and American squadrons to Japanese waters, and the British shelling of Kagoshima served notice that the Western powers would use force to maintain their treaty rights. Unable to return to the past, Japan could only move forward.
In 1868, after failing to deal effectively with fifteen years of pressure from foreign powers, the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown by a coalition of feudal domains which established a new government in the name of the Meiji emperor, the so-called “Meiji Restoration.” While the new government would be known in the long run for saving Japan by enlisting foreign experts to help modernize and industrialize the country, earlier in the 1860s both the shogunate and the feudal domains opposing it hired British naval advisors and purchased steampowered warships. As early as 1866 the Ishiwajima navy yard completed the screw gunboat Chiyodogata, the first steam warship built in Japan, but the 140-ton vessel reflected the state of Japanese industry at the time, taking five years to build, with machinery and other components imported from the West. The first Japanese ironclad was the former CSS Stonewall, purchased by the shogun in 1867 from the United States. When the 1,360-ton ironclad ram arrived in Japan the following year, it was taken over by the new imperial government. The Japanese initially called the vessel the Kōtetsu, meaning “iron-covered ship,” before renaming it Adzuma.
After the revolution, or “restoration,” of 1868, supporters of the shogunate fought a brief civil war before conceding defeat. Neither side found it easy to impose this agreement on its followers. In Kyoto, Iwakura, Okubo, and Kido had to work hard to overcome the opposition of loyalists who called for something more severe, with the result that a public announcement of the terms was delayed for several weeks. In Edo, Saigo had to use force against 3,000 Tokugawa retainers protesting the treatment of their lord. Part of the Bakufu fleet, commanded by Enomoto Takeaki, fled to the north, rather than surrender. More serious, an alliance of domains in the northeast, led by Sendai and Aizu, showed a willingness to resist the new regime in an organized way. Arguing that Satsuma and Choshii were “evil advisers” and that the Emperor was being misled, they prepared to defend their feudal rights. But in September Saigo took command of large-scale operations against them, and their main stronghold, Aizu’s castle of Wakamatsu, eventually capitulated at the beginning of November. By the end of the year the northeast was pacified, albeit at considerable cost.
This left only Enomoto, who escaped with eight ships and about 2,000 men-among the senior Bakufu officials Itakura Katsukiyo, Ogasawara Nagamichi, and Nagai Naomune-to Ezo (Hokkaido), which they requested be made a Tokugawa fief. This was more than Kyoto could grant, for all that Enomoto was respected there, so in 1869 a strong force was sent to suppress the “rebels” as soon as spring made fighting possible. Hakodate fell on June 29, thus restoring peace to the whole of Japan. Appropriately, Enomoto signaled the event by sending the notes on navigation he had made as a student in Holland to the commander of the force that had defeated him. They would, he said, “be of use to the country,” whatever happened to him.
Many standoffs of the civil war came close to blows, but ended with surrender before a local potentate dared attack the imperial banner. Although not every group of rebels surrendered so easily: fighting in several northern towns was fierce. A group called the White Tiger Corps (Byakkotai) achieved lasting fame during the war, not so much for their military prowess as their adherence to samurai ideals. Largely comprising teenage sons of the Aizu-Wakamatsu domain, and intended to be held in reserve, a group of the White Tigers mistakenly believed that smoke in the distance was a sign that their castle had fallen, and committed suicide en masse. When the castle did eventually fall, the samurai resistance lost its best foothold in the north of the country, and retreated even further.
The last of the old-school samurai installed themselves at the southern end of Ezo Island, in the vast star-shaped fortress of Goryō kaku (‘The Pentagon’). There, they hoped to salvage some semblance of their dignity by proclaiming themselves to be a samurai nation, the Republic of Ezo, which still proclaimed loyalty to the Emperor, but regarded itself as a state independent from Meiji Japan.
If the last of the samurai had hoped for foreign aid, it proved to be unforthcoming. Foreign ships watched the conflict unfold, and the French military advisers controversially resigned their native commissions in order to lead the Republic of Ezo’s armies, but the Boshin War was a mop-up operation against a dwindling foe.
The Republic of Ezo began with limited resources – a mere handful of ships in its fleet, and whatever supplies could be scraped up in Hakodate, the treaty port close to Goryō kaku. The French mounted a daring operation to the south, where they intended to steal an ironclad warship, the Kōtetsu, newly delivered from America. Ships from the Republic of Ezo, flying the American and Russian flags as camouflage, got near enough to the Kōtetsu to board her, with some of the Shinsengumi forming the suicidally brave raiding party, leaping from the high deck of the Republic’s ship to the low-lying Kōtetsu, directly into the path of the Kōtetsu’s deck-mounted machine guns.
The mission to steal the Kōtetsu was a failure, and before long, the imperial forces had pursued the samurai rebels to Hakodate itself. Hijikata Toshizō led the last remnants of the Shinsengumi in the defence of one of the outlying strongpoints, but was forced to recognize that the Republic of Ezo was doomed, and that its hastily selected president was sure to make a deal with the imperial forces.
The naval battle of Hakodate, May 1869; in the foreground, Kasuga and Kōtetsu of the Imperial Japanese Navy.
The conflict featured naval battles off southern Hokkaido and northern Honshu, in every case chaotic melées between ill-trained forces. In June 1869 at the decisive Battle of Hakodate, an imperial squadron led by the Kōtetsu defeated the shogun’s squadron of wooden steamers, destroying the largest of the latter, the 1,450-ton paddle steamer Kwaiten (the former Prussian Danzig). A second ironclad, the 1,430-ton armored broadside corvette Ryujo, did not join the navy in time to participate in the brief war. Originally a speculation ship built in Britain during the American Civil War, it was purchased in 1869 by Prince Hizen, an opponent of the shogun, who subsequently gave it to the emperor as a gift. Following the elimination of internal rivals, the new imperial government proceeded to lay the foundations of Japanese power at sea as well as on land.
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Disappearance of the Earliest Manifestation of Life on Earth --Solved!
NASA Mission Pinpoints Lost & Hidden Asteroids
"The Human Neocortex is More Complex than a Galaxy" -- Carl Sagan and Roger Penrose (VIDEO)
According to physicist, Roger Penrose, What’s in our head is orders of magnitude more complex than anything one sees in the Universe: "If you look at the entire physical cosmos," says Penrose, "our brains are a tiny, tiny part of it. But they're the most perfectly organized part. Compared to the complexity of a brain, a galaxy is just an inert lump."
Each cubic millimeter of tissue in the neocortex, reports Michael Chorost in World Wide Mind, contains between 860 million and 1.3 billion synapses. Estimates of the total number of synapses in the neocortex range from 164 trillion to 200 trillion. The total number of synapses in the brain as a whole is much higher than that. The neocorex has the same number of neurons as a galaxy has stars: 100 billion.
"All stars can do is pull on each other with gravity," writes Chorost, and, if they are very close, exchange heat."
One researcher estimates that with current technology it would take 10,000 automated microscopes thirty years to map the connections between every neuron in a human brain, and 100 million terabytes of disk space to store the data.
Galaxies are ancient, but self-aware, language-using, tool-making brains are very new in the evolutionary timeline, some 200,000-years old. Most of the neurons in the neocortex have between 1,000 and 10,000 synaptic connections with other neurons. Elsewhere in the brain, in the cerebellum, one type of neuron has 150,000 to 200,000 synaptic connections with other neurons. Even the lowest of these numbers seems hard to believe. One tiny neuron can connect to 200,000 neurons.
"The universe could so easily have remained lifeless and simple -just physics and chemistry, just the scattered dust of the cosmic explosion that gave birth to time and space," says Richard Dawkins, the famed Oxford evolutionary biologist reflecting on the sheer wonder of the emergence of life on Earth and the evolutionary process in his classic The Ancestor's Tale.
The neocortex, Latin for "new bark," is our third, newly human brain in terms of evolution. It is what makes possible our judgments and our knowledge of good and evil. It is also the site from which our creativity emerges and home to our sense of self.
The Neocortex says Carl Sagan in his iconic Cosmos, is where "matter is transformed into consciousness." It comprises more than two-thirds of our brain mass. The realm of intuition and critical analysis,--it is the Neocortex where we have our ideas and inspirations, where we read and write, where we compose music or do mathematics. "It is the distinction of our species," writes Sagan,"the seat of our humanity. Civilization is the product of the cerebral cortex."
Sagan believes that extraterrestrials will have brains, "slowly accreted by evolution, as ours have," and will perhaps share similarities. He believes any successful, long-lived civilization will, by necessity, have resolved the tensions of our various brain components. Extraterrestials, too, "will have extended their Mind extrasomatically into intelligent machines."
Sagan believes that building upon our ability to communicate better, learn better the language and culture, with higher terrestrial cultures-- and extending our intelligence into machines--that when we do finally encounter the Extraterrestrial, we and our machines will be better prepared to understand the *other's* intelligence, language and cultural forms, and machines. "We are a "local embodiment of a Cosmos grown to self-awareness." We have become "starstuff pondering the stars."
The Daily Galaxy via World Wide Mind and Cosmos
the human neocortex it's part of a galaxy
Physics and consciousness
Prof. Penrose at a conference.
"Penrose has written books on the connection between fundamental physics and human (or animal) consciousness. In The Emperor's New Mind (1989), he argues that known laws of physics are inadequate to explain the phenomenon of consciousness. Penrose proposes the characteristics this new physics may have and specifies the requirements for a bridge between classical and quantum mechanics (what he calls correct quantum gravity). Penrose uses a variant of Turing's halting theorem to demonstrate that a system can be deterministic without being algorithmic. (E.g., imagine a system with only two states, ON and OFF. If the system's state is ON if a given Turing machine halts, and OFF if the Turing machine does not halt, then the system's state is completely determined by the Turing machine, however there is no algorithmic way to determine whether the Turing machine stops.)
Penrose believes that such deterministic yet non-algorithmic processes may come in play in the quantum mechanical wave function reduction, and may be harnessed by the brain. He argues that the present computer is unable to have intelligence because it is an algorithmically deterministic system. He argues against the viewpoint that the rational processes of the mind are completely algorithmic and can thus be duplicated by a sufficiently complex computer. This contrasts with supporters of strong artificial intelligence, who contend that thought can be simulated algorithmically. He bases this on claims that consciousness transcends formal logic because things such as the insolubility of the halting problem and Gödel's incompleteness theorem prevent an algorithmically based system of logic from reproducing such traits of human intelligence as mathematical insight. These claims were originally espoused by the philosopher John Lucas of Merton College, Oxford.
The Penrose/Lucas argument about the implications of Gödel's incompleteness theorem for computational theories of human intelligence has been widely criticized by mathematicians, computer scientists and philosophers, and the consensus among experts in these fields seems to be that the argument fails, though different authors may choose different aspects of the argument to attack.[16] Marvin Minsky, a leading proponent of artificial intelligence, was particularly critical, stating that Penrose "tries to show, in chapter after chapter, that human thought cannot be based on any known scientific principle." Minsky's position is exactly the opposite - he believes that humans are, in fact, machines, whose functioning, although complex, is fully explainable by current physics. Minsky maintains that "one can carry that quest [for scientific explanation] too far by only seeking new basic principles instead of attacking the real detail. This is what I see in Penrose's quest for a new basic principle of physics that will account for consciousness."[17]
Penrose responded to criticism of The Emperor's New Mind with his follow up 1994 book Shadows of the Mind, and in 1997 with The Large, the Small and the Human Mind. In those works, he also combined his observations with that of anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff.
Penrose and Hameroff have argued that consciousness is the result of quantum gravity effects in microtubules, which they dubbed Orch-OR (orchestrated objective reduction). Max Tegmark, in a paper in Physical Review E,[18] calculated that the time scale of neuron firing and excitations in microtubules is slower than the decoherence time by a factor of at least 10,000,000,000. The reception of the paper is summed up by this statement in Tegmark's support: "Physicists outside the fray, such as IBM's John A. Smolin, say the calculations confirm what they had suspected all along. 'We're not working with a brain that's near absolute zero. It's reasonably unlikely that the brain evolved quantum behavior'".[19] Tegmark's paper has been widely cited by critics of the Penrose–Hameroff position.
In their reply to Tegmark's paper, also published in Physical Review E, the physicists Scott Hagan, Jack Tuszynski and Hameroff[20][21] claimed that Tegmark did not address the Orch-OR model, but instead a model of his own construction. This involved superpositions of quanta separated by 24 nm rather than the much smaller separations stipulated for Orch-OR. As a result, Hameroff's group claimed a decoherence time seven orders of magnitude greater than Tegmark's, but still well short of the 25 ms required if the quantum processing in the theory was to be linked to the 40 Hz gamma synchrony, as Orch-OR suggested. To bridge this gap, the group made a series of proposals. It was supposed that the interiors of neurons could alternate between liquid and gel states. In the gel state, it was further hypothesized that the water electrical dipoles are oriented in the same direction, along the outer edge of the microtubule tubulin subunits. Hameroff et al. proposed that this ordered water could screen any quantum coherence within the tubulin of the microtubules from the environment of the rest of the brain. Each tubulin also has a tail extending out from the microtubules, which is negatively charged, and therefore attracts positively charged ions. It is suggested that this could provide further screening. Further to this, there was a suggestion that the microtubules could be pumped into a coherent state by biochemical energy.
Roger Penrose in the University of Santiago de Compostela to receive the Fonseca Prize.
Hameroff, in a lecture in part of a Google Tech talks series exploring quantum biology, gave an overview of current research in the area, and responded to subsequent criticisms of the Orch-OR model.[22] In addition to this, a recent 2011 paper by Roger Penrose and Stuart Hameroff gives an updated model of their Orch-OR theory, in light of criticisms, and discusses the place of consciousness within the universe.[23]
Phillip Tetlow, although himself supportive of Penrose's views, acknowledges that Penrose's ideas about the human thought process are at present a minority view in scientific circles, citing Minsky's criticisms and quoting science journalist Charles Seife's description of Penrose as "one of a handful of scientists" who believe that the nature of consciousness suggests a quantum process"( fram wickpedia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose
How will the human brain evolve in the next one million years? What will be the next evolutionary step in the human race; what will our decedents become? The human race is divided into classes that are based on inequality, and humans are very territorial in their thinking; that is what is called Patriotic. For a strong America. For a strong Germany. For a strong Rome. It is to remembered that in the Ivy Halls of Harvard in the 1950's, psychologists asked the all important question of the day, are non-white people intelligent?
I think the supposition upon what the questions of the human brain will be an what it will look like are irrelevant. i think a more pertinent question is whether or not humans will survive the next 100 years...... i very much doubt it.
for all the wonder of the human brain and it's development, and dont get me wrong it is incredible, we seem to be dominated by our baser more animalistic tendencies. we are incapable of putting aside our trivial superficial differences, we constantly want to squabble over stupid entities like race and religion. I don't believe that we will ever get to the next 100 years if we do not get over these issues in the next 10 years.
Woooowww! this guys are Genius???, still they didn't find God??, and as I see it they are not only more persistent in denying God, to Man. They talk, about Humans and Humanity like they know what they are talking about. even like they where perfect Humans, only to take out way from Man, the Awareness that man was created Human, to the Image of HIM(God), although Imperfect, mortal, greedy and week. Free to decide and search for perfection.
There is purpose in the tensions between science and faith. Just as there is purpose, in greed, to advance innovations, for profit.The cutting edge,of scientific pursuits,searches for what makes things work, with motivation,to prove,there is no superior being,but rather, everything is simply mechanical, even if we havent yet shown the mechanics. We will learn. I wonder, what set these contradictory emotions, in motion? Greed and need, leads to innovation. Proving the universe, is mechanical, challenges the existence of God. Please, continue to deny God. It is the motivation, for physics. Let me know when a tear in the fiber, is discovered. That is where the Lord, will be.
Cool info!
Has anyone ever thought that information can travel in the light stream, and travel from star to star. When information travels from galaxy to galaxy, or the path of the nerves travel into the light stream. lets say that a solar system dies, could this be like a dead brain cell in the universe? Could the creator use the means to understand how people act in the whole universe? To write these ideas off, is like living in a box with four sides, and far into the dead end street.
On The Nature And Origin Of The Universe...
Classical Science Replaced By 2013 Gravity Comprehension !!!
איך נברא היקום יש מאין
New Science 2013 versus classical science
Attn classical science hierarchy ( including Darwin and Einstein…)
“I hope that now you understand what gravity is and why it is the monotheism of the universe…DH”
Gravity is the natural selection of self-attraction by the elementary particles of an evolving system on their cyclic course towards the self-replication of the system. Period
( Gravitons are the elementary particles of the universe. RNA genes and serotonin are the elementary particles of Earth life)
כח המשיכה
כח המשיכה הוא הבחירה הטבעית להיצמדות הדדית של חלקיקי היסוד של מערכת מתפתחת במהלך התפתחותה המחזורית לעבר שיכפולה. נקודה
( הגרוויטון הוא חלקיק היסוד של היקום. הגנים, הנוקלאוטידים של חומצה ריבונוקלאית והסרוטונין הם החלקיקים היסודיים של חיי כדור הארץ) Dov Henis (comments from 22nd century)
A galaxy that contains even a single neocortex is by definition more complex than A neocortex. Unless they were talking about a galaxy that contained no brains at all, they were wrong
- Richard Dawkins has every right to reflect on the wonder. Just that he uses his work in biology to make pseudo-scientific statement that in reality are in the same vein of a Hans Anderson when we created the fables - nice to read but unreal.
3D Bioprinting = Immortality...go to stars...
...interstellar travel (what is memory?)...on the body the important is the head, in the head the important is the brain, in the brain the important is...the MEMORY...which is, along with Genes and Image, simply, what we are... Your recorded Memory to the new young perfect identical bioprinted body and...IMMORTALITY... (But...is that..."it" already would be not "Me"...it would be a "cyborg\clone\avatar\frankenstein"... Are you sure?, because to sleep (lose consciousness) = "it" disappears every night...and wake up = rebirth every morning... If we would have lost the Memory...we would have lost the Life.)
...3D Bioprinting-Immortality... ((sugar cotton fibers produced by centrifuge machines are even finer...capillaries are between 2 tenth and 1 hundredth of a millimeter in diameter...perhaps... Could be used these machines adapted as "biocentrifuges" to make capillary micro-tubes with a biodegradable and binder yarn of sugar inside coated with endothelial cells?))... Network capillary-skeleton, porosity among adjacent cells, A FINE MESH OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE fastening the cells: collagen?...fibrin? a blood´s protein in salty water insoluble who forms the cell´s-subjection-mesh of blood-coagula... SUITABLE POROSITY: both capillary networks (blood and lymphatic) have a natural aleatory distribution (Better or Worse Equidistance in each organism, better or worse equal feeding to ALL tissue´s cells) of MESH´S HOLES (in blood capillaries: exit for plasma with O2, nutrients, leukocytes...or entrance for CO2. In lymphatic capillaries: entrance for surplus lymph with cellular refuses lactic acid, etc...who cause muscular fatigue). Maybe the better or worse equidistant porosity of skeleton-mesh cell´s-subjection in each capillary tube, besides genetic, a natural cause for to win or not to win a medal in Olympic Games.
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Seismic scattering
1. Feb 23, 2015 #1
How do the following affect seismic scattering ?
1) topography
2) faulting
3) fluid and melt
Any scientific sources are appreciated, thanks
2. jcsd
3. Feb 23, 2015 #2
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Staff: Mentor
What have you found in your reading so far?
4. Feb 23, 2015 #3
I know that seismic scattering occurs as a result of the wavefield interaction with a heterogeneity that is of a similar scale length to the incident wavelength, but i do not know how each of these particular entities has an effect, if at all ?
5. Feb 23, 2015 #4
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Science Advisor
Gold Member
OK Im not going to do them all for you, since Im sure you really do know how to use google
put your questions into google one at a time ... I did the first one for you
how does topography affect seismic scattering ?
and as an example, got ....
now have a play and see what else you can find :)
6. Feb 24, 2015 #5
User Avatar
Staff: Mentor
Topography would be a geometric effect, in addition to differences in interfaces between different media.
What is a fault?
What is the significance of fluid or molten rock - as compared to solid rock? Think about the speed of sound and elastic properties?
Similar Discussions: Seismic scattering
1. Seismic T-waves (Replies: 7)
2. Seismic T Waves (Replies: 9)
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Social Processes: Methodology · Types of test
The Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study is a projective personality measure of the respondents approach to dealing with hypothesized frustration. The test was developed by Saul Rosenzweig and published in 1948 [1]
The measure consists of 24 cards on which are cartoon drawings of obviously frustrating interpersonal situations. In the pictures two characters are depicted with speech ballons coming out of their mouths. Seperate versions are available for use with children and adolescents]]
As the script of the antagonist is filled in their ballon, respondents are asked to imagine they are the other person and what would they say in this situation.
The test take 15-20 minutes to administer.
Responses are scored on nine factors, derived from three types of aggression (obstacle-dominance, ego-defense, and need-persistence) and three directions of aggression (extraggression, imaggression, and intraggression) derived from psychoanalytic theory and related to the defense mechanisms.
In terms of face validity one would need to assume that peoples self report about how they would react is a good predictor of their actual behavior in frustrating situations. Would high scorers necessarily respond with patterns of aggressive behavior to everyday stress?
1. Rosenzweig, S. (1978). The RosenWeig Picture Frustration (P-F) Study. St Loius: Rana House.
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The Soldiers Who Saved Europe's Art From Hitler
PHOTO: In this April 25, 1945 image released by the U.S. National Archives, U.S. Army personnel stand by a painting called, "Wintergarden," by French impressionist Edouard Manet, which was discovered in the vault in Merkers, Germany.AP Photo/U.S. National Archives
The story of a special Allied unit dubbed the "Monuments Men" has inspired a Hollywood film set to premier early next year. But who were these men who saved countless European cultural treasures from being lost or destroyed by Nazi forces?
It was May 17, 1945, not long after Nazi forces had surrendered, ending Word War II in Europe, when miners dug through the wall of rubble with picks and shovels in Altaussee, Austria. There was a 12-meter thick layer of debris blocking the entrance to the salt mine, and though no one knew what was inside, they all hoped they would find what they were looking for.
Corporal Lincoln Kirstein was the first to crawl through the opening. Inside, it was dark and eerily quiet. The entrance was covered in dust and debris, and an iron security door hung shattered on its hinges. Deep inside the earth, Kirstein finally found what he had sought for so long: Europe's cultural legacy. The wooden crates were coated with a thick layer of dust, but otherwise undamaged.
In the years prior, Kirstein had been a writer and critic in New York, working on a number of projects that included launching a ballet ensemble in Dec. 1941. But when Pearl Harbor was bombed, the intellectual put his plans on hold and joined the military. He didn't end up battling with weapons, though.
The 36-year-old intellectual has a special task in Europe. As one of the "Monuments Men," he was tasked with preventing the destruction of Europe's cultural treasures. The Allied commanders created a "Monuments, Fine Arts and Archives" section after the 1,200-year-old Monte Cassino Abbey was destroyed by a hail of allied bombs in February 1944. Their orders were to protect churches, antique ruins and cultural monuments -- a meritorious task that would lend a moral dimension to a military victory.
Research in a War Zone
But the mission was muddled by chaos. Kirstein arrived on European soil in June 1944, hungry to take part in an effective, clearly defined mission. What he found, however, was that no one had heard of his unit, and no provisions had been made for vehicles, typewriters, radios, maps or even enough paper and pens. It was only by his own initiative, and with the help of his personal contacts, that Kirstein managed to get to France, where he met Lieutenant James J. Rorimer. The medieval expert and curator of the Metropolitan Museum of Art had been on a personal mission against German dictator Adolf Hitler since Michelangelo's Madonna in Bruges and the Ghent altarpiece disappeared. When he got the chance to go to Europe with the Monuments Men, he took it.
The art historian was fending for himself in France without any military authority. With only a list of monuments worthy of protection and an order from Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower, he travelled through northern France trying to save what was left to save. The key was improvisation. Rorimer consulted with officers and hung signs forbidding entry on church and museum doors. He also fastened signs onto important buildings with white tape, marking them as mine zones to keep soldiers away.
An Important Source
Under Hitler the Germans had stolen some 5 million artworks from across Europe -- the biggest theft in history. After the armistice, the Monuments Men concentrated on locating and returning these works to their rightful owners. The special unit, which had by this time grown to 350 men, acted as treasure hunters, combing through archives and the homes of Nazi officials, and interviewing museum directors and eyewitnesses.
Chance led Rorimer to Rose Valland, a Parisian woman who became one of the Monuments Men's most important informants. During the Nazi occupation, she had worked in the Museum Jeu de Paume, an important depot for art plundered by the Nazis. There she tried to keep track of where the artworks ended up, registering every single work the Nazis brought in and gathering information on their whereabouts. Her files were invaluable to the Monuments Men, leading them to the most important hiding places, like the salt mine complex of Altaussee.
A Link to a Recent Scandal
The mines held some 6,577 paintings, 230 sketches and watercolors, 954 illustrations, 173 statues, 1,200 cases of books, baskets filled with arts and crafts, and tapestries -- all of which had been stolen from European museums and private collections and were being stored for the Führermuseum, a museum complex Hitler had planned to open in Linz, Austria.
In the event that the Third Reich was toppled, the Altaussee depot was to be blown up, and the provincial governor August Eigruber had stored extra explosives there just in case. This plan was part of what became known as Hitler's "Nero Decree," with which the Nazi leader ordered the destruction of German infrastructure to make it unusable to the Allies as they advanced.
Blowing up the repository would have spelled the destruction of thousands of world-famous masterpieces, but it never happened. No one knows for sure who prevented the detonation, but it's the topic of many legends and hero stories in Altaussee. Perhaps it was the general director of the salt works, Emmerich Pöchmöller, who had the explosives removed with a bogus command. Or maybe it was the mine workers who refused to destroy both the art and their means of making a living.
Removing the art from the Altaussee mines took weeks, but the work didn't stop there. On an almost daily basis for some time after the war, soldiers were finding unexpected treasures in cellars, train cars, food depots, monasteries and in the ground. The last Monuments Men didn't leave Europe until 1946, leaving behind two comrades who were killed in action.
In the course of their investigations, the Monuments Men had interviewed the Gurlitt family, whose secret trove of more than 1,000 artworks was recently brought to light in Munich, raising a number of legal and historic questions. They questioned Hildebrand Gurlitt, an art dealer who handled "degenerate art" during the Nazi era and the father of Cornelius Gurlitt, from whom the recently discovered works were confiscated. Gurlitt was asked to explain the provenance of some 200 works that had previously been in French possession. He claimed to have bought all of them legally in the final years of the war. Some 150 artworks, antiquities and other cultural objects were taken from him, but were later returned in 1950. It isn't yet clear whether any of these were among those found in Cornelius Gurlitt's Munich apartment.
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Winsnes MSCM 430 Sp12
Timeline created by lwinsne in History
Event Date: Event Title: Event Description:
Woodblock 1st Jan, 0700 Invention of wood and ceramic block printing Woodblock printing first appeared in China during the 8th century, at this time the Tang Period in China. The process of woodblock printing was where inked woodblock and paper would be rubbed together with the help of a brush. This invention allowed multiple copies of a text to be created. Religious texts were often a part of the printed works.
200px handtiegelpresse von 1811 1st Jan, 1450 Printing Press In 1440 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press process. This process started with the machine that Gutenberg invented. The printing process changed the process of printing because it increased the output of printed books and the overall cost of copying the books. The process included ink that was rolled over raised wooden blocks. The form was then pressed against a sheet of paper.
Salem631 First Salem Witch Hanging On June 10, 1692, Salem Village of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, conducted the first Salem Witch hangings. People who were found guilty for practicing witchcraft, were accused of being witches and later hung as their punishment. the accusations all started when children were found to be possessed, or acting strange.
Boston%20tea%20party Boston Tea Party The Boston Tea Party was a celebration held on Novemebr 29th 1773, half a century after the Sons of Liberty took action against the British Governement and the East India Company. Both of these orgniazations controlled all the tea import into the various colonies. overall, the Tea Party was a resistant movement against the tea act that have been past by the British Parliment in 1773.
Decleration United States of America Decleration of Independence On July 4th, 1776 the United States of America delcared its independence. On this date the Continental Congress announced that there were thirteen American colonies. This decleration declared that the United States no longer was a part of the British Empire. Ever since this day, the 4th of July has been heavily celebrated by all citizens of the United States. There are always several firework displays anywhere you go.
Us patenttrademarkoffice seal The U.S. Patent System The United States Patent System was established in 1790, as a primary funtion of the federal government. This patent system grants private property rights over useful arts for engineers and manufacturers. At this time, the term of exclusive manufacture limited to 14 years.
Images%20(1) Electrial Recording Telegraph Samuel Morse was the first to experiment sucessfully with the electrical recording telegraph. Prior to this time early uses of telegraphy included the use of smoke signas, and reflective lights. Because electricity came to light in the 1800s, people were able to start sending messages through electrical signals.
Mitmod1 Typewriter Peter Mitterhofer invented the first typewriter in 1864. The machine was almost completely made out of wood, besides the type basket and the connecting wires. This machine was never actually completed and several other models were made in later years. This typewriter, commonly known as the “Technisches Museum Wien” can be found in a museum in Vienna.
Ladies%20home Ladies Home Journal Louisa Knapp Curtis, wife of Cyrus Curtis, published the first womens' national magazine to achieve circulation, called Ladies Home Journal. It originally started as a single-page supplement in the American magazine Tribune and Farmer. By 1894, the Ladies Home Journal has a circulation of 1 million readers.
Ship Ship Act of 1910 The Wireless Ship Act was passed by Congress in 1910. This Act gave authority to the Department of Commerce to license wireless operators. The Ship Act requird all US ships that traveled more than two-hundred miles off the coast and carrying over fifty passengers to be equipped with wireless radio equipment with a range of one-hundred miles. Because of a shipping accident in 1909, where 1,200 people could have been saved, the legislation was prompted.
The titanic 1912 Titanic The Titanic was known as the unsinkable ship of April 10 1912. This ship was to sail from Southhampton, England to New York City in the United States. The ship was supposed to be the safest ship ever built, which was why it only had a total of 20 life boats. The ship could hold 2,200 passengers. On April 14, the ship hit an iceberg, which led to the fatal accident. Only 750 passangers survived.
Sedition%20act Sedition Act The United States Congress passed the Sedition Act on May 16, 1912 as a law that was created to protect Americans from participation in World War 1. Americans were prohibited from using diloyal, profance, and abusive language about the United States government, the flag, and its armed forces.During the wartime, the Postmaster General was empowered to deny mail delivery to protesters of government policy.
Images Radio Act of 1912 The Radio Act of 1912 stated that all radio stations in the United States were required to be liscenced by the federal government. All seagoing vessels were also required to monitor distress frequencies. One of the main reasons this act came in to place, was due to the sinking of Titanic. When the Titanic sunk, they later realized that if radio frequencies were on board all ships, more lives could have been saved.
Assembly%20line The Assembly Line The assembly line was produced to organize the way things were built in factories. It created sequential organiztion of workers, tools, machines and parts. The assembly line was developed through history, meaning is was never created on a single day. As technology developed the assembly line developed as a much more productive technology. Henry Ford had a sigificant impact for the development of the assembly line in 1913. He tested several assembly methods prior installation of the equiptment.
Vote Women win the vote On August 26, 1920 women won the right to vote. The fight for women to vote started in 1848 in Seneca Falls. The Decleration of Sentiments demanded the rights for women, including education, property rights, employment, rights over their own children, and the right to vote. It took 72 years before this decleration was added to the constitution.
Old radio Advent of the Radio The radio slowly integrated into the homes of Americans over the years. At first, when radio first came to light, the radio was used by people such as President Herbert Hoover, where he would endorse his new products. A couple year down the line, more and more households started using the radio. Later radio's become popular in cars. As the radio became more and more popular across America, several new radio stations started to appear.
Images%20(2) The Z1 Konrad Zuse, a nationally known German was known for creating the first electro-mechanical binary programmable computer. Research claims that Zuse created the Z1 in his parents living room from 1936 to 1938. This machine was a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator that had limited programmability.
G19949 Attack on Pearl Harbor The Japanese Imperial General Headquarters jetted off hundreds of its figher planes to the American Naval base on the morning of December 7, 1941. The naval base was located at Pearl Harbor near Honolulu, Hawaii. The intentions of the attack was to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from getting involved with military actions that the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States.
Disney Disneyland Park The first Disneyland Park opened in Aneheim, California on July 18, 1955. This park was the only Diney park to be built under the supervison of Walt Disney himself. Since its opening days, the park has undergone several forms of expansion, and now has a neighboring park called California Adventure.
Merdeka Malaysian Independence Malaysia was granted its independence on August 31st 1957. Before independence the Federation of Malaya was under British Colonial rule. The independence was spearheaded by the country's first Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, who led negotionations with political leaders of who were both British and Malaya.
Mlk Martin Luther King Jr. Assasination Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., had been shot at 6:05 p.m. while standing on the balcony of his hotel room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis. MKL was a leader and significant spokesperson for the African American population during this time.
Moon%20walk Man on the Moon At 4:17pm on July 20, 1969, the first human being ever set foot on the moon. The trip to the moon was a six hour trip, but had had extensive planning prior to the trip. Neil Armstrong was the first to set foot on this celestial planet.
Cooper First Practical Mobile Phone Martin Cooper was the first to make a call on a handheld mobile phone. Prior to this mobile calls were made through cars. Martin Cooper had a rival who were also working on this invention, Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs. As time progresses, mobile phones become more and more technologically savy.
Images%20(3) Microsoft Founded Microsoft was established by Bill Gates and Paul Allen on April 4, 1975 shortly after the first personal computer was invented. They believed that a software program was needed for this newly invented computer. Microsoft is now a multinational corporation based in Redmond, Washington.
Images%20(4) Apple Inc. Founded Apple Inc., formally known as Apple Computer Inc. was founded on April 1, 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne. Computer was removed from its company name 30 years after it was founded, becasue the company realized that it would notlonger be a soley computer based company. Now Apple Inc. is a mulitnational corporation known for its creative design in computers, iPods, iPads, iPhones and many other product lines.
Images The World Wide Web The World Wide Web was developed by Timothy Berners-Lee. His purpose of the World Wide Web, was to create a connection of computers that would create a web of information. As the Internet developed, millions of users become dependent toward it. Now it would be unimaginable to think about not having Internet at all.
Images 9/11 The September 11 attacks were tied to coordinated suicide attacks on the New York Twin Towers and other attacks in Virginina and Pennsylvania. On the morning of the attack, 19 terrorists from al-Qaeda hijacked four passenger planes. Two of the planes were intentionally flown into the New York Twin Towers. The third plane crashed into the Pentagon. Luckily the fourth plane, headed for the White House, was brought down to a field by its passengers in Pennsylvania. 3000 people died as a result.
First generation classic i First Generation iPod The first generation iPod was released by Apple Inc on the 21st of October, 2001. The idea for the original iPod was to create an MP3 player where users could store all of their music onto one device. Eventually this device wiped out the CD player. Now there are over 5 generations of iPods and they continue to develop into exciting music players that vary in size and features.
Linkedin logo Launch of LinkedIn LinkedIn is a business-related social networking site. Although LinkedIn was founded in December of 2002, it was not launched until May 2003. LinkedIn has not become as popular as the social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, but this is maily becasue it has a different purpose. This site may be considered more professional, as it has become a great place for networking and a place for job searches.
Myspace Launch of Myspace Myspace, the social networking site was recently sold off to Justin Timberlake and Specific Media LLC. When the site first launched it was very popular, but over the years many of its users have transferred over to the more popular social networking site Facebook.
Images Launch of Facebook Facebook, a social networking site has become extreamly popular over the years. Facebook was founded by Mark Zuckerberg and some of his fellow college classmates. Facebook started out exclusivley for Harvard students, but over the years Facebook has accumulated millions of new users. As this social network tool becomes more and more popular, people around the world are able to connect and communicate easily.
Images%20(6) First iPhone The first generation iPhone launched in the United States on June 29, 2007. The iPhone changed the way smartphones are today. It was the first breakthrough smartphone, and since then all other phone companies try to copy or mimick the iPhone. Since 2007, Apple Inc. has produced several versions of the iPhone. This product never seizes to disspoint the public.
Images%20(1) Obama elected as president On November 4, 2008, Barack Obama became the first elected African-American president in the United States. There was a lot of controversy regarding this election. This was the first year I was able to witness an election in the United States.
Images%20(5) First iPad The iPad was first released in April 2010, where 300,000 units were sold on the first day it went out on the shelves. The iPad, created by Apple Inc. became a tablet of its time. This tablet was a revolution for the computer industry and has possibly changed to future of computers. Its touch-screen functions makes this tablet great for all ages.
Timespan Dates: Timespan Title: Timespan Description:
The Colonial Period The Colonial Period was a time for broad control and censorship in the media. Printers were licensed and pledged loyalty to the monarchy. Benjamin Harris was an important icon during this period. He had several unlicensed newspaper Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestick and was the author of the New England Primer. This was also the period of Benjamin Franklin who started the Pennsylvania Gazette in 1723.
George Washington George Washington was born on February 22, 1732 into a Virginia planter family, where he learned about the morals, manners, and body of knowledge requisite for an 18th century Virginia gentleman. George Washington chose to be the first President of the United States on April 30, 1789. He was voted unanimously, and made sure he would develop a strong and well-financed national government.
The Revolutionary Period During the Revolutionary Period the colonial press was used for propaganda by the Patriots, the Whigs and the Tories. During this period, The Stamp Act imposed additional costs for paper and printing. The Revolutionary Period was also the time for the United States Decleration of Independence (1776). During the revolution, there were about 70 newspapers in the colonies.
The Partisan Period During the Partisan Period the press became the public forum for the arguments over the form and role of the new US government. The government was divided into two groups, the Federalists the Anti-federalists. The Federalists advocated for a strong central government. Federalists were typically bankers, and business people who came from Northern colonies. The Anti-federalists advocated for a weak central government. Anti-federalists were typically wealthy landowners from Southern colonies.
The Penny Press Period The Penny Press period was a time of mass immigration from Europe. The press grew from 1300 papers in 1830 to more than 4000 in 1860. There were also over 350 daily papers. There were also several techonological changes during this period; mechanical presses, wood pulp paper, the telegraph and transportation developments. The many changes in the press included more advertisments and more stories related to issues of the working class.
Theodore Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt was born in 1858 to a wealthy family in New York. By 1897, he became the assistant secretary of the Navy. In 1898 he formed the Rough Riders, a volunteer cavalry regiment that fought in Cuba. In 1989, Roosevelt was the Governor of New York. He later become the 26th president of the United States from 1901-1909. During his presidency, Roosevelt has several innovations; the first U.S press bureau that managed public information, and the first White House press corps.
Nathan Stubblefield Nathan Stubblefield was both a melon farmer from Kentucky and an American Inventor. In 1892, Stubblefield demonstrated the voice wireless system for the radio. By 1908 he filed from a patent for his wireless telephony.
American Civil War The Civil War was a war about the secession of the Confederacy. In other words, this was the war in the attempt to end slavery. The war lasted over four years, which was mostly fought in the Southern states. The war ended when the Confederacy surrended and slavery became outlawed everywhere in the nation.
Lee De Forest Lee De Forest was born in Iowa on August 26th, 1873. He was a well educated man, receiving his PhD from the University of Yale. Many know De Forest as the inventor of the Audion Vacuum Tube. This tube provided continuous transmission, such as voices, not just bursts of signal. De Forest also envisioned the broadcast music service.
Guglielmo Marconi Guglielmo Marconi was an Italian aristocrat who was known as the father for long distance radio transmission. Between 1898 - 1901, Marconi demonstrated wireless systems. He envisioned point-to-point, ship-to-shore communication. Later he established the Marconi Wireless Company in Britain. Marconi also won the Nobel Peace Prize in Physics in 1909.
Ivy Lee Ivy Lee was born in Cedartown, Georgia. He was educated at Princeton University and later went on to become a financial reporter for the New York Times. He was also a consultant to the Democratic National Committee. In 1915, Lee was hired by John D. Rocefeller. Lee is thought by many to be the founder of modern public relations.
Edwin Howard Armstrong Edwin Howard Armstrong was born in New York on December 18, 1890. He was a professor at Columbia University, and is commonly known as the inventor of static-free FM radio. Armstrong understood De Forest's worl much better than De Forest did himself. Not only did Armstrong invent FM radio, but he also invented the regenerative circuit, aka the amplifier.
World War I World War I was a European war that lasted four years. It was known known as the war of the trenches. During the war there were over 10 million tragic deaths.
World War II World War II was the second great war. What made this war so different was that it invlved most of the world nations. This war was known for its Nazi involvment. Over the six years of war over 50 million people were murdered , six million of them being Jews, who became a part of Adolf Hitler's holocaust.
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How to Use the Images
Inquiry Question
Historical Context
Drawing 1
Photo 1
Photo 2 &
Drawing 2
Photo 4
Table of
Visual Evidence
Photo 3: The Bethlehem Waterworks.
[Graphic] Photo 3 with link to higher quality photo.
(Photo by Diane LaBelle)
Originally constructed in 1754, the Bethlehem Waterworks is likely the first municiple pumping system ever built in the United States. The limestone building houses an 18-foot waterwheel designed to capture water from the Monocacy Creek. In colonial times, the waterworks pumped fresh water through 94 feet of pipe to a water tower located on a nearby hill. Gravity then pulled the water from the tower to cisterns located in the town of Bethlehem, below. The waterworks building was restored in the early 1970s.
Questions for Photo 3
1. Locate the waterworks on Drawing 1. Which buildings in Bethlehem existed before the waterworks was constructed? Why do you think the waterworks was built later than these other buildings?
2. How do you think the people of Bethlehem got fresh water to their homes and businesses before the waterworks was built? Why might a water pumping system be preferable to earlier methods?
2. Compare the waterworks with the Single Brethern House (Photo 2). What features do you see on either that might help you distinguish one as a residence and one as a non-residential building?
Comments or Questions
National Park Service arrowhead with link to NPS website.
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IXL | Online math practice
Cloze: Complete the paragraph by filling in the missing terms.
Positive/Negative Reverse
Read the expression from left to right. Determine the sign of each term. Using the commutative property express the given expression as an equivalent expression.
Teacher, Professional Dev. Trainer, Curriculum Designer
High School
Fresno, CA
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The Creationist Significance of Flesh Flies
Author: John Woodmorappe
Subject: Biology
Date: 01/01/1996
John Woodmorappe’s Articles
About John Woodmorappe
When a person or animal dies, his or her body is quickly subject to decomposition. Vertebrate scavengers such as vultures attack the body. Insects begin colonizing it. Finally, whatever remains is consumed by the bacteria and fungi.
There are vartious insects that may visit decomposing corpses on an opportunistic basis, but the Calliphorid flies specialize in this type of scavenging. Also called flesh flies, or bluebottles, these large flies can home in on a corpse many miles away. They lay a large number of eggs in the corpse, which then hatch into larvae, popularly known as maggots. The maggot infestation in a corpse is sometimes so great that the corpse is skeletonized in a matter of days. The maggots eat prodigious amounts of the flesh and grow rapidly. In the soil surrounding the corpse, they turn to quiescent pupae. The life cycle is completed when the pupae turn into adult flies.
The duration of the flesh-fly life cycle is governed by temperature. Also, flesh flies can locate and colonize bodies that have been buried in shallow graves. This has practical applications in forensics. By knowing the temperature in the area of the body, forensic entomologists can estimate fairly accurately how long a body has been there, which may either rule out or help implicate a murder suspect.
Over longer periods of time, the presence or absence of flesh flies can help determine the season of year when a death took place. During World War II, tens of thousands of Polish officers, who had been prisoners of war, were murdered and buried at Katyn (near Smolensk, Russia). After the Germans invaded Russia, they discovered the graves and blamed the Russians for the atrocity. The Russians in turn laid the blame on the Germans. By observing the minimal insect colonization of the bodies, specialists concluded that the murders had to have taken place during winter, or shortly thereafter. This, along with other constraining evidence, laid the blame squarely on the Russians (which, by the way, they recently admitted, after nearly 50 years of lies).
Since flesh flies are such specialists in the colonization of cadavers, one may wonder what they ate before the Fall. Since there had been no death before the Fall at least no death of vertebrates, they must have had an alternative food source. For at least some flies, this could have been bran, as described by Davis (1966, p. 3):
In India, I found by chance that one could breed the house- fly with great ease, merely by half-filling a big clay chatty or water jar with bran, wetting the bran which in the great heat rapidly decomposed, and the decomposing bran attracted numerous houseflies which soon left large numbers of offspring . . .
Davis, G. 1966. The succulent maggot. Aviculture Magazine, 72:3-5.
Topics: Polska Historia, Zbrodnia Katynska, NKVD crimes, Polski Kreacjonalism, dysteleological arguments, forensic entomology, teleology, Soviet gulags, Stalin’s crimes
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This large, ground-dwelling rodent was found on the Talath Harroch, the plain south of Mirkwood. They were reported to be totally harmless, an opinion which owed much to the lack of farmsteads in the Talath Harroch. Culcarnix could devastate a farm field. Nevertheless, they were totally unagressive toward other living beings.
Tailless and blunt-nosed, culcarnix lived in burrows beneath the earth, and could occasionally be seen standing on the mounds of earth by the entrances to their burrows, sniffing the air for any scent of approaching enemies. They had thick, red-brown fur that had at various times been much in demand by furriers. The Easterlings, for instance, raised them in great numbers for their hides. Thus, they had become scarce in areas where there was widespread settlement.
The depicted animals actually are apig-footed bandicoots.Bandicoots are not native to europe and can usually be only found in Australia-New Guinea.However the description of the Culcarnix comes closest to a bandicoot, so it should probably be interpreted as an unknown extinct bandicoot-like prehistoric animal.
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The French Third Republic transformed numerous aspects of civil and religious life throughout France. Perhaps most fundamental was the relationship between church and state, which was changed in various ways, notably in the areas of education and bureaucracy. In many ways, the experience of the Irish college in Paris, which was broadly reflective of France and French society during this period of war, social unrest, and national transformation, provides a valuable insight into the nature and extent of these changes. Between 1870 and 1918, the college, a small seminary situated within the Latin Quarter of the fifth arrondissement, underwent enforced modernisation, a process complicated by friction between college administrators and Irish bishops over appointments, finances, and student admission. Particularly significant was the administrative reformation of the institution in the wake of the foundation of the Third Republic.
A shift in management from one man, a French representative appointed by the Archbishop of Paris, to the Bureau gratuit, a collective of French interior managers and ecclesiastics, allowed the college to survive as a distinct Irish institution. The Great War also impacted the Irish college. With its students absent between 1914 and 1918, it served as a refuge for displaced nuns and local Parisians. It fell within range of German artillery during the 1918 spring offensive, but escaped total destruction, as it had in 1871. This chapter details the administrative, financial, educational and, at times, military aspects of the Irish college, Paris, during this turbulent and formative period.
in Forming Catholic Communities
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Igneous Rock and their Origin Daly, R.A. Primary Author mixed material bibliography New York London Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1914 monographic en English
563 hlm., appen., fig., index, map, tab.
A comprehensive knowledge of igneous rocks is important from many aspects. The sedimentary rocks could not much exceed a half mile (0.8 km) in average thickness if they were spread evenly over the earth. The stratified terranes themselves have been derived from igneous terranes. This planet is essentially a body of crystallized and uncrystallized igneous material. The final philosophy of eath history will therefore be founded on igneous-rock geology. NONE Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi Katalog Perpustakaan Online 552 Dal i C.1 IRATO1 Perpustakaan-PVMBG 552 Dal i C.1 552.Dal.i.c.1.jpg.jpg 541 2014-06-24 08:25:54 2017-08-07 14:07:10 machine generated
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How to Do the Paper Book Tower Experiment
Learn how to do the paper book tower experiment with the instructions in this Howcast science project video.
Do you like to engineer?
If you know what an engineer does or don't, an engineer designs things like buildings and structures and cars and planes. But I want to just throw a question out there. A couple years ago there was a devastating earthquake in Haiti and so many of these buildings in Haiti just came crumbling down and just a few short months later or weeks, I can't remember what it was there was an earthquake in Chile or Chil-e depending upon however you want to say it. I say tomato, you say to-mato. So the one in Chile was so much stronger. I mean just powerful earthquake. But here's the weird part. There wasn't a lot of damage. So this is weird. Haiti, weaker earthquake, tons of damage. Chile, Chil-e so much stronger, much stronger earthquake, minimal damage. Well why?
Well, you see, building and engineering is very important and you need to think about strength, stability when you're building something. And I want to show you something really cool. What is this? It's just a sheet of paper right? I'm going to take this paper and this is card stock, it's not regular paper it's a little thicker, but it's just paper. I'm going to take the paper and I'm going to roll it around so I can make a really big cylinder. And when you do this at home you're really going to impress your parents. Because nobody is going to expect what's about to happen to happen. Take a piece of tape, take one, take two, take three.
Now you want to make sure that your cylinder is level because I'm going to put it on my table and I need it to be balanced because if it loses it's center of gravity, gravity will knock it down. Gravity is a force that pulls everything down to the earth and if it's not balanced it will fall. But this is called a cylinder. It's a building shape. Maybe structures are cylinder shaped. Now I have a question to ask you. Is this cylinder shape a strong cylinder shape to build with? You see buildings need to be strong, they need to withstand, they need hold weight.
Well what if I added a book to it. What if I added all of these books to it? Will a regular sheet of paper hold the weight, and I'm a strong dude, I cannot hold one of these. My arm right now is hurting. That's how heavy these books are. If I am not able to hold these books for a matter or ten seconds how in the world is this sheet of paper going to do it. Will it? No, right? Well let's see. That's science. I ask you a question, make a prediction. How many books do you think this paper could hold before it crumbles and gravity knocks it down? Five? Three? Okay? Made your prediction? Now lets test it. One at a time.
Now the first book is the most important book. It needs to be balanced. That's one book. That's two books. And now we have three. And now you have four. Ten. Okay. This is weird. How is paper holding up ten books? You know what this is proving? That there are certain shapes that are not meant to be strong. Okay? And that's unfortunate because in Haiti there aren't many engineers to help design buildings to be strong and withstand earthquakes. But look this cylinder is a strong shape.
That's ten. Eleven, Twelve, Thirteen. That's thirteen and fourteen. Now you want to add these books slowly otherwise you and your force is what's going to knock it down. You want to come from the top slowly. Fifteen and sixteen and seventeen and now, whoa, big book, it's going to fall, no way. Nineteen, and twenty. And now you got twenty-one and twenty-two. twenty-three. Boys and girls there's no way your prediction was it holding twenty-three books. This is jut paper. Look at this. This is I believe twenty-four. And now you have twenty-five and twenty-six and twenty-seven. I think I'm going to stop here.
It held twenty-seven books. Look at this. A regular sheet of paper which we rolled and we turned it into a cylinder shape held the weight of twenty-seven books. And look, for about a minute already. I wasn't able to hold it for ten seconds. And you know what? I have thousands of books here, I love to read. But guess what? I'm not going to add another book. Do you know why? because I'm giving you a challenge.
I dare you to go get a sheet of card stock, roll it up into a cylinder, get it flat, balance it. And go grab a bunch of books. Do you think you could beat my record of twenty-seven books right now? I don't think you can. I need you guys to go investigate and try to get your paper cylinder to hold more than twenty-seven books. And if you can hold more, try to beat your own record.
Have fun, investigate, and I'll see you guys soon.
Popular Categories
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Pineal Gland
The word pineal is derived from the Latin word pinea (pine-cone) and first used in the 17th century to address the cone shape of the brain gland. A pea-shaped small gland in the brain, also known as the third eye, epiphysis cerebri, conarium, pineal organ, or pineal body. It is always a subject of much mythology and speculation.
According to a French philosopher, “Rene Descartes,” the soul was located in the pineal gland. Due to its pine-cone shape, it is named the pineal gland, and it secretes melatonin, which plays a significant role in the body’s internal clock. The pineal gland and melatonin are best known for their role in regulating sleep patterns, which are called circadian rhythms.
Here, we will discuss every aspect of the pineal gland, such as its anatomical structure, functions, and clinical significance. This reading will give you more insight into the pineal gland, and you would know more about its importance for your body.
Anatomical Structure
The pineal gland is present in the epithalamus between the two hemispheres tucked in the groove of the thalamus join. This gland develops from brain section diencephalon and located behind the third cerebral ventricle, bathed in cerebrospinal fluid.
As a part of epithalamus, it lies laterally positioned thalamic bodies and behind the habenular commissure. It is also found near to the corpora quadrigemina in the quadrigeminal cistern.
Outward growth of the third ventricle, this gland rests between the posterior aspects of the thalami. It is attached to either half of the brain superiorly by Habenular commissure and inferiorly by posterior commissure.
The Habenular commissure is part of the superior lamina, while the posterior commissure is a part of the inferior lamina of the pineal stalk. The space between the laminae is known as a pineal recess, which communicates anteriorly with the hypothalamic sulcus and the third ventricle.
The pineal gland has two types of cells pinealocytes and glial cells.
• Pinealocytes produce melatonin hormone.
• Glial cells are supporting brain cells that help neurons and transmit information to other cells through neurons.
Unlike the other glands, the pineal gland is not separated from the rest of the body by the blood-brain barrier. After the kidney, this gland receives the most profuse supply of the blood in the body.
The main blood supply comes from the choroidal branches of the posterior cerebral artery. On the other hand, its sympathetic innervation comes from the superior cervical ganglion. While the otic ganglia supply the inhibitory, parasympathetic innervation.
Pituitary gland functions
The pineal gland regulates internal body clock such as sleep-wake cycle, menstrual cycle, and pituitary gland functions. Other functions performed by the pineal gland are sexual development, regulation of melatonin secretion, conversion of nervous system signals into endocrine signals, immune functions and acts as an antioxidant. Let’s discuss all these functions of the pineal gland functions in detail
Melatonin and circadian rhythms
This small endocrine gland within the brain is mainly known to produce the hormone melatonin. Melatonin performs several functions in the body, which are primarily related to conscious brain activities.
Melatonin plays a significant role in inducing sleep and regulating the circadian rhythm of the body. Melatonin is considered as a natural sleep hormone because it produces according to the amount of light exposed to a person. In the dark, it is produced in a higher amount and makes you asleep quickly.
Melatonin receptors are found mainly in the SCN and brain pituitary gland, and it is the main site from where melatonin secretes and plays its role in circadian rhythm. However, the melatonin receptors are also present in ovaries, and its level affects the onset, duration, and frequency of the menstrual cycle.
Pituitary gland function
Researchers suggest that the pineal gland can alter the behavior of the pituitary and thyroid gland. Besides, melatonin secretion of the pineal gland can stop the pituitary gland from producing essential hormones for the development of ovaries and testes.
Sense of direction
A study shows that the pineal gland plays an unrecognized role in spatial navigation. People with impaired pineal gland can decline in a sense of direction.
Mental health
Mental health and sleep are inextricably linked. Inadequate mental health cause sleep deprivation and make it difficult to sleep. Mental health is also connected with access to light. The seasonal affective disorder is a form of depression that affects the person’s mood at a low light level and linked with changes in melatonin secretion.
Melatonin as an Antioxidant
Melatonin has unique antioxidant characteristics and can neutralize the harmful chemicals that damage the tissues. Also, it activates the antioxidant enzymes that perform restorative functions.
Melatonin acts as a natural anti-aging substance, and it declines with age. Hence the loss of melatonin is linked with several age-related illnesses.
Melatonin is essential for buffering the immune system in light of seasonal adjustments. More studies are carrying on to prove its anti-inflammatory properties during immune system inflammation.
Regulation of bone metabolism
Another new aspect of the pineal gland is to regulate the new bone deposition. Pineal-derived melatonin mediates its actions through MT2 receptors on bone cells. This study could be a potential target for osteoporosis treatment in the medical field.
Clinical Significance
As an essential endocrine gland and third eye of the body, the pineal gland has a significant important clinically. Any abnormality or disorder with this gland function will cause severe complications that affecting memory, learning, or mood. The following are some severe disorders that are associated with the Pineal gland.
Pineal Gland Dysfunction
Clinically its significance has been approved, and abnormal pineal gland function may result in many problems. The dysfunction of the pineal gland produces less melatonin secretion, which may result in insomnia, abnormal thyroid function, anxiety, intestinal hyperactivity, and menopause.
Similarly, if melatonin secretion enhances from a specific limit, then it may cause low blood pressure, Seasonal Affective Disorder, abnormal adrenal functions.
Disorders that affect sleep and mood
Most prominent pineal gland dysfunction is disturbance in circadian rhythms. Sleeping too much or little or feeling active or restless in the night due to abnormal pineal gland function. Furthermore, one study shows that the pineal gland releases several other chemicals that cause depression, schizophrenia, or mental illness.
Pineal Gland Tumors
Pineal gland tumors are the most severe complication and account for one percent of total brain tumors. Research shows that almost seventeen types of tumors arise in the pineal gland area, but most of them are benign.
The most common type is a germ cell tumor, which develops from residual embryonic tissue in the gland. Other tumors include gliomas and pineal cell tumors.
The pineal gland is situated near a duct called aqueduct of Sylvius. Pineal tumors block this duct, which is the route of Cerebrospinal fluid and buildup the pressure that expands the ventricles within the skull. This blockage will cause more complications such as
• Seizures
• Nausea
• Headache
• Visual changes
• Problems with memory recall
• Parinaud syndrome (inability to move the eyes upwards) Obstruction of the cerebral aqueduct may produce hydrocephalus
Pineal Cysts
Pineal cysts happen in ten percent of people who are undergone MRI scans or CT. However, most people do not have any visible symptoms of pineal cysts. Some patients rarely experience headache and abnormal eye movements.
Also, pineal cysts lead to seizures, sleep issues, and emotional disturbances. Surgical removal from a qualified physician is recommended for the removal of pineal cysts.
The pineal gland is a tiny pea-size structure found in the middle of the brain and an outward growth of the third ventricle. It has two essential components one is hormone-producing cells called Pinealocytes, and the other is supporting cells that transmit information called glial cells.
The pineal gland produces several hormones, the most important one is melatonin, which helps to regulate biological rhythms such as wake and sleep cycle. Melatonin secretion triggered by darkness and inhibited by light.
The pineal gland is mainly responsible for the nighttime melatonin secretion. Without the proper amount of melatonin hormone, the body would struggle to sleep and wake at the same time.
More researches have been revealing how the pineal gland affects everyday body function and manages other activities. As a principal seat of the soul, it is responsible for many functions in the body, such as regulation of thyroid or pituitary gland functions, sexual development, onset and frequency of menstrual cycle.
Furthermore, one of the most significant functions of the pineal gland is a sense of direction, and it helps us to focus on things. Disturbance in pineal gland function leads to a decline in attention and lack in sense of direction.
Clinically, as opposed to other glands, this gland has a crucial role in the human body, and any defect in the function of the pineal gland may lead to abnormality of other body functions, pineal tumors, or more severe complications.
1. “Pineal (as an adjective)”. Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
2. Macchi MM, Bruce JN (2004). “Human pineal physiology and functional significance of melatonin”. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 25 (3–4): 177–95. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2004.08.001PMID 15589268.
3. Arendt J, Skene DJ (February 2005). “Melatonin as a chronobiotic”. Sleep Medicine Reviews. 9 (1): 25–39. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2004.05.002PMID 15649736.
4. Bowen R. “The Pineal Gland and Melatonin”Archived from the original on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
5. Chen CY, Chen FH, Lee CC, Lee KW, Hsiao HS (October 1998). “Sonographic characteristics of the cavum velum interpositum” (PDF). AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 19 (9): 1631–5. PMID 9802483.
6. Dorland’s. Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Elsevier Saunders. p. 1607. ISBN 978-1-4160-6257-8.
7. Pritchard TC, Alloway KD (1999). Medical Neuroscience (Google books preview). Hayes Barton Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-1-889325-29-3. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
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Hidatsa - Marriage and Family
Marriage. Traditionally, marriages between members of the same clan or moiety were frowned upon. Historic Hidatsa villages were agamous, as intervillage marriages were Common. Marriages functioned as a bond between both Individuals and kin groups, and occurred by arrangement, purchase, or elopement. Monogamy was rare as polygyny was the prevailing form of marriage. The sororate and levirate also were practiced. Postmarital residence was theoretically matrilocal, but depopulation during the historic period resulted in multi-local residence as households attempted to widen their Strategies for incorporating male and female residents.
Domestic Unit. Traditionally, the domestic unit was the matrilocal extended family, an earthlodge household consisting of a core of matrilineally related women. Since reservation times the domestic unit has been influenced by the nuclear family model, but bilateral extended families are common.
Inheritance. Traditionally, patrilineal and matrilineal Inheritance occurred with the former applying mainly to Medicine bundles.
Socialization. Aboriginally, much of Hidatsa socialization was informal and provided by the matrilineal extended Family. Children were reared permissively into male and female roles. Generosity, self-reliance, and patience were values inculcated by parents. Males during adolescence and young adulthood were taught to be assertive and competitive as preparation for warfare and entrance into age-grade societies. Fasting, ritual self-torture, and mock combat underscored these values. Young girls were taught modesty, diligence, and patience in preparation for adulthood and marriage. Today cooperation, noninterference, kin support, and tribalism are important socialization values.
User Contributions:
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The subsurface of Temple Mount, Jerusalem
The subterranean part of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem contains a lot of acheological information mirroring its intensive use during many centuries. Part of this archeological information is documented bij artefacts from the Stone and Bronze Age up to and including the 20th century found by the Temple Mount Sifting Project (TMSP).
Approximately one in four pottery fragments recovered by the TMSP date to the Early Islamic Period (638-1099), mostly consisting of Ummayad tableware and storage vessels, and Abbasid tableware, storage and cooking vessels. Other finds include many architectural elements connected to the construction of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the most prominent being thousands of colored and gilded mosaic tesserae belonging to wall mosaics, most likely the mosaics akin to those adorning the inner walls of the dome of the rock, which adorned the outer walls till their replacement by glazed tiles in the 16th century.
During the Crusader period (1099-1187) the sub-floor structure of the Temple Mount was used as a Opus Sectile tiles from this era match up exactly to patterns seen under the Dome of the Rock's carpeting, as well as the churches of the Holy Sepulchre and of St. John the Baptist.
stables by the Knights Templar, which gave Solomon's Stables its current name. This use is reflected in finds such as hundreds of armor scales, horseshoe nails, and arrowheads. Over a hundred silver Crusader coins make up the biggest and most varied collection of such coins from Jerusalem.
Below some additional sources on the subsurface of Temple Mount.
Illustrations Crusader horseshoe nails and arrowhead, source Temple Mount Sifting Project; Source introductory text Wikipedia
The fall of Muslim Jerusalem to the Muslims 1098
In the Crusader story, a strange event just prior to the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusader army in July 1099, seems to be scarcely mentioned. This is the taking of Jerusalem from its Muslim Seljuk Turkish ruler (since 1073) by the Muslim Fatimid rules of Egypt.
The summer of 1098 saw the much-fought-over fortress city in Egyptian hands. The Fatimid Emir (commander) al-Afdal Shahinshah had taken Jerusalem from the Seljuk Turks after a 40-day siege, on orders of Vizier (minister of state) al-Musta’li, ruler of Egypt.
Many months of political and diplomatic maneuvering with the Franj (Franks–the Arabic term used for all Western European Crusaders) and the Rumi (Romans–actually the Greeks of the Byzantine Empire) had not gotten the vizier the concessions he wanted, so he simply had sent Emir al-Afdal to seize the city the Crusaders were coming to capture, thereby presenting the Franj invaders with a fait accompli.
This Fatimid conquest was the final step of developments during two decades within the fragmented Muslim world, where rulers of the same faith fought one another. Religion apparently being of no importance in matters of worldly power and conquest. This development is summarized as follows:
These 1098 events suggest that there were negotiations between the Byzantine (and perhaps even the Crusading Frankish) powers on the one hand, and the Muslim Fatimid rulers of Egypts on the other hand on combined efforts against their common enemy: the Muslim Seljuk Turcs that controlled the eastern part of the Byzantine Empire as well as Jerusalem. Negotiations that apparently turned sour, resulting in lots of misery. It now took untill 1192 when the Third Crusade under Richard the Lionheart failed to recapture Jerusalem, but reached the Treaty of Ramla with Saladin. In this treaty Saladin agreed that Western Christian pilgrims could worship freely in Jerusalem.
Sources text and Wikipedia. illustration "Taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, 15th July 1099Émile Signol, oil on canvas (1847) source Wikipedia
Making the Crusades possible: craft, trade and organisation
The agricultural revolution described in an earlier blog resulted in a change in the land use that allowed the subsistence farmer to go with his surplus crop to the market, originally at the local church, to buy and sell. The creation of markets at the churches gave way to more defined market places that specialized in certain products. Trade chains developed. For instance, sheep were a good investment, for their wool was appreciated especially in the colder northern climates. Sheep’s wool was sheared by the shepherd, which wool was sold in the fairs and markets of Champagne (France) and later Flanders (Belgium) for processing and weaving. The product was bought by Italians from Northern Italy for further refinement, and from there sold in international trade.
The tradesmen, artisans, and workers did organize. The first labor laws protecting selected trades in "guilds" were enacted in Ghent in the 11th Century. Normally groups of property owners, burgers, and representatives of the guilds and associations, shared power with the titular feudal authority except when they went their own way. These "Communes" controlled the means of production in their towns and the association with other towns. The wool producing towns in France, Belgium and Germany were either dominated by such communes or independent as “communal republics”.
Many Italian city states used the communal republic as a form of governance. As such, Florence, Genoa and Venice were republic in form. These Italian cities provided the banking, trading and maritime skills for the wool producing regions in Champaign (France), Flanders (Belgium) and England.
This text consists of slightly edited quotes from the blog The Cistercian Connection by Gordon S Fowkes. The illustration is from the same source.
"Genetic Admixture from the Crusaders in the Near East"
"During the medieval period, hundreds of thousands of Europeans migrated to the Near East to take part in the Crusades, and many of them settled in the newly established Christian states along the Eastern Mediterranean coast.
Here, we present a genetic snapshot of these events and their aftermath by sequencing the whole genomes of 13 individuals who lived in what is today known as Lebanon between the 3rd and 13th centuries CE. These include nine individuals from the ‘‘Crusaders’ pit’’ in Sidon, a mass burial in South Lebanon identified from the archaeology as the grave of Crusaders killed during a battle in the 13th century CE.
We show that all of the Crusaders’ pit individuals were males; some were Western Europeans from diverse origins, some were locals (genetically indistinguishable from present-day Lebanese), and two individuals were a mixture of European and Near Eastern ancestries, providing direct evidence that the Crusaders admixed with the local population.
However, these mixtures appear to have had limited genetic consequences since signals of admixture with Europeans are not significant in any Lebanese group today—in particular, Lebanese Christians are today genetically similar to local people who lived during the Roman period which preceded the Crusades by more than four centuries."
This blog quotes the summary of the paper A Transient Pulse of Genetic Admixture from the Crusaders in the Near East Identified from Ancient Genome Sequences by Marc Haber et al., published in The American Journal of Human Genetics104, 977–984, May 2, 2019 published on internet here. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( Illustration shows bones in the Sidon Crusaders' pit, source
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Precious metals such as gold and silver find use in the aviation industry, as does platinum. The industry uses these metals in the manufacture of aircraft engines, as well as in the manufacture of smaller engine parts. It is possible to recover precious metals from aircraft engines and engine parts, after airline managements scraps these aircraft parts.
Aircraft Engines
The aviation industry uses precious metals in the manufacture of aircraft engines. Gold and silver, as well as palladium and platinum, are used in the manufacture of different types of aircraft engines, such as CF6 and the JT3D, according to the Aviation Suppliers Association. JT8D, JT9D, and RB211 aircraft engines also contain these metals.
Engine Parts
Typically, an aircraft engine has up to 23 parts that contain precious metals. Various aircraft engine parts that use precious metals include vanes, stators, blades, fuel nozzles, fuel manifolds, Tobi Ducts, and heat exchangers. Parts of an aircraft’s engine turbine system and avionics system use gold and silver. And aircraft blades use platinum.
Recovery of Precious Metals
After the life of an aircraft engine is over, the aviation industry can still recover precious metal from aircraft engines and their parts. Companies that engage in such recovery typically sort and test the aircraft parts in order to get the most value out of them. They expose the parts to radioactive source so as to identify the precious metals and separate the parts that have them. Then, the recovery process involves leaching the metals out of the parts that hold them. Recovery of precious metals can account for up to 50 percent of an aircraft engine’s recycling value. The recovery value of precious metal in a JT8D engine, for instance, could go to as high as $18,625, as of 2010, Aviation Week estimates.
Original Source
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Alphabet Filter:
Definition of aspirate:
1. A mark of aspiration used in Greek; the asper, or rough breathing.
2. A sound consisting of, or characterized by, a breath like the sound of h; the breathing h or a character representing such a sound; an aspirated sound.
3. Alt. of Aspirated
4. An elementary sound produced by the breath alone; a surd, or nonvocal consonant; as, f, th in thin, etc.
5. To pronounce with a breathing, an aspirate, or an h sound; as, we aspirate the words horse and house; to aspirate a vowel or a liquid consonant.
evoke, pull out, pull, aspiration, extend, educe, draw in, mop, assonance, affricate, close vowel, dry off, protract, suck in, extract, pull up, dehydrate, alveolar, blot, prolong, consonant, draw out, bilabial, bleed, draw off, express, dry, elicit, closed syllable, drain, suck out, take out.
Usage examples:
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What are Anglo-Saxon boundary clauses?
They are descriptions in Old English (and sometimes Latin) of the boundaries of land-units recorded in charters dating from the seventh to the eleventh centuries. They perform a function similar to the coloured outline on modern Land Certificate plans which shows the precise limits of land under conveyance. The Anglo-Saxon versions, however, are in written form, and typically walk the reader clockwise around the perimeter of the estate citing features which the boundary passes, crosses or follows.
Example: þis sind þa land gemæro to eatune....These are the land-boundaries of Eaton - first from beetle's stream up along the streamlet till it comes to the coloured floor. Thence along the valley by the two little barrows till it comes to the spring at Wulfhun's plantation. Then diagonally over the furlong to the thorn bushes westward where the large thorn tree used to stand, and so to bird pool. Then along the ditch till it comes to the muddy spring, and so along the water course till it comes to the Cherwell which forms the boundary from then on.
Over a thousand of these descriptions survive, either in contemporary documents or (more commonly) in medieval or later copies.
Why are they important?
At the simplest level of public and educational interest, Anglo-Saxon boundary clauses afford a unique glimpse into the local landscape and its place-names as they appeared over a thousand years ago. At a historical research level, they are a rich source for exploring the social, economic and environmental conditions of Anglo-Saxon England - e.g. tracing the development of settlement and 'ownership', studying continuity and discontinuity within farming practices, assessing ecological change, or locating archaeological features no longer visible today. In literary studies an emerging focus of interest is the representation of landscape and the study of place, for which these perambulations provide early evidence. From a linguistic point of view, computer analysis of the clauses allows the development of the English language and its different dialects to be studied with exceptional precision since they provide evidence that is potentially datable and locatable.
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Huygen’s Clock
Ref: Calculus and Analytic Geometry, G B Thomas and Finney, 9th edition.
The problem with a pendulum clock whose bob swings in a circular arc is that the frequency of the swing depends on the amplitude of the spring. The wider the swing, the longer it takes the bob to return to centre.
This does not happen if the bob can be made to swing in a cycloid. In 1673, Chritiaan Huygens (1629-1695), the Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer who discovered the rings of Saturn, driven by a need to make accurate determinations of longitude at sea, designed a pendulum clock whose bob would swing in a cycloid. He hung the bob from a fine wire constrained by guards that caused it to draw up as it swung away from the centre. How were the guards shaped? They were cycloids, too.
Nalin Pithwa.
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TOEFL Listening: ETS-TOEFL听力机经 - A6X6V11O9X_FK33KP$
According to the professor, what were two of the requirements for building an effective aqueduct? A. The water source could not be underground. B. Changes in water level had to be gradual. C. The city being served by the aqueduct had to be lower than the water source. D. The water source needed to be a maximum of 50 kilometers from the city.
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<urn:uuid:e1e793c5-4860-4d79-a176-78cf4132284e>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.7882019877433777,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9685219526290894,
"url": "http://www.peakgmt.com/web/A6X6V11O9X_FK33KP$.html"
}
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NSRange and NSString Objects
When poking around NSString methods you’ll find many references to NSRange, which is nothing more than a C structure that is helpful for describing a series of items, including a starting location and a count. For example, a range is helpful to extract a substring from another string, where you specify the starting location and number of elements needed (examples to follow).
NSRange Definition
NSRange is a structure defined as follows:
typedef struct _NSRange
NSUInteger location;
NSUInteger length;
} NSRange;
location is the starting index in the range (zero based) and length is the number of entries in the range. NSUInteger is simply an unsigned value that supports both 32 and 64 bit systems. Here is how NSUInteger is defined:
typedef unsigned long NSUInteger;
typedef unsigned int NSUInteger;
NSRange and Strings
The example below shows one approach for creating a range and using the same to extract a substring – the output from below is IPA
NSString *homebrew = @"Imperial India Pale Ale (IPA)";
// Starting at position 25, get 3 characters
NSRange range = NSMakeRange (25, 3);
// This would also work:
// NSRange range = {25, 3};
NSLog (@"Beer shortname: %@", [homebrew substringWithRange:range]);
If you want to search for a substring, you could write something like the following:
NSRange range = [homebrew rangeOfString:@"IPA"];
// Did we find the string "IPA" ?
if (range.length > 0)
NSLog(@"Range is: %@", NSStringFromRange(range));
The output from above will display: Range is: {25, 3}. Notice the call to NSStringFromRange() which will display the return value (a range) as an NSString. There is also a function to create a range from a string: NSRangeFromString().
Let’s look at one more example, the code below will search for the string “ia” starting at the end of the string moving towards the beginning:
// Search for the "ia" starting at the end of string
NSRange range = [homebrew rangeOfString:@"ia" options:NSBackwardsSearch];
// What did we find
if (range.length > 0)
The result from above is: Range is: {12, 2} (the “ia” inside the word “India”).
NSRange Functions
Here is a list of functions that work with ranges:
1. Interesting, clear end helpful.
Thanks a lot for this little tutorial. ;o)
2. @Bergamot: I realize I’m responding to a very old comment, but I figured other newer developers might happen upon this post, too. As of iOS4, Apple provides a class (NSRegularExpression) that essentially does what RegexKit did. You can still use Regex, but as far as I can tell it has not been updated for ARC, so you will have to do some work to either adapt it to ARC or build your project without ARC–a significant amount of work either way. A lot of iPhone devs who have come to the platform in the last few years (myself included) never even learned manual memory management.
I’m building an app that includes complex search logic and thought I would have to adapt to Regex, but fortunately I happened upon NSRegularExpression before I got too far into it. Cheers.
3. Forgot to add…if for some reason you needed some functionality that RegexKit provided but is not present in Apple’s NSRegularExpression, you could always write a category on it.
Comments are closed.
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<urn:uuid:af8d35cf-0ba2-4b96-9150-03c26b7b5fc7>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.5865095853805542,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8423914909362793,
"url": "http://iosdevelopertips.com/cocoa/nsrange-and-nsstring-objects.html"
}
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Choose two volunteers who are about the same weight and similar strength. (For the purpose of explaining the illustarion, we’ll call them Jack and Gill.)
Jack and Jill stand facing each other, with a rubber ring between them – they each hold on to the ring with one hand, leaving their other hand free to reach out behind them.
Ask an adult leader/volunteer to stand about two metres behind Jack, holding a bowl containing three sweets for him. Ask a second leader to stand about two metres behind Jill, again holding a bowling containing the same number of sweets.
Tel Jack and Jill that they have 30 seconds to get as many sweets as possible out of their own bowl. They are only allowed to collect one sweet at a time, so each time they get one, they have to return to the centre point.
Jack and Jill will automatically think that this means tug of war and will pull against each other. The 30 seconds will probably pass very quickly with Jack and Jill struggling to get even one of their sweets, let alone all three!
When they have failed, tell them that it is possible for them both to managed to get all three of their sweets. How is this possible? The clue is that Jack and Jill moved together in the same direction, taking turns to travel together to each other’s bowl, the goal can be achieved. Let them try again, this time working together and traveling in the same direction.
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.21637177467346191,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9712232351303101,
"url": "https://www.childrenandyouth.co.uk/churchresources/working-together-childrens-illustration/"
}
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Browse "Indigenous Peoples"
Displaying 1-20 of 22 results
Bertha Clark-Jones
Canadian Rangers
Cree Code Talkers
Cree code talkers were an elite unit tasked with developing a coded system based on the Cree language for disguising military intelligence. They provided an invaluable service to Allied communications during the Second World War. Although their contributions remained hidden until recently, in part because the code talkers had been sworn to secrecy, their service helped to protect Western Allies and to win the war. Indeed, the Allies’ enemies were never able to break the code.
Edith Monture
Charlotte Edith Anderson Monture (often known simply as Edith Monture), Mohawk First World War veteran, registered nurse, (born 10 April 1890 on Six Nations reserve near Brantford, ON; died 3 April 1996 in Ohsweken, ON). Edith was the first Indigenous woman to become a registered nurse in Canada and to gain the right to vote in a Canadian federal election. She was also the first Indigenous woman from Canada to serve in the United States military. Edith broke barriers for Indigenous women in the armed forces and with regards to federal voting rights. A street (Edith Monture Avenue) and park (Edith Monture Park) are named after her in Brantford, Ontario.
First Nations and Métis Peoples in the War of 1812
First Nations and Métis peoples played a significant role in Canada in the War of 1812. The conflict forced various Indigenous peoples to overcome longstanding differences and unite against a common enemy. It also strained alliances, such as those in the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy in which some branches were allied with American forces. Most First Nations strategically allied themselves with Great Britain during the war, seeing the British as the lesser of two colonial evils and the group most interested in maintaining traditional territories and trade.
Francis Pegahmagabow
Francis “Peggy” Pegahmagabow, Anishnaabe (Ojibwa) chief, Indigenous rights advocate, war hero (born on 9 March 1891 on the Parry Island reserve, ON; died 5 August 1952 at Parry Island, ON). One of the most highly decorated Indigenous people in Canada during the First World War, Pegahmagabow became a vocal advocate for Indigenous rights and self-determination.
Frank Narcisse Jérome
Frank Narcisse Jérome, Mi'kmaq, war hero (born 1886 in Maria, Gaspésie-Îles-de-la-Madeleine Region, QC; died 1934 in Gesgapegiag, Gaspésie-Îles-de-la-Madeleine Region, QC). Frank Narcisse Jérome was a First World War veteran from the Gesgapegiag First Nation in the Gaspé peninsula region who was recognized multiple times during the First World War for his bravery. Jérome was one of only 39 Canadian soldiers to win the Military Medal three times during the First World War, and is now recognized as one of the most honoured Indigenous veterans of the war (see Indigenous Peoples and the World Wars and Indigenous Peoples and the First World War). Jérome’s name appears on the war memorial in Gesgapegiag, Quebec
Fred Loft
Huron Brant
Huron Eldon Brant, Mohawk soldier, war hero, automobile mechanic (born 30 December 1909 in Deseronto, ON; died 14 October 1944 near Bulgaria, Italy). Brant was awarded the Military Medal (MM) for attacking a superior enemy force during the battle for Grammichele in Sicily (seeSecond World War) but was killed later during a battle on the Italian mainland (see The Italian Campaign).
Indigenous Peoples and the First World War
Indigenous Peoples and the Second World War
John Shiwak
Mary Greyeyes Reid
Mary Greyeyes Reid, Cree veteran of the Second World War (born 14 November 1920 on the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation reserve, Marcelin, SK; died 31 March 2011 in Vancouver, BC). The first Indigenous woman to join Canada’s armed forces, Mary became a member of the Canadian Women’s Army Corps during the Second World War. The military tried to boost Indigenous recruitment and demonstrate Canada’s military might by posing her in a staged photo that has since been widely circulated in Canada.
Tecumseh, Shawnee chief, leader of a First Nations confederacy, military leader in the War of 1812 (born circa 1768 in south-central Ohio; died 5 October 1813 near Moraviantown [Thamesville, ON]).
Tecumseh and the War of 1812
Tommy Prince
Thomas George Prince, war hero, Indigenous advocate (born 25 October 1915 in Petersfield, MB; died 25 November 1977 in Winnipeg, MB). Tommy Prince was Canada's most-decorated Indigenous war veteran, having been awarded a total of 11 medals in the Second World War and the Korean War. Although homeless when he died, he was honoured at his funeral by his province, his country and the governments of France, Italy and the United States.
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<urn:uuid:3a765546-c4a6-45ae-bc2f-1174e98a48a6>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.318107008934021,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9665083885192871,
"url": "https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/index.php/en/browse/people/military/indigenous-peoples"
}
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Thera Theories
The documentary noted that geologists prefer a date of circa 1600 BC for the eruption of Thera, while archaeologists lean toward a date closer to 1500 BC.
Most scientific and popular discussion seems to focus on a single, cataclysmic eruption of Thera, such as this recent article:
But as mentioned in another thread, Thera/Santarini is known to have erupted repeatedly in ancient times.
So, why couldn't there have been a major eruption in 1628, another around 1500, and yet another at the beginning of the Egyptian 18th Dynasty (at whatever date that actually happened to be)?
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<urn:uuid:e70edbe1-d034-47db-bc03-ec1d0d423afa>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.8590706586837769,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9672825932502747,
"url": "http://www.domainofman.com/cgi-bin/bbs62x/webbbs_config.pl?md=read;id=3678"
}
|
Periodisation has three subphases: macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle. These subphases are used in order to break the training year up into manageable chunks that join together to achieve the long term goals.
The macrocycle subphase is the larger training cycle and normally encompasses the whole year. However, the macrocycle can be both larger or smaller than this, depending on the sport. For example, an athlete training to win the olympics will have a four (4) year macrocycle in order to qualify for and then peak during the olympics. Whereas, a tennis football player will focus on a single year macrophase. Athletes will often set macrocycle goals that they wish to achieve. These are used to guide training and planning in the smaller subphases of periodisation.
The mesocycle subphase is a smaller chunk of time and can consist of a few weeks or a few months. Often mesocycles match up with the three (3) phases of competition (pre, in and off season). For example, one mesocycle may be 4 weeks of general pre-season training. Mesocycles join together to create the macrocycle. The macrocycle goals are broken up into smaller goals that are to be achieved during each mesocycle.
The microcycle subphase is smaller still, often a single week of a training program. The microcycle is often used to focus on a singular aspect that adds together with other macrocycles in order to achieve mesocycle goals which accumulate to achieve the macrocycle goals. Microcycle’s are particularly important for weekly competitions as the athlete or team prepare for their next match. It is the microcycle subphase that works as the building blocks to create the year long training program using periodisation.
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<urn:uuid:9000e779-ed9b-4ed6-b12a-9d034e483545>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.32021403312683105,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9395066499710083,
"url": "https://www.pdhpe.net/improving-performance/what-are-the-planning-considerations-for-improving-performance/planning-a-training-year-periodisation/subphases/"
}
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This Day in History
Nov. 22, 1919: Bogalusa Labor Massacre
Time Periods: World War I: 1910 - 1919
Themes: African American, Labor
In November 1919, in Bogalusa, Louisiana, agents of the Great Southern Lumber Company formed a gang to threaten African American labor organizer Sol Dacus. He was trying to form a union for Black laborers at the saw mill, under very dangerous conditions as described by
Great Southern owned everything — houses, stores, electric utility, schools, even the segregated parks. They also ran the government. The mill’s general manager was the mayor and the police department took their orders from the company. In addition to the cops, Great Southern maintained a private armed security force to maintain “labor discipline.”
In 1919 after World War I, white and Black workers tried to form a biracial union (with segregated locals as required by Louisiana law). The company organized racist whites into the Self-Preservation and Loyalty League (SPLL). Company gunmen and the SPLL assaulted union members, evicted them from company housing, burned private homes, kidnapped, and tortured organizers.
On Nov. 21, company gunmen and members of the SPLL showed up at Dacus’ home. He and his family survived the shoot-out that evening.
The next day, on Nov. 22, 1919, Dacus bravely walked through town — accompanied by white supporters and allies in the labor movement.
Determined to undermine any efforts at interracial solidarity, the Great Southern Lumber Company gang murdered four of those white allies, including the American Federation of Labor district representative. Dacus and his family were able to escape to New Orleans.
The Bogalusa Massacre is an example of the violence interracial labor organizing experienced from racist, anti-labor forces in the early 20th century.
Bogalusa, La. lumber mill | Zinn Education Project
Great Southern lumber mill in Bogalusa, Louisiana, the largest in the world at the time, saw Black and white workers fighting together for their rights against racist capitalists. Source: New York Public Library.
In “Bogalusa Burning: The War Against Biracial Unionism in the Deep South,” Journal of Southern History, Stephen Norwood wrote:
The gun battle in Bogalusa, when white union men took up arms and gave their lives to defend their Black comrade, represents probably the most dramatic display of interracial labor solidarity in the Deep South during the first half of the 20th century. [Continue reading.]
The article referenced above and Bloody Bogalusa, 1919: When Four White Unionists Died Defending Their Black Comrades provide detailed history of the event and aftermath.
Read about Bogalusa during the modern Civil Rights Movement, find more Zinn Education Project materials for teaching outside the textbook about labor history, and explore our timeline of selected massacres in U.S. history.
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.828125,
"fasttext_score": 0.08001387119293213,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9443492889404297,
"url": "https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/bogalusa-labor-massacre/"
}
|
King Henry III of England
14 Jan 2020 Tue
Henry III was king England from 1216 to 1272. The reign of King Henry III lasted for fifty-six years but not without political instability and hurdles. During his time Monarchy was under Magana Carta. The Governance and Kingship were tied to it and the barons in parliament ruled the country. King Henry III and Baron Simon de Montfort became the biggest foes.
Henry reformed the system of silver coins in England in 1247, replacing the older Short Cross silver pennies with a new Long Cross design. The Gold pennies of Henry III are the rarest and most valuable of all the British gold coinage.
These Gold Pennies are said to be the first English hammered gold coin; struck before the Norman invasion. The obverse depicts the Crowned King Henry III is seated on a throne and wearing royal robes. He is holding a sceptre in the right hand and monde on the other hand. The mosaic design is seen below the king with an inscription around which reads “HENRICUS REX III’ means “King Henry III”. The reverse depicts a long cross with all its four ends with limb bottom with extensions to the edges of the coin within the beaded circle dividing the outer circle of legend from the inner section which intersects with rose and three pellets.
Image Source:
Knowledge Base
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.024029254913330078,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9469190835952759,
"url": "https://www.mintageworld.com/media/detail/11234/"
}
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The main author of “The Declaration of Independence” is Thomas Jefferson. However, the drafting of the legal document was assigned to five officials. Apart from Jefferson, the other four are John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingstone.
Appointed by the Second Continental Congress, they formed the Committee of Five and worked from June to July on drafting the document. Each of them represented a different colony from the North American colonies. The Congress included representatives of the thirteen North American colonies that wanted to declare their independence from the British Empire, and it was formed during the American Revolutionary War.
The main author, Thomas Jefferson, was the representative of colonial Virginia in the Second Con…
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<urn:uuid:7e85d75a-4b41-44ae-bbc1-8ee356004c29>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.0625619888305664,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.85555499792099,
"url": "https://liceunet.ro/the-declaration-of-independence/analysis/writer"
}
|
History of the Bali House
A patron of arts, Dewa Agung Gusti Sideman took greatness in supervising the design and construction of his palace in Klungkung - an example of Hindu-Balinese architecture. Kertha Gosa architecture took shape of a mandala - a Buddhist influence domed-mountain shape. Mandalas help people further their dramatic revolution; pure forces of good come from a mountain. Kertha Gosa’s first major function pertained to court of law and justice. The Kertha Gosa pavilion was the meeting place for the raja (Hindu prince) and Brahman judges (Kerthas) to discuss issues of law and human affairs. Whether or not the king instructed his court painters to decorate the ceiling at the time Kertha Gosa was built is impossible to know. Moreover, it is impossible to know whether or not the story of Bhima Swarga was the first painting in the pavilion. The earliest and only record of paintings at Kertha Gosa dates from the year 1842 and is written in a lontar book (a book that holds prayers, history of Bali, and epics)
Balinese house (kuren) consists of a family or a number of related families living within one enclosure, praying at a common family temple, with one gate and one kitchen. The square plot of land (pekarangan) in which the various units. of the house stand is entirely surrounded by a wall of whitewashed mud, protected from rain erosion by a crude roofing of thatch. The Balinese feel uneasy when they sleep without a wall, as, for instance, the servants must in the un walled Western-style houses. The gate of a well-to-do family can be an imposing affair of brick and carved stone, but more often it consists of two simple pillars of mud supporting a thick roof of thatch. In front of the gate on either side 'are two small shrines (apit lawang) for offerings, of brick and stone, or merely two little niches excavated in the mud of the gate, while the simplest are made of split bamboo. Directly behind the ' doorway is a small wall aling aling that screens off.The house of a poor family is called pekarangan, that of a nobleman is a jero and a Brahmana's is a griya, but these differences are mostly in the name, the quality of the materials employed, the workmanship, and of course in the larger -and richer family temple. The fundamental, plan is based on the same rules for everyone. Only the great palace (puri) of the local ruling. prince is infinitely more elaborate, with a lily pond, compartments for the Raja's brothers and his countless wives, a great temple divided into three courts, and even special sections for the preservation of the corpses and for the seclusion of " impure " palace women during the time of menstruation.
House of Bali Bloggers. Powered by Blogger.
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<urn:uuid:2f963d40-7b72-40b0-a36c-f6b1ad8b8a78>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.75,
"fasttext_score": 0.034895479679107666,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.954131543636322,
"url": "http://houseofbali.blogspot.com/2007/12/history-bali-house.html"
}
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Protactinium was identified by K. Fajans and O. Göhring in 1913 as a member of the 238U decay series. They named the new element, which was 234Pa, brevium because of the short half-life [1,3]. A more stable isotope, 231Pa with t½ = 32760 y, was discovered in 1916 by O. Hahn and L. Meither [1,3]. The metal itself was not isolated until 1934 when Aristid Grosse developed two methods. One involved reduction of the pentoxide Pa2O5 with a stream of electrons in a vacuum and the second involved heating the iodide PaI5 under vacuum [3].
Origin of name
Originally called brevium due to the short half-life of the discovered isotope. The name was changed to protoactinium as it was discovered to be the parent of actinum (from the Greek protos, meaning first). In 1949 the name was shortened to protactinium [1].
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.08499932289123535,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9683464169502258,
"url": "https://pilgaardelements.com/Protactinium/History.htm"
}
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Paper Money
When large got small: The downsizing of America's paper money
Read other posts in the series:
The physical size of paper money probably rarely enters most people’s mind. There’s likely more concern about the size of the monetary denomination.
Anyone who’s ever watched an American western movie or TV program has often seen scenes of gambling in a saloon, a train robbery or a stagecoach stickup. What is used for paper money in those scenes generally depicts what collectors refer to as large-size notes.
The lavishly engraved designs of actual large-size notes would catch anyone’s eye, but for today’s audience it’s the physical size of the money that triggers a second glance. Most genuine large-size notes measure 7.5 inches by 3.125 inches.
For many collectors, those notes had it all — beauty, security and a distinctive look. So why the change?
Treasury Department officials believed the change to a smaller size would reduce the costs of production, paper and ink. The downsizing concept was simple enough to understand but implementing the change was a monumental undertaking for the Treasury.
It took 20 years from when U.S. Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh proposed the idea in 1909 until it became a reality. Three Treasury secretaries and scores of other government officials pondered the ramifications, argued about designs, and wrangled with machinery to complete the task. Changes in presidential administrations and World War I also played a part in the long delay of a decision.
In May 1927, Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon approved the designs and recommendations of yet another committee studying the change in size. The new size would be 6.14 by 2.61 inches.
Mellon directed the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to take the necessary steps to prepare plates for the new printing setup of 12 subjects per page instead of eight subjects used in printing the large-size notes, according to the History of Bureau of Engraving and Printing, published by the BEP.
Finally on June 30, 1929, the BEP completed production of the first supply of small-size currency. The smaller size notes were immediately released into circulation. The large-size notes remained legal to use (and they still are) but were gradually withdrawn and replaced with their smaller counterparts.
Community Comments
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{
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9566988945007324,
"url": "https://www.coinworld.com/news/paper-money/coin-world-paper-money-michele-orzano-downsizing-american-money-numsimatics-collecting-hobby.html"
}
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Contributed by Karin Rutgers - who worked for four years as a VSO in West Sumba
Sumbanese History
When talking about the Sumbanese history as least 2 ver-sions are available: one is the version of the official history book which has been written by out-siders (not Sumbanese), the other version is about how Sumbanese themselves see the history of Sumba which is an important aspect in their native religion : the Marapu-religion. I want to start with the first version, the official history book : The first evidence on paper of the existence of Sumba is provided by maps of Portuguese sailors. The map from the year 1522 shows a small island called Chendan, which means sandlewood. Sumba was only known by the traders for its forests, a reservoir of valuable sandlewood, ebony and kayu kuning. Before the 16th century there was already trade between people from Sumba and traders from other islands. Beside wood, other important trade-articles from the Sumbanese were : leather, dried meat and dried fish. In return, the Sumbanese received clothes, cups and platelets, bracelets, knives and choppers etc., from other islands. In the 16th century, also slave-trade emerged, starting with traders from Flores. Slaves became very important in inter-island trade but also the consequences of this trade in the inner land of the island were very important. Unsafety increased because every Sumbanese who dared to leave the area of protection from his fellow clan members could be captured and sold as a slave. Slave trade also encouraged warfare between clans, for now war-captives could not only be used as slaves but also be sold. In this time there were lots of wars between different kabihu's. Shortage of food or other scarse resources has been mentioned in the literature as a possible reason for clans to start a war because these wars always resulted in capturing people and selling them or keeping them as salves, and robbery of food and cattle. Another possible reason is that kabihu leaders used the war as a mean to strengthen their position. (to have a common enemy unites the members of the kabihu) Also head-hunting existed as a sign of revenge. Especially the end of the dry season had been the traditional season for headhunting. Nowadays people in West-Sumba are still afraid in the month July of "orang touris" who come to take their children and take their skull. This fear proba-bly finds its roots in this "head-hunting" time. 1 The Dutch United East India Company (VOC) didn't pay much attention to Sumba, probably because lack of profitable trade-articles and the unsafety on the island. The coloni-al government (after 1799) also never had much attention for the island. Their main interest was to keep the island out of the hands of other colonial powers. But after 1838 the involvement of the colonial government in the inter-nal affairs gradually increased because the colonial powers wanted to make Sumba safer. (for which reasons has not been mentioned in the literature) In the beginning the Dutch Indian government used a politic of non-intervention, they would only advice to local leaders and not directly interfere. But it seemed that no authority was given to advisors as such. The strongest local leaders were the ones who acted as real despots. In the literature it is argued that only after the Dutch Government had clearly shown its physical power by using violence in order to pacify the island (after the War of Lambanapu in (1901) its authority became respected. Al-though this article has been written in the beginning of this century and there have been many changes in adminis-trative structures and rules on Sumba, tension between the style of negotiating-advising- deciding together on the one hand and direct suppressive rule on the other hand still exists. From 1906 till 1912 Dutch military action took place all over Sumba in order to pacify the island and this led to 4 measures : 1. slaves had to be released and slave trade was prohibit-ed, 2. all warfare was prohibited, all guns and arms were to be handed over to the government, 3. the government started to levy taxes, and 4. people had to obey others order of the government such as to assist in road construction. This last measure brought, according to some Sumbanese, a new "activity" to the island : the road-workers were taught gambling by the Dutch in order to pass the boring nights. Gambling still exists on Sumba and in some areas of West-Sumba it became a big problem. After the Second Word War feeling of nationalism and anti-colonialism occurred, although the feelings on Sumba were not so strong as on the other islands. The role of the church changed because care for all kinds of public works by the colonial government had ceased to exist and was not yet taken over by the new Indonesian government. Since the missions had and have a true commit-ment with the people of Sumba, they decided to focus more on socio-economic development work. It started with the agricultural school in Lewa. In the period of the New Order (after the coup in 1965) the missions gradually withdrew from the areas : medical care, formal education, road construction, which in ac-cordance with the conviction of the Dutch churches, should be taken over by the local people. However, in reality it turned out that the government took over a lot of these activities. Another important development in the recent Sumbanese history is the increase in converts. Now in most areas it is considered backward and old-fashioned to be an adherent of the Marapu-religion, also because the government propa-gates that every Indonesian citizen should be adherent to one of the five recognized religions (Islam, Hindu, Buddhism, Catholic, and Protestant). But in daily life there is a high incidence of syncretism, which means that officially people are Christians, but in daily life they still believe in Marapu. This has still a big influence of the life of the Sumba-nese. A few examples will be given in other parts of this article. The second version of history of Sumba is how Sumbanese themselves see their history. There are lots of myths on Sumba about "God", the creation of the earth, Sumba, and the history of clans, which have been told in long poems of ritual speech and conveyed from generation to genera-tion. Every Kabishu (clan) on Sumba has its own stories and these stories are very important for the different clans because they tell for example, which families are the most important in a village, the rights which certain clans have on land, who are their ancestors etc. Because these stories have never been written down there are often different versions available from one story. The stories about for example how the forbears of certain clans arrived in Kodi, a district in the South-West of Sumba, differ according to which clan the person who tells the story belongs. Every person who is interested in these old stories I can recommendate to read some anthropological books or studies about Sumba.
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A broad range of organisms appears able to predict the harshness of future environments and to change the quality of their offspring accordingly. This project focuses on a common beetle that lays stacks of two eggs in order to protect the lower egg from an egg parasitoid and to increase its survival.. Top eggs have reduced mass relative to bottom eggs, and do not complete development, even in the absnce of parasitism. While stacking eggs improves the quality of the bottom-most eggs, it requires more resources and therefore decreases the number of offspring that can be produced. Female beetles anticipate this tradeoff by reducing the nutrients allocated to the sacrificial (top) eggs before they are laid, but the cues eliciting nutrient reallocation and stacking behavior are currently unknown. The researchers will initiate a series of experiments to determine the specific environmental cues responsible for stacking behavior and the sensitivity of female beetles to these cues. They predict that both chemical and volatile cues from the parasitoid cause the stacking response; and that beetles adjust the number of stacks they produce in response to parasitoid density.
The beetle-wasp interaction system offers special opportunities for communicating the excitement of scientific discovery to young people. The research has been used in K-12 classes and public settings to illustrate insect diversity and to teach ecological interactions such as herbivory and parasitism. Over the course of the project, outreach using this interspecific interaction will be continued through an elementary and middle school outreach program at the University of Arizona, Insect Discovery. In addition, undergraduate students recruited from under-served groups in biology will participate in the project.
Project Report
When laying eggs, there are many different cues a female animal is exposed to that provide information about the types of hazards (e.g., desiccation, predation, parasitism) and their probability of encounter. If the maternal environment is predictive of the offspring environment, this may lead to the evolution of mechanisms under maternal control that can enhance offspring survival in hazardous environments. Females of the seed beetle species Mimosestes amicus exhibit egg stacking, a protective oviposition behavior in which a mother will lay 1-3 eggs atop another egg in order to protect the bottom egg from parasitic wasps that seek to lay their own eggs (1 per egg) inside of it. For the project, "DISSERTATION RESEARCH: Inducible egg stacking defends against parasitism in a seed beetle," we sought to address two objectives: identify the chemical cues that trigger a protective oviposition behavior in M. amicus mothers, and determine whether these mothers adjust the frequency and level of protection in response to the level of parasitism risk. In regards to the first objective, we found that beetles use parasitized eggs as a cue for assessing parasitism risk in the environment. We were able to determine that volatile chemicals were likely not responsible for triggering egg stacking behavior. GCMS analyses suggested that a long-chain alkane was a likely candidate, but we were unable to confirm this before the completion of the project. In the laboratory, we observed female parasitoids that appear to transfer a substance to the surface of eggs after parasitisation – this may be a host discrimination cue to deter other parasitoid females from superparasitizing the same egg. We have also observed seed beetle females drumming egg surfaces with their maxillary palps, which may be how the assess the health of eggs in the environment. In regards to the second objective, we found that depending on how frequently they encounter parasitized eggs, females will exhibit a graded response to increasing levels of parasitism risk. With increasing exposure to parasitized eggs across seed pods, females will reduce oviposition rate, and increase the frequency and level of the stacking response. Females also exhibited avoidance behavior - even when 60% of the seed pods bore respond to parasitism risk in a manner that conserves the use of eggs as protective shields. In another experiment, we sought to test how beetles modify the egg stacking behavior in response to host availability. Access to hosts constrains the number of oviposition opportunities, and hence, the number of eggs that can be laid in a particular period of time. Females are expected to increase the number of eggs per clutch in response to low access to hosts and large numbers of eggs relative to age (time limitation), and decrease the number of eggs per clutch in response to high access to hosts and few eggs relative to age. Applying this reasoning to egg stacking, we expected females to lay a higher frequency of stacks and more eggs per stack when given low access to hosts, and a lower frequency of stacks and fewer eggs per stack when given high access to hosts. Our results matched these predictions, indicating that the protective oviposition behavior operates under the same physiological rules that constrain clutch size behavior. When interpreting all of these experiments together, we can see that spatial and temporal variation in parasitism cues and temporal variation in oviposition opportunities strongly influenced the evolution of fine-tuned flexibility in the egg protection strategy. Our results support the emerging understanding that solitary insect hosts that do not exhibit parental care may use a sophisticated means of assessing risk and protecting offspring. On a larger scale, oviposition avoidance behaviours may represent nonconsumptive effects imposed by natural enemies, in which the presence of a natural enemy causes a costly change in host (or prey) behaviour, physiology or life history, and influences the growth of the host population, which affects the larger community. These overlooked behaviors may substantially influence the evolution of a species and its interactions with the biotic environment (e.g., competitors, predators, parasites). Lastly, our results suggest that a mother’s perception of host abundance, quality, and natural enemy cues all interact to produce complex patterns of oviposition behaviour. During the process of completing this project, I hired and trained 1 male and 1 female undergraduate student in the maintenance of multiple colonies of 3 insect species, assistance in setting up experiments, and data collection.In a GK-12 partnership with 6th grade teacher Matt Trausch, I developed insect lessons on taxonomy and adaptation in which I included live and photographic examples of my own study system. I presented our findings locally at MGE@MSA (More Graduate Education @ Mountain States Alliance), the Entomological Society of America conference, the Entomophagous Insects Conference, and the Animal Behaviour Society conference.
National Science Foundation (NSF)
Division of Environmental Biology (DEB)
Standard Grant (Standard)
Application #
Program Officer
Saran Twombly
Project Start
Project End
Budget Start
Budget End
Support Year
Fiscal Year
Total Cost
Indirect Cost
University of Arizona
United States
Zip Code
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Passer au contenu principal
Portail de l'éducation de Historica Canada
Northrop Frye
• Histoire sociale
• Secondaire – Primaire
This lesson is based on viewing the Northrop Frye biography from The Canadians series. It explores the life and writings of Frye, who was one of Canada's greatest thinkers. He struggled with questions about Canadian identity and the nature of Canada with depth and humour. His ideas and passion have influenced many of today's writers and thinkers.
These activities challenge students to explore the issues and ideas that Frye wrote about and taught. Students will explore these ideas in relation to film, literature, or art.
Northrop Frye was one of the greatest thinkers Canada has ever produced. He struggled with questions about the nature of Canada and Canadian Identity both deeply and humourously. He was a scholar, a teacher, a United Church minister and Professor of Literature at Victoria College, University of Toronto for almost half a century. He managed to infect his pupils (among them the young writers who are today the doyens of Canadian literature) with the passion of his ideas.
Northrop Frye was born in Sherbrooke, Quebec in the summer of 1912 to a family of Methodist fundamentalists. Though religion was a touchstone to Frye's ideas he certainly was anything but a fundamentalist.
Enrolling in the University of Toronto's Victoria College at the age of 17, he stayed there first as a student, later as a teacher, principal, and finally as Chancellor. After his initial studies he studied theology and then as a student minister he spent five months in Saskatchewan travelling by horse between small towns. His understanding of religion was not conventional and there were many who were offended by his views. But the Bible was central to his thinking and he saw it as the source of myth and imagery, the crucible of western literature.
He saw the arts as a creative power that can be possessed by their audience. He was an intellectual giant whose influence reached to the US and Britain and whom many feel can rightly be compared to Freud and Darwin. His 1957 book The Anatomy of Criticism transformed the study of literature but he was also a profoundly human man.
Not only an academic, Frye wrote for the CBC and served for nine years on the CRTC. As in his classroom, his comments and questions during CRTC hearings were ironic, witty, and tough, often garnering laughs as he skewered pretentious license applicants.
The aim of this documentary is to make this humorous witty man accessible to the audience. Interviews with his students and colleagues (e.g. Margaret Atwood, Robert Fulford), and excerpts from his letters and diaries reveal a man who was brilliant and funny, wise and poignant. The documentary is a visual journey that explores a life rich with ideas that sparked a passion for living in others.
Time Allowance:
1 - 4 hours
The video lends itself to responses in three major areas including film, literature, and art.
Before watching the video, direct the students to pay attention to camera angles, music, editing, cross-cutting, the treatment of the experts, and the pace of the video. Divide your students into small groups to evaluate filming techniques used in the video. The following questions can be used as a guide:
• Did you enjoy watching the video? Why or why not?
• What camera angles were used (low, medium, high)?
• How was music interwoven with images and words to create meaning?
• Did the video take an objective or subjective stance?
• How did the filmmakers incorporate Frye's notion of an underlying myth in every text?
• How did the filmakers balance music, literature, and art? Give an example of each of these from the video.
While the video documents the life of Northrop Frye, he never appears in it. With your students, discuss what sort of person Northrop Frye appears to be. How was he as a religious man, a thinker, an academic, a humourist, a critic, and a husband? Pair off the students and direct them to focus on one part of his life that interests them. Based on this aspect of his life, the students will prepare and present a 1 minute clip that they would include in the video as if they were Frye himself.
If the students have access to a video camera and editing equipment, they could film the segment using techniques that are used in The Canadians series. These could include camera angles, fading and crosscutting between images, and adding music and text on the screen. If not, they can create a storyboard for how they would film the video and what they would say. You may want to give students time to research Frye in more detail, emphasizing the importance of consulting multiple sources as opposed to relying solely on the video.
Questions they should answer:
• What would Frye want to say in a biography on his life?
• What parts of his life did this video not discuss that he would have wanted to include?
• What parts of the video should have been given more or less emphasis and why?
• How would Frye present himself?
Follow up the presentations by analyzing what students chose to focus on. What limited their ability to represent Frye? Given a time limit, did students have difficulty condensing the information? Did they have to cut anything from the presentation that they wanted to include? Use these questions to explore what interpretive strategies the pairs used when creating the video.
Use William Blake's writing to illustrate the role of History in poetry. Provide the students with copies of the poems "The Chimney Sweeper" (one version from The Songs of Innocence, one version from The Songs of Experience), and the poem "London." In the former, discuss the tone of the dream state in which the boy finds himself. Relate this to the poet's units of thought (mythology and metaphor according to Frye). What circumstances have led to the boy's position in society? Place the poem in its historical context, emphasizing the problem of child labour. Compare the poem written in Songs of Innocence (1789) with the one written in Songs of Experience (1794); how do the poems bring new meaning to each other?
Discuss the tone of the poem "London." How does it reflect the period in which it was written? Blake, like Frye who threw off his fundamentalist education, wanted to rid himself of the materialist philosophy of the Enlightenment and a repressive interpretation of Christianity. Explore how this sentiment comes through the negative view of Blake's London. Develop the social framework within which the poem was written by discussing conditions in London in the late eighteenth century.
Just as Blake believed that he must create a system or be enslaved by another man's, Frye developed his own system of criticism to father the notion of a total vision in literature. Look at Blake's Songs of Innocence and Experience to look for one vision. Do the students notice a pattern in Blake's treatment of his subject? What underlying myths are present in Blake's writing? Do we find desire or scapegoats in Blake's writing? If so, who or what are they? To focus students, using the Norton Anthology of English Literature, compare the early version of the poem "The Tyger" with the finished version. What words have been changed? Why?
Do a lesson on Greek mythology. Explore some of the major patterns in Greek myth such as the role of the hero and the ability to perform superhuman feats. Have the students bring in a current newspaper. Instruct them to read the paper, looking for desires (including power and unobtainable dreams), and any form of myth that underlies the articles. Is today's mythology limited to popular culture or is it also found in sport, business, national, and international issues in everyday events? Who do we use as the scapegoats in the papers today? Make a collage of the pictures of people that the students believe are used as scapegoats from the newspapers.
Plan a field trip to an art gallery. Prior to the trip, tell students that they are going to become experts on one painting in the gallery. You may either limit them to one artist who has multiple pieces in the gallery, or to a particular period of painting. Students will need to know who the painter was and when it was painted. They will need to know specifically what the painting contained, what colours were used, and painting style. Ask them to record how the painting makes them feel, and what they think it means. Students may collect information about the painting from gallery audio tapes, the gallery library and information pamphlets. If information is available to the students in your school library, have them continue to research the artist and the period in which he/she painted.
When all relevant information has been collected, select a painting that you will discuss with the whole class. Rembrandt Van Rijn and Salvador Dali would be good painters to use. In Frye's lectures, he wanted to confront visual works with verbal works. The main questions that the students will be considering are: 1) what are the painter's intention and meaning, and 2) what was achieved and how do I understand the painting? Since most historical interpretation aims at restoring the author's intentions, have them consider how they responded to the painting as opposed to what their research tells them. Discuss the painting as a class to help students learn to interpret art.
Their assignment will be to create a gallery tour handout. Have them imagine that as a class, they will be putting together a guidebook for the gallery. They will each be given two pages (one page, two sides), to tell the history of the painting, the painter, and to give their interpretation of it. When they have all completed the assignment, put the booklet together in an anthology format for the students to enjoy.
Address the problems with canonical works. Were there examples of racism, classicism, or sexism in these works? Break students into groups of five to discuss these issues with regard to their paintings. What changes would need to be made to eliminate the problems they find in the works? Have your students draft fictional letters to the painter whose work they have selected.
Other questions you may want to have the students consider are:
• Why are some paintings worth so much?
• Is High Art part of popular culture, or separate from it?
• Should we consider a painter's works together or individually?
• Frye believes that a holistic reading of a painter's work is most profitable, do students agree?
• Texts and images do nothing on their own. How much does the interpreter bring to a work?
• Why do we look at paintings?
• Why bother trying to interpret a painting if it's subjective anyway?
Additional Activities
Find a chronology of Frye's life (i.e., in Northrop Frye: A Visionary Life). Classify and categorize the events in his life. In a chart, list events in his personal life, his education, his employment, his publications, and his achievements. How is his life represented?
Have your students create chronologies of their own lives using the above as a model. What do they include? What do they leave out? Is the chronology an accurate representation of their lives, and of them as people? Use their own chronology to teach them the concept of a time line that extends from the past to the future.
Required Materials:
The second activity requires the Norton Anthology of English Literature, Blake's The Songs of Innocence, and The Songs of Experience.
The third activity would be enhanced by a trip to a local art gallery.
Northrop Frye Worksheet
Northrop Frye - The Canadian Encyclopedia
Northrop Frye, Simulation, And the Creation of a Human World
The Northrop Frye Centre
Adamson, Joseph, Northrop Frye: A Visionary Life. Toronto: ECW Press, 1993.
Bates, Ronald, Northrop Frye. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd., 1971.
Bal, Mieke, Reading Rembrandt: Beyond the Word-Image Opposition The Northrop Frye Lectures in Literary Theory.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Cook, David. Northrop Frye: A Vision of the New World. Montreal: New World Perspectives, 1985.
Frye, Northrop. A Study of English Romanticism. New York: Random House, 1968.
Documents d’accompagnement pour cet outil d’apprentissage
Type de fichier Taille du fichier Action
Northrop_Frye.pdf PDF 170 ko Télécharger
Documents d’accompagnement pour cet outil d’apprentissage
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chapter 7
17 Pages
The Revolution’s institutional changes had durable consequences for economic development. The intention of the legislators of the revolutionary and Napoleonic periods, influenced by Enlightenment ideas, had been to sweep away archaic relics of ‘feudalism’ and rationalize and liberate economic activity. This meant uniformity in law, markets, money, taxation and measurement; freedom to work and trade; and the recognition of property, on the Roman Law model, as an ‘inviolable and sacred right’, unencumbered by ancient regulations and communal customs. Corporations, collective action and restrictive trade practices were forbidden, and workers’ combinations criminalized. These principles were formulated in the d’Allarde and Le Chapelier laws (1791), the Code Civil (or Code Napoleon) of 1804 and the Code de Commerce of 1807.
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Arrowhead made from obsidian. Source:
Arrowhead made of obsidian. Source: https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Arrowhead.jpg
Nenumbo is one site that showcases the Pacific Islanders’ ability to travel the seas and challenges the Austronesian/Lapita model for the domestication of Remote Oceania. Located in the Solomon Islands, Nenumbo had obsidian that was imported from the Bismarck Archipelago which was 2,000 kilometers away. In addition, studying burials has shown that the island people of Remote Oceania had large muscular bodies that were suited for traveling the ocean while the bodies of people from South-East Asia, Borneo, and New Guinea were better suited for living on land masses. During the excavation of Nenumbo, post-hole structures were found and dated to c.1100 BC. The holes are associated with earth ovens and storage pits. There were also remains of fish, shellfish, birds, and domesticated pigs and chickens. The evidence that the people of Nenumbo and Remote Oceania developed separately from those of mainland and island South-East Asia indicates that domesticates may not have spread from west to east as the Austronesian/Lapita model says. (1)
(1) Barker, G. (2009).The agricultural revolution in prehistory: Why did foragers become farmers?. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. 224-225.
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Friday, February 14, 2014
History mystery: Palimpsest – Ancient Manuscript
Codex Armenicus palimpsest
The word Palimpsest is derived from the Latin word palimpsestus and from Ancient Greek, palimpsestos, meaning scratched or scraped again, originally from palin meaning again and psao, scrape, which literally means scraped clean and used again. Earlier, the Romans wrote on wax coated tablets which could be smoothed and then reused and the term palimpsest by Cicero was referred to this practice. A Palimpsest is a manuscript in codex or roll form, of earlier text that had been partly erased and apparently having an additional text underneath it and the underlying text is considered to be `in palimpsest’ where the vellum or parchment can be reused.
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus
It was a common function especially during the medieval ecclesiastical time, to erase an earlier existing piece of writing with the aid of washing or scraping of the manuscript and then to prepare it for a new text. The idea of making palimpsests could have been economic and reusing the parchment which was cheaper than getting hold of a new one. Another option could have been directed by Christian piety, in the conversion of a pagan Greek script by overlaying it with the word of God.
Sealed Codices
Before the 20th century, faint legible text were read through technique that helped to make text readable and scholars of the 19th century used chemicals to read palimpsests which were at times very destructive, using tincture of gall and later ammonium bisulfate. Present day historians interested in ancient writing, employed infra red and digital enhancement techniques, to restore the erased text, very often with successful result. From the various important palimpsests, the most notable one being the Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus from which, only 299 leaves are available.
Codex Calixtinus
Since parchment which was prepared from animal hides is considered more durable than paper or papyrus, most of the palimpsests are parchment which was popular in Western Europe after the 6th century. The papyrus was in common use then and reuse as writing media was less common since papyrus was much cheaper than costly parchment. The writing from the parchment or vellum was washed with milk and oat bran and with the passage of time, the faded remains of the earlier text would reappear so that scholars could discern the text known as the scriptio inferior, meaning the underwriting, enabling them to decipher the same.
Codex Calixtinus-1
Towards the later stage of the Middle Age, the surface of the vellum was scraped with powdered pumice resulting in losing the text and the most valuable palimpsests are the one that were overwritten in the early Middle Ages. The Medieval codices were developed in `gathers’ that were folded and stacked together in the form of newspaper and sewn together at the fold. The prepared parchment sheets have retained the original central fold with each fold cut in half making a quarto volume of the original folio and the overwritten script running perpendicular to the effect manuscript.
Archimedes Palimpsest
Several ancient works have been restored only as palimpsests and Vellum scripts were overlaid with the intention of reducing the cost or dearth of the material. With regards to the Greek manuscripts, the consumption of old codices in terms of the material was essential that a synod decree of the year 691 restricted the destruction of the manuscripts of the Scriptures or the church fathers which was only permitted for imperfect or badly affected volumes. This resulted in mounted pressure in retrieving the vellum where the secular manuscripts were texted and the decline of the vellum trade with the introduction of paper being scarce lead them to reuse the material. Besides this, the cultural considerations also lead to the creation of palimpsest.
Codex Manesse
Most of the text which were prone to being overwritten included obsolete liturgical and legal, at times, of intense interest to the historian or scholar. The Scripture translation of Early Latin was rendered obsolete by Jerome Vulgate and the text might have been either in foreign languages or in some unfamiliar scripts which could have become illegible over the years or the possibility that the codices could have been damaged or incomplete.
Devil codex Gigas
The Heretical text were dangerous to hold since there was a compelling religious and political reason to eliminate texts viewed as heresy and reusing the media was economical than to burn the books. Major destruction of the broad quartos during the early centuries happened during the period following the fall of the Roman Empire though palimpsests created in the form of new text were needed during the Carolingian renaissance.
The Codex Benedictus
A valuable Latin palimpsests which was found in the codices was remade from the early large folios during the 7th to the 9th centuries and it has been indicated that no complete work is found anywhere in the original text of the palimpsest but sections of many works have been gathered to make a single volume. Overall, the Early Medieval scribes were not indiscriminate to supply material from old volumes which were available at hand.
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Edit: this question is about making clear that the Wikipedia's article about the Kármán line is an interpretation, not the definition !
Why not consider the Kármán line as a curved boundary that follows the curvature of the Earth ?
According to Wikipedia's article about the Kármán line:
The Kármán line is the altitude where the speed necessary to aerodynamically support the airplane's full weight equals orbital velocity ( assuming wing loading of a typical airplane )………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...The Kármán line is therefore the highest altitude at which orbital speed provides sufficient aerodynamic lift to fly in a straight line that doesn't follow the curvature of the Earth's surface.
Note: this is an interpretation of the writer of the article, not the real definition !
The FAI (Fédération Aéronautiqe Internationale) that adopted the definition, doesn't mention any straight line in this article about the 100km altitude boundary for astronautics
So would not the definition of the Kármán line be better explained by an airplane in orbit around the Earth, rather than by an airplane flying in a straight line ?
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$\begingroup$ but to what benefit? It's easy to define the speed needed for orbit at an altitude, harder to calculate to calculate the lift generated at an air pressure and speed. Why introduce a requirement to calculate an intermediate speed? $\endgroup$ – JCRM Oct 19 '18 at 19:36
• $\begingroup$ @JCRM These calculations are just done to show that the Kármán line, now defined for an unrealistic straight line, can also be defined as a realistic curved line around the Earth with a realistic centrifugal force. $\endgroup$ – Cornelisinspace Oct 19 '18 at 20:41
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$\begingroup$ Normally Wikipedia articles don't contain original research, so I expect one of the sources to mention this. Karman's autobiography is available online: ntrs.nasa.gov/… $\endgroup$ – Hobbes Oct 23 '18 at 9:43
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$\begingroup$ Interesting paper: sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576518308221 $\endgroup$ – Hobbes Oct 23 '18 at 12:47
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$\begingroup$ @Conelisinspace I have closed this question because the scope has been changed multiple times. Please see the related meta discussion: space.meta.stackexchange.com/q/1074/58 $\endgroup$ – called2voyage Oct 23 '18 at 12:50
Why not? Because the people who started using the Karman line didn't see the need for a more refined definition (e.g. because nobody was going to attempt aerodynamic flight in this region).
The Karman line is an approximation anyway. It depends on the lift coefficient and the state of the atmosphere, both of which are variables. Karman's calculations didn't arrive at 100 km exactly.
The Karman line is used for two things:
1. to legally separate the airspace above a country (over which the country has jurisdiction) from space (over which the country has no jurisdiction).
2. to determine who has been "in space" and gets to be called an astronaut.
For both, an arbitrary number suffices. The USA uses a different number for 2. (50 miles instead of 100 km)
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• $\begingroup$ ...especially that they rounded the actual value up by some 8%, to a neat 100km... Nah, the origin of the definition is aerodynamic, but currently it's an arbitrary 100km. Similarly how a meter was 1/10000 the distance from the equator to the pole, and kilogram was a cubic decimeter of water. They aren't anymore and nobody bothers to make the old definitions better. $\endgroup$ – SF. Oct 19 '18 at 20:11
• $\begingroup$ @uhoh There won't be another line, because the line in this new definition has the same height , but will be a realistic one because it is curved around the Earth, while the present Kármán line is a straight one. $\endgroup$ – Cornelisinspace Oct 20 '18 at 11:41
• $\begingroup$ I've changed the question somewhat to make it clear that it is about a realistic, curved line that is subject to a centrifugal force. $\endgroup$ – Cornelisinspace Oct 20 '18 at 12:16
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$\begingroup$ Despite all the changes in your question, the answer remains the same. $\endgroup$ – Hobbes Oct 21 '18 at 10:56
There's no such thing as centrifugal force in this case.
The only real forces in this problem that are vertical (normal to the local surface of the Earth) are gravity and lift. "Centrifugal force" is a fictitious force which people sometimes invoke to solve problems more quickly in in certain cases.
If you write a set of equations or write a program to calculate a trajectory of an airplane or a spacecraft in an inertial (i.e. non-rotating) frame, and you include all of the real forces correctly, you get the right answer without ever adding a "centrifugal" term.
If you leave something out, or you start injecting a non-inertial, rotating frame of reference (whether or not you realize you are doing it), only then does the centrifugal monster raise it's ugly head and start to mess with yours.
To address the terminology, the Karman line is not literally a line, it is an altitude.
That altitude is now 100 km. Trying to use a literal interpretation of "line" and asking if it is curved or straight, or ask about how a plane would fly along this line is only playing with semantics. It's simply an altitude of 100 km.
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• $\begingroup$ Then what are the forces with a satellite in orbit ? There must be some reaction to the gravitational one. $\endgroup$ – Cornelisinspace Oct 23 '18 at 15:03
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$\begingroup$ Satellites are falling due to Earth's gravity. They are falling around the Earth. They orbit Earth. $\endgroup$ – user27822 Oct 28 '18 at 18:21
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Changes In Migratory Directions
In addition to the Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla mentioned in the previous chapter, changes in the direction of migration, leading to the adoption of new wintering areas, were recorded in several species in the last century (Table 21.1). For example, Little Egrets Egretta garzetta breeding in southern France migrated southward, some crossing the Sahara to winter in the Afrotropics. But from the 1970s, increasing numbers began to migrate northwest to winter in northern France, southern Britain and Ireland (Marion et al. 2000). Some later became resident in these areas, and from the 1990s started to breed there. Similarly, Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus from Europe have begun increasingly to winter on the coasts of eastern North America, with records from Nova Scotia to Florida, a change which requires a much stronger westerly component in the directional preferences. Almost certainly, such marked directional changes have involved genetic changes, as confirmed for the Blackcap by breeding and direction-testing in captivity (Chapter 20).
A different type of change is shown by those northern hemisphere species introduced to the southern hemisphere, which have reversed the direction of their spring and autumn journeys, as appropriate, so that they continue to winter in lower rather than in higher latitudes. This is true, for example, of the European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis and others introduced from Europe to New Zealand in the nineteenth century, and also for the White Stork Ciconia ciconia, which is thought to have colonised South Africa naturally in the 1930s, and now migrates north to winter in equatorial Africa (Underhill 2001).
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Large sieve
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Large sieve inequality)
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The large sieve is a method (or family of methods and related ideas) in analytic number theory. It is a type of sieve where up to half of all residue classes of numbers are removed, as opposed to small sieves such as the Selberg sieve wherein only a few residue classes are removed. The method has been further heightened by the larger sieve which removes arbitrarily many residue classes.[1]
Its name comes from its original application: given a set such that the elements of S are forbidden to lie in a set ApZ/p Z modulo every prime p, how large can S be? Here Ap is thought of as being large, i.e., at least as large as a constant times p; if this is not the case, we speak of a small sieve.
The early history of the large sieve traces back to work of Yu. B. Linnik, in 1941, working on the problem of the least quadratic non-residue. Subsequently Alfréd Rényi worked on it, using probability methods. It was only two decades later, after quite a number of contributions by others, that the large sieve was formulated in a way that was more definitive. This happened in the early 1960s, in independent work of Klaus Roth and Enrico Bombieri. It is also around that time that the connection with the duality principle became better understood. In the mid-1960s, the Bombieri–Vinogradov theorem was proved as a major application of large sieves using estimations of mean values of Dirichlet characters. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many of the key ingredients and estimates were simplified by Patrick X. Gallagher.[2]
Large-sieve methods have been developed enough that they are applicable to small-sieve situations as well. Something is commonly seen as related to the large sieve not necessarily in terms of whether it is related to the kind of situation outlined above, but, rather, if it involves one of the two methods of proof traditionally used to yield a large-sieve result:
Approximate Plancherel inequality[edit]
If a set S is ill-distributed modulo p (by virtue, for example, of being excluded from the congruence classes Ap) then the Fourier coefficients of the characteristic function fp of the set S mod p are in average large. These coefficients can be lifted to values of the Fourier transform of the characteristic function f of the set S (i.e.,
By bounding derivatives, we can see that must be large, on average, for all x near rational numbers of the form a/p. Large here means "a relatively large constant times |S|". Since
we get a contradiction with the Plancherel identity
unless |S| is small. (In practice, to optimise bounds, people nowadays modify the Plancherel identity into an equality rather than bound derivatives as above.)
Duality principle[edit]
One can prove a strong large-sieve result easily by noting the following basic fact from functional analysis: the norm of a linear operator (i.e.,
where A is an operator from a linear space V to a linear space W) equals the norm of its adjoint i.e.,
This principle itself has come to acquire the name "large sieve" in some of the mathematical literature.
It is also possible to derive the large sieve from majorants in the style of Selberg (see Selberg, Collected Works, vol II, Lectures on sieves).
See also[edit]
1. ^ Gallagher, Patrick (1971). "A larger sieve". Acta Arithmetica. 18: 77–81.
2. ^ Tenenbaum, Gérald (2015). Introduction to Analytic and Probabilistic Number Theory. Graduate Studies in Mathematics. 163. American Mathematical Society. pp. 102–104. ISBN 9780821898543.
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Culture >
The word “nanga” refers to the “Instrument [zither], as well as to the "Art, Performance and Composition of Traditional Basongora Zither Music.” 'E Nanga' as a music genre encompasses the entire range of musical activities including “the composition [kucwa enanga], arrangement and performances” that are based on the Basongora zither.
The main musical instrument of the Basongora - the “e-Nanga” - is a type of zither that is composed of two main parts: the first part is called the “kitara” and consists of the wooden base-frame of the “nanga” zither. The frame is a shallow wooden-trough with "teeth" at the two convex opposite ends through which to run the strings. The trough is carved from the wood of the Nkukuuru tree [Euphorbia Candelabra]. The second part of the Nanga is a single cord made of sinews [ebinywa] from the tendons of a bull. This thin cord is strung over the open upper side of the trough, then through the teeth at each end of the zither frame, until it makes a six-stringed instrument. The nanga (zither) is played by plucking or strumming with the fingers.
The only other bits required on the properly assembled “Enanga” are wooden fasteners - small wooden pegs, each about 2 inches long, that are used to tune the zither by tightening or loosening the cord at specific points between the teeth on either side of the frame.
In past times the strings used on the “nanga” were made of the tendon sinews from an old bull. Lately, however, the only cords available for stringing the “nanga” are made of sisal or plastic. The nanga that is strung with sisal or plastic doesn't sound as good as the nanga strung with bull-sinew. Sinew is available to use, but sisal and plastic are found everywhere these days and are cheaper to obtain.
The Nkukuuru tree [Euphorbia Candelabra] is plentiful in Busongora and is considered sacred among the Basongora. Every Basongora homestead is required to have a Nkukuuru tree in front of the entrance to the yard. In ancient times the monarch of Busongora would meet his subjects while sitting under the shade of a large Nkukuuru tree.
In their research on the vegetation of Queen Elizabeth National Park in the 1960s Henry Osmaston and Lock of Cambridge showed that the open savannah and short shrubs were the product of centuries-long fire-management system by BaSongora to curtail overgrowth, and also noted the presence of so many euphorbia trees [enkukuuru] as having been deliberately planted by BaSongora to protect their cattle against raids. Some of the planted euphorbia trees were estimated to be at least 500 years old.
Among Basongora, the name “Enanga” does not only apply to the zither instrument. Enanga also refers to the entire range of activities and performances in which the instrument is involved.
Enanga as an art form is inclusive of both the instrument and music, as well as the performance associated with the instrument. All elements included in the composition of lyrics and instrumentals are collectively referred to as enanga.
Although the use of the zither among Basongora shares many commonalities with their neighbouring communities, many things about the Enanga of the Basongora are distinctive. For instance the use of the word enanga in other communities in Central and East - including Uganda - refers only to the instrument known in English as zither. So the meaning attributed to the word enanga by Basongora is unique and much more extensive.
The art of Enanga is one of the most significant aspects of the traditional heritage of the Basongora. The art of music composition [enanga] is meant for entertainment, and takes place during social events that include marriage ceremonies, and the coronation of monarchs. The compositions can be done in praise of a hero, a lover, a faithful companion, and can express the intimacy of loved ones, as well as include the recitation of the genealogy of the performers of other known members of the community.
The topics and subjects of Enanga are expressive of the historical events in the life and spirituality of the community, and broadly describe the challenges, aspirations of the people. Enanga is performed during weddings, or when entertaining visitors.
The Enanga is played usually by several women sitting on cow skin, or on mats, in circular formation covering their heads with sheets of cloths [emyenagyiro]. Sometimes the women in the formation can number dozens.
To play, the zither is placed on top of a large down-turned calabash with a hole in the centre.
The calabash acts as the amplifier. While one lead performer strums the strings [emigoye], a second performer keeps rhythm by tapping on the calabash rhythmically with the knuckles, all the while vocalists sing [ku-amirra] and “throw the arms”. The men will usually be standing or sitting on round stools [ebi-karansi] and chairs [entebbe] behind the women’s formation. The men will also throw up their arms, and sometimes they will lend their voices to the chorus. Frequently the Enanga performance is done at homesteads after the chores are done, and young children will join in the performance.
The performance of Enanga has a historical lineage dating back thousands of years, as attested by ancient images in Africa of the specific design of the zither used by Basongora. Certainly the ubiquity of the zither in African culture speaks to its very ancient origins. Moreover, performances of Enanga tell of ancient events in Busongora’s history, some of which events appear to date back thousands of years.
Most important, however, is the fact that although the Basongora community is extremely old, they do not recognize any other indigenous musical instruments besides the zither and calabash. Basongora do not use the flute at all, despite the fact that folklore mentions that at least one ancient king of Busongora, named Ndahura, was believed to have been a prolific flute-player in his youth. Ndahura, however, is also noted to have been the most important figure associated with the cult known as “Kubanda” or “Omwari”, as well as with the transformation of Busongora Kingdom into the short-lived but mystifying Chwezi Empire.
None of the informants interviewed in the course of documenting Songora culture ever used the flute. They all claimed it was foreign to the culture. The two places the Basongora credit with the use of the flute - Nkore and Rwanda - were both part of the Chwezi Empire and under Songora hegemony during the time of Ndahura [known in Rwanda as “Ndahiro”]. Ndahura ruled Busongora in the late 1100s or early 1200s. Ndahura’s grave is located on Irangara island in Busongora county in Kasese district. His kraal is in the foothills of the Rwenzori [Rwenjura] mountain above the trading centre of Kikorongo [not far from the current location of the”Queen’s Hut at the main gate of Queen Elizabeth National Park].
If in fact the flute was ever used by Basongora, that adoption may have been short-lived, and took place over 800 years ago, and has since been ignored or shunned as a musical art form. Basongora are also one of the few communities in Africa that don’t use drums, xylophones, gongs, or bells for music. In fact besides the calabash and zither, Basongora have no history of using any other percussion instruments, even though they are certainly aware of these instruments and have ready access to them. The only time the Basongora use a drum in recent times is during the coronation of the Monarch of Busongora Kingdom. The royal drum is used to mark the beginning of a new reign. During the installation ceremony the royal drum is produced, and presented before the new ruler, who then strikes the drum one time only. That drum is never struck again as long as that ruler remains on the throne.
Although the enanga tradition is still popular and practised in Busongora, the skills to play and perform the Enanga music have been adversely been affected by the displacement and marginalization of the Basongora in the course of the last 140 years.
As a consequence of repression, all Basongora traditions - including Enanga - fell into relative disuse, and have only survived because of intermittent and irregular interventions by individuals with limited resources of skills. The community has not entirely recovered from the past problems, and remains the target of abuse and hostility neighboring communities - especially due to land conflicts.
Few elders remember the old Enanga compositions, and many performers have little understanding of the events or traditions that they recite when they perform Enanga compositions from the past. It is possible a lot of valuable Enanga compositions will never be fully recovered or reconstituted. Moreover, as the old generation passes on, more traditional compositions of Enanga could be lost - few young people know how to perform the simpler music in Enanga. Fewer still have mastery of the complex vocal skills required to sing in the correct traditional sound of the Basongora “nanga”.
The conventional education systems in place in Uganda and Congo do not give sufficient time for transmission of enanga between the community elders and the children, consequently leaving the young unmindful to learn, and thus endangering the survival of the Enanga art-form.
Over the course of several past decades, there are several recordings of Enanga performance that have been captured, but are not easily accessible to the public. These recordings were done by an independent researcher - Professor Mbabi-Katana - who recorded audio material for Enanga music and recorded performances which took place beginning in the late 1960s. Some of those performances were broadcast on Radio Uganda [now called the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation].
The introduction of a cultural day [Enkomi] by the Basongora Inter-University Students Association [BIUSA] has also helped to expose members of the public and the student populations in Kampala -Uganda’s capital city - to Basongora culture. Annual performances and exhibitions of Basongora crafts are now done at various universities and schools during the cultural festivals.
Despite the hindrances and limitations, enanga is still performed at the traditional Songora functions, especially at weddings. Various women’s cultural groups still offer crowd-pleasing performances. The cultural and performing groups of enanga are established in the areas of Nyakakyindo, Muhokya, Nyakatonzi and Busunga, all in Kasese District, in western Uganda.
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Explaining the Great Unconformity
What happened to 1.2 billion years of history? A geologist digs for answers
William Guenthner
William Guenthner, professor of geology, has received an NSF CAREER grant to study the Great Unconformity. (Photo by Jesse Wallace.)
William Guenthner is in search of missing time—1.2 billion lost years, to be more precise. Geologists call it the Great Unconformity.
Originally observed by John Wesley Powell in the Grand Canyon in 1869, the phenomenon describes two layers of rock that stretch across most of North America and come together despite an age difference of about 12 million centuries. So what happened to the missing layers in between? Using techniques that he developed on rocks from miles underground, Guenthner, a professor of geology, hopes the next few years of research will help answer that question.
Guenthner has received a National Science Foundation CAREER grant to describe the erosion history throughout North America. The grant, designated for early-career faculty members, will provides him more than $500,000 to pursue the project, “Refining zircon (U-Th)/He deep-time thermochronology for constraining Neoproterozoic thermal histories.”
Guenthner is mainly researching a mineral called zircon, an uncommon mineral, but an important one. In fact, zircon, a crystal, is the oldest known mineral that comes from Earth. Guenther pointed out that researchers have been able to date zircon that is about 4.4 billion years old.
Zircon is everywhere, in microscopic form. Using this grant, Guenthner will be dating zircon that could shed light on the Great Unconformity. Guenthner said that he is using zircon grains because they are very resilient and hard to weather. Zircon sticks around in the rock record for billions of years and is also susceptible to varying degrees of radiation damage, giving it a wide range of temperature sensitivity.
Understanding what happened to zircon could help shed light on the billions of years of erosion that has occurred on the planet. The thermal history of rock layers— rocks get hotter the more they are buried and cooler when they are forced toward the surface—tell us a lot about how rocks and minerals changed and eroded over the centuries.
Guenthner explained that his research will use low-temperature thermochronology to describe the temperature histories of rocks. He will use samples of Great Unconformity rocks currently at the surface that have been drawn up from several kilometers underground. Meanwhile, colleagues at Texas Tech University with access to specific well sites will add to the collection of samples from areas of the U.S. where the Great Unconformity is present, but buried a few hundred meters beneath our feet (such as in Illinois and Kansas), and the rocks will be shipped to Urbana-Champaign for analysis.
“At 6, 7, 8 kilometers depth it’s going to be at maybe 200 degrees Celsius and then it’s going to be sitting at or near the surface it’s going to be at like 10 to 30 degrees Celsius. With thermochronology we can date that process, and we can describe the rate at which that happened,” he said.
Guenthner will study the thermochronology of the zircon samples by researching the kinetics of noble gas diffusion inside the samples. Part of his technique is studying how helium moves around inside zircon that has been damaged by radiation.
By collecting and studying a wide array of zircon, Guenthner hopes to build a thermal history of various temperature sensitives to get a more detailed picture of how North America eroded over the years, which ultimately created the Great Unconformity.
Guenthner noted that this is a very momentous time for him as this is the first major grant he has received where he is the only principal investigator.
“This one is really exciting because I really get to drive this and it’s something that I really wanted to do,” Guenthner said. “It’s really an amazing feeling to have the freedom that five years of funding that allows you to think deeply about something and really develop a research project that is going to carry onward hopefully for the next few decades. It’s the kind of problem that really sparks your imagination.”
News Source
Abby Paeth
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Pode também ler o artigo em English (US).
A Promise is an object representing the eventual completion or failure of an asynchronous operation. Since most people are consumers of already-created promises, this guide will explain consumption of returned promises before explaining how to create them.
Imagine a function, createAudioFileAsync(), which asynchronously generates a sound file given a configuration record and two callback functions, one called if the audio file is successfully created, and the other called if an error occurs.
Here's some code that uses createAudioFileAsync():
function successCallback(result) {
console.log("Audio file ready at URL: " + result);
function failureCallback(error) {
console.log("Error generating audio file: " + error);
createAudioFileAsync(audioSettings, successCallback, failureCallback);
…modern functions return a promise you can attach your callbacks to instead:
If createAudioFileAsync() were rewritten to return a promise, using it could be as simple as this:
createAudioFileAsync(audioSettings).then(successCallback, failureCallback);
That's shorthand for:
const promise = createAudioFileAsync(audioSettings);
promise.then(successCallback, failureCallback);
We call this an asynchronous function call. This convention has several advantages. We will explore each one.
Unlike "old-style", passed-in callbacks, a promise comes with some guarantees:
One of the great things about using promises is chaining.
A common need is to execute two or more asynchronous operations back to back, where each subsequent operation starts when the previous operation succeeds, with the result from the previous step. We accomplish this by creating a promise chain.
Here's the magic: the then() function returns a new promise, different from the original:
const promise = doSomething();
const promise2 = promise.then(successCallback, failureCallback);
const promise2 = doSomething().then(successCallback, failureCallback);
This second promise (promise2) represents the completion not just of doSomething(), but also of the successCallback or failureCallback you passed in, which can be other asynchronous functions returning a promise. When that's the case, any callbacks added to promise2 get queued behind the promise returned by either successCallback or failureCallback.
Basically, each promise represents the completion of another asynchronous step in the chain.
In the old days, doing several asynchronous operations in a row would lead to the classic callback pyramid of doom:
doSomething(function(result) {
doSomethingElse(result, function(newResult) {
doThirdThing(newResult, function(finalResult) {
console.log('Got the final result: ' + finalResult);
}, failureCallback);
}, failureCallback);
}, failureCallback);
With modern functions, we attach our callbacks to the returned promises instead, forming a promise chain:
.then(function(result) {
return doSomethingElse(result);
.then(function(newResult) {
return doThirdThing(newResult);
.then(function(finalResult) {
The arguments to then are optional, and catch(failureCallback) is short for then(null, failureCallback). You might see this expressed with arrow functions instead:
.then(result => doSomethingElse(result))
.then(newResult => doThirdThing(newResult))
.then(finalResult => {
console.log(`Got the final result: ${finalResult}`);
Important: Always return results, otherwise callbacks won't catch the result of a previous promise (with arrow functions () => x is short for () => { return x; }).
Chaining after a catch
It's possible to chain after a failure, i.e. a catch, which is useful to accomplish new actions even after an action failed in the chain. Read the following example:
new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
.then(() => {
throw new Error('Something failed');
console.log('Do this');
.catch(() => {
console.log('Do that');
.then(() => {
console.log('Do this, no matter what happened before');
This will output the following text:
Do that
Do this, no matter what happened before
Note: The text Do this is not displayed because the Something failed error caused a rejection.
Error propagation
You might recall seeing failureCallback three times in the pyramid of doom earlier, compared to only once at the end of the promise chain:
.then(result => doSomethingElse(result))
.then(newResult => doThirdThing(newResult))
.then(finalResult => console.log(`Got the final result: ${finalResult}`))
Basically, a promise chain stops if there's an exception, looking down the chain for catch handlers instead. This is very much modeled after how synchronous code works:
try {
const result = syncDoSomething();
const newResult = syncDoSomethingElse(result);
const finalResult = syncDoThirdThing(newResult);
} catch(error) {
This symmetry with asynchronous code culminates in the async/await syntactic sugar in ECMAScript 2017:
async function foo() {
try {
const result = await doSomething();
const newResult = await doSomethingElse(result);
const finalResult = await doThirdThing(newResult);
} catch(error) {
It builds on promises, e.g. doSomething() is the same function as before. You can read more about the syntax here.
Promises solve a fundamental flaw with the callback pyramid of doom, by catching all errors, even thrown exceptions and programming errors. This is essential for functional composition of asynchronous operations.
Promise rejection events
Whenever a promise is rejected, one of two events is sent to the global scope (generally, this is either the window or, if being used in a web worker, it's the Worker or other worker-based interface). The two events are:
Sent when a promise is rejected, after that rejection has been handled by the executor's reject function.
Sent when a promise is rejected but there is no rejection handler available.
In both cases, the event (of type PromiseRejectionEvent) has as members a promise property indicating the promise that was rejected, and a reason property that provides the reason given for the promise to be rejected.
These make it possible to offer fallback error handling for promises, as well as to help debug issues with your promise management. These handlers are global per context, so all errors will go to the same event handlers, regardless of source.
One case of special usefulness: when writing code for Node.js, it's common that modules you include in your project may have unhandled rejected promises. These get logged to the console by the Node runtime. You can capture these for analysis and handling by your code—or just to avoid having them cluttering up your output—by adding a handler for the unhandledrejection event, like this:
window.addEventListener("unhandledrejection", event => {
/* You might start here by adding code to examine the
promise specified by event.promise and the reason in
event.reason */
}, false);
By calling the event's preventDefault() method, you tell the JavaScript runtime not to do its default action when rejected promises go unhandled. That default action usually involves logging the error to console, and this is indeed the case for Node.
Ideally, of course, you should examine the rejected promises to make sure none of them are actual code bugs before just discarding these events.
Creating a Promise around an old callback API
A Promise can be created from scratch using its constructor. This should be needed only to wrap old APIs.
In an ideal world, all asynchronous functions would already return promises. Unfortunately, some APIs still expect success and/or failure callbacks to be passed in the old way. The most obvious example is the setTimeout() function:
setTimeout(() => saySomething("10 seconds passed"), 10000);
Mixing old-style callbacks and promises is problematic. If saySomething() fails or contains a programming error, nothing catches it. setTimeout is to blame for this.
Luckily we can wrap setTimeout in a promise. Best practice is to wrap problematic functions at the lowest possible level, and then never call them directly again:
wait(10000).then(() => saySomething("10 seconds")).catch(failureCallback);
Basically, the promise constructor takes an executor function that lets us resolve or reject a promise manually. Since setTimeout() doesn't really fail, we left out reject in this case.
Promise.resolve() and Promise.reject() are shortcuts to manually create an already resolved or rejected promise respectively. This can be useful at times.
Promise.all() and Promise.race() are two composition tools for running asynchronous operations in parallel.
We can start operations in parallel and wait for them all to finish like this:
Promise.all([func1(), func2(), func3()])
.then(([result1, result2, result3]) => { /* use result1, result2 and result3 */ });
Sequential composition is possible using some clever JavaScript:
[func1, func2, func3].reduce((p, f) => p.then(f), Promise.resolve())
.then(result3 => { /* use result3 */ });
Basically, we reduce an array of asynchronous functions down to a promise chain equivalent to: Promise.resolve().then(func1).then(func2).then(func3);
This can be made into a reusable compose function, which is common in functional programming:
const applyAsync = (acc,val) => acc.then(val);
const composeAsync = (...funcs) => x => funcs.reduce(applyAsync, Promise.resolve(x));
The composeAsync() function will accept any number of functions as arguments, and will return a new function that accepts an initial value to be passed through the composition pipeline:
const transformData = composeAsync(func1, func2, func3);
const result3 = transformData(data);
In ECMAScript 2017, sequential composition can be done more simply with async/await:
let result;
for (const f of [func1, func2, func3]) {
result = await f(result);
/* use last result (i.e. result3) */
To avoid surprises, functions passed to then() will never be called synchronously, even with an already-resolved promise:
Promise.resolve().then(() => console.log(2));
console.log(1); // 1, 2
Instead of running immediately, the passed-in function is put on a microtask queue, which means it runs later when the queue is emptied at the end of the current run of the JavaScript event loop, i.e. pretty soon:
wait().then(() => console.log(4));
Promise.resolve().then(() => console.log(2)).then(() => console.log(3));
console.log(1); // 1, 2, 3, 4
Simple promise chains are best kept flat without nesting, as nesting can be a result of careless composition. See common mistakes.
Nesting is a control structure to limit the scope of catch statements. Specifically, a nested catch only catches failures in its scope and below, not errors higher up in the chain outside the nested scope. When used correctly, this gives greater precision in error recovery:
.then(result => doSomethingOptional()
.then(optionalResult => doSomethingExtraNice(optionalResult))
.catch(e => {})) // Ignore if optional stuff fails; proceed.
.then(() => moreCriticalStuff())
.catch(e => console.log("Critical failure: " + e.message));
Note that the optional steps here are nested, not from the indentation, but from the precarious placement of the outer ( and ) around them.
The inner neutralizing catch statement only catches failures from doSomethingOptional() and doSomethingExtraNice(), after which the code resumes with moreCriticalStuff(). Importantly, if doSomethingCritical() fails, its error is caught by the final (outer) catch only.
Common mistakes
Here are some common mistakes to watch out for when composing promise chains. Several of these mistakes manifest in the following example:
// Bad example! Spot 3 mistakes!
doSomething().then(function(result) {
doSomethingElse(result) // Forgot to return promise from inner chain + unnecessary nesting
.then(newResult => doThirdThing(newResult));
}).then(() => doFourthThing());
// Forgot to terminate chain with a catch!
The first mistake is to not chain things together properly. This happens when we create a new promise but forget to return it. As a consequence, the chain is broken, or rather, we have two independent chains racing. This means doFourthThing() won't wait for doSomethingElse() or doThirdThing() to finish, and will run in parallel with them, likely unintended. Separate chains also have separate error handling, leading to uncaught errors.
The second mistake is to nest unnecessarily, enabling the first mistake. Nesting also limits the scope of inner error handlers, which—if unintended—can lead to uncaught errors. A variant of this is the promise constructor anti-pattern, which combines nesting with redundant use of the promise constructor to wrap code that already uses promises.
The third mistake is forgetting to terminate chains with catch. Unterminated promise chains lead to uncaught promise rejections in most browsers.
A good rule-of-thumb is to always either return or terminate promise chains, and as soon as you get a new promise, return it immediately, to flatten things:
.then(function(result) {
return doSomethingElse(result);
.then(newResult => doThirdThing(newResult))
.then(() => doFourthThing())
.catch(error => console.log(error));
Note that () => x is short for () => { return x; }.
Now we have a single deterministic chain with proper error handling.
Using async/await addresses most, if not all of these problems—the tradeoff being that the most common mistake with that syntax is forgetting the await keyword.
See also
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"url": "https://developer.mozilla.org/pt-PT/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_promises"
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Three Act Tasks
Three Act Tasks
What is a Three Act Task?
It is a lesson structure in which there are three parts (or acts). It creates an opportunity for students to become interested in modeling an accurate estimation/solution without the unnecessary myopic focus on the "right" answer.
• Act 1: Introduce the problem situation with a video clip of photo
• Act 2: Students collect data and solve the problem
• Act 3: Reveal the answer and reflect on student solutions and solution methods
Here is a beautiful description (with examples) of Three Act Tasks with elementary students. Give a Three Act Task a try with your students!
Here is another very detailed walk-through of the Three Act Task structure. (From the inventor of the Three Act Task himself!)
If you have any questions, thoughts, or concerns, please contact Duane:
Last modified: Wednesday, August 1, 2018, 8:59 AM
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"language_score": 0.941167950630188,
"url": "https://embarc.online/mod/page/view.php?id=9054"
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Plant Reference > By Growth Habit >
Climbing plants or climbers are also known as vines. Most climbers are flowering plants. They can be woody or non-woody. Climbers display a growth form based on long stems. Most of the time, climbers limb higher for the purpose of reaching for more sunlight. There were also some climbers that grow away from light. Climbers can climb by twining their stems around a support, clinging their roots, using twining petioles, using tendrils, using leaves, or using thorns.
Aeschynanthes lobbianus Allamanda blanchetii Allamanda cathartica Allamanda oenotherifolia Bauhinia kockiana Bignonia magnifica Canavalia gladiata Clerodendrum thomsoniae Clitoria ternatea Coccinia grandis Combretum indicum Ficus punctata Gloriosa superba Hoya pubicalyx Jasminum sambac Nepenthes albomarginata Passiflora foetida Petrea volubilis Piper betle Podranea ricasoliana Solandra longiflora Thunbergia fragrans Thunbergia grandiflora
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7147642374038696,
"url": "http://www.botanicguru.com/ref/habit/climbers"
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Social restrictions on hunting, 1390
Illegal hunting was damaging because it destroyed the valuable warrens, parks and chases of lords' estates. But it also provided an opportunity for secret meetings of the lower orders, where conspiracies and seditious gossip could be exchanged beyond the reach of authority.
For much of the later medieval period, the danger from secret gatherings of peasants was more worrying to the Crown and nobility than the loss of game. After the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 and further rebellions of the lower orders, such as Jack Cade's rising of 1450 and the Western Rebellion of 1497, numerous laws and proclamations were made to restrict hunting and to prevent gatherings of groups of tenants and servants.
This Act of 1390 neatly involved the church, too, since many conspirators, under the guise of hunting, enjoyed their crimes when loyal and honest citizens were at church. The aim of this Act and many others - such as 'sumptuary laws' restricting the colours and material of garments allowed to different social levels - was to ensure that economic status would be the sole criterion determining whether individuals were able to enter the upper echelons of society and enjoy the benefits thus conferred.
Catalogue reference: C 65/49, m. 1 (1390)
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"url": "http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/citizen_subject/docs/hunting_rights.htm"
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AP World History Practice Test 23
Test Information
Question 10 questions
Time 10 minutes
See All test questions
Questions 1-4 refer to the following information.
1. Which of the following conclusions about pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is best supported by the information contained in this map?
2. Which of the following was the clearest sign of mutual cultural influence among the societies depicted on the map?
3. What goods were most likely to have been traded among the cities shown on the map?
4. Which of the following is not among the factors thought by most historians to have played a role in disrupting relations among the Mayan cities included on the map?
Questions 5-7 refer to the following information.
Gunpowder Weaponry: Europe vs. China
In Western Europe during the 1200s through the 1400s, early cannons, as heavy and as slow to fire as they were, proved useful enough in the protracted sieges that dominated warfare during this period that governments found it sufficiently worthwhile to pay for them and for the experimentation that eventually produced gunpowder weapons that were both more powerful and easier to move. By contrast, China, especially after the mid-1300s, was threatened mainly by highly mobile steppe nomads, against whom early gunpowder weapons, with their unwieldiness, proved of little utility. It therefore devoted its efforts to the improvement of horse archer units who could effectively combat the country's deadliest foe.
5. The argument in this passage most closely relates to which of the following large-scale questions about global history?
6. According to this passage, why did the Chinese, despite inventing gunpowder, fail to lead in the innovation of gunpowder weaponry?
7. What traditional view of world history does this passage seem to challenge?
Questions 8-10 refer to the following information.
O ye who believe! Strong drink and games of chance and idols… are only an infamy of Satan's handiwork. Leave it aside in order that ye may succeed.
the Qur'an, Sura 5: 89
When once you hear the roses are in bloom,
Then is the time, my love, to pour the wine.
the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám
8. Both verses relate most closely to
9. The tone of the first verse best reflects which of the following modes of religious discourse?
10. A comparison of both verses would best support which of the following conclusions?
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Abort mode onebravo
After 42 seconds of flight, the rules of what would happen in case of an abort changed slightly to take account of the fact that the space vehicle had tilted over substantially and had also gained plenty of horizontal speed. The mission had moved into abort mode one-bravo which lasted until it reached an altitude of 30.5 kilometres. If an abort were to be called during this period, the escaping command module would no longer be in danger of falling into the Saturn's debris, and the small motor intended to steer it out to sea would no longer be required. What was needed,
The launch tower hit by the same lightning discharge that disrupted Apollo 12.
however, was a way to ensure that the CM would turn to face the correct direction after being pulled from an aborting Saturn. This was because tests had shown that at hypersonic speeds, it was possible for the CM/escape tower combination to be stable in a nose-first attitude. The tower could not be safely jettisoned in this mode because the airflow would ram the boost protective cover onto the CM hull, which would not only prevent the tower pulling away but also prevent the parachutes from deploying. Once the escape tower had pulled an aborting spacecraft free in a one-bravo abort, two skin sections near the top of the escape tower, known as canards, would deploy after the launch escape motor had done its job, creating drag and thereby forcing a turn-around manoeuvre, if one were needed, to face the heatshield in the direction of travel, and allow deployment of the parachutes.
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Angel Ascendancy
Angel Ascendancy
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"url": "https://www.fossilhunters.xyz/apollo-spaceship/abort-mode-onebravo.html"
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Ferox Trout
Ferox trout are a fantastic example of the genetic diversity that exists within wild brown trout. Since the term ferox was first coined in 1835 by the renowned angler scientist Sir William Jardine, various authors have attempted to define what exactly a ferox is, for example:
Campbell (1979)
The status of ferox within the brown trout (Salmo trutta) species complex epitomises the debate about what is and what isn’t a species (see Ferguson, 2004). There can be no doubt however that ferox can be spectacularly different from other brown trout; in life history, genetics and habits.
Catch & release of ferox trout: A video produced by Ferox 85; a dedicated group of ferox biologists:
Where are ferox found?
Ferox trout are found throughout the brown trout’s native range, wherever there are large glacial lakes. In Britain they are found mainly in Scotland and Ireland but there are also thought to be populations in some Welsh lakes and in the English Lake District. In Campbell’s (1979) study, ferox were mainly found in lochs of over 100 ha with Arctic charr present, however ferox do occasionally occur in smaller lochs such as the 20ha Loch Bhrotain in Inverness. It was estimated that Ferox are present in less than 10% of sites in Scotland, given the thousands of sites where brown trout occur. The limited distribution of ferox, their apparent low density in the lakes that they do inhabit suggests a level of scarcity and vulnerability of populations.
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Ferox Biology and Habits
While all young trout feed chiefly on invertebrates (benthivores) when young, the availability of other species of fish in a range of sizes, usually found in large lakes, provide an opportunity for trout to move to an almost entirely piscivorous (fish) based) diet.
The relationship between ferox and their prey is size-related rather than age-related and has a dramatic effect on ferox growth (Mangel & Abrahams, 2001); one tagging study recorded one ferox that increased in weight by 10lb (4.5 kg) in 4 years! Ferox living in the cold, nutrient-poor lochs can be much slower growing, but may also be long-lived (a 23-year-old fish from Loch Killin, Inverness being the oldest on record).
Some ferox populations have also been found to be older when they mature compared to other trout, which allows ferox to increase in size before they divert resources into spawning. This differing life-history strategy, combined with their protein-rich diet, translates into much larger sizes than the average brown trout angler will ever encounter. The current British rod-caught record is a 14.4 kg (31.7lb) fish from Loch Awe, Scotland, a renowned ferox loch. Experimental studies (Hughes et. al., 2016b), have shown that progeny of ferox trout (from Loch Ewe) are more aggressive, acquire better feeding territories and are able to grow more quickly than progeny of benthiverous trout of a similar size from the same loch.
Tagging work on ferox in Perthshire has found that ferox will move over a wide area, probably searching out shoals of baitfish such as Arctic charr, but may also switch diets as other opportunities arise, such as a salmon smolt run. A radio-tracking study found ferox making dives down to 30 metres, possibly in pursuit of charr, suggesting that ferox are active pursuit predators as opposed to ambush predators that use cover to attack prey.
Arctic charr are of great importance to ferox diet in most Scottish lochs. Where present (for example in Loch Lomond), whitefish species (coregonids) can form the main prey item of ferox. In lochs where no charr or whitefish are present other species including brown trout or perch may form the bulk of the ferox diet. Ferox have also been found to be able to switch diets. In Lough Corrib (Ireland), in recent times ferox have switched from a charr- to a roach-dominated diet following the extinction of charr after the introduction of the roach.
Ferox with arctic charr prey
However, it is not entirely unknown for normal’ brown trout to shift to a fish diet, or grow to large sizes for that matter. So how are ferox different?
This is a complex area, particularly as Salmo trutta display large genetic variations and the debate about what does, or does not, determine a separate species continues amongst taxonomists. Scientific opinion has long been divided over the status of ferox as a separate species from brown trout. Modern techniques have studied the genetics, morphology, diet and life-history of ferox which have revealed some fascinating insights into the diversity that exists.
All ferox, brown trout and charr populations reflect the complexity of pre and post ice age (10 – 15,000 years ago) colonisations as ice cover ebbed and flowed over the landscape. For example, studies on Lough Melvin (Northern Ireland) have identified three distinct forms of brown trout: sonaghen, gillaroo and ferox; these forms are genetically distinct from each other and are likely to have remained so since colonising the lough from separate refuge areas. They have remained distinct by spawning in different locations and adopting different feeding habits. Indeed, ferox in Lough Melvin in Ireland and Lochs Awe and Laggan in Scotland have been found to be genetically more similar to each other than to other (non-ferox) trout in the same lakes. Initial studies have suggested that the ferox of Loughs Mask, Corrib and Erne also have the same genetic characteristics as Melvin ferox. This suggests a common ancestral’ ferox lineage which colonised these waters after the last glacial retreat.
Some brown trout that do not have this ancestral genetic lineage also display ferox type characteristics. A study of fish-eating brown trout in three different lochs in Scotland found different life-history traits.
In Loch Awe the ferox are genetically distinct from other trout in Loch Awe. They began feeding on other fish at an earlier life-stage (one or two years of age) compared to the other two populations of ferox studied in Loch Rannoch and Loch na Sealga which are not genetically distinct from other trout. The combination of genetics and environment (as demonstrated by ferox trout in Loch Awe) suggest that ferox with ancestral lineage’ are more efficient at acquiring food in a quantity and/or quality as juveniles than trout that spend longer as a benthivore. These studies provide evidence of higher dominance levels in ferox trout progeny that help to maintain the distinct life-history characteristics of ferox trout. There may be a level of inheritance of life history strategy present in some ferox populations. This suggestion is supported by other studies on the origins and genetic differentiation of ferox brown trout from their counterparts.
Loch Awe Ferox Comp
Argyll Fisheries Trust biologist, Alan Kettle-White with a 30lb Ferox
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Freshwater Fish Specialist Group regard ferox as a separate species. Ferox is listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species with its status being given as Data Deficient”
Whether or not ferox are considered a distinct species, their low numbers (at least in Scottish lochs) and distinct genetic characteristics (as in Loch Melvin) warrant enhanced conservation status. Large, predatory fish like this are prized by anglers yet only a tiny proportion of the trout in a loch are ferox; the ferox trait is therefore valuable and rare. There is some justification in the call for ferox to be accorded species status rather than the less valued (in an EU context) sub-species status. This echoes calls by researchers for effective conservation of brown trout to be based on genetic differences between populations. Threats to ferox trout include:
Tag-and-release studies in Loch Rannoch suggest that ferox densities in these nutrient-poor lochs are likely to be low. Even low intensity ferox angling therefore has the capacity to impact on ferox numbers. Catch-and-release is therefore of utmost importance and the same studies suggested that angling mortality is acceptably low. Because of their longevity, the impact of exploitation is likely to be greater than it would be for a shorter loved species.
Spawning tributaries
Spawning areas for ferox may be fairly specific and limited. In Lough Melvin, ferox achieve reproductive isolation by spawning in a single, deep river. Obstructions can block access to spawning tributaries. Outflow dams on Lochs Rannoch and Laggan may have negatively impacted on ferox recruitment. In Scandinavia, a number of studies before and after hydropower development have been carried out and are fairly applicable to the British Isles. In upland areas, intensive commercial forestry can also severely limit primary productivity in streams and increase acidity to dangerous levels during peak flood events.
Introduced species
In relatively pristine post-glacial fish communities like Lough Melvin in Ireland, ferox hold the top predator position. Introduction of pike in these lakes could lead to the replacement of ferox as the top predator. Pike and ferox co-exist in Loch Awe and more study is needed into the relationship between these top predators. Potentially more serious is the introduction of the filter feeding zebra mussels into Lough Melvin. These are highly efficient filter feeders and their introduction could have disastrous effects on the lakes native planktivores (e.g. sonaghen trout and charr) that ferox rely on. Ferox are adapted open water pelagic predators. The replacement of charr for example by littoral or benthic feeding fish could therefore have unforeseen consequences for ferox — again, a precautionary approach and more research is needed.
The dangers of stocking fertile, hatchery-bred fish are well documented elsewhere on this website. Stocking could threaten the genetic integrity of the ferox stock and reduce or alter ferox characteristics. Supportive breeding schemes (using brood-stock from the wild) also pose a threat through inadvertent crossing of genetically distinct forms of trout.
Further information
Click the following links for other useful information on ferox biology & conservation:
This page has been compiled with the kind assistance of Dr. Ron Greer, Dr Alan Kettle-White and Professor Andy Ferguson. Photographs courtesy of Alan Kettle-White, Aya Thorne and David Greenwood.
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Academic references
Campbell, R. N. Ferox trout, Salmo trutta L., and charr, Salvelinus alpinus (L.), in Scottish lochs. Journal of Fish Biology 14, 1 – 29 (1979).
Cawdery, S. A. . & Ferguson, A. Origins and differentiation of three sympatric species of trout (Salmo trutta) in Lough Melvin. Polskiie Archiwum Hyrdobiologii 35, 267 – 277 (1988).
Duguid, R.A., Ferguson, A. & Prodohl, P. Reproductive isolation and genetic differentiation of ferox trout from sympatric brown trout in Loch Awe and Loch Laggan, Scotland. Journal of Fish Biology 69, 89 – 114 (2006).
Ferguson, A. The Importance of Identifying Conservation Units: Brown Trout and Pollan Biodiversity in Ireland. Biology & Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 104, 33 – 41 (2004).
Ferguson, A. & Taggart, J. B. Genetic differentiation among the sympatric brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations of Lough Melvin, Ireland. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 43, 221 – 237 (1991).
Greer, R. B., Thorne, A. & Macdonald, A. Ferox trout : A Predator worthy of Pursuit and Protection. Proc. 2002 ISACF meeting (2002).
Greer, R.B. (1995). Ferox Trout & Arctic Charr; A predator, its pursuit & prey. Swanhill, Shrewsbury.
Grey, J., Thackeray, S., Jones, R. & Shine, A. Ferox Trout (Salmo trutta) as Russian dolls: complementary gut content and stable isotope analyses of the Loch Ness foodweb. Freshwater Biology 47, 1235 – 1243 (2002). To view the paper, click here. (with kind permission of Dr. Jonathan Grey).
Grey, J. Ontogeny and dietary specialization in brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) from Loch Ness, Scotland, examined using stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 2001: 10: 168 – 176. To view the paper click here (with kind permission of Dr. Jonathan Grey).
Hardie, R.P. Ferox and Char Parts I and II, Coch-y-Bonddu Books, Machynlleth (re-print of Part I first published 1940 and recently discovered manuscript of Part II).
M. R. Hughes, J. A. Dodd, P. S. Maitland and C. E. Adams (2016a). Lake bathymetry and species occurrence predict the distribution of a lacustrine apex predator. Journal of Fish Biology (2016) doi:10.1111/jfb.12919
M. R. Hughes, T. E. Van Leeuwen, P. D. Cunningham and C. E. Adams (2016b). Parentally acquired differences in resource acquisition ability between brown trout from alternative life history parentage. Ecology of Freshwater Fish (2016) doi: 10.1111/eff.12323
M. R. Hughes, O. Hooker, T. E. Van Leeuwen, A. H. Kettle-White, A. Thorne, P. Prodohl and C. E. Adams (2016c). Contrasting growth trajectories between sympatric S. trutta exhibiting alternative life history strategies. Ecology of Freshwater Fish (2016) doi: 10.1111/eff.12323
Mangel, M. & Abrahams, M.V. Age and longevity in fish, with consideration of the ferox trout. Experimental Gerontology 36, 765 – 790 (2001).
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“Hey, you're taking up the whole bed!”
English Lesson: Hey, you're taking up the whole bed!
You're ready to go to sleep, but your wife is already in bed and is stretched out over the whole bed. You need for her to move so that you'll have room to lay down. You say this to her.
Hey, you're taking up the whole bed!
Audio by native English speakers
take up (space)
To "take up" space means to use that space. But "take up" is a slightly negative expression. It's used when space is important, and you don't want the space to be used:
We used to have a piano in the living room, but it just took up a lot of space and no one ever played it.
You can use the word "space" like in this example. Or you can name the space, like in the example at the top or in the following:
That old car is taking up the whole garage.
the whole (something)
"The whole ___" means all of something. You use "the whole ___" when it seems like a lot, or too much. For example:
Did you eat the whole pizza yourself?
Hey, you're taking up the whole bed!
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Time Trials
Time Trials: When History is on Trial, Only Time can be the Judge
How should history remember Benedict Arnold? John Brown? In the Time Trials video series, students act as jurors in the Court of Public History. Watch as controversial figures in history discuss their actions and use the videos to debate their legacy. The videos are designed to support lessons for the secondary classroom. Watch the full program or select segments for students to use to debate together.
The Time Trial of Benedict Arnold
Lesson Plan
The Time Trial of Benedict Arnold: Full Program:
The Time Trial of Benedict Arnold: Introduction
If I am a traitor...
You betrayed your country!
You betrayed the Declaration of Independence!
You betrayed Congress!
Why should you be remembered?
How were you injured?
Did you take money?
You betrayed the soliders!
You betrayed General Washington!
You began a conspiracy!
Verdict: Acquittal
Verdict: Conviction
Verdict: Undecided
The Time Trial of John Brown
Lesson Plan
Full Program: The Time Trial of John Brown
What happened at Harpers Ferry?
What happened in Kansas?
Was John Brown a religious zealot?
Is violence against the government ever justified?
Why didn't John Brown use nonviolence?
Was John Brown a murderer?
Was John Brown insane?
Would slavery have ended anyway?
Closing Statement 1: In Favor of Brown
Closing Statement 2: Critical of Brown
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Court of the King’s Bench, MS Illum. from Inner Temple Library. Source: Wikipedia
We know that the Great Seal was an indispensable tool for keeping the government running. Historians pay close attention to the use of the Seal; not only does this help identify the date and reign of a particular warrant, but the use of lesser Seals helps us follow the movements of our itinerant kings.
Edward the Confessor is thought to have been the first English ruler to use the Great Seal, and each successive medieval monarch remade the design in his own image, to be stamped into wax. Charters, letters, and writs required a seal to initiate legally binding orders; the clerks of the Chancery wrote these orders, and the head of the Chancery was the Chancellor, usually a Bishop. So the Chancellor was officially in charge of the Great Seal and guarded it against improper use. In fact, counterfeiting the Great Seal was a serious crime, defined as High Treason in the reign of Edward III.
Without the Great Seal there was essentially no lawmaking. When the Chancellor retired, resigned, or was fired he usually handed over the seal to the King. During the Peasants’ Revolt, Archbishop Sudbury suddenly resigned his chancellorship, handing over the Great Seal to young King Richard. The timing was interesting; the following day, Richard met the rebels at Mile End and promised them everything they demanded—hoping to defuse the situation and send them home. While they waited, thirty clerks wrote out pardons and Richard applied the Great Seal to every document, making it official. Unfortunately, a few days later when the King was obliged to renege, he had to send out officials to retrieve the pardons; by then, many troublemakers used the sealed document as a “carte blanche” to continue their depredations.
Great Seal of Richard II, After F. Sandford, A Genealogical history of the kings and queens of England … (London, 1707)
In official use, there were three Seals (there were many other seals— the Exchequer, Ecclesiastic Seals, Guild Seals; the list goes on and on. I am only referencing the king and his Chancery). The Great Seal was required for any state document, but if the king was traveling around, he could use a Privy Seal—first employed by King John—to move (or authenticate, or instruct) the Great Seal. Under the early Plantagenets, the Privy Seal was under the custody of the Keeper of the Wardrobe; this evolved into the Keeper of the Privy Seal. By 1312, the Barons ensured that the Privy Seal clerk was appointed by the king in Parliament and approved by them. Hence, the Privy Seal office became a sort of second clearing-house for official documents. Eventually, almost all non-judicial documents required a warrant from the Privy Seal before it could pass under the Great Seal.
Edward II, chafing at the strictures of Parliament, started using a secret seal which eventually evolved as the Signet—the king’s personal Seal—and was guarded by the king’s Secretary (precursor to the Secretary of State). In his early years, Richard II would use the Signet to move the Privy Seal, which would move the Great Seal. But in 1383, Richard got the idea that he could bypass the usual procedures, and he started using his Signet ring for everything—circumventing the Privy Seal office altogether to communicate instructions directly to the Chancery. Why did this matter? The Barons interpreted Richard’s “abuse” of the Signet as an attempt to take personal charge of government affairs, trying to shake off control of his actions. He was even recorded ordering money from the treasury for his personal use. In 1386, however, this came to a screeching halt when Parliament ordered the reorganization of his administration and impeached Michael de la Pole, the King’s friend and Chancellor. Richard was forced to stop issuing Signet letters “to the damage of the Realm”, and his use of the Signet fell off dramatically.
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Compound conjunctions
Compound conjunctions: zwar ... aber
Ich komme zwar aus Spanien, aber Deutschland ist mein Zuhause.
Zwar ... aber is used to express a qualification: first a statement is made which leads to a particular assumption. Then this statement is qualified. When Yara says that she comes from Spain, one can assume that she considers Spain as her home. Then she says something that does not necessarily fit with this assumption: Germany is her home, not Spain. The word zwar can also be omitted but the qualification is then given less emphasis.
Zwaraber is an example of a so-called double conjunction or compound conjunction, consisting of at least two parts. These separated conjunctions link sentences or clauses with equal ordination.
Where compound conjunctions link two sentences, each sentence generally has its own subject and its own verb.
Tarek kommt aus der Türkei. – Er spricht meistens Deutsch.
Tarek kommt zwar aus der Türkei, aber er spricht meistens Deutsch.
Where compound conjunctions link two clauses, they often have a common subject and/or a common verb.
Deutschland war für Yara fremd. – Deutschland war für Yara interessant.
Deutschland war für Yara zwar fremd, aber interessant.
Grammatical terms in German:
die Konjunktion: Conjunctions (e.g. und, oder, aber) link sentences or clauses to each other.
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Main / Entertainment & Arts / Hydrosere in the uk what happens
Hydrosere in the uk what happens
Hydrosere - A Wetland Example of Succession in Action. successional stage for information and images of species likely to be present in a British hydrosere. Hydrosere. A hydrosere is a plant succession which occurs in an area of fresh water such as in oxbow lakes and kettle lakes. In time, an area of open freshwater will naturally dry out, ultimately becoming woodland. During this change, a range of different landtypes such as swamp and marsh will succeed each other. If the pond in your backgarden is not dredged occasionally it will happen there in a few years. Follow the side menu to see the various stages in the hydrosere.
Succession specific to freshwater is known as a hydrosere. What would you like to do now? Find out more about the general process of succession? or. Primary succession can happen when mud is colonised by plants. Over a period of years the pond may steadily lose the open water as vegetation takes over. Succession from open water is sometimes called a hydrosere. Malham Tarn Moss by Natural England / Jenny Wheeldon / CC-BY. Hydrosere Extension. Exemplar Data . Hydrosere. What is happening to the pH as you go along the transect? . Source: yrakuqovik.tk 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
This image shows the view towards the centre of the pond from the starting point of our interrupted belt transect. For saftey reasons, we began sampling where. UK distribution showing a decline in the population over the last century: (A) The classic hydrosere model of plant succession from wet to dry land Some processes happen over long time periods and the equilibrium point. Kangas () goes on to point out certain Tallis ( ) goes on to state that in certain suggested that in wetter climates of the British Isles hydrosere. It often occurs after a devastating event has wiped out the organisms that lived Lithosere - rock; Hydrosere - fresh water; Halosere - salt water. The exercise shows the various sereal stages of succession of a hydrosere. Students should be reminded that a succession occurs in a sequence of changes .
Colonised by algae from soil or by birds and flying insects. Rooted plants colonise edges and floating plants colonise open water. More food. An ecological succession that occurs following an opening of uninhabited, barren habitat or Fig 1: Shows the process of hydrosere, where freshwater turns to a woodland. (Image source: yrakuqovik.tk . Succession A Case Study – Poynton Park and Pool – an arrested hydrosere. the prevailing environmental conditions – in the UK, under natural conditions. More Information: Hydrosere - Definition. The hydrosere is the marginal edge of lakes and ponds, where rooted plants can grow. The habitat includes shallow.
The first plants to colonise are known as a pioneer community, and in Britain habitat conditions, and no substantial further change takes place. Hydrosere. A hydrosere is a plant succession which occurs in an area of fresh water such as in An example is a small kettle lake called Sweetmere, in Shropshire, UK.
(с) 2019 yrakuqovik.tk
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[ kon-juh-gey-shuh n ]
/ ˌkɒn dʒəˈgeɪ ʃən /
1. the inflection of verbs.
an act of joining: a conjugation of related ideas.
the state of being joined together; union; conjunction.
Origin of conjugation
1400–50; late Middle English conjugacion (< Anglo-French) < Late Latin conjugātiōn- (stem of conjugātiō), equivalent to conjugāt(us) (see conjugate) + -iōn- -ion
OTHER WORDS FROM conjugation
con·ju·ga·tion·al, adjectivecon·ju·ga·tion·al·ly, adverbnon·con·ju·ga·tion, noun Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2020
Examples from the Web for conjugation
British Dictionary definitions for conjugation
/ (ˌkɒndʒʊˈɡeɪʃən) /
Derived forms of conjugation
conjugational, adjectiveconjugationally, adverb
Medical definitions for conjugation
[ kŏn′jə-gāshən ]
The temporary union of two bacterial cells during which one cell transfers part or all of its genome to the other.
A process of sexual reproduction in which ciliate protozoans of the same species temporarily couple and exchange genetic material.
A process of sexual reproduction in certain algae and fungi in which temporary or permanent fusion occurs, resulting in the union of the male and female gametes.
The addition of glucuronic or sulfuric acid to certain toxic substances to terminate their biological activity and prepare them for excretion.
Scientific definitions for conjugation
[ kŏn′jə-gāshən ]
A type of sexual reproduction in single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and some algae and fungi, in which two organisms or cells from the same species join together to exchange genetic material before undergoing cell division.
The fusion of two gametes to form a zygote, as in some algae and fungi.
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Where Does Translation Occur?
translation-occur Credit: Adam Gault/OJO Images/Getty Images
Translation occurs in the cell, specifically in the cytoplasm. Translation is one of many steps in the creation of protein which is needed to fuel the body.
Translation involves the mRNA, tRNA and rRNA coming together. The mRNA goes through the rRNA starting at the end identified as 5', or the end with A U G, and it will go all the way through to the terminating end. The terminating end is identified as 3'. tRNA will begin to join the other two strands starting with the A location. Once this is completed the complex moves to the P site and the next codon will move in until the chain is complete.
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Things Fall Apart
This is the homepage for Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart.
Context of the Novel
The novel is set in Nigeria during the 1890’s. At the time European colonisation of much of Africa was in full swing – in this case by the British.
Task: Choose 2 of these questions to research
1) Where and when was Chinua Achebe born?
2) Briefly describe the Ibo people (also known as Igbo, Ebo, Heebo)- where are they from?
3) Define colonialism:
4) Before colonization, how were their subgroup formed?
5) How did that change under the British?
6) Briefly describe the “traditional society” of the Ibo.
7) Briefly describe the ways in which colonialism changed that society.
8) Briefly describe palm wine and the process of tapping palm trees.
9) Define proverb and list two examples:
10)Do a brief bit of research on missionaries, missionizing, etc. Briefly explain some of the arguments against missionary work.
Introduction to the Novel
Read the first three chapters of the novel. Take note of the following features by annotating them in your copy of the text:
• The use of proverb
• Descriptions of cultural activities, ceremony’s and other practices unique to the Ibo
• representations of gender
Task: What do you notice about these descriptions? Are they mostly positive or negative (or neutral)? Are they detailed? Why so?
An interesting feature of Things Fall Apart is that Achebe wrote the novel in English. Given the above activity and this feature, who was Achebe’s intended audience?
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Who is That?!: Help with Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Given Names
Dorcas, Nehemiah, Mehetabel, Eliphalet . . . If you have done any research with early North American documents, you have probably noticed that some names were fairly common in the past that are certainly not common today. This change over time in naming traditions may leave the modern reader puzzled. There are, however, some background knowledge and tricks that will help in the interpretation of early Canadian and American given names.
Loyalist Lowdown: The John Saunders Edition
John Saunders was born and raised in Virginia from a well-established and wealthy family. Saunders’s staunch loyalism had a two-fold motivation: firstly, because of the economic considerations, and secondly, and even more importantly, because he strongly believed that being a loyalist would help determine the importance and influence of his family. Later in his life, he stated that he had been taught since infancy “to fear God and honor the King.”
Parish Officers of New Brunswick: Timber to Turkey
Hopefully the summons did not come when he was snug in bed on a crisp fall evening, but if there were marauding pigs on the loose, it was the sworn duty of the hog reeve to find, capture, and wrangle the wayward swine to a secure location before it did any damage to valuable crops. “Hog reeve” was just one of many parish officers who held an important position in colonial New Brunswick society.
A Day in the Life of William Rhett
One aspect of The Loyalist Collection that distinguishes it as a useful resource for learning about early Atlantic history during British rule is the unique information it provides to patrons that has otherwise been largely forgotten or overlooked in the annals of history. One example of such unique information centres on the experiences of Colonel William Rhett, a prominent official who resided in South Carolina during the early eighteenth century.
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The Polar Planimeter
Requires a Wolfram Notebook System
The polar planimeter is a device that measures the area of a plane region by tracing out its boundary. The mechanism has two arms, a fixed anchor point, a freely moving elbow, a needle that traces the boundary of the region counterclockwise, and a wheel whose orientation is perpendicular to the elbow-to-needle arm. If the distance from the elbow to the needle is , then the net distance rolled by the wheel is the area divided by . This Demonstration shows two possible locations of the wheel: at the needle, or at an arbitrary point on the elbow-to-needle arm (which is how a real planimeter works). The inner wheel traces out a curve that is a morph between the path of the needle (the region being measured) and the path of the elbow (an arc of a circle).
Contributed by: Bruce Atwood (Beloit College) and Stan Wagon (Macalester College) (June 2008)
Open content licensed under CC BY-NC-SA
The planimeter's correctness can be justified by Green's theorem, which equates the tangential line integral of a vector field around a curve to the double integral of the curl of a vector field. Thus the distance traveled by the rolling wheel is a line integral that equals the double integral over the region of the curl of the relevant vector field. Letting denote the elbow and the needle, the vector field in question is . The curl of is 2 and the curl of turns out to be , so the total curl is . To find explicitly let and combine that with . The inner wheel, which can be placed anywhere on the elbow-to-needle arm, rolls differently than a wheel at the end of the arm, but the total rolling is the same. This can be proved by looking at the vector from the wheel's location to the needle and observing that its total motion is zero. For more information see The Mathematics of Surveying: Part II. The Planimeter.
Permanent Citation
Bruce Atwood (Beloit College) and Stan Wagon (Macalester College) "The Polar Planimeter"
Wolfram Demonstrations Project
Published: June 10 2008
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Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala are two genera of parasitic tapeworms that have horses, donkeys and other equids (mules, zebras, etc.) as final hosts. Prevalence shows regional and seasonal variations. Studies in Norway showed up to 27% and in Brazil up to 21% of the investigated horses being infected. Infections peaked usually during summer and early autumn. These tapeworms are particularly frequent in horse farms.
Both genera belong to the tapeworm family of Anoplocephalidae and are closely related to Moniezia spp, another tapeworm genus that affects mainly ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, etc).
Adult Anaplocephala perfoliata in horse gut. Image from www.kfps.nlThe species most important for horses are:
• Anoplocephala magna = Anoplocephala plicata, occurs worldwide, rather frequent in the USA but rare in many European countries.
• Anoplocephala perfoliata, occurs worldwide.
• Paranoplocephala mamillana, occurs worldwide.
These worms do not affect cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs or cats.
The disease caused by these tapeworms is called anoplocephalosis.
Are horses infected with Anoplocephala tapeworms contagious for humans?
• NO: There is no evidence that these tapeworms can infect humans.
You can find additional information in this site on the general biology of parasitic worms and/or tapeworms.
Final location of Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala tapeworms
The predilection sites of adult Anoplocephala tapeworms in their final hosts are:
• the small intestine for Anoplocephala magna (occasionally in the stomach) and Paranoplocephala mamillana (mainly jejunum and ileum).
• the large intestine (ileocaecal valve) for Anoplocephala perfoliata.
Anatomy of Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala tapeworms
Anoplocephala magna is the largest tapeworm infecting horses and can be up to 80 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. The head (scolex) is 4 to 6 mm long and has 4 suckers pointing forward, but no hooks. Adult Anoplocephala perfoliata are 8 to 30 cm long, 0.8-1.5 cm broad and has lappets (swellings) behind the 4 head suckers. Adult Paranoplocephala mamillana are smaller, only 1-5 cm long and ~0.5 broad, with slit-like rather than round suckers pointing sidewards.
Egg of Anaplocephala spp. Picture from www2.vetagro-sup.frThe main body (or strobila) has hundreds of segments (called proglottids). The segments are much broader than long. As in all tapeworms, each segment has its own reproductive organs of both sexes (i.e. they are hermaphroditic) and excretory cells known as flame cells (protonephridia). The reproductive organs in each segment have a common opening called the genital pore. In young segments all these organs are still rudimentary. They develop progressively, which increases the size of the segment as it is pushed towards the tail. Mature gravid segments are full of eggs (several thousands) and detach from the strobila (i.e. the chain of segments) to be shed outside the host with its feces. Otherwise, as other tapeworms, they have neither a digestive tube, nor a circulatory or respiratory systems. They don't need them because each segment absorbs what it needs directly through its tegument. Individual gravid segments in the feces are visible by the naked eye.
Anoplocephala magna looks very much like a typical tapeworm, whereas Anoplocephala perfoliata looks rather like a fluke because the segments are crowded.
The eggs have a thick and rough envelope and an irregular, polygonal or semicircular shape. They have a characteristic pear-shaped structure, the pyriform apparatus that contains the hexacanth embryo. Those of Anoplocephala magna are ~50x60 micrometers, those of Anoplocephala perfoliata ~65-80 micrometers, and those of Paranoplocephala mamillana ~35x50 micrometeres.
Life cycle and biology of Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala tapeworms
Oribatid mite, intermedite host of hose tapeworms. Image from wikipedia.commons
As all tapeworms, Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala have an indirect life cycle with equids (horses, donkeys, mules, zebras, etc.) as final hosts, and oribatid mites (also called "moss mites" and "beetle mites") as intermediate hosts
The adult worms lay eggs already in the intestine of their final hosts that are shed with the feces, or the gravid segments containing the eggs are shed out and release the eggs only outside the host. The eggs are sticky and adhere to the vegetation or soil particles. Depending on the species and the region they can survive for months in the environment and some may survive cold winters, but they are very sensitive to dessication.
The oribatid mites ingest the eggs, which hatch in their gut and develop to cysticercoids in the body cavity of the mites within 2 to 4 months. They are infective for the final hosts. Cysticercoids can survive for months inside the mites, which on their turn have a live span of up to 18 months.
The final host becomes infected after ingesting contaminated mites while grazing. The mites are digested and release the cysticercoids that attach to the gut's wall and develop to adult tapeworms within about 6 weeks.
The prepatent period (time between infection and first eggs shed) is about 6 to 10 weeks, suggesting that more than one generation can follow during a normal season in regions with a warm and humid climate.
Harm caused by Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala tapeworms, symptoms and diagnosis
Anoplocephala infections are usually benign for adult horses and usually do not cause clinical signs. Nevertheless, they compete for nutrients with the host and their presence can negatively affect performance. Foals are more susceptible to suffer from infection. Attachment points to the mucosa are often eroded, irritated, abscessed or ulcerated and become easily infected with bacteria. Massive infections can cause colic, diarrhea, and weight losses. Intestinal perforation, peritonitis and anemia have also been reported. Anoplocephala magna can cause enteritis (hemorrhagic or ulcerative), and Anoplocephala perfoliata is known to cause fatal intestinal blockage when large number of tapeworms cluster in the ileocaecal area.
Paranoplocephala mamillana infections are seldom pathogenic.
Diagnosis is based on fecal examination. However, rather few eggs are shed with the feces, which may result in false negatives. Gravid segments (proglottids) may be also found in the feces. After necropsy the tapeworms are easily seen inside the gut and can be determined by their macroscopic characteristics.
Prevention and control of Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala infections
Non-chemical prevention
It is not possible to eliminate the oribatid mites in the pastures. The use of insecticides for this purpose is not advisable, because it is more expensive than the potential economic loss due to the infections, and because it detrimental effect on the environment: it would kill not only the oribatid mites, but numerous beneficial insects as well.
In endemic zones with high incidence it is recommended to harvest the hay, to deeply plow the fields (the mites tend to burrow deeply in the soil) and to reseed them. This can reduce the mite population. Nevertheless, some mites will survive in the unplowed borders and will re-infect the pastures in a few years.
Since the mites prefer humid pastures and avoid light as well as dryness, they are more active early in the morning and at nightfall. This can be considered for deciding where and when to bring hoses for grazing.
So far no true vaccine is available against these tapeworms. To learn more about vaccines against parasites of livestock, horses, and pets click hereVery little is known regarding the immune response of horses to Anoplocephala or Paranoplocephala infections and whether horses acquire or not significant levels of immunity after repeated exposure.
Biological control of Anoplocephala or Paranoplocephala tapeworms (i.e. using its natural enemies) or their intermediate hosts (oribatid mites) is so far not feasible.
Chemical control
Several common anthelmintics have shown efficacy against horse tapeworms, particularly:
• Praziquantel, an isoquinoline is fully effective against Anoplocephala spp and Paranoplocephala mamillana at the usual dose. It is the most used cestodicide for horses and pets, often in mixtures with other anthelmintics (e.g. ivermectin, moxidectin, etc.)
• Pyrantel (mainly pamoate salt), a tetrahydropyrimidine is effective against Anoplocephala spp, but ~80% at the usual dose (6.6 mg/kg). At twice the usual dose efficacy is >90% and more reliable. It is not effective against Paranoplocephala mamillana.
• Broad-spectrum benzimidazoles (e.g. fenbendazole, oxfendazole) are also effective against tapeworms, but are not approved against Anoplocephala or Paranoplocephala tapeworms in many countries.
• Niclosamide, a salicylanilide is also effective against Anoplocephala at the usual dose, but this compound has been abandoned in numerous countries.
Macrocyclic lactones (mainly ivermectin, moxidectin) are not effective against any tapeworm species, but numerous equine anthelmintics contain mixtures of these compounds with a cestodicide (mainly praziquantel).
For use on horses most of these products are available for oral administration as pastes or gels.
Resistance of Anoplocephala and Paranoplocephala tapeworms to anthelmintics
So far there are no reports on resistance of these tapeworms to anthelmintics.
This means that if a product fails to achieve the expected efficacy, chance is very high that it is not due to resistance but to incorrect use, which is the most frequent cause of product failure. Or the product was unsuited for the control of Anoplocephala or Paranoplocephala tapeworms.
Learn more about parasite resistance and how it develops.
Ask your veterinary doctor! If available, follow more specific national or regional recommendations for Anoplocephala or Paranoplocephala control.
Other interesting articles
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NoongarPedia created as first Wikipedia site in Aboriginal language
Updated November 11, 2016 11:05:45
In Noongar country, in the south-west of Western Australia, researchers are building the first Wikipedia site in an Aboriginal Australian language.
The Noongar people spoke their language for thousands of years — until, last century, it started to fade.
Now, Aboriginal languages and knowledge are being revived, celebrated and made a part of the Australian curriculum.
The NoongarPedia project is still in its "incubator" phase, but already resembles the main English Wikipedia page.
Noongar woman Ingrid Cumming, a research associate working on the project, says one difference is that it is bilingual.
"We're trying to work with Wikimedia Australia to keep the same kind of interface but also make it culturally appropriate," she said.
While NoongarPedia is the first Australian Aboriginal language site on Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia comes in 295 different languages across the world.
"In the first part of the project we were looking at other examples of Indigenous cultures globally that have tried to do a similar thing," Ms Cumming said.
"A lot of those were actually all in language. We found that that was kind of restrictive, especially with the Noongar language."
Ms Cumming says the bilingual capacity of the page is important.
Even though more people are learning and speaking Noongar, it is not always conversational and is often combined with English.
Then there are the different dialects: town dialects, family dialects, and different meanings for the same words. The word Noongar itself is spelt in many different ways.
"That's just the beauty of the South West and Noongar country, the diversity of Noongars," Ms Cumming said.
Online resource to support classroom learning
At Djidi Djidi Aboriginal School in Bunbury, WA, the classroom walls are covered with colourful pictures of people and animals with words like "kaya" and "mooditj".
While the students recite the words with confidence and pride, there are challenges in trying to teach the language to the next generation.
"Kids when they went to school weren't allowed to speak their language, so they've lost it," said Noongar language teacher Kim Stanley.
"Our cleaner here at the school was told off when she went to school speaking it. They got put off doing it."
Ms Stanley says she has had to go back to the beginning rather than build on existing knowledge.
"You're sort of learning yourself and you haven't got a lot of parents at home that have any background knowledge, only from their grandparents," she said.
Soon, NoongarPedia will provide online support for these language teaching efforts.
The Noongar community will play a major role in creating and advising the page, but Ms Cumming said the page is for everyone.
She said that included "our non-Indigenous brothers and sisters who want to learn more about the Noongar people, Noongar language and Noongar culture".
"I think too with the change in the national curriculum, schools and educators will find this is a fantastic learning resource," she said.
Ultimate aim to capture all Indigenous languages
Wikimedia Australia president Gideon Digby agrees that the project should be designed to educate everyone.
"The basic principle of Wikipedia is to share the sum of all knowledge," he said.
"I've grown up in Western Australia and realised that we can't share the sum of all knowledge until we actually collect and collate all knowledge.
"When you're talking about the south-west of Western Australia, that includes Noongar knowledge and Noongar culture."
As for the other Australian Aboriginal languages, Wikimedia hopes to create pages for them as well ... eventually.
"We are working on that," Mr Digby said.
"We are looking at starting more languages up in Darwin and Brisbane during 2017 and then we'll work from there.
"There are 300-odd Indigenous languages across Australia and yes, the ultimate aim would be to capture all 300 Indigenous languages with a full language encyclopedia for themselves."
The ABC acknowledges that the word "Noongar" is spelt many different ways. Because the Noongarpedia project uses the "Noongar" spelling, we have also used that spelling in this instance.
Topics: indigenous-culture, history, aboriginal-language, languages, internet-technology, bunbury-6230
First posted November 11, 2016 10:47:20
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Week 3: A history of Modern Horror
Question 1: King (2010) describes Horror as being defined through three basic elements. Explain, using references, what these three elements are. Think of a horror story you’ve read/watched/heard that makes use of all three of these elements and show how King’s definition is at play in that narrative
Horror movies and stories are regarded as always being a popular genre, although the subject and extent of the storyline shifts every so often as 10 to 20 years allowing for a new cycle of horror to arise (King, 2010). The first element of the horror genre identified by King is that which deals with the political and economic strains of a specific time. Books and movies are in turn written and directed to reflect the common anxieties experienced by society. An example of this is the horror movies that were popular in the 1970’s such as the haunted house horror that depicted the anxieties around class mortgage and equity that were affecting the average American household. Hendrix (2017) states the ’70s was an era of growing inflation and high-interest rates, which meant new homeowners during this time feared unimaginably was an icy house with a satanic voice that demanded them to “Get out”.
The second element of horror is the element of allegory. King (2010) states “an allegory is there only because it is built-in, a given, impossible to escape. The horror movie is portrayed in a way that is symbolic of the matters society feels under pressure to admit or address. It displays what society fear of happening, expressing to challenge or question the status quo both in a positive and negative manner. The horror films are created to allow for the viewer to conform to deviant behavior, suggesting the idea that becoming bad is not actually bad. If anything, the horror means it is ok to allow one to give in to fear or even join a mob (King, 2010). The allegory in a horror movie gives the viewer more than one interpretation of the storyline, for instance, the monster in “The Void” was a doctor, which may act as a warning sign that allows for the viewer to rethink the credentials of their current doctors.
The last of the three is the very fact of a monster is present. And each monster is created differently and specifically to suit each genre (Carroll, 2003). So, one can say monsters can also be allegorical as a symbol of horror (King, 2010). However, not all monsters are created to be evil like the Ogre Shrek in the “Shrek” movie who proves to humans he is not actually as bad as they perceive him to be and actually lives a similar lifestyle by marrying Princess Fiona and having a family.
Carrol, N. (2003). The nature of horror: In The Philosophy of Horror or Paradoxes of the Heart. Retrieved from https://blacboard.aut.ac.nz
King, S. (2010). Danse macabre. United States, NY: Gallery Publishing Group.
The Void. (2016). The Void. Study Material
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A language that is fact-based, measurable and observable, verifiable and unbiased. It does not include a speaker or writer’s point of view, interpretation or judgement.
Separate phonemes in a syllable can normally be broken into two parts. An onset is the initial consonant (for example, in ‘cat’ the onset is /c/); or consonant blend (for example, in ‘shop’ the onset is /sh/). Word families can be constructed using common onsets such as /t/ in ‘top’, ‘town’.
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"url": "https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/english/glossary/?letter=O"
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The ICMP protocol provides an echo mechanism by which a host may solicit a response from a gateway by sending message at a reasonable rate. Since the message must be sent fairly often to detect a fault in a reasonable time, it can imply an unbearable overhead. Technically, ICMP is an error reporting mechanism. Whenever a datagram causes an error, ICMP can report the error condition back to the original source of the datagram.
For Example
Destination Unreachable message is sent by a router to the source node, when the router cannot locate the destination since it was down, or the destination address is invalid.
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"language_score": 0.9084031581878662,
"url": "https://tetcos.freshdesk.com/support/solutions/articles/14000064246-why-are-icmp-packet-sent-at-the-start-of-a-simulation-in-netsim-"
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Padre Island and its great barrier stretch
For most students, spring break is a look forward, whether you’re partying on the beach or at home watching movies, but certainly the island is a place to visit at least once, especially with its backstory.
Padre Island sits at the core of our community’a history; it’s been here through thick and thin.
The longest sand beach in the United States, Padre Island extends about 130 miles along the coast of South Texas, with the north end just east of Corpus Christi and the south end in Port Isabel.
Through the island’s past, it is believed that tribes of the Archaic period were to have lived on the island from 2700 to 1000 B.C. Although the National Park Service is unsure who the first natives were to step foot on Padre Island, the agency estimates that following the first natives were Karankawa and Coahuiltecan peoples who visited the island until the mid-1800s.
Both of the tribes were interrelated nomadic hunters, roaming the coast and inland for some distance. Approximations for the location of Karankawa people (who existed as a people in Texas until about 1850) are between Corpus Christi Bay and Galveston and the Coahuiltecans generally ranged within the area from Corpus Christi Bay south into Mexico, according to the National Park Service.
The tribes generally wore little, if any, clothing and usually decorated themselves with tattoos and body piercings, which isn’t far off from people on the beach during spring break.
The tribes often moved to find food. The Coahuiltecans and Karankawa would sometimes come out to Padre Island to live off the game, fish and abundant shellfish.
Not much is known about the Coahuiltecan people; the group’s name, “Coahuiltecan,” is used by archaeologists to refer to the various bands of people who wandered in an area between present-day San Antonio and northern Mexico. However, one of the bands of Coahuiltecan people were called Malaquites, and today the National Seashore has a section of the beach named Malaquite.
In 1766, Colonel Diego Ortiz Parrilla drew a map while searching the island for Spain. It was discovered on the map that there were several Malaquite settlements on the southern end of the island, while a Karankawa settlement and two other bands are noted on the northern end of the island.
However, Nicolás Ballí from King Carlos III of Spain was granted the island in 1759, and it later passed to his grandson, Padre José Nicolás Ballí. When Padre Ballí owned the island later on, he brought the first settlers, trying to teach the Karankawa people Christianity.
The people Padre Ballí ministered referred to the island as La Isla Padre (Padre Island) for his position of Padre Ballí being a kind man.
The island even played a part during the Civil War. The Union forces blockaded passes between the local barrier islands. This was done to disturb the export of cotton from the Confederacy and to prevent salt from the Laguna Madre reaching the Southern forces. Union and Confederate forces unexpectedly fought on the land, with the Confederates taking a position with their weapons in the sand dunes, while the Union forces were on ships.
Today, the island remains home to more than 600 species of plants and wildflowers. The National Seashore is also the nesting site of sea turtles, holding more Kemp’s ridley sea turtles than anywhere in the United States.
Padre Island is a special place with rich history.
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3 Strange Buttons Help Archaeologists Identify 18th Century Skeleton As Foreign-Born Soldier
Amy Scott
Recent excavation of an 18th century cemetery at the Fortress of Louisbourg in Nova Scotia, Canada, has revealed dozens of skeletons. Based on a set of three strange buttons and the skeleton's teeth, archaeologists believe they have identified the body of a foreign-born soldier.
The Fortress of Louisbourg was established in 1713 in a tiny fishing village that became the seat of the French cod-fishing industry. Initially, the small garrison was composed of basic recruits largely from France as well as officers from the colonies in Canada, who tried to fend off sieges by the British and New Englanders. Eventually, over its 45-year history, Louisbourg became more diverse in its population, accepting soldiers from the Swiss and German Karrer regiment. Four cemeteries dotted the landscape, with historical records suggesting there were over one thousand burials at the site.
In a new article published in the journal Bioarchaeology International, a group of archaeologists led by Amy Scott of the University of New Brunswick describe how they used multiple methods to analyze one specific burial from the Louisbourg cemetery at Rochefort Point that was found in 2017.
The skeleton was buried in a west-to-east manner typical of Christian interments, and the researchers learned from the bones that this person was a man in his early 30s. The soldier had poor dental health, Scott and colleagues report, with a high number of enamel hypoplasias representing a stressful childhood, loss of two upper front teeth during life, and significantly worn down dental enamel. He had well-healed lesions in his eye orbits suggestive of an episode of anemia at some point in his past. All of these could point to a soldier's diet composed of hardtack, which was nutritionally poor and could break and dull teeth. Or the loss of the front teeth may suggest interpersonal violence, since Louisbourg was known for its drunkenness and debauchery.
Amy Scott
"From the skeletal remains alone, it would be difficult to speak to who this individual was or what their role at Louisbourg may have been," Scott and colleagues write, "except that this seemingly typical individual was found with three pewter buttons in a unique location under the body, prompting a further investigation into the type of clothing worn by the soldiers garrisoned at Louisbourg."
Since the researchers knew that French uniforms had copper buttons, they suspected this man had come from somewhere else. Using chemical analysis of one of his teeth, Scott and her team discovered that the man's strontium isotopes put his birth some where in Europe, most likely in an inland region such as the border area of Switzerland and Germany, where Karrer soldiers were often recruited from. The lack of additional skeletal trauma or evidence of infection in this skeleton, the researchers note, "may also indicate membership in the Karrer regiment, as historical records show that the Swiss soldiers were in better physical shape than the French, visited the hospital less frequently, and, when admitted, were discharged sooner."
The pewter buttons, the strontium isotope values, the osteological evidence, and historical records all add up to strong circumstantial evidence that this particular burial in a remote area of Nova Scotia was of an 18th century Swiss Karrer soldier.
"Burial context in tandem with the rich historical record provided an opportunity to explore the potential role of this individual as a member of the Karrer and their experience within the Louisbourg community," Scott and colleagues conclude. "While the Karrer made up only a small portion of the population, being able to highlight this story better supports the larger French and English narratives that have dominated the interpretations of Louisbourg."
Excavation at the cemetery of Rochefort Point is ongoing in collaboration with Parks Canada, and the archaeologists plan to pay very close attention to burial context as they frame their research questions going forward in order to learn more about the 18th century military presence and colonization process in Nova Scotia.
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St. Kitts Geology
The island of St. Kitts (also St. Christopher), with an area of 177 km2 and a population of 36,000, comprises a chain of overlapping volcanic centers 28 km long and elongated NW-SE along the axis of the Active Arc of the Lesser Antilles. Baker (1969) described how volcanism migrated along the axis of the island with the centers becoming progressively younger towards the north west. The youngest and only active volcano is Mt. Liamugia (formerly Mt. Misery) which forms the north-west end of the island. Morphologically the island can be regarded as comprising four distinct components. Oldest is the Salt Pond Peninsula – a chain of eroded Pelean domes at the south-east end believed to have been active around 2.3 Ma (Baker, 1969) (Ma is a notation meaning million years). Also forming a component of this oldest part of the island are eroded remnants of other volcanic centers at Canada Hills and Conaree Hills on the south-east side of the island. Little is known about the geology of these hills but this oldest part of the island is 16km long and a distinct and separate part from the three younger stratovolcanoes that comprise the bulk of St. Kitts island. The middle part of the island comprises two tropical jungle covered eroded stratovolcanoes – the South East Range and the Middle Range – believed to be 1 to 2 million years old (Rex cited in Baker 1964). The stratovolcano of Mt Liamugia is believed to be less than 1 million years old.
The Salt Pond Peninsula is a chain and cluster of at least nine eroded Pelean domes with remnant aprons of block and ash flow deposits. The domes rise to 319m. Around and between the cluster of dome remnants that make up the south-eastern end of the island and along the length of the oldest part of the island (up to Canada Hills) beach formation has resulted in the formation of eight shallow lagoons or salt ponds. The low topography of the Salt Pond Peninsula results in a low rainfall and the area has a semi-desert vegetation without the formation of tropical rain forest typical of the higher volcanoes on the rest of the island.
The South East Range is a deeply eroded stratovolcano rising to 900m and comprising poorly exposed lava flows and volcaniclastic deposits. It has four peaks aligned NW-SE. There are two parasitic domes (Ottley’s dome and the Monkey Hill dome) situated on the southern and eastern flanks respectively. The island capital of Basseterre and the airport are situated on the southeastern flanks of the South-East Range. This large area of level ground lies partly between the South East Range and the remnants of the older volcanoes at Canada Hills and Conaree Hills. Morphologically only a half of the Canada Hills volcano remains as it is abruptly truncated on its south-west side.
The Middle Range is another poorly-exposed, jungle-covered stratovolcano rising to 976m. It is morphologically separated from the South East Range yet is partly overlapped by Mt. Liamugia. There is a very small lake in a small summit crater. Baker (1963) described the volcano as being very similar to the South East Range volcano, but little is known about the center, although it is believed to be extinct.
Mt. Liamugia is a basaltic to andesitic stratovolcano with an open crater (777m E-W by 1006m N-S) and several parasitic domes. The stratovolcano has a SW-NE diameter of 5 km and rises to 1155m. The crater walls are 122m high on the west and 439m on the east and reveal that the superstructure comprises lava flows intercalated with coarse pyroclastic breccias. The peak of Mt. Liamugia appears to be a dome remnant. A pair of coalesced parasitic domes occur on the upper western flank of the volcano and Brimstone Hill is a third dome lying on the lower southwestern flank near the coast. The lower flanks of the stratovolcano are blanketed by a pyroclastic layer up to more than 40m thick named the Mansion Series by Baker (1963), comprising subaerial andesite layers with intercalated minor scoriaceous basaltic layers, that are mainly airfalls. The series shows much fluviatile reworking in many places. The series also blankets most of the island especially on the lower flanks of the volcanoes where it forms the fertile farmland. It has been eroded from the steeper upper slopes of the island (see Geological Map).
Radiocarbon dating and detailed reconstructions of particular pyroclastic layers of the Mansion series from stratigraphic sections logged around the island (Roobol and others, 1981) showed that much of the succession is less than 40,000 years old and that the pyroclastic activity was of two kinds and composition controlled. For each pyroclastic layer three parameters were measured at each locality: thickness in cm (TH), the average maximum length of the five largest juvenile clasts (MJ) and the average maximum length of the five largest lithic clasts (ML). Subtle differences in colour, vesicularity and clast shapes were matched against a master set of clasts carried from outcrop to outcrop and the study was assisted by the identification of distinctive marker units. The resulting maps show that the dispersal axes of black basaltic scoriaceous fall deposits result from Strombolian activity that produced low pyroclastic eruption columns that drifted to the north west and west by Lower Tropospheric or Trade Winds (Figure. 1). In contrast green and brown andesitic fall deposits resulting from Sub-Plinian and Plinian activity had higher eruption columns because they were dispersed to the south east and east by Upper Tropospheric or Anti-Trade Winds (Figure 2). These contrasted styles of dispersal are summarized in a schematic diagram in Figure 3. The green andesite airfall layers of the Mansion series commonly contain microvesicular, subangular clasts due to some limited interaction of magma with external water that partly drove these eruption columns. The Mansion series contains carbonized wood (some standing in growth positions) for distances of up to 11km from the crater of Mt. Liamugia. Vegetation is thought to have been ignited by large juvenile ballistic bombs of dense green andesite measuring up to 15cm long at distances of 8km from the crater.
Extensive pyroclastic flow deposits are well preserved on the north and west lower flanks of Mt. Liamugia and are well exposed in low sea cliffs. The deposits are both andesitic and basaltic andesitic resulting from dome forming Pelean and open-crater St. Vincentian style activity. In addition flow deposits of mixed magma scoria and ash flow types are also present. In these, the black scoria clasts contain flow bands of cream colored vesicular andesite. The alternations in eruptive style resulted in destruction of Pelean domes so that some of the scoriaceous pyroclastic flow deposits contain coarse grained layers of lithic lag breccias. The pyroclastic flow deposits were radiocarbon dated at 2,000 to 3,000 years B.P.
The youngest deposits of Mt. Liamugia were named the Steel Dust Series by Baker (1963) and occur on the western flanks (Figure 4). They are a thin series of pyroclastic falls and base-surge deposits dated at around 1,650 years B.P. (Baker, 1983).
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Grizzly Bears Are Waking Up Early This Year, and Climate Change Could Make That a Bad Habit
A warm winter has roused the omnivores in the middle of February, which reduces their chance of survival.
(Photo: David Ponton/Getty Images)
Feb 13, 2015· 2 MIN READ
What could wake a hibernating bear? An abnormally warm winter, apparently.
Yellowstone National Park’s 150 grizzly bears are on the move, according to the National Park Service, which confirmed the first bear sighting of the year on Feb. 9—almost a month earlier than usual. That could be due to climate change.
The past decade has been the hottest on record for Yellowstone, about 1.4 degrees above the region’s 20th century average.
Al Nash of the National Park Service said the sighting meant the agency had to push up its annual announcement to warn park goers the grizzlies are out.
“In mid-February, grizzlies aren’t usually on the minds of the cross-country skiers and snowshoers in the park, so hopefully we can get the word out to be on the lookout,” Nash said.
There are an estimated 550 grizzlies in the 28,000-square-mile greater Yellowstone area, and reports of bear sightings outside the park boundaries are coming in from Montana and Wyoming as well.
Typically, the NPS grizzly bear broadcast comes in mid-March, but after an early cold spell in November and December, Yellowstone’s 2015 winter has been averaging temperatures about 10 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than usual.
“We’re getting 40-degree days in February, where we often see 20 below zero,” Nash said.
That’s messed up the threatened species’ internal clocks—they’ve adapted their behavior to avoid the months that coincide with food shortages, cold temperatures, and snow on the ground. When they do wake up, it’s typically to a smorgasbord of animal carcasses—deer, bison, and elk that succumbed to the harsh winter weather.
But there hasn’t been a harsh winter in the area. Does that mean there won’t be as many dead treats for bears? Park staff actually do surveys to see how many carcasses are around at the end of each winter and designate areas—carcass hotspots, if you will—as off-limits to humans to limit bear and human interaction.
This year’s carcass surveys aren’t complete, so it’s still too early to know what the warmer winter means for the bears’ high-protein food source. But the implications of what rising temperatures could mean for grizzly bears isn’t lost on Nash.
“They’re omnivores, so they’re eating whatever’s available,” he said. “But it is certainly possible that a milder winter could have an impact on the number of animals that succumb to the winter cold, and it certainly could have an impact on that food source availability as the grizzlies wake up.”
Climate change has already impacted the region’s white bark pines, with the warmer temperatures allowing bark beetles to attack large swaths of forest at higher elevation levels than they could usually live in. The white bark pine nuts are an essential part of the grizzly bear’s diet. On top of that, cold-water-loving fish such as cutthroat trout—a grizzly bear favorite—are at risk of losing habitat in lower elevations as streams heat up.
A report from the conservation organization Greater Yellowstone Coalition warned what mild winters could mean for bears and other scavengers.
“Following milder winters—likely to become more common—fewer grizzly bear cubs survive, at least in part because fewer carcasses, especially those of elk, are available as food than following traditionally harsh winters,” the report stated, adding that black bears, gray wolves, foxes, coyotes, and bald and golden eagles—all scavengers—could be affected.
“The long-term trends of climate change’s effect on animals like the grizzly bear are what we’re concerned about,” said Greater Yellowstone Coalition wildlife director Chris Colligan. “We need to make sure the bears continue to have food sources that reduce conflict with humans—keeping bears out of our trash, and bear-proofing nearby communities is vital.”
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Cultural Issues: Slavery Self-emancipation
For textual moments in which an enslaved person or group acts upon the desire to be free, as when Loosh or unnamed groups of slaves take advantage of the proximity of the Union Army to leave the Sartoris, Sutpen and other plantations where they were enslaved. Most examples of self-emancipation occur during the Civil War, but it also applies the way Thucydus earns the money to buy himself from the McCaslins. SR
Parent Term
Tagged Events
Environment: PublicCourt
Actions: LegalArraign | PerceptualWatching
Cultural Issues: LawBail | SlaverySelf-emancipation
Themes and Motifs: CommunityCrowd
Actions: MovementMigration
Cultural Issues: SlaverySelf-emancipation
Themes and Motifs: MemoryRemembering
Aesthetics: Allusion, BiblicalJordan
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In-School Exploration
Provider: Lemur Conservation Foundation
Contact: Katie Virun, Education Manager
Starting cost per student: $0
Additional Info: FREE
Max. Capacity: 40
Transportation Needed? No
Who Arranges Transportation?
Is Financial Assistance Offered? No
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See Lemurs, Little and Large to view the complete lesson and materials.
Length of Activity: 1 hour
Featured Book(s): Bitka the Mouse Lemur
Lesson Description: Students practice measuring and learn that lemurs come in many sizes by measuring the length of Bitika the mouse lemur and other lemur species that she encounters on her evening adventure. The discussion focuses on lemur biodiversity (and also island gigantism and dwarfism) and the risks and benefits of being big and small.
Learning Goals: Students will know that lemurs come in a variety of sizes and be able to use different tools and units to measure them.
Students will be able to:
• Measure the length of different lemur species
• Describe why lemurs are so diverse in size
• Measure lengths using a variety of tools
• Compare various units of measurement
• Describe why island species are sometimes very large or very small
• Understand complexity of conservation issues
• Sets of marked lemur measurement rope and identification cards, made using:
• Lemur Fact Cards
• Thick yarn or twine (15 feet long, one per group of students plus one for the teacher)
• Toilet paper tube, paper towel roll, or similar tube
• Paper clips (8 per group of students)
• Colored tape (to mark lengths on rope)
• Masking tape to tape the ends of the lemur measuring rope to the floor
• Menabe-Antanimena Ako Poster
Make the Lemur Measuring Ropes:
1. Print out one set of Lemur Fact Cards for each rope. Cut out each card and hole-punch the corner. Place a paper clip through the hole. The paper clip will be used to attach the card at the distance representing the length of each lemur depicted.
2. Cut one 15 foot length of yarn for each student group.
3. Measure the yarn at the distances indicated on the Lemur Fact Cards, marking each spot with the colored tape. Place a random card at each distance. During the activity the paperclip should go through the yarn to prevent the card from moving. Mix the cards when you place them on the rope.
4. Attach the yarn to an empty toilet paper or paper towel roll so that students can wind and unwind it easily. Roll the yarn and the cards up onto the roll for storage (cards should not be attached to the yarn during storage to help prevent damage).
1. Read Bitika the Mouse Lemur aloud to the class.
2. Explain to the students they are going to complete an activity that focuses on different sizes of lemurs. Review the different sizes of lemur species in the book and poster.
3. Explain that lemurs only live on the island of Madagascar. They come in many sizes, colors, body shapes, and have different physical features. Pose the question: Why do you think there are so many different kinds of lemurs on the same island? Explain that the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem is called biodiversity.
4. Review as a class some of the ways that lemurs show physical diversity (physical differences)- for instance size, color, ear shape and size, tail length and shape, body shape, facial features, leg length, size of hands, fingers, legs, and toes etc. List these differences on the board.
5. Explain that today they will be looking at variations in size.
1. Pass out the tape measures, measuring ropes, a set of cards, and two pieces of masking tape to each student group. Instruct each group to tape the ends of their rope to the floor with the masking tape so the ropes will be taut when they are completing their measurements. Explain that the taped markers on the measuring rope show the size or length of different lemurs. Each team will need to measure the length of each lemur (listed on the identification card) and match the cards to the correct length marked out on the yarn. (NOTE: This activity can also be completed together as a class rather than in teams.)
2. Introduce the measuring tape to the students. Have them look at the numbers and review how to find inches and feet. Introduce metric units such as centimeter and meter.
3. Choose one of the medium sized lemurs. For example, the mongoose lemur. Explain that the length of the lemur from the tip of its head to the base of its tail is 12 inches. Have students look for the number 12 on the tape measure. Explain that if you were to put the top of the lemur’s head at ‘0’, and ask it to stretch out on the measuring tape the end of its body (minus its tail) would be at 12 inches. Have the students attach the appropriate animal card to this length using the paper clip.
4. Students should continue using the measurement listed on the cards to match each card to the correct length. Finish the activity by having the students match the card to the extinct giant lemur.
5. When students have completed matching the cards to the correct lengths review the lemur species and sizes together as a class.
6. Consider incorporating addition/subtraction math story problems connected to the book:
• Bitika saw three white sifakas asleep in a row. A silky sifaka is 21 inches long. What is the length of 3 sifakas? One sifaka woke up and jumped off of the branch. Two sifakas are left. What is the combined length of two sifakas?
• Bitika met 10 brown lemurs on the branches. One collared brown lemur is 16 inches long. What is the combined length of 10 collared brown lemurs?
• Additional options include converting inches to feet or metric units.
Look at the different sizes of lemurs you have been reading about. Compare the size of each lemur species to that of an animal we have in the United States. How do they compare? How are they different?
1. Complete the activity with a wrap up discussion. Use the following questions to guide you.
• Were you surprised that lemurs came in so many sizes?
• Why do you think there are so many sizes of lemurs on the same island?
• What do you think caused the extinction of the giant sloth lemur?
2. Explain that while scientists still have much to learn about island species, animals that live on islands often grow very large or small. Review the “Island Rule” of gigantism and dwarfism (see the Ako Educator’s Guide for information about the Island Rule).
Not everything is measured in inches and feet! Nautical miles, fathoms, hands, furlongs, board feet, and acres are all units of measurement. Use different measurement tools to measure the length of each lemur and compare various units of measurement. In addition to inches and feet, measure the lemur’s length in centimeters. Try unique units of measurement such as paperclips, M&M’s, jellybeans, or post-it notes. Have students record their findings. Emphasize that these different units of measurement are different ways for saying the same thing.
Have students research island species (both modern and extinct) that display gigantism and dwarfism. How did they live? When did they live? If they are extinct –what was the cause?
Giant species
Komodo dragon
Madagascar Hissing Cockroach
Elephant Bird
Galapagos Tortoise
Sloth Lemur
Haast’s Eagle
St. Helena Earwig
Minorcan Giant Lagomorph (Rabbit)
Flores Giant Rat
Madagascar Giant Jumping Rat
Corsican Giant Shrew
Giant Weta
Prehensile-Tailed Skink
Kakapo (New Zealand Parrot)
Solomon Island Skink
Dwarf species
Cyprus Dwarf Hippo
Channel Islands Pigmy Mammoth
Bali Tiger
King Island Emu
Virgin Island Dwarf Gecko
Lowland Anoa
Zanzibar Leopard
Madam Berthe’s Mouse Lemur
Cozumel Raccoon
Sardinian Dhole
Honshu Wolf
Key Deer
Madagascar Dwarf Chameleon
Philippine Sambar
Svalbard Reindeer
Balearic Islands Cave Goat
Cozumel Raccoon
Evaluate the student’s ability to measure and understand units by checking the lemur lengths on the cards and comparing them to the measuring ropes.
2nd Grade Math:
2nd Grade Science:
3rd Grade Math:
3rd Grade Science:
National Science Standards:
2nd and 3rd Grade
-Characteristics of organisms
-Organisms and environments
-Form and Function
Next Generation National Science Standards:
-2nd Grade: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems (2-LS4-1)
-3rd Grade: Inheritance and Variance of Traits (3-LS3-1 and 3-LS3-2)
Contact Us
Questions? Comments? Let us hear from you!
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CPM Homework Banner
Home > GC > Chapter 8 > Lesson 8.2.2 > Problem 8-77
1. Always a romantic, Marris decided to bake his girlfriend a cookie in the shape of a regular dodecagon (12-gon) for Valentine’s Day. Homework Help ✎
1. If the edge of the dodecagon is 6 cm, what is the area of the top of the cookie?
2. His girlfriend decides to divide the cookie into 12 separate but congruent pieces. After 9 of the pieces have been eaten, what area of cookie is left?
Try splitting the cookie into triangles.
What information do you already know about these triangles' angles and sides?
Can you use this to find the area of a single triangle?
Multiply the area of a single triangle by the number of triangles remaining after some have been eaten.
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Potential military applications of geology became apparent in Europe by the late eighteenth century, notably to Napoleon Bonaparte. In the United Kingdom, nineteenth-century practice was commonly to teach elementary geology to army officer cadets, and in twentieth-century conflicts to deploy a single uniformed geologist as a staff officer within each major regional headquarters, initially leaving terrain analysis to geographers. In Germany, considerably greater use was made of uniformed geologists serving as teams within all theaters of military operation in both world wars, generating a wealth of data now published or accessible in national archives.
In the United States, a few military geologists were appointed to serve in uniform in France during World War I, but during World War II, a far greater number were civilians, based within a Military Geology Unit of the U.S. Geological Survey at Washington, D.C. Despite different organizational backgrounds, and irrespective of nationality, military geologists have addressed similar geoscience problems.
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How to tell the difference between kinds of bodies of water, in one map
bancroft's pictoral chart of geographical definitions
Do you know the difference between a strait and a channel? How about a gulf, bay or harbor?
This chart from 1870 lays that all out, including illustrating the main differences between an island (you know what an island is), archipelago (a group of islands) and isthmus (a strip of land between two larger lands that has water on two sides.)
Of course, some of these examples aren’t that clear — try telling the difference between the ocean and sea from this picture, for instance — so Vox went to the Oxford English Dictionary for further explanation.
According to that source, a bay is generally wider than a gulf, including its opening.
But the two terms are often interchanged.
Take the Gulf of Maine for example, which by that definition would be more of a bay.
Screenshot 2015-09-03 15.58.02
Meanwhile, straits and channels both link bodies of water, but the latter tend to be broader, Vox found. To add to the confusion, sounds are basically larger straits.
How many of these terms did you know?
Dan MacLeod
About Dan MacLeod
Dan MacLeod is the managing editor of the Bangor Daily News. He's an Orland native who moved to Portland in 2002 and now lives in Unity. He's been a journalist since 2008, and previously worked for the New York Post and the Brooklyn Paper.
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This page on the history of Rakhi traces the history and origin of Raksha Bandhan festival and Rakhi. The history and origin of Rakhi is full of many interesting legends.
History of Rakhi
Like all other Indian festivals, Raksha Bandhan too has a long historical background. The history of Raksha Bandhan goes back to the early days of the arrival of the Aryans in India. The Aryans performed Yajnas before going to wars. This was done to invoke blessings of the God. Before the men departed for the battlefield, their womenfolk tied sacred threads or amulets to protect them and also to remind them of their duties to uphold the honor of their tribe. This is how the custom of Raksha Bandhan seems to have originated.
It is said that when Alexander invaded India in 326 B.C., his wife tied a Rakhi to the king Porus. In return Porus is believed to have promised to protect her and her husband. In the medieval period, we have numerous examples of the practice of tying knots or threads. The history of Rajputana is full of several such examples of Rakhi like traditions. The most famous of them is the story of the Queen karnavati of Chittor, who sent a Rakhi to the Mughal emperor, Humayun to save her kingdom from the invasion of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. That particular day of Purnima was celebrated as Raksha Bandhan in Marwar and then all over Rajasthan and, finally, throughout India.
Slowly and gradually the concept of tying knots or threads spread to other parts of India and assumed broader significance. The most recent historical example of Raksha Bandhan comes from India's struggle for freedom. To oppose the partition of Bengal, the great poet Ravindranath Tagore organized Raksha Bandhan to promote brotherhood and solidarity between Hindus and Muslims. Besides, there are numerous legends related to Raksha Bandhan in the Hindu mythology.
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Chapter: Challenges and Hardships
Fire Cart
No more bucket brigades
1900s fire cart (reconstructed) with chemical barrel fire Cart
Fire was a major concern for Manitoba's settlers, in mere minutes a farmstead or village could be wiped out. Often a volunteer fire department was one of the first services organized in new communities.
Without a fire department many settlements had to rely only on buckets, shovels and axes, resulting in buildings usually burning to the ground. A chemical cart gave a much better chance to put out a fire as it had its own source of water. The cart worked by having a small tank of sulfuric acid emptied into a tank of water and bicarbonate soda. The chemical reaction meant that carbon dioxide was produced and as the gas expanded the water was forced out of the tank.
This reconstructed fire cart was the first used by the Town of Carman. It is pre 1900 and would have been lost to history had the museum not published a fundraising book that included a photo of the first fire cart. A resident from Elm Creek advised the museum that there were remnants of the cart in the bush at his farm. The cart was in poor shape, however volunteers worked to restore it.
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So, What’s With All the Scallop Shells?
The scallop shell is the most iconic symbol associated with the Camino de Santiago. Many pilgrims see the lines on a Scallop Shell as a reflection of the Camino de Santiago – many paths leading to one point. There is more to the Scallop Shell symbolism however. (The first recorded reference to the scallop shell’s association with the Camino dates back to 1106.)
The significance of the shell: Santiago de Compostela is named in honor of St James the Greater, who worked as a fisherman before becoming a Disciple of Christ. Following the death and resurrection of Jesus, the apostles began to spread the gospel and convert others to Christianity. As part of his mission, James travelled to Iberia (now Spain) to preach to pagans in the area. On his return to Jerusalem, he was beheaded by King Herod for blasphemy. Following his execution, his headless body was being brought to Galicia to be laid to rest. As the boat containing his body approached the coast, a knight on horseback was walking the cliffs above the Atlantic. Upon seeing the boat, the horse bolted and both horse and knight fell to the sea. Divine intervention occurred whereby St. James miraculously saved the knight, still on horseback, who emerged covered in scallop shells!
Other references: Throughout the medieval period, pilgrimages were long and dangerous journeys undertaken as an act of penance and religious devotion. The pilgrimage started at the pilgrim’s home and continued by foot until they reached Santiago. Once they returned home, either by foot, horseback or boat, pilgrims presented the scallop shell as proof they completed the pilgrimage since the shells are indigenous to the Galician coast. By the 12th Century, scallop shells were being sold by hundreds of licensed vendors around the Cathedral of Santiago cementing their symbolic status. The scallop shell was also historically used for gathering water and drinking and as a bowl for collecting gifts of food and for eating.
The modern pilgrim embarking on St. James Way can see the scallop shell at every turn, guiding them on milestone markers and providing a reassuring point in the right direction. Many pilgrims wear the shell, either around their neck or attached to their backpack, making it easy to spot fellow pilgrims on the Camino and enhance the camaraderie. Buen Camino!!
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Qualla Town
The Cherokees of Qualla Town separated from the Cherokee Nation around 1820. As a result, they were not required to emigrate to the West under the Treaty of New Echota. Working through William Holland Thomas, a white merchant, they secured state and federal guarantees of their right to remain in their homeland.
During removal, federal officers demanded assistance from the leaders of Qualla Town in locating other Cherokees who were hiding in the mountains, and the army threatened to deport the people of Qualla Town if they refused. Cherokee scouts led the army on wild goose chases through the mountains, diverting the soldiers from the fugitives’ hiding places. After the army withdrew, Cherokee fugitives joined their kinspeople at Qualla Town, and the community became the nucleus of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.
Wayside exhibit is located on the grounds of the Museum of the Cherokee Indian.
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A Friend to the English in 17th Century Connecticut
the monument for Mohegan leader Uncas
In 1842, the monument for Mohegan leader Uncas was completed in Norwich, Connecticut. Historian William Leete Stone traveled from New York City to speak at the unveiling. Stone told people that Uncas
“was the white man’s friend, at a period when the friendship even of savage royalty was most welcome.”
He also said of Uncas:
“In a different hemisphere, and belonging to another race, he might have been at least a Turenne, a Marlborough, or a Wellington, if not a Gustavas, a Kosciusko or a Washington.”
In his speech, Stone showed no awareness that the Mohegan people still existed. For Stone and most of the non-Indians living in New England, the Mohegans and other Indians who had once inhabited the area were extinct. Uncas, to them, was simply an actor in a colorful story from the past.
Shortly after the monument had been dedicated, John Uncas, the last male descendent of Mohegan leader Uncas, died and was buried next to the Uncas Monument. The local newspaper reported his death as “The Last of the Mohegans.” According to the newspaper:
“The passing away of a whole tribe of men, once the free, dauntless lords of the soil, is certainly well-calculated to awaken sensibility; and the contemplation of the oppression and wrongs under which they have dwindled away, and finally perished, naturally excites painful emotions.”
The editorial concluded:
“we are not necessarily responsible…for the extinction of the Indian race, though we may well blush at the remembrance of the wrong and outrage they have suffered at our hands.”
Uncas first appears in the European historic record in 1633. At this time, following internal dissension, a group of 2,000 Indians under the leadership of Uncas left the Pequot in Connecticut and formed a separate nation known as the Mohegan. The focus of the internal dispute was trade: the Pequot sachem Sassacus favored trading only with the Dutch, while his son-in-law Uncas favored trade with the English.
With the death of Pequot paramount sachem Tatobem at the hands of the Dutch in 1634, Sassacus became the new paramount sachem. Sassacus was generally a weaker and less effective leader and the Mohegan sachem Uncas began to contest the Pequot authority over his tribe.
In 1637, Uncas, the leader of the Mohegan, and 70 warriors traveled to Hartford eager to join the English in a war of retaliation against the Pequot. Uncas hinted to the English that the Pequot were planning to attack more English settlements. The English viewed the Pequot as the “Children of Satan.”
English troops, supported by the Mohegan as well as some Narragansett and Niantic attacked the Pequot village of Mystic. Here they found primarily women and children. In less than an hour an estimated 700 Pequot were killed-burned, shot, or slashed to death-and 200 fled to the neighboring Narragansett, where they were seized by the English and the women and children sold into slavery in the West Indies. This broke the Pequot hegemony over the region.
In 1638, the sachems of the Narragansett (Miantonomi) and Mohegan (Uncas) were summoned to meet with the English at Hartford. Miantonomi and Uncas intensely disliked each other. They both had accused each other of dealing falsely with the English and with plotting against the English. When Miantonomi, at the urging of the English, invited Uncas to eat with him, Uncas refused.
When the English asked Uncas to provide them with a list of the names of the Pequot living among his people, Uncas simply told them that he did not know their names. The English knew that Uncas had incorporated Pequot survivors into Mohegan communities. They also knew that he encouraged these Pequot to continue their raids against the Narragansett.
The two Indian nations agreed to end the enmity between them. The treaty of peace was dictated to them by the English. If one tribe wronged the other, they agreed not to seek revenge, but to appeal to the English. They also agreed not to shelter any enemies of the English. In this way the English sought to establish control over Indian affairs. It established a relationship between the governor of Connecticut and the sachems similar to that between a superior and inferior sachem.
In 1638, Mohegan sachem Uncas married one of the widows of the Pequot sachem Tatobem. At this time, Uncas had several wives-six or seven-most of whom were women of high status. His marriages to these women helped him legitimize his claim to lead the Pequot and their former tributaries. They also helped him to construct a new native political entity upon the ruins of Tatobem’s chiefdom.
In 1639, Mohegan sachem Uncas informed the English that a number of Pequot had settled along the banks of the Pawcatuck River. The Pequot in this area, according Uncas, were tributaries of the Niantic and had returned to this area with the support of Ninigret, a close ally of the Narragansett sachem Miantonomi.
The English magistrates appointed John Mason to lead a party of 40 men to destroy the Pequot wigwams and to harvest their corn. Uncas and 120 of his warriors joined the expedition. At the approach of the English-Mohegan war party, the Pequot fled. As Uncas and his warriors were gathering corn from the abandoned wigwams, a party of about 60 Pequot warriors attacked them. Uncas, however, had anticipated the attack and so his warriors were prepared. They captured seven Pequot warriors.
The next morning, the English and Mohegan awoke to find a war party of about 300 Niantic and Narragansett warriors across the river from them. The Narragansett tell them:
“The Pequots who live here are good men and we will certainly fight for them and protect them.”
However, the Niantic and Narragansett had no interest in fighting the English and wished to engage in battle only with Uncas and his warriors. Mason set fire to the village and then departed with Uncas. The Niantic and Narragansett, not wishing to start a fight with the English, simply watched.
In 1640, Mohegan sachem Uncas married the daughter of Sebequanash, the Hammonasset leader called the Squaw Sachem by the English. This marriage gave Uncas some claim to the Hammonasetts’ land, which lay along the coast between the Connecticut River and present-day Guilford. He promptly sold these lands to the English.
In 1640, Uncas also gave most of his people’s lands to the governor and magistrates of Connecticut.
In 1643, Uncas and a group of his warriors were attacked as they paddled down the Connecticut River. The attack was led by the Narragansett sachem Sequassen, who was a close friend of Miantonomi. Uncas responded to the attack by leading a war party against Sequassen’s village. The Mohegan killed several enemy warriors and, copying the scorched-earth tactics of the English, they then burned the village.
Miantonomi then asked the English if they would be offended if he went to war against Uncas. The English informed him that if Uncas had wronged him or his friends, then he would be free to take his own course. However, Uncas informed the English of Miantonomi’s treachery toward them and the English withdrew their endorsement of Miantonomi’s plan to attack Uncas.
Miantonomi assembled a force of about 1,000 warriors to attack the Mohegan village of Shantok. Uncas assembled about 400 warriors and met Miantonomi’s warriors about four miles from the village. Uncas then called for a conference with Miantonomi. This was the first time the two sachems had spoken to each other since the signing of the Hartford Treaty, five years before. Uncas challenged Miantonomi to personal combat, but Miantonomi refused. At this time, Uncas suddenly dropped to the ground and his warriors, at this signal, let fly a shower of arrows upon the Narragansett warriors. As a result, the larger force of Narragansett warriors, taken by surprise, fled and was pursued by the Mohegan warriors. Thirty Narragansett warriors were killed.
Miantonomi was captured by the Mohegan sachem Tantaquidgeon and was taken to the Mohegan town of Shantok. While Uncas received presents from the Narragansett for the release of Miantonomi, Uncas delivered his prisoner to the English authorities. At the meeting of the United Colonies Miantonomi was accused of violating the Treaty of Hartford and of plotting against English. Unable to legally execute Miantonomi, the colonists asked the Mohegan to execute him with an English witness. Following his execution, he was buried in a solitary grave rather than in the communal cemetery. The Mohegan then became the dominant Indian nation in southern New England.
In 1645, the Narragansett under the leadership of Pessicus invaded Mohegan country. The first attack against the Mohegan was against a seasonal camp in which six Mohegan men and five women were killed. Pessicus called upon his allies to join him in his war against Uncas and the Mohegan. Uncas appealed to the English for help. Among those joining the Narragansett were the Niantic under the leadership of Ninigret and some groups from Long Island. In addition, some Pequot who had been tributaries of Uncas shifted their allegiance to the Narragansett as they were promised wampum.
Many Mohegan took refuge in Shantok Fort. The Mohegan were losing the war and had no place to go. Pessicus simply needed to wait until the Mohegan ran out of food. No one knows exactly how long the siege lasted. The English managed to reach the fort and provide Uncas with supplies.
Faced with English opposition, and knowing the English reputation for total destruction in warfare, Pessicus went to Boston to negotiate his way out of war. With the threat of war against the English, the Narragansett and Niantic signed a coercive and humiliating treaty of peace. In the treaty they agreed to perpetual peace with both the English colonies and the Mohegan under Uncas.
In 1646, the English began laying out a settlement at Nameag in the Pequot county. Mohegan sachem Uncas welcomed the English as an ally. The English, however, cultivated a friendship with Robin Cassacinamon, the leader of the Nameag colony. Cassascinamon saw an alliance with the English as a way of freeing himself from the control of Uncas.
Since the English were short of food, they asked Robin Cassacinamon and Wequash Cook, the sachem of the Pequot community of Pawcatuck, to hunt for them on the east side of the Thames River. However, Uncas regarded these lands as his through a marriage to a Pequot woman. He assembled a party of 300 warriors and ambushed the hunting party. The Pequot fled and were pursued by Uncas. At Nameag, the Mohegan warriors plundered the Pequot wigwams, destroyed them, and then humiliated the Pequot warriors by cutting their hair. No one was killed. Uncas succeeded in punishing Cassacinamon for trespassing into Mohegan hunting territories. He also demonstrated to the Pequot that it was he, and not the English, to whom they must look for protection and security.
Through his alliance with the English colonists, Uncas managed to maintain his tribe in a powerful position with regard to other tribes in the area. During King Philip’s War of 1675-1676, Uncas allied himself with the English against Philip and his son Oneco went into battle with the English. In spite of his friendship with the English, however, Uncas discouraged his people from converting to Christianity.
Uncas died about 1682. It is estimated that he was about 76 years old at the time of his death. The character of Uncas in James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans is a fictionalized version of the Mohegan leader.
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Sadi Carnot
Nicolas-Léonard-Sadi Carnot was born in 1796 in Paris. He is known as the father of thermodynamics. Originally a military engineer, he developed a keen interest in industry and especially the steam engine. He took a leave of absence from the military to devote more time to pursuing these interests.
Carnot published only one work in his lifetime—an essay that detailed the industrial, political, and economic importance of the steam engine. This essay also introduced the concept of the ideal steam engine and reported on the factors involved in the production of mechanical energy from heat. Carnot used the analogy of a waterfall to understand the ideal steam engine, positing that, as height and quantity of water determine the power of a waterfall, temperature drop and quantity of heat determine the power of a steam engine. Although his theory was not completely accurate, Carnot did make the correct observation that the power produced in a steam engine is dependent on a change in temperature.
Carnot died of cholera at a relatively young age, and this effectively ended the study of thermodynamics for almost two decades. It was not until 1850, when the English physicist William Thomson confirmed some of Carnot's theories, that his ideas on thermodynamics were more broadly applied. In fact, both the first and second laws of thermodynamics can be derived by extending Carnot's early theories.
SEE ALSO Thermodynamics .
Lydia S. Scratch
Ihde, Aaron John (1964). The Development of Modern Chemistry. New York: Dover.
Internet Resources
Foundation of France. "Carnot Foundation." Available from .
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Lesson 29: Where There's Smoke...
Let's Learn English Level 2 Lesson 29: Where There's Smoke...
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Anna becomes a fire safety monitor. But will she do a good job? And when will she use her skills?
Lesson 29: Where There's Smoke...
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PENELOPE: Hey, Anna. What are you reading?
(Two firefighters welcome Anna to their firehouse.)
ANNA: Hi, Firefighter Jones.
FIREFIGHTER JONES: Hey, how are you, Anna?
FIREFIGHTER HATCHER: Hi, Anna. How are you?
ANNA: I’m well, thanks.
FF H: Welcome to our firehouse.
ANNA: Thank you.
FF H: Come on in.
ANNA: Thanks.
ANNA: This place is beautiful.
ANNA: Let’s talk about those emergency exits.
ANNA: What about fire extinguishers?
ANNA: What if we need to get out?
FF H: No. Always use the stairs.
ANNA: What other safety tips should I know?
ANNA: Stay low. Anything else?
FF H: Thanks for coming, Anna.
FF J: It’s been a pleasure meeting you.
(Anna is back at the office talking to Penelope.)
PENELOPE: Do you smell smoke?
PENELOPE: Anna, I smell smoke.
ANNA: If you smell smoke, call the fire department!
(Anna begins to evacuate her coworkers.)
(Anna and coworkers stand outside of the building.)
Anna takes her job as fire safety monitor very seriously. She visits a local fire station.
New Words
alarmn. a device that makes a loud sound as a warning or signal
catch on firev. to begin to burn
cleareradj. not blocked by anything (comparative form of clear)
closeadj. near in space
doorn. a movable piece of wood, glass, or metal that swings or slides open and shut so that people can enter or leave a room, building or vehicle
evacuationn. the action of leaving or removing someone from a dangerous place
exitn. something, such as a door, that is used as a way to leave a place
fire drilln. an activity in which people practice leaving a place quickly so that they will know what to do if there is a fire
fire department – n. an organization for preventing and putting out fires
fire extinguishern. a metal container filled with chemicals that is used to put out a fire
fire department -- the department of a local authority in charge of preventing and fighting fires
firehouse – n. a building in which the members of a fire department and the equipment used to put out fires are located
fire stationn. another word for firehouse
handyadj. near or close
installv. to make a machine or service ready to be used in a certain place
lowadv. at or to a low place or level
openv. to move a door or window so that an opening is no longer covered
monitorn. a person who has the job of checking or watching some activity or behavior
risev. to move upward
safetyn. freedom from harm or danger
smoke n. the cloud of black, gray, or white gases and dust that is produced by burning something
stayv. to continue to be in a specified state, condition, or position
touchv. to put your hand, fingers, et cetera on something or someone
Let’s review! You’ll remember conditionals from Lessons 12 and Lesson 13. Conditionals show that something is true only when something else is true.
TYPE 1 conditionals have a real event, and a result that probably will happen.
Sentence Form
If + present tense verb ... will-future verb.
“If you run, the fire will burn faster.”
If + present tense verb … modal + simple verb.
“If you are in a building that is on fire, you must not use the elevator.”
If + present tense verb … simple verb without subject (imperative)
“If you smell smoke, call the fire department!”
TYPE 2 conditionals have an improbable event and its probable result. These conditionals are not based on real situations.
Sentence Form
If + past tense verb ...would + simple verb.
“If I were you, I’d want to learn as much as possible.”
If + past tense verb…would + present continuous.
If people didn’t burn toast, the fire alarm would not be ringing so often.
Emergency Language
Helpful Language
Helpful Phrases
emergency exit/s
evacuation plan
fire extinguisher
fire truck
fire station
fire department
fire drill/s
catch fire / catch on fire
Install fire alarms.
I smell smoke.
Do you smell smoke?
There’s a fire!
Call the fire department!
The building is on fire!
Stop, drop and roll.
Now, You Try It
Test yourself on what you learned!
• What do we call a person who fights fires?
• What's the name of the place where this person lives and works?
• What are some things you can do to prepare for a fire?
• What do we call practicing safely leaving a building?
• If you smell smoke, what should you do?
• If you see a fire, what are some things you might say?
• If your clothes catch on fire, what do you do?
Write your answers in the comments section below.
Listening Quiz
Quiz - Lesson 29: Where There's Smoke...
Quiz - Lesson 29: Where There's Smoke...
Start the Quiz to find out
Free Materials
Word Book
Word Book
For Teachers
Grammar focus: review of conditionals
Topics: discussing fire emergencies
See comments (48)
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Semiconductor under UV light
The project PHOTOPUR aims to use the properties of semiconductors under UV-irradiation to destroy pesticides being dissolved in water. In semiconductors, such as e.g. titanium dioxide, the energy of UV-light carries electrons from the valence band onto the conduction band. This process produces defect electrons (also called electron holes). These, in turn, can split the surrounding water molecules into a hydroxyl radical and a proton.
Radicals destroying pesticides
The resulting radicals then react with other organic molecules in the surrounding water, for example with pesticide molecules. Theoretically, a complete mineralization of the pesticide can be achieved by this process.
Thus, within PHOTOPUR, contaminated water becomes clean water again, which can subsequently be introduced into the municipal wastewater or directly into the receiving water.
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