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Gunther von Hagens' Plastination Technique <a href="/search?text=Gunther%20von%20Hagens%27%20Plastination%20Technique" title="" class="lexicon-term">Gunther von Hagens' Plastination Technique</a> Plastination is a technique for preserving tissues, organs, and whole bodies for medical purposes and public display. Gunther von Hagens invented a form of the method in 1977 at Heidelberg University in Heidelberg, Germany, after he observed medical students struggle working with cadavers that quickly decomposed. Von Hagens' body models, called plastinates, have since become widely used educational tools not only for those studying anatomy and medicine, but also for public audiences. By accurately preserving tissues for use in research and education, the technique has contributed to the fields of medicine, anatomy, and embryology. In 1995 the Body Worlds traveling exhibit debuted in Japan and featured greater than 200 plastinates for public viewing. Von Hagens’ plastinates show human bodies from different views and display thin body cross-sections as well as full organ systems. Fetuses and embryos are displayed to illustrate early stages of development in detail. Von Hagens' plastination technique combines both durability and realism for the preserved specimens. Prior to the advent of this technology, other tools were used in attempts to overcome the decomposition problem with cadavers. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, body parts were often suspended in solution within jars, similar to Frederik Ruysch's fetal collections. Before Body Worlds, the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois, had created a display in the 1930s that featured body cross-sections, in addition to thirty-nine embryos and fetuses. These specimens, however, were fixed in formalin, a chemical tissue preservative. In the early twentieth century, anatomy courses featured plastic models of organs, sometimes combined with real body components. The German Transparent Man display of the 1930s was of a real human skeleton containing plastic models of organs. German medical students also studied anatomy by using organs preserved within plastic blocks. The organs were chemically preserved and then suspended in liquid plastic. The plastic would harden to form a clear block with a visible organ inside. Von Hagens' technique of plastination originated from his belief that the plastic block preservation method inedaquately met the needs of students. The bulky plastic, which could be inches thick, surrounded the specimen and frequently obscured the view and dimensions of the structure inside. Instead of placing the tissue in the plastic, von Hagens attempted to put the plastic in the tissue. Working as a research assistant in the Anatomy Institute of Heidelberg University i the mide 1970s, von Hagens spent almost a decade developing his plastination technique. Von Hagens' plastination technique follows the same basic sequence of steps for everything from organs to full bodies, with slight polymer variations to account for tissue differences. Plastination involves fixation, dehydration, forced impregnation, positioning, and curing of the specimen. The process should begin between two and ten days after the body dies to ensure that the anatomical features, such as the muscle shape of the plastinate, resemble those of a living organism. The first step in plastination for any tissue or body is fixation. As with the precursors to plastination, formalin is used to temporarily preserve the tissues. For von Hagens' technique, however, the tissue is directly injected with the formalin solution as opposed to being submerged in it. An anatomist then dissects the specimen in a manner dependent on the structures the anatomist intends to highlight, such as cardiovascular structures. Skin and fat are generally removed in addition to other tissues that hinder the focus of the plastinate. In plastinates featuring the cardiovascular system for example, all surrounding tissues not involved in the system are removed. The next step of the process is dehydration. The specimen, for example an embryo, is placed in an acetone bath where the water and fats dissolve and are replaced by acetone. This step is important because the anatomist cannot swap the body's fluids with the polymers that eventually occupy their spaces in the final plastinate, but the anatomist can replace the acetone with the final polymers. Acetone evaporates easily, a characteristic that enables the third step in plastination, called forced vacuum impregnation. The specimen is placed in a vacuum chamber and the pressure is dropped to the point where the acetone changes to its gaseous state. As soon as the acetone changes into a gaseous state of matter, the gas is pumped from the chamber and slowly replaced with a selected polymer. The pressure difference causes the liquid polymer to forcibly enter the tissue, and this transfer can take anywhere from days to weeks to complete. These polymers are all reactive, meaning that when treated with heat, gas, or light, they harden. The specific polymer that the anatomist chooses for this step determines the translucency and durability of the resulting plastinate. Most of the polymers are resins that consist of silicone, polyester, or epoxy. In the case of embryo plastinates, silicone rubber resin is used because it is durable enough to keep the embryo's delicate structure intact, but it also leaves the embryo looking slightly transparent. Polyester resins, however, are used for brain tissue slices because the final specimens show the differences in grey and white matter of the brain. Organ sections are usually cut to between two and eight millimeters in thickness and are held between two plates as they enter the next step of the process. In the positioning step, full body plastinates are posed. They are sometimes oriented as if engaging in life-like activities, such as running or sitting. The tissues and organs are positioned so that certain parts of the body are highlighted and the specimen is held in place by wires and clamps. Once the desired position is achieved the final step of curing begins. The specimen is treated with the necessary curing agent, such as light, which hardens the polymer. As seventy percent of the specimen is replaced with resin during plastination, it becomes resilient to decomposition once the process is complete. Von Hagens’ plastination technique has made it possible to preserve large specimens, such as giraffes, and small specimens, such as embryos. Today von Hagens has four plastination patents in the US, and other patents in different countries. The specimens are in such high demand that von Hagens founded Biodur Products in 1978, a company that specializes in the distribution of tools and chemicals for plastination to educational facilities. The Heidelberg University Institute for Plastination was created to produce plastinates and further improve the process of plastination. Public displays of plastinates have garnered mixed reviews. Critics have said that it is disrespectful to display the dead in a for-profit public exhibit. The Catholic Church has also spoken out against the prenatal displays, stating that those displays offend the dignity of the embryos and fetuses. The invention of plastination has given medical students and wider audiences an educational tool for the study of anatomy and embryology. Plastinates are used globally in medical and dental schools and have been viewed by more than than 25 million people around the world through Body Worlds exhibits. Embryo and fetus plastinates give people the opportunity to examine the structures present during prenatal development. 1. Bates, Stephen. "Prenates, Postmorts, and Bell-Curve Dignity." Hastings Center Report 4 (2008): 21–5. 2. Body Worlds Official Website. "Plastination." plastination/ideaplastination.html (Accessed October 14, 2011). 3. Latorre, Rafael and Robert W. Henry. "Polyester Plastination of Biological Tissue: P40 Technique for Body Slices." Journal of the International Society for Plastination 22 (2007): 69–77. 4. Murray, Terry. "Before Body Worlds." Medical Post 41 (2005): 42. 5. Pashaei, Shahyar. "A Brief Review on the History, Methods and Applications of Plastination." International Journal of Morphology 28 (2010): 1075–9. 6. U.S. Patents. "U.S. Patent Documents # 4205059, 4244992, 4278701, 4320157." (Accessed October 14, 2011). 7. Van Dijck, Jose. "Bodyworlds: The Art of Plastinated Cadavers." Configurations 9 (2001): 99–126. 8. Von Hagens, Gunther "Impregnation of Soft Biological Specimens with Thermosetting Resins and Elastomers." The Anatomical Record 194 (1979): 247–55. 9. Von Hagens, Gunther, Klaus Tiedemann, and Wilhelm Kriz. "The Current Potential of Plastination." Anatomy and Embryology 175 (1987): 411–21. How to cite Martinez, Britta, "Gunther von Hagens' Plastination Technique". Embryo Project Encyclopedia (2012-10-24). ISSN: 1940-5030 Show full item record Last modified Wednesday, July 4, 2018 - 04:40 Hagens, Gunther von; Plastination; Human body; Anatomical museums; Human anatomy; Preservation of organs, tissues, etc; Dead; Fetal development; Fetus; Pregnancy; Embryos; Embryology; Technology	<urn:uuid:4725bb09-39ce-496e-9056-e766855bdbff>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.03273051977157593, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9238885045051575, "url": "https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/gunther-von-hagens-plastination-technique" }
The Operative Word and Caesurae The Operative Word & Caesurae Look for two crucially important words per line: the operative words. Those tend to carry a great deal of the line’s importance or weight and (not surprisingly) tend to come in two places: before the caesura and at the end of the line. What is the caesura, you say? The caesura is a little pauselet in the (approximate) middle of the line. It usually occurs between major phrases or “chunks” of thought and sometimes editors of Shakespeare are nice to you and will put commas or semicolons there. Please mark caesurae with a //. Two households both alike in dignity, In fair Verona where we lay our scene, From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. From forth the fatal loins of these two foes A pair of star-cross’d lovers take their life; Whose misadventured piteous overthrows Do with their death bury their parents’ strife. The fearful passage of their death-mark’d love, And the continuance of their parents’ rage, Which, but their children’s end nought could remove, Is now the two hours’ traffic of our stage; The which if you with patient ears attend, What here shall miss our toil shall strive to mend. Now in this scene, Act II.ii from Hamlet, do the following: • Look for the operative words • Find the caesurae • AVOID thinking that adjectives are the operative word. Look for NOUNS. O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I! Is it not monstrous that this player here, But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, Could force his soul so to his own conceit That from her working all his visage wann’d, Tears in his eyes, distraction in’s aspect, A broken voice, and his whole function suiting With forms to his conceit? and all for nothing! For Hecuba! What’s Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba, That he should weep for her? What would he do, Had he the motive and the cue for passion That I have? He would drown the stage with tears And cleave the general ear with horrid speech, Make mad the guilty and appal the free, Confound the ignorant, and amaze indeed The very faculties of eyes and ears. Yet I, A dull and muddy-mettled rascal, peak, Like John-a-dreams, unpregnant of my cause, And can say nothing; no, not for a king, Upon whose property and most dear life A damn’d defeat was made. Am I a coward? %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:a10ef138-af60-4893-a6dc-de8a97d5d6a8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.12112611532211304, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9200673699378967, "url": "https://msburkeenglish.wordpress.com/syllabus-2/the-renaissance/shakespeare/the-operative-word-and-caesurae/" }
The art of maple sugaring season • A young boy harvests maple sap in northern New England about 1940. Courtesy U.S. Library of Congress For the Monitor Published: 4/1/2019 9:32:05 AM The cold weather was retreating and warmth arriving from the south. The rivers were running strong with the melting snow from the mountains above and the salmon would soon be swimming up the river. The Native American Penacook people had survived yet another harsh New England winter and optimism ran high. Two young boys, Mikchich and Pulowech were enjoying the early warmth and strayed into the forest to hunt small game to bring back to the village and share with their younger siblings. The salted salmon supply from the prior year ran out months ago and food was needed. The adults hunted the larger game deeper in the New Hampshire forests while the young boys imitated the older warriors. Mikchich and Pulowech were just boys and enjoyed each other’s company away from the supervision of their mothers as any young boys might. The boys were startled to see a white man near the river, laden with pelts and ready to trade beaver skins for Penacook wares. The English settlers were pushing further north into New Hampshire each year and limiting the once unencumbered fertile lands that produced beans, corn, squash and pumpkin’s in abundance for the local Native Americans that enjoyed this area for many years. As the years passed, Mikchich and Pulowech grew, their friendship remained strong and they not only welcomed the English settlers but helped them to survive. They shared some secrets that had lived centuries and are still enjoyed to this day. They taught the early settlers the art of maple sugaring here in Penacook territory. As the first settlers arrived there was confrontation, but young men like Mikchich and Pulowech represented the next generation and the anger and frustration with the intrusions became more accepted, for with resistance came adversity and war. The Penacook desired peace with the early settlers and agreements were eventually made allowing the disagreements to pass as quickly as the river over smooth stones. The first settlers in our little town learned many things from the Native Americans. The methods taught were practiced and the soil and forest well known. Maple syrup was harvested in this area when the Penacook set up spring camp in the maple groves and tapped each maple tree. There were many sugar maples growing naturally for centuries and the supply of sap ran seemingly without limit. They harvested and used the syrup for themselves as well as the purpose of bartering with other tribes and later the English settlers. The methods were practiced for centuries with the Native Americans collecting sap in wooden troughs and dropping scalding hot stones into the troughs to boil the watery liquid down to a thicker composition. They continued to drop hot stones and stir until the maple syrup was ready to be enjoyed. Native American legend tells us that the origins of maple sugaring dated back hundreds of years in northern New England. It was said that maple sap dripped into a container used to boil venison over an open fire. When the warriors arrived back in camp with fresh deer meat the venison was processed and placed in this container to boil. With the maple sap in the pot they assumed it was clean water. The sap was brought to a boil with the venison cooking slowly over the open fire: the end result a delicious venison flavored with maple syrup. From that day forward the maple grove was visited and the maple tree tapped to harvest this plentiful supply. The settlers continued to arrive and Penacook was renamed Rumford, New Hampshire. The settlers arrived by ox and cart with their worldly possessions, most carried large iron pots for cooking. The art of maple sugaring continued to improve with the boiling sap in the iron pot. During the colonial period our society enjoyed the bountiful maple harvest and attempts were made to plant maple groves further south for maple sugaring. The results in the south were quite dismal for a cold night and warm day in the spring is the basis for a good sap run. During the later 1700s and early 1800s the English settlers haphazardly clear-cut much of the old growth forest in New Hampshire to provide wood to build ships, buildings and to heat the early homes. Some people were very opposed for with the clear-cutting process, many of the once abundant sugar maple trees were lost. The farmers knew the bounty that awaited them each spring with the maple sugaring and saved their own trees on their private farms. As the 1800s were underway and the country battled in the Civil War, it was the northern farmer providing the Union troops with delicious maple syrup and sugar to be enjoyed alongside hardtack. The sugar production from the south was stopped when the sugar cane was used to sustain the southern army. Many improvements in the collection of maple sap and processing have occurred since young Mikchich and Pulowech roamed the forest surrounding Concord. The Penacook taught the early settlers in Concord how to survive by planting and harvesting in fertile soil and tapping the sugar maples for sap and sugar. Young native people like Mikchich and Pulowech provided a valuable lesson of acceptance and love. When they first met the early settlers and found them to be different but helped them to survive. Concord Monitor Office 1 Monitor Drive Concord,NH 03301 © 2019 Concord Monitor Terms & Conditions - Privacy Policy	<urn:uuid:cc0dbea0-ca7a-43d3-9b0c-9f0f0e3d05c7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.033507704734802246, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.976014256477356, "url": "https://www.concordmonitor.com/A-Very-Sweet-Lesson-24376406" }
nebula (n.) Look up nebula at early 15c., nebule "a cloud, mist," from Latin nebula "mist, vapor, fog, smoke, exhalation," figuratively "darkness, obscurity," from PIE *nebh- "cloud" (cognates: Sanskrit nabhas- "vapor, cloud, mists, fog, sky;" Greek nephele, nephos "cloud;" German Nebel "fog;" Old English nifol "dark, gloomy;" Welsh niwl "cloud, fog;" Slavic nebo). Re-borrowed from Latin 1660s in sense of "cataracts in the eye;" astronomical meaning "cloud-like patch in the night sky" first recorded c.1730. As early as Hershel (1802) astronomers realized that some nebulae were star clusters, but certain distinction of relatively nearby cosmic gas clouds from distant galaxies was not made until 1920s, using the new 100-inch Mt. Wilson telescope.	<urn:uuid:0ae53434-79c4-4b1b-83b7-71df73c565e7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.46484464406967163, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9104729294776917, "url": "http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=nebula&allowed_in_frame=0" }
Edit Article • 4 Editors • Edited A regulation pitcher's mound is a raised section in the middle of a baseball diamond where a pitcher stands to throw a pitch. A pitcher's mound is typically made of clay, sand and dirt and stands 10 inches (254 mm) higher than the infield grass. Follow these steps to build a pitcher's mound that meets regulation baseball standards. 1. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 1.jpg Decide on the location for the pitcher's mound. The location should feature a clear path more than 60 feet (18.29 meters) away from home plate. 2. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 2.jpg Determine measurements for the pitcher's mound. A regulation pitcher's mound is 18 feet (5.49 meters) in diameter. The center of the mound is 59 feet (17.98 meters) from the back of home plate. The pitching rubber (or pitcher's plate) is 18 inches (0.46 meters) behind the center of the mound or 60 feet, 6 inches (18.44 meters) from the back of home plate. 3. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 3.jpg Mark the measurements. Use chalk or flags to indicate measurements on your field. 4. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 4.jpg Install the pitching rubber. Fill in the area around the pitching rubber with a clay, sand and dirt mixture. The pitching rubber should be 10 inches (254 mm) higher than the playing field. 5. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 5.jpg Bury several clay bricks. Situate the bricks in the pitcher's landing area, which is the approximate spot where the pitcher's legs land after throwing a pitch. The pitcher's landing area is the most stressed area of the mound. Burying clay bricks will provide durability to your mound and reduce the need for frequent maintenance. 6. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 6.jpg Slope the mound. The slope from the pitching rubber should begin 6 inches (152.4 mm) in front of the rubber, and slope toward home plate 1 inch (25.4 mm) for every foot (0.3 meters). 7. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 7.jpg Tamp the mound. Once the mound has taken shape, pound the surface area of the mound with a tamp, or a hard, flat surface, to ensure there are no loose areas. 8. Build a Pitchers Mound Step 8.jpg Rake the mound. Raking the mound will remove any pebbles or chunks of grass. 9. 9 Moisten the mound with water. The water will soak into the mound and firmly set the clay. Regular watering also will prevent your mound from cracking or eroding. We could really use your help! Can you tell us about Yes I can how to choose a camera shutter speed Can you tell us about body care? Yes I can body care how to thin out bushy eyebrows for girls Can you tell us about Yes I can how to train a kitten Can you tell us about Yes I can how to perform Umrah Thanks for helping! Please tell us everything you know about Provide Details. Don't say: Eat more fats. • Purchase pitcher's mound bricks when building your pitching mound. These bricks are made specifically for burying into pitcher's mounds. • Cover your mound with a tarp when it isn't being used. This will prevent the elements from drying out your pitcher's mound or washing it into the turf. • Pitching slope frames make the process of sloping your mound easier. Pitching slope frames are available online and in baseball specialty stores. • Bury a cinder block or brick below the pitching rubber to ensure it doesn't shift. Things You'll Need • Tape measure • Shovel • Chalk or flags • Pitching rubber • Home plate • Clay, sand and dirt • Clay bricks • Pitching slope frame • Tamp • Rake • Water hose • Tarp Article Info Categories: Pitching Recent edits by: BR, Chris (PureLabRetrieverLover), Eraser928 In other languages: Español: Cómo hacer un montículo de lanzador de beisbol Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 22,246 times. Did this article help you? Yes No an Author! Write an Article	<urn:uuid:e1cf713d-5ebf-4d88-9bb2-5c3e3bbc1f84>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.06059831380844116, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.879230797290802, "url": "http://www.wikihow.com/Build-a-Pitchers-Mound" }
student holding heartHeart Dissection Walk Through The heart dissection is probably one of the most difficult dissections you will do. Part of the reason it is so difficult to learn is that the heart is not perfectly symmetrical, but it is so close that it becomes difficult to discern which side you are looking at (dorsel, ventral, left or right). Finding the vessels is directly related to being able to orient the heart correctly and figuring out which side you are looking at. The heart is also difficult because the fatty tissue that surrounds the heart can obscure the openings to the vessels. This means that you really must experience the heart with your hands and feel your way to find the openings. Many people will be squeamish about this, and because the heart is slippery, it is easy to drop. Don't be shy with the heart, use your fingers to feel your way through the dissection. 1. Step One: Orientation When you first remove your heart from the bag, you will see a lot of fatty tissue surrounding it. It is usually a waste of time to try to remove this tissue. You may also want to arm yourself with some kind of markers for the parts you find, colored pencils work great to identify a vessel and you will see many used to mark openings on the heart. There are a few clues to help you figure out the left and the right side, but often the packaging and preserving process can cause the heart to be misshapen. If you are lucky, the heart will be nicely preserved and you will see that the front (ventral) side of the heart has a couple of key features: 1) a large pulmonary trunk that extends off the top of it 2) the flaps of the auricles covering the top of the atria. 3) the curve of the entire front side, whereas the backside is much flatter. The first image shows the front side of the heart, often identified by the coronary sinus that runs cross it at an angle, shown in yellow on the first image. The auricle is the flap that covers the atrium, it looks like an ear. The pulmonary trunk is the located at the front of the heart and enters at an angle. Step 2: Locate the Aorta Use your fingers to probe around the top of the heart. Four major vessels can be found entering the heart: the pulmonary trunk, aorta, superior vena cava, and the pulmonary vein. Remember that if you are looking at the back of the heart, then the right and left sides are the same as your right and left hand. This picture was on the board the day of the dissection so that you could glance up and recall which vessel entered which part of the heart. heart drawing If you find the pulmonary vein, the aorta should be situated a little bit behind it. It may be covered by fat, so use your fingers to poke around until you find the opening. Push your finger all the way in and you will feel inside of the left ventricle. The left ventricle has a very thick wall, unlike the right ventricle. Insert your finger through the pulmonary vessel to feel the left ventricle and you will notice and feel that it is much thinner than the left side of the heart. With your fingers or probes in the aorta and the pulmonary trunk you should notice that they criss-cross each other, with the pulmonary trunk in the front. At this point, you may want to use your colored pencils to mark these vessels so that you don't get them confused when you are searching for the other two openings that top of the heart. Step 3: Locate the Veins The two major veins that enter the heart can be found on the backside, as both enter the atria. On the left side, you should be able to find the opening of the pulmonary vein as it enters the left atrium. The superior vena cava enters the right atrium. In many preserved hearts, the heart was cut at these points, so you won't see the vessels themselves, you will just find the openings. Again, use your fingers to feel around the heart to find the openings. If you've marked the aorta and pulmonary then you won't mistake them for the veins you are looking for. This picture shows all of the vessels labeled. Sometimes, the aorta still has its branches attached to it. There are three vessels that branch from the aorta: the brachiocephalic, left common carotid and the left subclavian. The majority of the time, these vessels are not visible because the aorta was cut too close to the main part of the heart when the heart was removed from the animal. Occassionally, you can find the brachiocephalic artery attached, as it is in this photo. pulmonary trunk Step 4: Make the Incisions Now that you have all of the vessels located and marked, you can now open the heart to view the inner chambers. Use the superior vena cava and pulmonary vein as guides for where to cut. You are basically going to be cutting each side of the heart so that you can look inside. (Some dissections will ask you to make a coronal cut where a single cut opens the entire back side of the heart). The heart below is marked to show you where the two incisions should be made. heart cut 1heart cut 2 Optionally, you may cut the heart in half to expose the chambers. My students affectionally call these two variations the "hot dog cut" as pictured above because it looks like a hot dog bun, or the "hamburger cut" like that pictured below. hamburger cut Step 5: Viewing the Chambers At this point it is helpful to have two hands, one to hold the heart apart so you can take a peak inside of it and another to use a probe to locate the specific parts. Your colored pencils you used to mark the heart in step 2 can also now be used to see where those vessels connect within the heart. For instance, the aorta pencil can now be seen ending in the left ventricle. You can also now see how much thicker the walls of the left ventricle are compared to the right ventricle. chambers labeled The other obvious structures seen within the heart are the chordae tendinae which are attached to papillary muscles. These tendons hold the heart valves in place, sometimes they are called the "heartstrings". The valves were probably cut when the heart was opened, but if you follow the "cords" they should lead you to a thin flap that is the atrioventricular (bicuspid) valve. You can find a similar valve on the right side of the heart (tricuspid). heart bicuspid Close-up of valve with chordae tendinae heart valves Additional Images:	<urn:uuid:1fe45e1d-889f-460e-8061-dccb1a2e4274>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.11961519718170166, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9427600502967834, "url": "http://biologycorner.com/anatomy/circulatory/heart/heart_dissection.html" }
Mexico Peru Conquistadors Amazonia North America Start the Adventure What do you Think Teaching Guide About the Site Sponsored by The Arthur Vining Davis Foundations Aztec Life and Times Aztec Children When a baby was born, the parents went to a soothsayer to find out the child's fate, which was determined by the date it was born. Immediately the child was taught to work hard in life. A boy was expected to follow in his father's profession and to be a good warrior. He was given a tiny shield, bow and arrows, and tools like those his father used. A girl was expected to stay at home, working in the house and weaving. She would be given tiny spindles for spinning thread and a broom. Boys from noble families went to a temple school for three years starting when they were 12 years old. They learned about military training, the calendar, Aztec customs, and religion. Because so few knew how to read, they learned the Aztec codices by heart. The sons of common people went to live at a school run by their calpulli from age 12 until they were married. There they learned how to use weapons, work in the field, and follow the many religious rituals. Both boys and girls went to a House of Song from ages 12 to 15 to learn the songs, dances, and music of the Aztec religion. This was the only education that girls were given outside of the home. [more] Raising Children Raising Children Warrior Training Warrior Training	<urn:uuid:098971f0-0eb2-42aa-ab41-42e66d02eacb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.41311269998550415, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9809108972549438, "url": "http://www.pbs.org/opb/conquistadors/mexico/adventure1/a5.htm" }
Copyright © University of Cambridge. All rights reserved. 'Play a Merry Tune' printed from Show menu Have you ever heard of a gourd? A gourd is a hollow, dried shell of a fruit from a family of plants which grow in parts of Africa, Asia and the US. They have lots of uses, one of which is as a musical instrument, and that is the focus of this problem. Below you will see that you have five different gourds, each one makes a different note from the others when it is played. You can listen to them by dragging them onto positions on the wheel. As the wheel turns, you will hear the sound of the gourds. You can place any gourd on each of the eight places on the wheel and you can leave spaces too. Your challenge is to explore the tunes that can be made. You could start by limiting yourself to using only two different gourds. For example, how many different tunes could you make just using these two: first two gourds You could decide on your own "rules" for making a tune: Do you need to use at least one of each gourd? Are you allowing yourself spaces? Explore other combinations of different gourds too. Try listening to this tune: Now compare it with this tune: You might want to listen to them more than once. How are they similar? How are they different? Can you create another tune which relates to these two? You could investigate other "families" of tunes too. Send in some of your ideas! Full Screen Version This text is usually replaced by the Flash movie.	<urn:uuid:7c9e4b9b-73e3-4b6c-997a-7a973f7c651e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.06732791662216187, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.950799822807312, "url": "http://nrich.maths.org/5491/index?nomenu=1" }
Computational Crystallography Toolbox Historical Note As found in: Reproduced with kind permission from the author: Throughout history, the solution of polynomial equations has been a challenging problem. The Babylonians knew how to solve the equation ax^2+bx+c=0. Omar Khayyam (1048-1131) devised methods of solving cubic equations through the use of geometric constructions and conic sections. The algebraic solution of the general cubic equation ax^3+bx^2+cx+d=0 was not discovered until the sixteenth century. An Italian mathematician, Luca Pacioli, wrote in Summa de Arithmetica that the solution of the cubic was impossible. This was taken as a challenge by the rest of the mathematical community. Scipione del Ferro (1465-1526), of the University of Bologna, solved the "depressed cubic," He kept his solution an absolute secret. This may seem surprising today, when mathematicians are usually very eager to publish their results, but in the days of the Italian Renaissance secrecy was customary. Academic appointments were not easy to secure and dependent on the ability to prevail in public contests. Such challenges could be issued at any time. Consequently, any major new discovery was a valuable weapon in such a contest. If an opponent presented a list of problems to be solved, del Ferro could in turn present a list of depressed cubics. He kept the secret of his discovery throughout his life, passing it on only on his deathbed to his student Antonio Fior (ca. 1506-?). Although Fior was not equal of his teacher, he immediately issued a challenge to Niccolo Fontana (1499-1557). Fontana was known as Tartaglia (the Stammerer). As a youth he had suffered a blow from the sword of a French soldier during an attack on his village. He survived the savage wound, but his speech was permanently impaired. Tartaglia sent Fior a list of 30 various mathematical problems; Fior countered by sending Tartaglia a list of 30 depressed cubics. Tartaglia would either solve all 30 of the problems or absolutely fail. After much effort Tartaglia finally succeeded in solving the depressed cubic and defeated Fior, who faded into obscurity. At this point another mathematician, Gerolamo Cardano (1501-1576), entered the story. Cardano wrote to Tartaglia, begging him for the solution to the depressed cubic. Tartaglia refused several of his requests, then finally revealed the solution to Cardano after the latter swore an oath not to publish the secret or to pass it on to anyone else. Using the knowledge that he had obtained from Tartaglia, Cardano eventually solved the general cubic Cardano shared the secret with his student, Ludovico Ferrari (1522-1565), who solved the general quartic equation, In 1543, Cardano and Ferrari examined del Ferro's papers and discovered that he had also solved the depressed cubic. Cardano felt that this relieved him of his obligation to Tartaglia, so he proceeded to publish the solutions in Ars Magna (1545), in which he gave credit to del Ferro for solving the special case of the cubic. This resulted in a bitter dispute between Cardano and Tartaglia, who published the story of the oath a year later.	<urn:uuid:a07648d6-4b50-413d-a421-d84c663c3d8f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.07446128129959106, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9702927470207214, "url": "http://cctbx.sourceforge.net/" }
Clapper Rail Julian Wood, Len Liu, and Nadav Nur (PRBO Conservation Science) Status: Decreasing California Clapper Rails nest in the tidal marshes of the San Francisco Bay and recovery of this species has been a primary impetus for marsh restoration around the Bay. Unfortunately, the Clapper Rail struggles to survive because of habitat loss, predator pressure, and invasive species. The growing threat from sea level rise also threatens the Clapper Rail. Clapper Rail populations have declined since the 1970s. Population estimates using different methods from published and unpublished sources should be interpreted with caution. Standardized Bay-wide point count surveys for Clapper Rails show a steep decline that may be leveling off. Clapper Rails in San Francisco Bay have decreased dramatically from the tens of thousands that roamed the undiked marshes before the California Gold Rush. Hunting, then development reduced populations and pushed Clapper Rails into smaller marshes separated by urban landscapes. More recently, the rail population hit a low point in the early 1990s, likely due to predation by non-native red foxes. The Clapper Rail's rebound during the 1990s was possibly due to fox control but also coincided with the rapid invasion of a tall non-native plant (invasive Spartina). This invader benefited rails because it provided nesting habitat and protection from predators and high tides. Beginning in the mid-2000s, the rail population declined sharply, due in part to the removal of invasive Spartina, which threatens tidal flat and marsh ecosystems as a whole. This recent decline may be leveling off, but the future of Clapper Rails in San Francisco Bay remains tenuous. However, we can be hopeful that as thousands of acres are being restored to tidal marsh habitat, California Clapper Rails will be back on the road to recovery. Primary threat: Predators, including introduced species such as Norway rats, house cats, and red foxes prey on Clapper Rails and their nests. Some native species of raptors, snakes, and mammals also prey on Clapper Rails. Invasive non-native plant species can reduce nesting and foraging habitat for Clapper Rails, even changing the invertebrate community on which they feed. Perennial pepperweed reduces high-tide refugia, and hybrid Spartina may reduce channel and mudflat areas important for foraging rails. However, invasive plant control/removal decisions should always consider short-term and long- term effects on birds (e.g., invasive Spartina eradication may have contributed to significant reductions in Clapper Rail populations at some sites and should proceed with caution). Pollution, contaminants, and toxic spills (including oil spills) directly kill rails, vegetation, fish, and the invertebrate community that sustains marsh wildlife. Toxins (e.g., mercury, lead) accumulate in rails, impairing their reproduction and survival. Rising sea levels from global climate change will drown some marshes and increase nest flooding, making the habitat unsuitable for Clapper Rails. See www.prbo.org/sfbayslr to view maps of projected change in marsh habitat and changes in bird and plant species distribution. Planning, Management, and Restoration Prioritize sites: Use the most current and thorough scientific modeling of climate change scenarios to prioritize areas for acquisition and restoration (an example is PRBO’s sea level rise modeling tool: www.prbo.org/sfbayslr). Acquire and restore uplands and diked areas where current shoreline marsh may migrate as sea level rises. Control predators by eliminating cat feeding stations, supporting predator control programs, and keeping marshes, public parks, and adjacent housing areas free of garbage. Enforce regulations on unlawful recreation in sensitive marshes. Conduct active marsh planting in restored areas where plants are not regenerating on their own, or in sites where non-native plant removal has reduced overall plant cover. Restore high ground adjacent to marshes, such as levees and uplands with dense vegetation, to offer birds refuge from high-tide events. Locate public access points and trails to the Bay shore away from Clapper Rail habitat. Continue funding and support for tidal marsh restoration such as the South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Project, which aims to restore over 15,100 acres of former salt ponds to a diversity of habitat types to benefit all birds, including tidal marsh-dependent species. Support research that seeks to understand marsh development processes in the face of sea level rise, as well as potential management actions that can mitigate these impacts. Study the effect of trail use on Clapper Rails – both direct impacts from disturbance as well as potential increased predator access from trails. Support research on Clapper Rail population trends (including reproductive success, which has not been closely studied at a Bay-wide scale), habitat use, and the impacts of invasive hybrid Spartina and its removal. Support research that can inform how to create upland transition zone habitat as refugia for Clapper Rails. Update habitat models as new data become available, to better predict areas where tidal marsh will persist given sea level rise. Success Story • Carl's Marsh Previous page: Endangered Species Next page: Western Snowy Plover	<urn:uuid:012bc54a-cb22-41d0-8a1d-ae8fed5d9fb3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.037727177143096924, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9247334599494934, "url": "http://data.prbo.org/sfstateofthebirds/index.php?page=clapper-rail" }
Cherokee Ancient History Cherokee Clans in Ancient History There were seven clans in antiquity. There is a common misperception that the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni or ancient Cherokee priesthood comprised an eighth clan of the Cherokee People, but this belief is a commonplace myth. The Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni appointed a member of each of the seven clans to represent both the spiritual forces the Cherokee believed existed in the Natural World, and the ritual of ceremonies related to the progression of the human spirit from birth until entry into the spirit world to perform the sacred ceremonies for the Cherokee people from the mother city of Keetoowah. In ancient times, the priests would travel extensively within the Cherokee homeland performing the ancient ceremonies in each of the Cherokee townships. After the extermination of the ah-ni-ku-ta-ni by the Cherokee People, the ancient Clan system continued to exist but no longer represented the original ancient symbolism of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni rituals practiced in ancient times. The Clan systems remained simply as a bureaucratic artifact of the earlier cultural incarnation of the Cherokee culture, and much of the traditional knowledge and understanding of the origins of the names and purposes of the clan system was lost or forgotten. Each clan had a name that corresponded to the seven levels of spiritual progression of the human spirit as it grew and evolved on the path through life. The existence of the clans and the original culture and religion of the Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya were closely intertwined to such a degree, that the Cherokee language itself expressed the natural world in religious and spiritual terms. In Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya society, the language, social structure, and interaction with the natural world were viewed as an interwoven tapestry that were inseparable and that existed this way to preserve the balance of forces between the two worlds, the world of physical reality, and the world of spirituality. By way of example, The word for "person" was "yv-wi" which means " it has a spiritual energy" or "it is a sentient being". This word was not only used to describe the human people, Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya, but also the deer people (a-wi-yv-wi), the bird people (tsi-sqa-yv-wi), the tree people (tlv-hv-yv-wi), and the star people (no-qui-si-yv-wi) in the ancient language. This word describes that all elements of the physical world contain a "spark" or "flame" of the spirit of the immortal and imperishable Creator spirit (also called the Aportioner in ancient legends). The emblem of the Cherokees is a seven pointed star. This symbol is believed to represent gu-ta-ni(yi) from the ancient legends told by the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni, which tell that the Cherokee People and all human people came from gu-ta-ni(yi), the "place of the sun", a star in the heavens. In the original beliefs of the Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya, the physical world was a mirror image of the spiritual world, and every object and tangible element of matter that existed in this world did so because a corresponding spiritual energy in the spirit world allowed it to have form and substance in this reality. By way of example, When an animal or plant became extinct, it was believed that the spiritual energy that defined it had been taken back into the spirit world, and correspondingly, that the Creator Spirit (U-ne-la-nv-hi) could cause this energy to be physically manifested when it was time for certain forms of life to reappear in the physical world. Likewise, if a strong wind came and broke the limbs from a tree, it was because this was what was intented to happen. This acceptance of the realities of their world by the Cherokees evolved a common saying that was much used in the ancient culture, and it still used extensively in many of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni ceremonies which was "ni-go di-sge-s-di" which translates "that's just the way it is." By way of example, the final blessing given to a newly married couple in a traditional Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni marriage ceremony is not "you are husband and wife" but is "ni-go di-sge-s-di", or "that's just the way it is." There was also a strong belief that all the elements of nature were in balance, and that this balance had to be restored if disturbed by the human element. Under Clan law, if someone killed the member of another clan through murder, a person from the clan who committed the offense would have to be sacrificed in order to restore the balance of energies between the two worlds. Each Clan was matrilineal, and clans were run by a council of grandmothers of that clan. The decisions and rulings of the Grandmothers were absolute, as was their authority. The Clans also combined their Councils of Grandmothers during certain important decisions which were held in a Central Cherokee Council Lodge which existed in each Cherokee town or city for social gatherings and important discussions. If an individual broke the ancient laws, they were brought before the appropriate Clan Grandmothers for judgement. It was well known within the ancient society that the Clan Grandmothers were strict and would show no mercy to those who had committed serious breaches of social conduct. Because of this, even today Grandmothers and important women within Cherokee Culture are highly respected, obeyed, and honored. Cherokee children were taught not only to respect their male elders, but also to show extreme reverence and respect to the Grandmothers of the Cherokee culture. The Green Corn Ceremony performed anually during the corn harvest was to honor Se-lu, the Corn Mother, and the mothers and Grandmothers of the Cherokee People. Hollywood has done much to represent that all Native Americans have a concept called Mother Earth and that American Indians viewed the Earth (e-lo-hi) as the supreme mother. While this was a Lokata and Souix belief, it was not a belief of the Cherokee People in antiquity. The Cherokee did not view the earth as the "mother" of the human people, but as a place made for the Human People to live and which in and of itself was also a living thing. Se-lu, the Corn Mother, was viewed as the mother of the human people in ancient Cherokee legend. Spiritual Significance of the Clans in Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni Rituals In ancient times, the clan names represented to the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni the balance between the spiritual forces that shaped and guided the human spirit on its journey and development through life in preparation for entry into the spirit world. The Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni teach that life is made up of four distinct sections and paths, 1) development in the womb 2) childhood 3) marriage and parenting 4) elders (grandmothers and grandfathers) and the perpetuation of the culture through the ancient ceremonies. Each section or quadrant of life was represented as part of the ancient sun symbol or crossed circle commonly seen in ancient mississipian culture. It was taught by the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni that following entry into the spirit world, all of the people still continued their dances, ceremonies, and family relationships in the afterlife in a place set apart for the people. Cherokee traditionally buried their dead in the earth as they believed that the plants fed the animals, the animals and plants fed the people, and the people, at their death, should return to the earth and feed the plants. Membership in a particular clan did not mean that the members of the clan were in some way blocked or held at a particular level of spiritual development or attainment. Clan membership and the existence of the clans was simply meant to represent a balance of the spiritual forces that made up the world of the Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya. All members of the society could participate in the ceremonies and were all viewed as equals. Since the Wolf Clan represented the final level of attainment and was also the clan of the warrior class, it membership over time continued to grow in ancient times until is became the largest of the Cherokee Clans. It was believed that if an Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya did not fully complete these levels of development, they would not be able to find their way to the place set apart for them with their people in the spirit world and would wander in darkness on the Earth after death as a spirit. Ancient Spiritual Symbolism of the Cherokee Clans Ah-ni-ga-to-ge-wi or Wild Potato Clan represented the material plane of earth or physical matter (earth). Ah-ni-gi-lo(la)-hi or Long Hair Clan represented the human people (breath). Ah-ni-(k)a-wi or Deer Clan represented the spirit of life, and procreation (life). Ah-ni-tsi-sk-wa or Red Tailed Hawk Clan represented the development of the human intellect (air). Ah-ni-sa-ho-ni or Blue Holly Clan represented purification in preparation for the ceremonies (purification). Ah-ni-wo-di or Paint Clan represented the four directions, the ceremonies and structure of society and the evolution of social organization. (four directions(colors), ceremonies) Ah-ni-wa-ya or Wolf Clan represented the doorway to the world of spirits and the development of higher social consciousness (spirit world, sacred fire). There existed unique ceremonies among the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni for each of these levels of attainment. The paint clan was named because they gathered the four sacred colors used in the ceremonies for the people. Many of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni scholars were members of the Paint Clan, but many of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni in ancient times came from the Wolf Clan and Blue Holly Clan. By tradition, a member of each clan was selected to represent all of the people during special ceremonies which were only performed by the leader of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni and the seven priests who represented each of the seven clans. The seven stemmed ceremonial pipe ceremony was one such ceremony which was only performed by the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni and the seven priests prior to the seven year renewal ceremony. The four sacred colors gathered by the Paint Clan were: Red - for the East and symbolized power and healing Blue - for the North and symbolized Adversity and Struggle and those things that harmed the human people. Black - for the West and symbolized the doorway to the spirit world, death, and the place of the thunder beings. White - for the South and symbolized blessings, virtue, the rains that fell from the skys, purity and all that was good. Ceremonial objects that incorporated the colors blue or black were required to contain the other sacred colors in order to balance the object. The color blue was typically obtained from the bark and stems of the Sourwood tree which grew in the Cherokee homeland. The stems of this tree were also used to make Sacred Eagle Wands which also incorporated white or near white eagle feathers from either the golden or bald eagle. These wands were used in the Ancient Eagle Dance which is still practiced by the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and the Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya. The Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya did not have pipe carriers or pipe holders as did the Lakota or other Plains Indians, but did use a variety of ceremonial pipes for both recreational and ceremonial use. These pipes used ceremonial tobacco, varieties of Nicotiana Rustica for recreational and personal ceremonial use, and a sacred blend of four secret plants for ceremonies of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni which did not contain or employ Nicotiana species. Cherokee personal pipes were typically made of river clay which had been fired, and a small river cane pipestem. Formal Ceremonial pipes used by the clans used Red or Grey pipestone (also called bluestone) and pipe stems made from hollow stems of American Sassafrass or some cases, Sourwood. The seven stemmed pipe was made only for a single ceremony of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni from red pipestone, then destroyed and returned to the spirit world following the ceremony in preparation for the seven year rewnewal ceremony. The Cherokee Moons Ceremonies which were performed were based on each of the thirteen phases of the moon which occurred each year. For each moon of the calendar year, the Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya performed a unique ceremony. A special ceremony was performed both yearly (mid-October) and every seven years called the renewal ceremony which used the Cherokee black drink prepared by the Blue Holly Clan for purification rituals. These collective ceremonies were intended to progress the Cherokee people through the various phases of spiritual and cultural development in Cherokee society. See also Cherokee Moons Ceremonies. Clan Customs of the Cherokee Clans Customs of the Cherokee clans have evolved since ancient times, however, tradtionalists still observe clan customs regarding marriage and certain social events. In modern Oklahoma Cherokee culture, Stomp Dances still observe clan rules and hiearchy for Stomp Dance Events. The Cherokee society is historically a matrilineal society; meaning clanship is attained through the mother. Prior to Oklahoma statehood, the women were considered the Head of Household among the Western Cherokee in Oklahoma, with the home and children belonging to her should she separate from a husband. The knowledge of a person's clan is important for many reasons; historically, and still today among Cherokee traditionalists, it is forbidden to marry within your clan. Clan members are considered brother and sisters. In addition, when seeking spiritual guidance and traditional medicine ceremonies, it is necessary to name your clan. Seating at ceremonial stomp dances is by clan, as well. Ceremonies which require the Cherokee to address to fire or perform washing in the sacred circle of an Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni ceremony requires the name the clan to which the Cherokee belongs. Cherokees born outside of a clan or outsiders who were taken into the tribe in ancient times had to be adopted into a clan by a clan mother. If the person was a women who had bourne a Cherokee child and was married to a Cherokee man, she could be taken into a new clan, and her husband was required to leave his clan and move to her new clan. Men who were not Cherokee and married into a Cherokee household could simply be taken into his wife's clan. The Ah-ni-go-te-ge-wi or the Wild Potato Clan's subdivision is Blind Savannah . Historically, members of this clan were known to be 'keepers of the land,' and gatherers The wild potato was a main staple of the older Cherokee life back east (Tsa-la-gi U-we-ti). At some Oklahoma Cherokee ceremonial grounds, the Wild Potato arbor is to the left of the Wolf arbor. The Ah-ni-gi-lo-hi or the Long Hair Clan, whose subdivisions are Twister, Wind and Strangers, are known to be a very peaceful clan. In the times of the Peace Chief and War Chief government, the Peace Chief would come from this clan. Prisoners of war, orphans of other tribes, and others with no Cherokee tribe were often adopted into this clan, thus the name 'Strangers.' At some Oklahoma Cherokee ceremonial grounds, the Long Hair arbor is on the East side, and also houses the Chiefs and other leaders of the ground. The Ah-ni-(k)a-wi or the Deer Clan were historically known as fast runners and hunters. Even though they hunted game for subsistence, they respected and cared for the animals while they were living amongst them. They were also known as messengers on an earthly level, delivering messenges from village to village, or person to person. At some Oklahoma Cherokee ceremonial grounds, the Deer arbor is to the left of the Wild Potato arbor. Ah-ni-tsi-s-qua or the Red Tailed Hawk (Bird) Clan were historically known as messengers. The belief that birds are messengers between earth and heaven, or the People and Creator, gave the members of this clan the responsibility of caring for the birds. The subdivisions are Raven, Turtle Dove and Eagle. Our earned Eagle feathers were originally presented by the members of this clan, as they were the only ones able to collect them. At some Oklahoma Cherokee ceremonial grounds, the Bird arbor is to the left of the Deer arbor. The Ah-ni-sa-ho-ni or the Blue Clan's subdivisions are Panther, or Wildcat and Bear (which is considered the oldest clan). Historically, this clan produced many people who were able to make special medicines for the children. At some Oklahoma Cherokee ceremonial grounds, the Blue arbor is to the left of the Long Hair arbor. The Ah-ni-wo-di or the Paint Clan were historically known as a prominent medicine people. Medicine is often 'painted' on a patient after harvesting, mixing and performing other aspects of the ceremony. At some Oklahoma Cherokee ceremonial grounds, the Paint arbor is to the left of the Bird arbor. The Ah-ni-wa-ya of the Wolf has been known throughout time to be the largest clan. During the time of the Peace Chief and War Chief government setting, the War Chief would come from this clan. Wolves are known as protectors. At some Oklahoma Cherokee ceremonial grounds, the Wolf arbor is to the left of the Blue arbor. Cherokee Marriage Customs Between the Clans Cherokee Marriages were as much between the Grandmothers of a clan as between the couple themselves. It was not permitted to marry within your own clan. A potential suitor had to select a young woman from another clan. Typically, the clan leaders would be consulted before such a selection was made. Elias Boudinot wrote the following article in The Cherokee Editor on February 18, 1829 regarding Cherokee Clan marriage customs. This simple division of the Cherokees formed the grand work by which marriages were regulated, and murder punished. A Cherokee could marry into any of the clans except two, that to which his father belongs, for all of that clan are his fathers and aunts and that to which his mother belongs, for all of that clan are his brothers and sisters, a child invariably inheriting the clan of his mother. When a young man had chosen a girl he wished to marry he would kill a deer and bring an offer of deermeat to the home of the girl he was interested in. If she chose to marry him, she cooked the deer meet and offered it to him. If she rejected the deer meat, it was assumed to be a denial of this suitor. This courtship required approval of both clans before courtship could occur. It was only permitted to court one woman at a time. Although there are examples of polygamy in the ancient culture, this practice was not generally engaged in. There were also instances of same-sex cohabitation, however, there was never a concept of same sex marriage or same sex courtships. There are historical instances of "extended families" where another male or female would cohabitate with a married couple. Provided all parties were in agreement, including the clan leaders, this conduct would be allowed. These are the only examples of same sex relationships known to have existed in ancient times. The age of consent for Cherokee young people was typically fifteen for girls and seventeen for boys, but was not a strict practice. If the couple chose to marry, the groom had to obtain the approval of his clan leaders to complete the marriage. Typically, he required the approval of his Clan Grandmother and her relatives. The bride had to obtain the approval of her mother's sister, or if unavailable, her Grandmother or Great Aunt. If all parties agreed, then the couple was permitted to marry. Clan Marriage Ceremonies of the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni On the morning of the marriage ceremony, the groom was expected to leave before dawn and go to a spot near a river or other body of running water, and kindle a fire before the first light of dawn with coals taken from his clans fire. In Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya culture, the first light of dawn was considered the most powerful time of the day. He was also expected to be met there before dawn by his close male relatives and men he hunted with from his clan. The young man was expected to talk about his adventures and make his goodbyes to his friends. Only his close personal friends and family members were allowed to attend and only with the groom's personal invitation. After the fire had burned down, the groom waited for the coals of the fire to go out, then he would collect these coals from the fire and take them with him to the marriage grounds. It was not permitted to pour or splash water on the fire -- the coals had to go out on their own and not be mixed with the spirit of water. This was considered a time of farewell for the groom to his clan, since after the marriage, he would leave them and go live with his wife's clan. The groom then returned with the coals and presented them to the priest who would use the spirit of the grooms clan fire to kindle the marriage fire. On the day of the marriage, the groom and bride were not allowed to look at each other until they were married. Even today in the Western Cherokee culture in Oklahoma married couples often do not look directly at one another in public. Averting the eyes to avoid direct eye contact in ancient Cherokee culture was considered a polite form of respect to another persons privacy. This practice apparently grew out of the communal settings of many clan living arrangements, where the only privacy a person had was for others within a communal dwelling to avert looking into another persons living area. The man would then prepare for his marriage feast with his family. The grooms clan would prepare a feast for the groom and his guests and clan members, the groom would be in attendance. The brides family would prepare a feast for her clan, however, she would not attend her feast, she would prepare herself for the ceremony. Both feasts would proceed through the noon hour when the sun crossed its zenith in the heavens. When the feasts concluded, the marriage ceremony would proceed. The actual ceremony was performed within a sacred circle. If the council house was present, the ceremony would be conducted there within a circle in which a fire had been kindled, usually in a slight depression in the ground or center of the council house. The bride and groom would approach the circle and be brought in separately. The couple would then be surrounded with a smaller circle of sacred cedar branches. The groom would wear his buckskin garments. The bride would wear a white buckskin dress with her hair parted down the middle and corn pollen sprinkled down the center of her hairline. The groom would be accompanied by a male member of his clan. The bride would be accompanied by a male member of her clan, typically one of her brothers. The groom would then offer to exchange garments with the brides brother or male relative. If he accepted the garment, the groom would then offer deermeat to the bride. She would accept the deermeat, and give it to her male relative. The bride would then offer the groom an ear of corn. The groom would give the corn to his male relative to accept on behalf of his clan. The two male relatives would then leave the sacred circle. The priest would then perform a ceremony addressing the witnesses from the clan, and the ancestor spirits, and tell them "Ni-go di-sge-s-di" or "that's just the way it is." At that point, the couple were considered married. The guests and couple would perform a marriage dance similar to the running dance (see Stomp Dance) around the fire with the guests and feasting and dancing would be performed through the night. The couple was not required to stay during the night portion and could depart early, however, the guests would typically dance and feast throughout the night. Marriages were a very community centered event and were typically large social gatherings involving an entire Cherokee township, but this was not always the case. The guests also typically would take home individual branches of cedar from the inner marriage circle used during the ceremony and use them to bless their homes. Clan Married Life Once a couple had married, they lived with the wife's clan. Since any children born to the couple were of the same clan as the woman, her brothers or male relatives typically were responsible for the social and cultural development of the children. It was the wife's male relatives who typically disciplined and taught the children, and not the father. The father's clan did have the privilege of choosing the names for the couples children. This was generally done by one of the father's sisters or Clan grandmothers. If a women's husband failed to please her, was unfaithful, or disgraced her clan, she could divorce him by simply placing a deerskin outside of their dwelling and placing his belongings on it, at which point, he was expected to leave. He could return to his own clan or move in with the unmarried men of her clan. The early Europeans, after their first contacts with the Cherokee people, were confused by the Cherokee men's inablity to make quick decisions in counsel and trade meetings. It was later learned by the Europeans that the men were required to return home and discuss these matters with their wives and obtain their approval. This resulted in the early Europeans commenting and recording that the Cherokee had a "petticoat government." In a traditional Cherokee Household, the wife owned all property and the children, and the husband was always required to obtain her approval on family or clan matters. Contrary to many myths from the early Europeans, Cherokee wives were not permitted as part of the culture to "beat their husbands with a stick" for disobedience to the wife. Although it is recorded that this type of behavior did occur in instances of domestic disputes, it was not a socially approved or sanctioned practice, nor was any form of spousal abuse, whether involving the husband or the wife. The wife was required to obtain her husbands approval on matters of their children and clan affairs and work as partners in their relationship. Wives were not allowed to divorce their husbands for frivilous reasons. Divorce, as other elements of Cherokee Clan life, typically required the approval of the Clan leaders and also required a sound basis for the married woman's decision. Men were not allowed to divorce their wives or end a relationship without the approval of their clans, although a husband could request to end a marriage or relationship for valid reasons of incompatibility or infidelity. Clan Voting and Banishment in Ancient Times When important matters required the entire township to meet for discussion in Cherokee communities, and it was a matter that required group consensus, or a clan internally had a group meeting on an important matter, each person would bring both a black and white stone or shell bead for voting. A basket would be present for the individuals to cast their votes. A white shell or bead signaled a postive vote, a black stone or bead signalled a negative vote. The voting system was not democratic in this case. If there were a proponderance of votes one way or the other, the minority voters were expected to discuss their reasons for being the minority vote and both sides were expected to come to balance and compromise and the votes would be recast. The voting would continue over and over again until the majority of the members voted en masse one way or the other. Votes were not secret, and was an open affair with all other members knowing who was casting the deciding vote. After the final vote was cast, any members who refused to change their votes were subject to sanctions, which could include banishment from the township, or the entire tribe, depending on the nature of the seriousness of the topic being decided. The Cherokee in ancient times believed that all things must be balanced and that agreement was always possible. When this was not the case, those members who refused to compromise were usually asked to leave the community. This was the reason for the numerous Cherokee townships that existed, and the method by which the Cherokee seeded new communities. When groups could not agree, they separated and created a new Cherokee township. This system worked and over time resulted in the Cherokee occupying huge areas of the Southeast. There were many instances in ancient times when a young couple fell madly in love and wanted to marry and were unable to obtain permission from their clans to do so. These couples could, and at times did, run off into the woods together and cohabitate as husband and wife. If they remained until the next Green Corn Ceremony, they could return to the community and be taken back as husband and wife to live with the woman's clan. Green Corn was the high religious ceremony of the Cherokee People, and all debts and minor infractions of the law were typically forgiven between parties at this time. This practice allowed slight deviations from the ancient religious laws to be tolerated in the interest of the preservation of Clan and family relationships, should disagreements arise between clans over minor matters. Serious crimes were not forgiven and required severe punishments. Certain classes of offenses required either the offender to present themselves for punishment, or another member of their clan to take the place of the offender. In ancient times, if a Cherokee committed a major offense, such as murder, the people most likely to hunt him down and bring him to the Grandmothers for judgment were the members of his own family or Clan. Modern Cherokee societies and Nations, with the exception of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians are true democratic societies which no longer allow banishment of tribal members. Graphic Artist Unknown	<urn:uuid:5c3c84a0-eb8b-487b-aac5-7d773e5a1c16>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.20701223611831665, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9811181426048279, "url": "http://www.oocities.org/wildstar.cherokee/ancient-history.html" }
Skip PBS navigation bar, and jump to content. spacer above content Teacher's Guide: Suggestions for Active Learning Portrait of Eugene O'Neill as child about 5 years old Eugene O'Neill provides insights into topics including changes in American culture and society during the first half of the twentieth century, the history of the American theater, Greek tragedy, controversies surrounding artistic expression, alcoholism, and more. You can use part or all of the film, or delve into the rich resources available on this Web site to learn more, either in a classroom or on your own. The following activities are grouped into three categories: history, literature, and society. You can also read a few helpful hints for completing the activities. History \| Literature \| Society 1. O'Neill's life and times. The United States experienced dramatic changes in the 65 years between O'Neill's birth in 1888 and his death in 1953. To look for connections between O'Neill's life (and work) and changes in the country, divide the class into groups and assign each group an equal portion of that time period. Each group should use the timeline of O'Neill's life, the list of his plays, and other sources to prepare a timeline of its assigned time period that shows (a) the three most important events in O'Neill's life during that period and (b) the three most important developments in the country during that period. When the groups are finished, assemble the timelines into a single timeline and review O'Neill's life as a whole. Do you think O'Neill's life and the plays he wrote were shaped more by changes in the country, or by events within his family? 2. O'Neill and his family. What kinds of relationships did Eugene O'Neill have with his family? Select the family member who interests you the most -- his father or mother, one of his three wives, or one of his three children -- and write a letter from that person to O'Neill. Your letter should address what you think was the most important issue (either positive or negative) between that person and O'Neill. 3. O'Neill and Greek tragedy. O'Neill once complained that while the public attended his plays, they did not see "the transfiguring nobility of tragedy in as near the Greek sense as one can grasp it". To understand O'Neill's statement more fully, begin by finding out more about ancient Greek tragedy. Divide the class into three groups and assign each group one of the following topics to research and report on for the class: (a) What is a "tragedy," as the philosopher Aristotle defined it, and what do the terms "catharsis," "fate," "hubris," and "tragic flaw" mean in the context of a tragedy? (b) Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides are generally seen as the three greatest writers of Greek tragedies. When and where did they live, and what themes guided their work? (c) Among the best-known Greek tragedies are "Oedipus the King", "Oresteia", and "The Trojan Women". For each of these plays, outline the plot and describe the play's main theme(s). Once the groups have reported their findings to the class, discuss what you think O'Neill meant by his statement above. How can tragedy be both "transfiguring" and "noble"? History \| Literature \| Society 1. Scenes from O'Neill's masterpiece. Two of the most powerful scenes in "Long Day's Journey into Night" occur in Act 4: the conversation in which Edmund Tyrone, Sr., explains to his son Edmund why he has always been concerned about money, and the conversation in which Jamie (Edmund's brother) explains to Edmund why he has always had mixed feelings about Edmund. Have two pairs of volunteers perform staged readings of the two scenes for the class. After the readings, discuss the scenes as a class: how would you describe each of the three men based just on these scenes? How do they view their own lives, and what do they think of each other? Finally, how do you think these scenes support O'Neill's statement, quoted in the film, that the play's characters are "trapped within each other by the past, each guilty and at the same time innocent, scorning, loving, pitying each other, understanding and yet not understanding at all, forgiving but still doomed never to be able to forget"? 2. Recent classics of the American stage. While O'Neill dominated the early years of the Pulitzer Prize in drama, new generations of American playwrights have emerged since World War II. To learn more about these more recent playwrights and their work, divide the class into small groups and assign each group one of the following persons: Edward Albee, Margaret Edson, Tony Kushner, David Mamet, Arthur Miller, Marsha Norman, Tennessee Williams, and August Wilson. Each group should prepare a brief biography of its assigned playwright to present to the class. It also should read one of its playwright's plays and select a scene from that play to read for the class. 3. The magic of the theater. View the film clips of actors discussing O'Neill's work and reading from his plays. People involved in the theater often use words like "electricity" and "magic" when describing the experience of putting on a play, whether they are appearing on a Broadway stage or painting scenery for a community theater. If you have participated in a play, write a description of the experience: what was most rewarding, and most surprising? What, if anything, did you not like about the experience? If you have not participated in a play, interview a friend or family member who has, and write up their memories of the experience. Then circulate your descriptions among your classmates -- what do the descriptions have in common, and how do they differ? History \| Literature \| Society 1. Interracial romance. O'Neill's play "All God's Chillun Got Wings" generated a storm of controversy when it opened in 1924 because it depicted a relationship between a black man and a white woman. The play was only one of O'Neill's works to raise protests. Today, is it still uncommon for relationships between blacks and whites to be depicted in books, movies, plays, popular songs, television shows, or advertisements? Have each member of the class come up with one or more examples of an interracial relationship from any of those sources. Then review and discuss these examples as a class: what do they tell you about changes in Americans' attitudes toward both race and sex? 2. America's "confessional culture." Take the poll on whether O'Neill should have presented intimate details about his family in his plays. In writing about his family, O'Neill was attempting to understand himself and his family better. Some social critics, however, complain that the United States today suffers from a "confessional culture," in which people expose intimate details of their lives simply in order to gain public attention. When is it appropriate to reveal personal details in public, and when isn't it? Working with a partner, find an example -- from a current or recent movie, television show, magazine or newspaper, book, Web site, popular song, advertisement, or other public source -- of a person revealing personal details in a way you think is appropriate. Then find an example where you think it was inappropriate for the person to reveal these details. Present your two examples to the class and explain your selections. 3. Alcoholism, a family -- and national -- problem. Eugene O'Neill suffered from alcoholism, as did all three of his children. As one of O'Neill's best-known characters -- Hickey in "The Iceman Cometh" -- says, "If anyone wants to get drunk, if that's the only way they can be happy, and feel at peace with themselves ... [t]hey have my full and entire sympathy. I know all about that game from soup to nuts. I'm the guy that wrote the book." Millions of Americans continue to suffer from alcoholism today, and for many of them, the road to alcohol addiction began when they were very young. To help inform your younger brothers and sisters and other young people in your community about alcohol and alcoholism, work as a class to prepare a guide for middle-school students on the subject. Begin by deciding what kinds of information you want to include and start collecting that information. (For example, you may want to include relevant statistics, such as the number of Americans who suffer from alcoholism or are killed in alcohol-related car accidents each year; basic information on how alcohol affects the brain; first-person stories from people whose lives have been harmed by alcohol; and information on how people can resist the pressure to drink that can come from peers or advertisers.) Then decide how you want to present the information, and what illustrations you want to use. When your booklet is complete, show it to school principals, librarians, and other officials in your community and ask them to make it available to the young people who use their facilities. page created on 1.24.06 back to top Site Navigation Eugene O'Neill American Experience Exclusive Corporate Funding is provided by:	<urn:uuid:6719e4fd-a4af-4ee9-97c1-c1226de10e2c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.9375, "fasttext_score": 0.43150967359542847, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9686682820320129, "url": "http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/oneill/tguide/index.html" }
How are the terms "dwarf," "little person," and "person of short stature" commonly used? Printable Version The terms "person of short stature," "little person," and "dwarf" are commonly used in the United States to refer to a person with a medical condition called "dwarfism." Although preferred terms vary by person and community, according to the Little People of America website, many people who experience dwarfism prefer the term "little person." According to Little People of America, dwarfism is "a medical or genetic condition that usually results in an adult height of 4 ft 10 inches (145 cm) or shorter, among both men and women." Unless physical stature is of relevance in a conversation, simply using a person's name is appropriate. Additional information is available at the Little People of America website. Last update or review: January 22, 2013	<urn:uuid:658f926a-e100-4ce3-89e0-178f8c665b39>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.051158785820007324, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9629746675491333, "url": "http://www.washington.edu/doit/Faculty/articles?442" }
The Biodiversity Game Description by Meghan Willison This game, called The Biodiversity Game (a.k.a. The Bean Game), was created by Dr. Martin Willison, professor of Biology at Dalhousie University. It has been used as a teaching tool in his course Nature Conservation, where it is used to illustrate the fact that a global loss of diversity is often not noticed locally because local diversity can remain stable or even increase while global diversity drops. The game is played with five teams (continents) and uses dried beans, of which there must be 20 different varieties (species). During play the referee instructs the players to complete the specified actions for each round; first the enterprise portion and then the rule portion. The game ends when one of three situations is reached; one continent has all the species, one continent has no species, or ten rounds have been completed. It is important that players are not aware of the true object of the game until play in completed, but are only told that the object is to have the largest number of species at the end of the game. The game is intended to mimic the way the real ecological world works; it involves things like predation, reproduction, competition, disease, primary production, pollution, raids, climate change, and genetic swapping. Dr. Willison writes, There is a discussion of the outcome at the end. The game actually ends when players realize that their beans are disappearing much faster than they are gaining them. When we played it recently, we had lost over half the species when the game finished, but most teams still had as many, or more, species than they began with. This is the crucial message. This game is somewhat complex and, without modification, would likely only be useful at the grade 11 or 12 level. It could be used in lessons on diversity, extinction, invasive species, symbiosis, and conservation in Biology. The idea that local diversity can remain stable or increase, while global diversity drops, is a difficult one to comprehend. Using this game to teach the concept, however, allows students to actually see how the phenomenon can occur. The entire game could be played during one class (it takes about an hour to complete), or students could play one round at the beginning or end of each class, stretching the game over a couple of weeks. The first option allows students to see the entire process during a short period of time and then to reflect on the outcome. The second option, however, would allow for discussion or written submission of thoughts and ideas following each round. Also, the game could be played by the class as a whole (where all of the students are divided into five teams) or in groups of five, in which case each individual represents a continent. The second option would probably be more valuable, as it could allow for several different outcomes to occur and be available for discussion. One group might end the game after ten rounds, while another might finish earlier, when one continent is left with no species. Some examples of curriculum outcomes (from Biology 11) that could be achieved with the help of this game are: (1)318-9: Analyze interactions between and within populations, (2) 118-10: Propose and evaluate courses of action on social issues related to the natural balance of ecosystems, and (3) 318-1: Describe population growth and explain factors that influence populations growth. The objective of the game is to have the largest number of species at the end of the game. At the start, there are 2 each of 4 species (for a total of 8 beans) in each of 5 continents (teams). The game ends when: (a) one continent has all 20 initial species (b) a continent has no species, or (c) 10 rounds of play have been completed There are 2 elements to each round of play: (a) enterprise round (b) rule round Teams of players must keep track of rules. If a player notices that a team has broken a rule, the referee will reward the observant team accordingly. Rules are not retroactive they apply from announcement onwards. Enterprise: Exploration On a voyage of discovery, each continent collects two specimens from the other continents. The specimens may be of the same species or of different species, and may come from either one or two continents. Teams may not refuse to donate specimens. Rule: Reproduction Single specimens reproduce the referee provides an extra one for all singletons. This rule is applied after each enterprise round. Enterprise: Trade On a trade mission, each continent sets out with two specimens and exchanges these with other traders (note: there is no haggling the specimens to be traded are selected prior to trading and all traders meet as a group to exchange wares). One group will fail to trade and returns home with their original beans.* Rule: Limit of primary production *** The maximum number of individuals that any continent can support is 20. If a continent has more than 20 specimens, the excess must be given to the referee. Enterprise: Power trip Each continent possessing a Casa Italia bean visits ONE continent of their choice and selects two specimens of their choice to take home. Rule: New species discovered Scientists proclaim that the reddish Black Beauty is actually a different species, and a breeding program is developed. It doubles and doubles again in population size (i.e. there are now 4 of them). Subsequent reproduction of Red Beauty follows the normal rule. Enterprise: Trade again Rule: Predation Killer whale beans are voracious predators of yellow beans. Yellow Fever beans are adapted to surviving with Killer Whales, but Yellow Tone, Yeller, Rich Yellow and Soy die out completely if Killer Whales are present. Teams must give all predated specimens to the referee. Remember: this rule applies for the remainder of the game! Enterprise: Raid Holders of Yellow Fever beans consider themselves to be specially powerful. Each continent holding Yellow Fever raids a continent without Yellow Fever, and removes all specimens of one species, giving these to the referee. In addition, they return home with one specimen of another species. [Note to referee: if one continent is left with no specimens at this point in the game, the referee rewards that continent with one of their original species.] Rule: Competition Large beans compete for space and crowd out others. Pygmy beans are immune from this effect, but in all other cases, if 4 or more exotic species are present in a continent, one of the native species becomes locally extinct. This will be the least numerous. All specimens of an extinct species are given to the referee. Enterprise: Bullying Red Tone beans become very unfashionable and disadvantageous. Any continent NOT holding Red Tone beans visits each of the continents holding Red Tone beans, and takes one specimen home. Rule: Hidden Disease Red Beauty carries a slow virus that has been triggered by some unknown factor. This virus is lethal for predominantly purple beans (Rich Purple, La Phase and Purple Prince). All specimens of these beans must be given to the referee if Red Beauty is present. Enterprise: Interloper Invasive species are carried from one continent to another as a result of carelessness. Each continent gives one specimen of a species of their choice to two other continents. (Note to players: its permissible to give away a damaging species). Rule: Mutualism Some species are dependent on having others around. If any continent has two or less of its original native species, one of the remaining native species dies out and all specimens of that species are given to the referee. Note: this rule applies for the remainder of the game. Enterprise: Pollution In an attempt to keep rare species alive, Freon, a refrigerant gas has been invented. It has damaged Earths ozone layer, and light coloured species are at risk. White Tone dies out completely, and all populations of Yeller are halved in number. There is no trading in this round. Rule: The rule that single beans reproduce is suspended for the remainder of the game; pollution has reduced the health of all populations. Enterprise: Optimism The promoters of the enterprise spirit state that trading can increase biodiversity. All continents trade beans freely for one minute by exchanging beans at will. The referee will announce Start Trading and End Trading! Rule: Genetic Swamping Interbreeding occurs between black beans, such that any single black bean that is in the presence of more than one bean of another black species dies out. This rule applies to the following beans: Black Tone, Killer Whale, Dark Cattle, Rich Black and Black Beauty. All Players should check for rule violations at this stage in the game. Enterprise: Climate Change Trading was so vigorous in the previous round that large volumes of greenhouse gases were released, and the climate has changed. Beans that have white in them die out as a result of their intolerance of warm climates. In addition, any species that exist as single individuals, die out as a result of the non-viability of a small non-reproducing population. Rule: Players count the score and discuss the outcome of the game. What is the diversity per continent? What is the global diversity? [Note: if the game ended prior to Round Ten, this rule is played at that time.] * The game if designed to be played with beans, but other playing pieces (eg. colored blocks), of which there must be 2 each of 20 types, are fine. Wherever bean varieties are mentioned in the rules, simply replace these with descriptions applicable to the playing pieces being used. The last team to trade will not be successful. This rule is designed to represent the fact that, in the real world, some trade fails. * For explanations of many of the biological/ecological terms found within the rules, please refer to the links below. 30 January 2003 [Games] [Courses] [Copyright] This web site maintained by David A Reid, Email:	<urn:uuid:ee4996d7-e222-40cc-8e34-20d18dc126cc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.01940321922302246, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9410725235939026, "url": "http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/educ/reid/Games/Game_descriptions/biodiversity_game.htm" }
What Is the Role of Amylase in Plants? Amylase enzymes help plants develop as the seeds germinate, sprout, and root. Peas are known for being high in amylase. Article Details • Written By: B. Leslie Baird • Edited By: Michelle Arevalo • Last Modified Date: 08 August 2014 • Copyright Protected: Conjecture Corporation • Print this Article Free Widgets for your Site/Blog Amylase is an enzyme that acts as a catalyst to hydrolyze carbohydrates. The role of amylase in plants is for breaking down starches. Starches are usually processed in this way during seed germination, and turned into sugars. These sugars then provide the main source of energy for the plant during its early development. Plants are able to store energy from the sun by creating sugars. Amylase assists in the initial development of the plant, before it is able to use energy from photosynthesis. The amylase enzymes begin their role in plant development as the plant's seed begins to germinate, root, and sprout. In a study of the germination of cereal seeds, alpha amylase was found in the aleurone layer. The amylase works to hydrolyze the endosperm starch into usable sugars. These sugars provide the necessary energy for root growth and act as reserve food storage. Amylase in plants is important for the production of healthy shoots, so they form properly. Enzymes react to temperature. As the ground warms, the amylase in the seed becomes more active. Since the amylase in plants acts as a food storage reserve as the plant grows, temperatures that are too high will typically cause the enzymes will stop functioning. For this reason, seeds that are exposed to high temperatures will not be able to sprout. Gibberellins are also involved in the process of germination and early plant development. A tetra cyclic diterpene acid, gibberellin is believed to signal the start of the amylase process in the cells for starch-to-sugar conversion. The gibberellin becomes a chemical messenger for the plant embryo. There are several basic forms of amylase, including alpha amylase, beta amylase, and glucoamylase. Alpha amylase heps to process basic substances like glycogen and starch, and can be found in the tissues and organs of many mammals, including humans. It works by breaking random bonds in the viscosity of starches, and produces glucose. Beta amylase is abundant is seeds. It can also be found in molds, bacteria, and yeasts. This form of amylase breaks glucose-to-glucose bonds and produces maltose. Glucoamylase, or amyloglucosidase, break bonds and subsequently produces glucose. Plants have both alpha and beta amylase, while animals have only alpha amylase. In humans, alpha amylase is found in saliva. Certain plants are known to be particularly high in amylase enzymes, including peas, corn, and barley. Without the presence of amylase, a seedling would not be able to grow to reach the sunlight needed for photosynthesis and healthy growth. Discuss this Article Post your comments Post Anonymously forgot password?	<urn:uuid:327cd660-5fe1-47f8-8069-d2b8f244dfe4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.021390676498413086, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9319759011268616, "url": "http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-the-role-of-amylase-in-plants.htm" }
Edmund Gunter Edmund Gunter, (born 1581Hertfordshire, Eng.—died Dec. 10, 1626London), English mathematician who invented many useful measuring devices, including a forerunner of the slide rule. Gunter was professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London, from 1619 until his death. Descriptions of some of his inventions were given in his treatises on the sector, cross-staff, bow, quadrant, and other instruments. In Canon Triangulorum, or Table of Artificial Sines and Tangents (1620), the first published table of common logarithms of the sine and tangent functions, he introduced the terms cosine and cotangent. He also suggested to his friend Henry Briggs, the inventor of common logarithms, the use of the arithmetical complement. Gunter’s practical inventions included Gunter’s chain. Commonly used for surveying, it was 22 yards (20.1 metres) long and was divided into 100 links. Gunter’s quadrant was used to find the hour of the day, the sun’s azimuth, and the altitude of an object in degrees. Gunter’s scale, or Gunter’s line, generally called the gunter by seamen, was a large plane scale with logarithmic divisions plotted on it. With the aid of a pair of compasses, it was used to multiply and divide. Gunter’s scale was an important step in the development of the slide rule.	<urn:uuid:710693e4-8ace-4a84-a829-d5e90315d603>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.18534648418426514, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9685602784156799, "url": "http://www.britannica.com/print/topic/249527" }
This animation is based on a section of the (forthcoming) book, SPECIAL RELATIVITY ILLUSTRATED, by John de Pillis. IMAGINE a PROPAGATED WAVE to be a sequence of (circular or spherical) ripples, each of which is created at the moment a dancer's toe touches a point in the plane. AS THE DANCER MOVES on a PLANE, each of his landings sets of a single ripple with fixed speed v. Once the ripple center is created by the dancer, it remains fixed in space while its generated ripple continues to widen with a radius expanding at fixed speed v. REGARDLESS of the DANCER'S SPEED, therefore, the speed of each ripple that is generated by the toe of the dancer does NOT DEPEND ON THE SPEED OF THE DANCER'S TOE. EXAMPLE: Sound waves heard from a moving train have constant speed, regardless of the train's speed. However, the waves will "bunch up" ahead of the train, causing a higher tone, and they will "lag" behind the train, causing a lower tone. This is the DOPPLER EFFECT for propagated waves.	<urn:uuid:81345498-78cb-4f21-af78-5a5a96e61b06>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.6287115216255188, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9335875511169434, "url": "http://math.ucr.edu/~jdp/Relativity/WaveDancer.html" }
ChristianAnswers.Net WebBible Encyclopedia Meaning: large. This is the name of the sixth month of the civil and the twelfth of the ecclesiastical year of the Jews (Esther 3:7, 13; 8:12; 9:1, 15, 17, 19, 21). It included the days extending from the new moon of our March to the new moon of April. The name was first used after the Captivity. When the season was backward, and the lambs not yet of a paschal size, or the barley not forward enough for abib, then a month called Veadar, i.e., a second Adar, was intercalated.	<urn:uuid:d12d3180-da95-408b-a807-976119c975f2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.02376765012741089, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9328700304031372, "url": "http://christiananswers.net/dictionary/adar.html" }
Southern reedbuck From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Southern reedbuck Großriedbock IMG 0077.JPG Conservation status Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla Family: Bovidae Genus: Redunca Species: R. arundinum Binomial name Redunca arundinum (Boddaert, 1785) The southern reedbuck, rietbok[2] or common reedbuck (Redunca arundinum) is a diurnal antelope typically found in southern Africa. It was first described by Pieter Boddaert, a Dutch physician and naturalist, in 1785. It is placed in the genus Redunca and family Bovidae. This antelope has an average mass of 58 kg (128 lb) and a body length of about 134–167 cm (53–66 in). Taxonomy and etymology[edit] It was first described by Pieter Boddaert, a Dutch physician and naturalist, in 1785. It is placed in the genus Redunca and family Bovidae. It gets its name from two Latin words: reduncas (meaning bent backwards and curved, while the horns are bent forwards) and arundo (harundo) (meaning a reed; hence arundinum, pertaining to reeds). The southern reedbuck is larger than the other species in Redunca, namely R. redunca (Bohor reeduck) and R. fulvorufula (mountain reedbuck).[3] It stands 80–90 cm (31–35 in) at the shoulder.[4] Females weigh 48 kg (106 lb), while the males weigh 68 kg (150 lb).[3] It has distinctive dark lines running down the front of each of its forelegs and lower hindlegs and whitish rings around the eyes.[5] It has a lifespan of 10 years.[6] The coat is silky and almost woolly.[7] The color of its coat ranges between light- and greyish-brown, and may be lighter on the neck and chest.[6] A small, black, bare glandular patch can be noticed at the base of each ear. White fur covers the underparts and the areas near the lips and chin. The tail is white underside, and appears short and bushy.[5] Southern reedbucks measure an average of 85 cm (33 in) at the shoulder. Females lack horns. Males bear forward-curving horns, about 35–45 cm (14–18 in) long, with the base having a distinct band of pale, rubbery tissue.[5] Southern reedbucks live in pairs or alone.[5] Sometimes, they form herds consisting of about 20 members. They prefer to lie in grass or reed beds in the heat of the day and feed during sunrise and sunset, or sometimes even at night. Old reedbucks are permanently territorial, with territories around 35-60 hectares, and generally live with a single female, preventing contact with rival males. Females and young males perform an 'appeasement dance' for older males.[6] During the dance, the bucks run around speedily and take considerably long jumps, with the tail curled up and scented air being released from a pocket in the groin at every bounce, making a popping sound. Within this territory, it is active all the time in summer, but it is nocturnal in the wet season. It regularly uses paths to reach good sites to rest, graze, and drink water. Average lifetime home ranges have been estimated as 123 ha for females and 74 ha for males. Their main predators include lions, leopards, cheetahs, spotted hyenas, Cape hunting dogs, pythons, and crocodiles.[2][6] They can camouflage themselves in the grasslands due to their coats, which are almost the same color. If startled or attacked, they stand still, then either hide or flee with an odd rocking-horse movement, and cautiously look back to ensure the danger is gone, generally.[2] They use vocalizations like a shrill whistle through their nostrils and a clicking noise to alert others about danger.[6] As a herbivore, the reedbuck mainly feeds on grasses. It also eats herbs and reeds. It never enters into water, though it inhabits places with water sources. It needs to drink water every few days to several times a day during the dry season. The southern reedbuck breeds almost all the time of the year, although most matings occur during the hot and wet season. Females reach sexual maturity when they are two years old, when they leave their parent’s territory. Males, which reach maturity at a slightly older age, may remain with the family group until their third year. A single young is born per birth after a gestation period of seven to eight months,[2] and remains amongst the dense and tall grass cover in which it was born for the next two months.[5] The female does not stay with her young, but instead visits it for just 10 to 30 minutes each day to nurse it. Habitat and distribution[edit] Southern reedbucks have a wide distribution, stretching from Gabon and Tanzania to South Africa.[8] Their range seems to extend to the Miombo woodlands on the north.[3] They inhabit moist grasslands with tall grass, reeds, sufficient cover, and water nearby, such as floodplains, pastures, woodlands, and valleys.[5][7] They are common in seasonally flooded valleys near the Malagarasi River.[3] They also occur in the southern savannas of Tchibanga and Ndende (in Zaire).[9] It is native to Angola, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.[1] It also occurs in protected areas and areas with low to moderate levels of settlement, including significant populations on private land in Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Namibia. In the Republic of Congo, it formerly occurred locally in the savannahs of southern Congo, but it is probably extinct there by now. Its presence is doubted in Lesotho. Major populations occur in areas such as Selous National Park (Tanzania), Kafue National Park (Zambia), Nyika National Park (Malawi), Gorongosa National Park (Mozambique), Okavango National Park (Botswana) and Kruger National Park and Eastern Shores (South Africa).[1] Conservation and threats[edit] Setaria graberi (Nematoda, Filarioidea), a parasite of the reedbuck in South Africa[10] Southern reedbucks remain widespread, but they have been eliminated from some parts of their former range (such as the Congo) by the spread of settlement which has led to habitat destruction and hunting for meat and trophies. It is reportedly one of the easiest antelopes to approach and kill. About 60% of all southern reedbucks are thought to occur in protected areas and about 13% on private lands.[1] This combination of habitat loss and overexploitation has resulted in the species becoming rare in most of South Africa, and reduced populations to precariously low levels in west and central Africa; those in Gabon and the Democratic Republic of Congo are feared to be almost extinct.[1] Parasites of reedbucks include the filaria Setaria graberi.[10] 1. ^ a b c d e IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008). Redunca arundinum. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved January 2009. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern 2. ^ a b c d "Southern Reedbuck (Redunca arundinum)". Wild Animals of Africa. 3. ^ a b c d Shanklin, Amber. "Redunca arundinum". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 23 October 2012. 4. ^ Unwin, Mike (2011). Southern African wildlife : a visitor's guide (2nd ed. ed.). Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-84162-347-4. 5. ^ a b c d e f "Southern reedbuck (Redunca arundinum)". ARKive. 6. ^ a b c d e Huffman, Brent. "Redunca arundinum (Southern reedbuck)". Ultimate Ungulate. 7. ^ a b "Southern reedbuck (Common reedbuck)". Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute. Tanzania Mammal Atlas Project. 8. ^ Estes, Richard Despard (2004). The behavior guide to African mammals : including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates (4 ed.). Univ. of California Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-520-08085-8. 9. ^ East, compiled by R. (1990). West and Central Africa. Gland: IUCN. p. 114. ISBN 2-8317-0016-7. 10. ^ a b Watermeyer, R.; Putterill, JF.; Boomker, J.; Kuzmin, Y.; Junker, K. (2013). "Redescription of Setaria graberi Shoho in Troncy, Graber Thal, 1976 (Nematoda: Filarioidea) based on specimens from Redunca arundinum (Bovidae) in South Africa.". Parasite 20: 43. doi:10.1051/parasite/2013042. PMID 24165230.	<urn:uuid:735a5a29-ee6e-4cda-a86a-afff1e823f14>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.06936126947402954, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8772211074829102, "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_reedbuck" }
Florentine Codex From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Page 51 of Book IX from the Florentine Codex. The text is in Nahuatl. The Florentine Codex is a 16th-century ethnographic research project in Mesoamerica by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún. Sahagún originally titled it: La Historia Universal de las Cosas de Nueva España (in English: the Universal History of the Things of New Spain).[1] After a translation mistake it was given the name "Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España". The best-preserved manuscript is commonly referred to as "The Florentine Codex" after the Italian city of Florence where it is held in the Laurentian Library. In partnership with Aztec men who were formerly his students, Sahagún conducted research, organized evidence, wrote and edited his findings starting in 1545 up until his death in 1590. It consists of 2,400 pages organized into twelve books with over 2,000 illustrations drawn by native artists providing vivid images of this era. It documents the culture, religious cosmology (worldview) and ritual practices, society, economics, and natural history of the Aztec people. One scholar described The Florentine Codex as “one of the most remarkable accounts of a non-Western culture ever composed.”[2] Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O. Anderson were the first to translate the Codex from Nahuatl to English, in a project that took 30 years to complete.[3] As of November 1, 2012, the World Digital Library offers high resolution scans of all volumes at The Florentine Codex.[4] Sahagún's motivations for research[edit] Sahagún's primary motivation was to evangelize indigenous Mesoamerican peoples, and his writings were devoted to this end. He described this work as an explanation of the “divine, or rather idolatrous, human, and natural things of New Spain.”[5] He compared its body of knowledge to that needed by a physician to cure the “patient” suffering from idolatry. He had three overarching goals for his research: 1. To describe and explain ancient Indigenous religion, beliefs, practices, deities. This was to help friars and others understand this “idolatrous” religion and to evangelize the Aztecs. 2. To create a vocabulary of the Aztec language, Nahuatl. This provides more than definitions from a dictionary, but rather an explanation of their cultural origins, with pictures. This was to help friars and others learn Nahuatl, but also to understand the cultural context of the language. 3. To record and document the great cultural inheritance of the Indigenous peoples of New Spain.[6] Sahagún conducted research for several decades, edited and revised it over several decades, created several versions of a 2,400-page manuscript, and addressed a cluster of religious, cultural and nature themes.[7] Copies of it were sent back to the royal court of Spain and to the Vatican in the late 16th century to explain Aztec culture. The document was essentially lost for about two centuries, until a scholar rediscovered it in the Laurentian Library (Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana) an archive library in Florence, Italy. A scholarly community of historians, anthropologists, art historians, and linguists has been actively investigating Bernardino’s work, its subtleties and mysteries, for more than 200 years.[8] Evolution, Format, and structure[edit] An illustration of the "One Flower" ceremony, from the 16th century Florentine Codex. The two drums are the teponaztli (foreground) and the huehuetl (background). The Florentine Codex is a complex document, assembled, edited, and appended over decades. Essentially it is three integral texts: (1) in Nahuatl; (2) a Spanish text; (3) pictorials. The final version of the Florentine Codex was completed in 1569.[9] The Nahuatl Sahagún’s goals of orientating fellow missionaries to Aztec culture, providing a rich Nahuatl vocabulary, and recording the indigenous cultural heritage at times compete with each other within it. The manuscript pages are generally of two columns, with Nahuatl, written first, on the right and a Spanish translation on the left. There are diverse voices, views, and opinions in these 2,400 pages, and the result is a document which at times can appear contradictory.[8] Scholars have proposed several classical and medieval worldbook authors that inspired Sahagún, such as Aristotle, Pliny, Isidore of Seville, and Bartholomew the Englishman. These shaped the late medieval approach to the organization of knowledge.[10] The twelve books of the Florentine Codex are organized in the following way: 1. Gods, religious beliefs and rituals, cosmology, and moral philosophy, 2. Humanity (society, politics, economics, including anatomy and disease), 3. Natural history. The story of the conquest of Mexico is appended to the end of this presentation. This follows the organizational flow of logic found in medieval encyclopedias, in particular the 19-volume De proprietatibus rerum of his fellow Franciscan Friar Bartholomew the Englishman. One scholar has argued that Bartholomew’s work served as a conceptual model for Sahagún, although evidence is circumstantial.[11] With more confidence one can assert that both of these present the cosmos, society and nature of the late medieval paradigm.[10] The codex is composed of the following twelve books:[12] 1. The Gods. Deals with gods worshiped by the natives of this land, which is New Spain. 2. The Ceremonies. Deals with holidays and sacrifices with which these natives honored their gods in times of infidelity. 3. The Origin of the Gods. About the creation of the gods. 4. The Soothsayers. About Indian judiciary astrology or omens and fortune-telling arts. 5. The Omens. Deals with foretelling these natives made from birds, animals, and insects in order to foretell the future. 6. Rhetoric and Moral Philosophy. About prayers to their gods, rhetoric, moral philosophy, and theology in the same context. 7. The Sun, Moon and Stars, and the Binding of the Years. Deals with the sun, the moon, the stars, and the jubilee year. 8. Kings and Lords. About kings and lords, and the way they held their elections and governed their reigns. 9. The Merchants. About merchants, and officials for gold, precious stones and feathers. 10. The People. About general history: it explains vices and virtues, spiritual as well as bodily, of all manner of persons. 11. Earthly Things. About properties of animals, birds, fish, trees, herbs, flowers, metals, and stones, and about colors. 12. The Conquest. About the conquest of New Spain. Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex. Ethnographic methodologies[edit] Sahagún was among the first to develop an array of strategies for gathering and validating knowledge of indigenous New World cultures. Much later, the discipline of anthropology would later formalize these as ethnography (the scientific research strategy to document the beliefs, behavior, social roles and relationships, and worldview of another culture, but to explain these within the logic of that culture). Ethnography requires the practice of empathy with those very different from oneself, and the suspension of one’s own cultural beliefs in order to understand and explain the worldview of those living in another culture. Sahagún systematically gathered knowledge from a range of diverse informants who were recognized as having expert knowledge of Aztec culture. He did so in the native language of Nahuatl, but then compared the answers from different sources of information. He sought out different kinds of informants, including women (which was unusual). Some passages appear to be the transcription of spontaneous narration of religious beliefs, society or nature. Other parts clearly reflect a consistent set of questions presented to different people designed to elicit specific information. Some sections of text report Sahagún’s own narration of events or commentary. He developed a methodology with the following elements: 1. He used the native language of Nahuatl. 2. He elicited information of elders, cultural authorities publicly recognized as most knowledgeable. 3. He adapted the project to the ways that Aztec culture recorded and transmitted knowledge. 4. He used the expertise of his former students at the Colegio de Santa Cruz Tlatelolco. 5. He attempted to capture the totality or complete reality of Aztec culture on its own terms. 6. He structured his inquiry, using questionnaires, but was prepared to set this aside when more valuable information was shared through other means. 7. He attended to the diverse ways that diverse meanings are transmitted through Nahuatl linguistics. 8. He undertook a comparative evaluation of information, drawing from multiple sources, in order to determine the degree of confidence with which he could hold that information. These methodological innovations substantiate the claim Sahagún was the first anthropologist. Most of the Florentine Codex is text, but its 2,000 pictures provide vivid images of 16th century New Spain. Some of these pictures directly support the text; others are thematically related; others are for decorative purposes. Some are colorful large, and consume most of a page; others are black and white sketches. The illustrations offer remarkable detail about life in New Spain, but they do not bear titles, and the relationship of some to the adjoining text is not always self-evident. They can be considered a “third column of language” in the manuscript. Several different artists’ hands have been identified, and many questions about their accuracy have been raised. The drawings convey a blend of Indigenous and European artistic elements and cultural influences.[13] Many passages of the texts in the Florentine Codex present descriptions of like items (e.g., gods, classes of people, animals) according to consistent patterns, and it appears that Sahagún deployed a series of questionnaires to structure his interviews.[10] The following questions appear to have been used to gather information about the gods for Book One: 1. What are the titles, the attributes, or the characteristics of the god? 2. What were his powers? 3. What ceremonies were performed in his honor? 4. What was his attire? For Book Ten, "The People," a questionnaire may have been used to gather information about the social organization of labor and workers, with questions such as: 1. What is the (merchant, artisan) called and why? 2. What particular gods did they venerate? 3. How were their gods attired? 4. How were they worshiped? 5. What do they produce? 6. How did each occupation work? This book also described some other cultural groups in Mesoamerica. Sahagún was particularly interested in Nahua medicine, and as such the information he collected is a major contribution to the history of medicine generally. His interest in recording medical information was not trivial, since many thousands of people died from plagues and diseases, including friars and students at the school. Sections of Books Ten and Eleven describe human anatomy, disease, and medicinal plant remedies.[14] Sahagún named more than a dozen Aztec “doctors” who dictated and edited these sections. The passage on human anatomy appears primarily intended to record vocabulary. A questionnaire such as the following may have been used: 1. What is the name of the plant (plant part)? 2. What does it look like? 3. What does it cure? 4. How is the medicine prepared? 5. How is it administered? 6. Where is it found? The text in this section provides very detailed information about location, cultivation, and medical uses of plants and plant parts as well as information about the uses of animal products as medicine. The drawings in this section provide important visual information to amplify the alphabetic text. The information is useful for a wider understanding of the history of botany and the history of zoology. There has been some scholarly speculation that Sahagún had some involvement in the creation of the Badianus Manuscript, an herbal created in 1552 that has pictorials of medicinal plants and their uses. Originally written in Nahuatl, only the translation to Latin has survived. Book Eleven, “Earthly Things,” has the most text and approximately half of the drawings in the codex. The text describes it as a “forest, garden, orchard of the Mexican language.”[15] It describes the Aztec cultural understanding of the animals, birds, insects, fish and trees in Mesoamerica. Apparently Sahagún designed a questionnaire about animals such as the following: 1. What is the name of the animal? 2. What animals does it resemble? 3. Where does it live? 4. Why does it receive this name? 5. What does it look like? 6. What habits does it have? 7. What does it feed on? 8. How does it hunt? 9. What sounds does it make? Plants and animals are described in association with their behavior and natural conditions or habitat. But then the responses of the Aztecs presented their information in a fashion that was consistent with their worldview. This led in some cases to contradictory and to modern readers somewhat confusing presentations of information. There are also sections on minerals, mining, bridges, roads and food crops. The Florentine Codex is one of the most remarkable social science research projects ever conducted. It is not unique as a chronicle of encountering the new world and its people, for there were others in this era. Sahagún's methods for gathering information from the perspective from within a foreign culture were highly unusual for this time. He reported the worldview of people of Central Mexico as they understood it, and not exclusively from the European perspective. “The scope of the Historia's coverage of contact-period Central Mexico indigenous culture is remarkable, unmatched by any other sixteenth-century works that attempted to describe the native way of life.”[16] Foremost in his own mind, Sahagún was a Franciscan missionary, but he may also rightfully claim the title as Father of American Ethnography.[17] Gallery of images from the Florentine Codex[edit] See also[edit] 1. ^ Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain (Translation of and Introduction to Historia General De Las Cosas De La Nueva España; 12 Volumes in 13 Books ), trans. Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O Anderson (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1950-1982). Images are taken from Fray Bernadino de Sahagún, The Florentine Codex. Complete digital facsimile edition on 16 DVDs. Tempe, Arizona: Bilingual Press, 2009. Reproduced with permission from Arizona State University Hispanic Research Center. 2. ^ H. B. Nicholson, "Fray Bernardino De Sahagún: A Spanish Missionary in New Spain, 1529-1590," in Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of Sahagún, ed. Eloise Quiñones Keber (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2002). 3. ^ Ann Bardsley and Ursula Hanly, U Distinguished Professor of Anthropology Professor Charles Dibble Dies, 5 Dec. 2002, University of Utah. Accessed 7 July 2012. 4. ^ "World Digital Library Adds Florentine Codex". News Releases - Library of Congress. 2012-10-31. Retrieved 2012-11-12. 5. ^ H. B. Nicholson, "Fray Bernardino De Sahagún: A Spanish Missionary in New Spain, 1529-1590," in Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of Sahagún, ed. Eloise Quiñones Keber (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2002). Prologue to Book XI, Introductory Volume, page 46. 6. ^ Alfredo López Austin, "The Research Method of Fray Bernardino De Sahagún: The Questionnaires," in Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún, ed. Munro S. Edmonson (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974). Page 121. 7. ^ Edmonson, M. S. (Ed.) (1974) Sixteenth-century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún, Albuquerque, New Mexico, University of New Mexico Press. 8. ^ a b For a history of this scholarly work, see Miguel León-Portilla, Bernardino De Sahagún: The First Anthropologist (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002). 9. ^ Howard F. Cline, "Evolution of the Historia General" in Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Part 2, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973, pp. 189-207. 10. ^ a b c López Austin, "The Research Method of Fray Bernardino De Sahagún: The Questionnaires." 11. ^ D. Robertson, "The Sixteenth Century Mexican Encyclopedia of Fray Bernardino de Sahagún," Journal of World History 4 (1966). 13. ^ For analysis of the pictures and the artists, see several contributions to John Frederick Schwaller, ed., Sahagún at 500: Essays on the Quincentenary of the Birth of Fr. Bernardino de Sahagún (Berkeley: Academy of American Franciscan History, 2003). 14. ^ Alfredo López Austin, "Sahagún's Work and the Medicine of the Ancient Nahuas: Possibilities for Study," in Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún, ed. Munro S. Edmonson (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974). The ethnobotanic section is an insertion into book eleven, and reads quite differently from the rest of this book. 15. ^ Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain (Translation of and Introduction to Historia General de Las Cosas de la Nueva España; 12 Volumes in 13 Books)., Prologue to Book XI, Introductory Volume, page 88. 16. ^ Nicholson, "Fray Bernardino De Sahagún: A Spanish Missionary in New Spain, 1529-1590." page 27. 17. ^ Arthur J. O Anderson, "Sahagún: Career and Character," in Florentine Codex: Introductions and Indices, ed. Arthur J. O Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1982).	<urn:uuid:41bf4edd-7e4d-42ad-8c38-e5ffb2b380c0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.2797294855117798, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9184474349021912, "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florentine_Codex" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Total population Enrolled members: Regions with significant populations United States (Virginia) English, formerly Algonquian Pamunkey[1] Related ethnic groups Mattaponi, Chickahominy The Pamunkey nation are one of eleven Virginia Indian[2] tribes recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia. The historical tribe was part of the Powhatan paramountcy, made up of Algonquian-speaking tribes. The Powhatan paramount chiefdom was made up over 30 tribes, estimated to total about 10,000-15,000 people at the time the English arrived in 1607.[3] The Pamunkey tribe made up approximately one-tenth to one-fifteenth of the total, as they numbered about 1,000 persons in 1607.[4] When the English arrived, the Pamunkey were one of the most powerful groups of the Powhatan chiefdom. They inhabited the coastal tidewater of Virginia on the north side of the James River near Chesapeake Bay.[5][6] The Pamunkey is one of only two tribes that still retain reservation lands assigned by the 1646 and 1677 treaties with the English colonial government.[7] The Pamunkey reservation is located on some of its ancestral land on the Pamunkey River adjacent to present-day King William County, Virginia. The Mattaponi reservation, the only other in the state, is nearby on the Mattaponi River.[7] The Pamunkey tribe has successfully adapted for continuation through the centuries. Way of life[edit] Subsistence and relationship to the land[edit] The traditional Pamunkey way of life was subsistence living. They lived through a combination of fishing, trapping, hunting, and farming. The latter was developed in the Late Woodland Period of culture, roughly 900 CE - 1600 CE. The peoples used the Pamunkey River as a main mode of transportation and food source. The river also provided access to hunting grounds, and other tribes. Access to the river was crucial, because Pamunkey villages were not seldom permanent settlements. Because the Pamunkey people did not use fertilizers, they moved their fields and homes about every ten years to allow land to lie fallow and recover from cultivation. The Pamunkey, and all Virginia tribes, had an intimate, balanced relationship with the animals, plants, and the geography of their homeland.[7] Like other native tribes, they had techniques, such as controlled burning, to clear land for cultivation or hunting. The land belonged to the group as a whole. The chief and council would allot a parcel of cleared ground to a family head for life. Being a matriarchal society, only women could own land. Upon her death, the parcel would go to her daughters. If she had no female heirs, the ownership of the land would be determined by the female leader of her clan, or Clanmother.[4] Differing concepts of land and farm animal ownership and use caused many conflicts between the Virginia tribes and English colonists. For native tribes, the land was "owned" only as long as it was farmed; after that, it was available for "public" use. The Englishmen had, instead, laws on private property and believed that the land was theirs as soon as the tribe sold it to them. As a result, when Englishmen allowed land to lie fallow, Native Americans assumed they were free to use it for hunting and gathering, just as they always had. Furthermore, Englishmen often let their hogs in particular range free. The animals often ate the tribe's cultivated crops, as well as were caught by Native American hunting techniques which in effect herded wild animals to one area where for slaughter. Many Englishmen considered both encroachments on their private property, and conflicts arose.[3] Pamunkey homes, called yihakans (or yehakins), were long and narrow; they were described as “longhouses” by English colonists. They were structures made from bent saplings that were lashed together at the top to make a barrel shape. Indians covered the saplings with woven mats or bark. The 17th-century historian William Strachey thought that bark was harder to acquire, as he noticed that only higher-status families owned bark-covered houses. In summer, when the heat and humidity increased, the mats could be rolled up or removed to allow more air circulation.[8] Inside the house, they built bedsteads along both walls. They were made of posts put in the ground, about a foot high or more, with small poles attached. The framework was about four feet wide, over which reeds were put. One or more mats was placed on top for bedding; more mats or skins served as blankets and a rolled mat for a pillow. The bedding was rolled up and stored during the day to make the space available for other functions.[8] The Pamunkey practice of matrilineal succession also created some confusion for Englishmen, who finally in the 1677 Treaty of Middle Plantation recognized the Pamunkey queen.[9] As with other tribes in the Powhatan confederacy, the Pamunkey also had a weroance (chief) and a tribal council composed of seven members, elected every four years. The chief and council execute all the tribal governmental functions as set forth by their laws. Traditional elections used a basket, as well as peas and corn kernels in the same number as voters. Members first voted for the chief, followed by votes for the seven council members. For each candidate, a corn kernel signified approbation and a pea a "no" vote, or if there were but two candidates, each could be indicated by a type of seed.[4][7] The same 1896 study noted that tribal laws were concerned with, but not limited to, controlling land use, stealing, and fighting (breaking the peace). Instead of using corporal punishment, incarceration, or chastisement, anyone who broke a tribal law was fined or banished.[4] Because the Pamunkey resented that in the past, outsiders picked out some laws for ridicule. No outsiders are now allowed to see tribal laws.[10] Tribal laws govern all civil matters. In criminal matters, outside authorities respect tribal authority, so a sheriff must receive the chief's permission to serve a warrant. The tribe does not operate a police force or jail. Most tribal members obey the tribal laws out of respect for the chief and the council. The tribe discourages verbal attacks against members. As the Chief Brown explains, they have strict slander laws because, "We're like a 400-year-old subdivision. If we didn't get along we'd have probably killed each other long before now."[10] The chief continued to pay the annual tribute to Virginia's Governor. This consists of game, usually a deer, and pottery or a "peace pipe". The Pamunkey have been paying such tribute since the treaty of 1646. Making this annual payment has not always been easy. Chief Miles remembers one year that was particularly hard, "We couldn't find anything, no deer, no turkeys--nothing. My dad was chief then, and we knew we had to have something to present to the governor; so we went to a turkey farm, bought a live turkey, brought it back to the reservation and killed it. That way we were able to fulfill the terms of the treaty--after all it was killed on the reservation."[6] As far as anyone knows, they have not missed a payment in 331 years.[10] Based on archaeological evidence, scholars estimate that various distinct cultures of Native Americans occupied this part of the mid-Atlantic coast for more than 10,000 years before European contact.[5] Evidence has been collected by archaeologists, anthropologists, and historians.[7] Varying indigenous cultures lived in the areas later occupied by the historic Pamunkey. The Pamunkey are part of the larger Algonquian-speaking language family. This was composed of a number of tribes who spoke variations of the same language, a language now mostly lost. By 1607 more than 30 tribes were tributaries of the Algonquian Powhatan Confederacy, of which the Pamunkey were the largest. They were one of the most powerful tribes.[7][11] Powhatan and his daughter Matoaka (Pocahontas), who achieved historical fame, were Pamunkey Native Americans.[5] She married a Patawomeck tribesman named Kocoum three years before Captain Samuel Argall kidnapped her as a hostage in an attempt to secure the release of some English prisoners and ammunitions held by her father.[citation needed] European contact[edit] Initial contact with Europeans was around 1570. “And from [1570] on at ever briefer intervals until the first permanent English colony was established at Jamestown in 1607, the Powhatan Confederacy was visited by white men: Spanish, French, and English” (Barbour, 5). Scholars estimate that when the English arrived in 1607, this paramount chiefdom numbered about 14,000-21,000 people.[3] Colonists of the first successful English settlement, based at Jamestown, had a complicated relationship with Virginia Indians. In the winter of 1607, Opechancanough, chief of the Pamunkey tribe, captured Captain John Smith. Smith was brought to the paramount chief, Chief Powhatan. This first meeting between Powhatan and Smith resulted in an alliance between the two people. Powhatan sent Smith back to Jamestown in the Spring of 1608 and started sending gifts of food to the colonists.[12] If not for Powhatan's donations, the settlers would not have survived through the first winters. As the settlement expanded, competition for land and other resources, and conflict between the settlers and Virginia tribes increased. Original English impressions[edit] Pamunkey tribal members re-enact the story of Pocahantas. Photo taken in 1910. The story of Pocahontas (Matoaka) tells a piece of Pamunkey history, but from an English perspective. Study of primary documents from the time of English arrival show that initial contact was characterized by mutual cultural misunderstanding. Colonists portrayed the Virginia tribes by contrasts. They had respect for Powhatan, but characterized other Native Americans by terms such as “naked devils”, showing fear. Fear and appreciation of Native Americans was coupled with distrust and uneasiness. George Percy’s account of the early years expresses such duality: “It pleased God, after a while, to send those people which were our mortal enemies to relieve us with victuals, as bread, corn fish, and flesh in great plenty, which was the setting up of our feeble men, otherwise we had all perished”.[13] The English distrusted most tribes, but they noted the Pamunkey did not steal. “Their custom is to take anything they can seize off; only the people of Pamunkey we have not found stealing, but what others can steal, their king receiveth.”[14] Powhatan could not understand the English approach. "What it will avail you to take by force you may quickly have by love, or to destroy them that provide you food? What can you get by war, when we can hide our provisions and fly to the woods? Whereby you must famish by wronging us your friends. And why are you thus jealous of our loves seeing us unarmed, and both do, and are willing still to feed you, with that you cannot get but by our labors?"[15] Smith included this translation of Powhatan's questions in his writings. Powhatan’s maternal brother and ultimate successor, Opechancanough, launched attacks in 1622 and 1644 as a result of English encroaching on Powhatan lands. The first, known as the Indian Massacre of 1622, destroyed settlements such as Henricus and Wolstenholme Towne, and nearly wiped out the colony.[16] Jamestown was spared in the attack of 1622 due to a warning. During each attack, about 350-400 settlers were killed. In 1622 the population had been 1,200; and in 1644, 8,000 prior to the attacks. Captured in 1646, Opechancanough was killed by an English guard, against orders. His death contributed to the decline of the Powhatan Chiefdom.[3] In 1646 the first treaty was signed between the Opechancanough's successor, Necotowance, and the English. The treaty set up boundaries between lands set aside for the Virginia tribes and those that were now considered English owned, reservations lands, and yearly tribute payment of fish and game (made to the English). These boundaries could not be crossed unless it was on official business and badges had to be worn to illustrate the point.[3] The Virginia Colony continued to grow and encroach on Powhatan land, making it impossible for them to sustain traditional practices. Many Pamunkey were forced to work for the English or were enslaved. As the colonial settlement grew, so did settlers with their resistance to Native American attacks. Bacon's Rebellion[edit] Bacon's Rebellion, which began in 1675, resulted in attacks on several tribes that were loyal to the English. Historians see the rebellion as mostly arising out of colonist Nathaniel Bacon and Governor Sir William Berkeley's personal rivalry. Some of the causes of the rebellion were declining tobacco prices (economic problems), growing commercial competition (from Maryland and the Carolinas), an increasingly restricted English market, and rising prices from English manufactured goods (mercantilism). Bacon, and colonists who agreed with him, found a scapegoat in continuing tensions and raids by local Virginia tribes. During reprisals for an incident in what is now Fairfax County, Bacon and his followers attacked innocent tribes, including the Pamunkey, for raids conducted by others.[17] Cockacoeske (weroansqua of the Pamunkey), who succeeded her husband after he was killed fighting for the English, was an ally of Berkeley against Bacon. To the English, she was known as "Queen of the Pamunkey". She is known for having signed the Articles of Peace (Treaty of Middle Plantation) after Bacon's Rebellion ended. As a result of the treaty, she gained authority over the Rappahannock and Chickahominy tribes, which had not formerly been under the paramount chiefdom of the Pamunkey. Completion of the treaty ushered in a time of peace between the Virginia tribes and the English.[7] This treaty was signed by more tribal leaders than that of 1646. It reinforced the annual tribute payments and added the Siouan and Iroquoian tribes to the Tributary Indians of the colonial government. More reservation lands were established for the tribes, but the treaty required Virginia Native American leaders to acknowledge they and their peoples were subjects of the King of England.[6] Pamunkey Indians today[edit] Today, there are about 200 tribal members, many of whom live at least part-time on their 1,200-acre (4.9 km2) reservation.[10] The Pamunkey have been able to survive because of their ability to adapt as a tribe. Withstanding pressure to give up their reservation lands has helped them maintain traditional ways.[5] Men use some of the old methods for fishing, part of the tribe's traditional heritage. They also continue to hunt and trap on reservation lands.[6] In 1918 the tribe built a shad hatchery to ensure continuation of an important food source. When shad are caught, the eggs of females are taken and placed into a bucket. Sperm from males are put into the same bucket. At holding tanks, the fertilized eggs are allowed to grow and hatch. Once the new fish are grown enough, usually after 21 days, they are flushed back into the river. Chief Miles estimated that seven million fry were put back into the river in 1998 and probably triple that amount in 1999.[6] The Pamunkey tradition of pottery making dates back to before the English settled Jamestown. They have been using clay from the banks of the Pamunkey River since pre-historic times. Many continue to use the traditional method. To do so, they let the clay dry, then break it into smaller pieces. These pieces are soaked in water until reaching the consistency of cream. The clay is strained to remove rocks or debris. The water is drained and pressed out until the clay is like dough. It is then ready to be made into pots. Traditional pottery by Pamunkey ancestors of the Woodland Period was strengthened with crushed or burned shells, crushed steatite, river pebbles, or quartz sand.[6] In 1932, during the Great Depression, the state of Virginia helped the Pamunkey develop their pottery as a source of income. The state set up a program for a Pottery School and provided a teacher. The State furnished materials for the building, but the tribe built it themselves. Tribal members learned methods to increase the speed of manufacture. They incorporated firing pottery in a kiln and using glazes into their techniques. They learned to use squeeze molds to produce copies of pots quickly. Kiln firing produced finished pottery of more uniform brown tones than the shades of gray from traditional pottery techniques.[6] Pamunkey pottery-makers learned how to paint and glaze pots. The teacher taught them designs and pictographs based on well-known and popular Southwestern Native American traditions. Two pictographs represent important stories to the tribe: the story of Captain John Smith and Pocahontas and the story of the treaty that set up payments of game. After the teacher left the school, some members returned to traditional pottery techniques.[6] Today, Pamunkey use both traditional and newer techniques to create their pieces. To differentiate, pots made the traditional way are called blackware. The Pamunkey Indian Museum has a variety of vessels, as well as videos and exhibits that explain the differences in construction methods, types of temper, and decorating techniques.[6] The Pamunkey ensured their Pamunkey Indian Tribe Museum, built in 1979, resembled the traditional yehakin. Located on the reservation, the museum provides visitors with insight into the tribe's long history and culture. Included are artifacts from more than 10,000 years of indigenous settlement, replicas of prehistoric materials, and stories. The Smithsonian Institution recently selected the Pamunkey as one of 24 tribes to be featured in the National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI) in Washington, DC. See also[edit] 1. ^ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Pamunkey". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 2. ^ "Writer's Guide", Virginia Council on Indians, Commonwealth of Virginia, 2009 3. ^ a b c d e Rountree, Helen C. and E. Randolph Turner III. Before and After Jamestown: Virginia's Powhatans and Their Predecessors. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002. 4. ^ a b c d Pollard, John Garland. The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office 5. ^ a b c d Egloff, Keith and Deborah Woodward. First People: The Early Indians of Virginia. Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1992. 6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Waugaman, Sandra F. and Danielle-Moretti-Langholtz, Ph.D. We're Still Here: Contemporary Virginia Indians Tell Their Stories. Richmond: Palari Publishing, 2006 (revised edition). 7. ^ a b c d e f g Wood, Karenne (editor). The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail, 2007. 8. ^ a b Rountree, Helen C. The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, 1989. 9. ^ Alfred A. Cave, Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial America (2011) University of Nebraska Press at pp. 151,165 10. ^ a b c d Joanne Kimberlain, "We're Still Here," Virginian-Pilot. June 7–9, 2009: Print. 11. ^ Hodge, Frederick Webb (1910). Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, Part 2, p. 198. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 12. ^ Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown, Charlottesvile: University of Virginia Press, 2005. 13. ^ Southern 2004, p. 35 14. ^ Southern 2004, p. 83 15. ^ Southern 2004, p. 97 16. ^ Swanton 2003, p. 70 17. ^ "Bacon's Rebellion", National Park Service External links[edit]	<urn:uuid:aca06174-9d08-4567-9add-310e773c117d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.05503875017166138, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9638272523880005, "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamunkey" }
Definitions for Overview of noun fluttering The noun fluttering has 1 senses? (no senses from tagged texts) 1. flap, flapping, flutter, fluttering (the motion made by flapping up and down) Overview of verb flutter The verb flutter has 5 senses? (first 2 from tagged texts) 1. (1) flit, flutter, fleet, dart 2. (1) flicker, waver, flitter, flutter, quiver (move back and forth very rapidly; "the candle flickered") 3. flutter (flap the wings rapidly or fly with flapping movements; "The seagulls fluttered overhead") 4. palpitate, flutter (beat rapidly; "His heart palpitated") 5. bat, flutter (wink briefly; "bat one's eyelids") © 2001-2013, Demand Media, all rights reserved. The database is based on Word Net a lexical database for the English language. see disclaimer Classroom \| Privacy Policy \| Terms \| Ad Choices	<urn:uuid:02afa355-fe3e-408c-b168-017220fbd0e6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.5266977548599243, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8843895196914673, "url": "http://www.synonym.com/definitions/fluttering/" }
Savi's warbler From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Locustella luscinioides) Jump to: navigation, search Savi's warbler Conservation status Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Locustellidae Genus: Locustella Species: L. luscinoides Binomial name Locustella luscinioides (Savi, 1824) The Savi's warbler (Locustella luscinioides) is a species of Old World warbler in the grass warbler genus Locustella. It breeds in southern Europe and temperate western Asia. It is migratory, wintering in northern and sub-Saharan Africa. This small passerine bird is found in reed beds, usually with some bushes. Three to six eggs are laid in a nest in reeds. The adult has an unstreaked grey-brown back, whitish grey underparts and a lack of throat streaks, which is a distinction from the river warbler. The sexes are identical, as with most warblers, but young birds are yellower below. Like most warblers, it is insectivorous. This is not a shy species, but can be difficult to see in the reeds except sometimes when singing. The About this sound "song" is a monotonous mechanical insect-like reeling, often given at dusk. It is similar to the song of other species in the group, but is generally faster and deeper and bears a strong resemblance to that of Roesel's Bush-cricket. The common name of this bird recognises the Italian ornithologist Paolo Savi, the author of "Ornitologia Toscana" (1827–1831) and "Ornitologia Italiana" (1873–1876). In 1821, Savi was given specimens of an unstreaked, dark, rufous-brown warbler which was new to science. He published a full description of the bird in 1824, and it became known by the common name of Savi's warbler.[2] It forms a species pair with Locustella fluviatilis and studies of mitochondrial DNA show that both are closely related to Locustella lanceolata and the Locustella naevia.[3] There are three subspecies. Locustella luscinioides luscinioides is the nominate subspecies which is native to Central and Eastern Europe, Spain, Portugal and North Africa. It winters in West Africa in an area stretching from Senegal to Lake Chad and northern Ghana, and probably also in South Sudan.[3] Locustella luscinioides sarmatica is native to Ukraine, the Sea of Azov, the Volga region and the Urals; it winters in North Eastern Africa. Locustella luscinioides fusca is found from Jordan and Turkey as far east as central Asia; it winters in Sudan and Ethiopia.[4] Singing from an alder tree The upper-parts of Savi's warbler are a uniform dark reddish-brown, sometimes with a slight greenish tinge. It has indistinct buff eye-stripes, dark lores and pale brown ear-coverts. The brown biak is slender and the irises are also brown. The chin, throat and belly are whitish-buff and the rest of the underparts sandy brown. In the breeding season, both upper-parts and underparts are slightly paler. The legs are brown. The bird is around 14 cm (5.5 in) long.[5] The song is a trill very similar to that of the grasshopper warbler but slightly lower pitched and less prolonged. It is often preceded by a series of low ticks which gradually merge into the trill. The bird sings from high on a reed head with open beak and vibrating throat. Both males and females sing.[5] The Savi's warbler moults into its breeding plumage before returning to its summer range. On arrival at the wetlands, the birds flit among the reeds and undergrowth and are seldom seen, but on establishing territories, they climb to the top of reeds and sing from prominent positions. They feed on insects such as flies, beetles, moths, grubs and damselflies. Small worms are also believed to be taken. After breeding the birds disperse somewhat to less densely vegetated fens, moult into their winter plumage and depart on their migration. Little is known of their habits in their winter quarters but they occupy similar swampy areas, have been seen in cornfields and may feed and roost in small flocks.[5] Adult with nest The breeding season for Savi's warbler starts in mid-April in the southern part of its range and at the end of May in Northern Europe.[5] The first males to arrive take up occupation of the best territories, which are judged by the density of the reeds and sedges. As the females arrive, they successively pair with the males with the best territories.[6] Late arrivals have poorer quality territories and their breeding success is impaired, usually because fewer clutches are successfully reared.[6] The nest is built by the female on a little reed platform in the manner of a Moorhen's nest and is well concealed among dead reeds and clumps of vegetation. It is often made from leaves of Glyceria but some nests instead are neatly lined with fine grasses and leaves. It is not usually visible from above. Four to six (occasionally three) eggs are laid. They are greyish-white, liberally speckled with greyish rusty-coloured spots, sometimes in a darker band round the egg. They measure about 19.5 by 14.5 millimetres (0.77 by 0.57 in). Incubation lasts for about twelve days and is done exclusively by the female. She also feeds the chicks when they first hatch with the male joining in as they grow. The young fledge in about twelve days and there are normally two broods.[5] Distribution and habitat[edit] Savi's warbler breeds in Algeria, Spain, Mallorca, France, Sicily, Crete, Italy. Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Jordan, Turkey and Russia as far east as the River Volga. It winters in Algeria, Morocco, Sudan and Ethiopia. It is known as an occasional visitor to the United Kingdom (where a few pairs breed sporadically), Belgium, Switzerland, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Cyprus and Israel.[5] Savi's warbler is to be found in reed beds, marshes and lagoons with reeds, sedges and other marsh vegetation, perhaps with scattered sallows or bushes. It climbs stems in order to sing in full view but is otherwise difficult to see as it flits with agility through the stems and tangled growth and is seldom seen on open ground. It occupies similar habitats in its winter quarters but may also be found in fens or marshy locations with open water away from reeds.[5] Savi's warbler is assessed by the IUCN in their Red List of Threatened Species as being of "Least Concern". This is because it has a large total population and an extensive range. The population in Europe is estimated to be between 530 and 800 thousand breeding pairs with a total of 1.6 to 2.4 million individuals. As Europe amounts to about two thirds of its total range, the world population may be in the region of 2.1 to 4.8 million individuals. Numbers of birds may be decreasing somewhat but not to the extent that would warrant listing Savi's warbler under a higher risk category.[1] 1. ^ a b BirdLife International (2012). "Locustella luscinioides". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013. 2. ^ Alla Memoria Paolo Savi (in Italian). 1871. 3. ^ a b "Savi's Warbler (Locustella luscinioides)". Internet Bird Collection. Retrieved 2013-08-01. 4. ^ Lepage, Denis. "Savi's Warbler (Locustella luscinioides) (Savi, 1824)". Avibase. Retrieved 2013-08-01. 5. ^ a b c d e f g Witherby, H. F. (ed.) (1943). Handbook of British Birds, Volume 2: Warblers to Owls. H. F. and G. Witherby Ltd. pp. 32–34. 6. ^ a b Aebischer, Adrian; Perrin, Nicolas; Krieg, Myriam; Studer, Jacques; Meyer, Dietrich R. (1996). "The Role of Territory Choice, Mate Choice and Arrival Date on Breeding Success in the Savi's warbler Locustella luscinioides". Journal of Avian Biology 27 (2): 143–152. JSTOR 3677143. External links[edit]	<urn:uuid:681577b5-a0f9-457c-8419-673d68119bc8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.03093242645263672, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9251260161399841, "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locustella_luscinioides" }
Rags to Riches- homophones Practice with its, it's there, they're and their. Choose the correct word for each sentence. fourth grade McGrath Elementary This activity was created by a Quia Web subscriber. Learn more about Quia Create your own activities	<urn:uuid:1e1cfc8d-7feb-4e70-a547-11ae002c127a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.9362896084785461, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9463307857513428, "url": "http://www.mhcentro.com/rr/141791.html" }
Jewish War & Peace 101 Print this page Print this page The rabbis of the Mishnah later expounded upon this distinction between wars with the Canaanites and those with other nations. The former they called a milhemet mitzvah, a commanded war. Wars against the Amalekites, the nation that attacked the Israelites as they left Egypt, and defensive wars were also put into this category. All other wars are referred to as milhemet reshut, permitted wars. This includes wars of territorial expansion, for example, the wars of King David. israeli soldiersFor most of Jewish history after the biblical era, the laws of combat were merely theoretical. There were no Jewish armies and no Jewish wars. Therefore, practical ethics of war are not often discussed in Talmudic and medieval Jewish literature. Nonetheless, laws such as the prohibition against destroying fruit trees and, indeed, the unwarranted destruction of any property, do exist. A fascinating law prohibits besieging a city on all four sides. One side must be left open for people to escape. Peace and Nonviolence In addition to these ethical considerations, Talmudic and post-Talmudic rabbinic authorities tried to temper the militancy of the biblical record. They made it virtually impossible to declare a milhemet reshut, and also declared that the Canaanites and Amalekites were extinct. This leaves the defensive war as the only type of war executable in most situations, and it would also eliminate the requirement to kill every last enemy. Although Judaism never embraced pacifism and nonviolence as absolute principles, there are certain examples of nonviolence in the Bible, and pacifism was employed on occasion in response to particular situations. Please consider making a donation today.	<urn:uuid:d319bccf-f0bc-4ce5-888c-defe94221e4b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.12807196378707886, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9561163187026978, "url": "http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Issues/War_and_Peace/War_and_Peace_101.shtml?p=2" }
Cairobserver — Muhammad Ali's Sabil, 1820 Muhammad Ali’s Sabil, 1820 A sabil is a drinking fountain, charitably endowed to distribute free drinking water to the people. In Cairo, most drinking water was brought from the Nile to be sold on the streets by water carriers, hence sabils were welcome and useful, and many were built in the city. By establishing a sabil, the founder hoped to earn credit toward in the hereafter, but also to signal social status and perpetuate his or her memory. Sabils can be found throughout the Islamic world, for the tradition of offering water to the thirsty is deeply rooted in Islam. When sabils first appeared in Cairo in the fourteenth century, they were attached to mosques and other religious buildings that were founded by sultans and elite members. Later, wealthy men and women built them as separate structures at prominent locations in the city. Only in Cairo was an elementary school, called a kuttab, included in the same building, above the sabil. These sabil-kuttabs became a standard feature of the city’s landscape. When Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798, his surveyors counted more than three hundred of them in Cairo. Cairo’s sabil-kuttabs reflected the architectural styles of the periods when they were built. The early ones are splendid examples of Mamluk style, an architectural tradition so deeply rooted in Cairo that it continued into the Ottoman period. Late eighteenth-century sabil-kuttabs in Cairo are fine examples of an architectural style that combined the Mamluk tradition with elements of Ottoman decoration originating in Istanbul. Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha broke the centuries-long architectural tradition and inaugurated a completely new style in Cairo by erecting this sabil. He chose a prominent location in a busy commercial area on the main street of the city. He imported white marble and timber from Turkey, and probably craftsmen as well. He chose to erect a building of such grand scale and splendid appearance as to emphasize its founder’s political power. Calligraphic panels on the façade, written in Ottoman Turkish, display poetic verses and the names of Mahmud II, who was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, of which Egypt was a part, and Muhammad ‘Ali, its governor. The sabil was built to commemorate Muhammad ‘Ali’s beloved son, Prince Tusun, who had died of bubonic plague three years earlier at the age of 22. The grieving father spared no effort or expense to imprint on Cairo a lasting mark of his family’s presence and importance. It was also a turning point in Cairo’s architecture. The style of the opulent carved-marble decoration on the bowed façade was completely novel. It was an Ottoman interpretation of European baroque, but an interpretation that was very modern at the time, with a strong classical element. Wide, overhanging wooden eaves, richly carved and painted, were also a Turkish motif. In another departure from tradition, there was no kuttab over the sabil, which was instead surmounted by a lead-covered dome, like many buildings in the imperial capital. As if to make the point even more strongly, the dome’s interior was decorated with paintings depicting an imaginary Turkish urban landscape, not at all like the skyline of Cairo. A glittering gilded crescent crowned the building; the main entrance doors were cast in solid bronze. Gold-covered ornate grilles in arched windows were meant to impress those who stepped up to receive a cup of water from a marble basin behind them. Reflections on antiquity management Reaching Muhammad Ali’s Sabil is easy, it is a short walk from the famous Bab Zuwayla. The building retains its restored appearance and it is open to the public for a symbolic fee. Inside, the restoration team created an exhibit telling the story of the building and its patron, Muhammad Ali. A classroom on the upper floor from when a Kuttab/school was added to the building’s function, remains with its school desks. Below the cistern that was once filled with water to supply the community is accessible via a small stair. It is a wonderful example of restoration. However, once the dedicated team hands over the keys to the authorities in charge of managing the site, namely the Supreme Council of Antiquities, the building’s fate is in government hands. The authorities have not learned neither from experience nor from exposure to other contexts, how to keep a monument alive, living, and part of a community. This is a management problem which seems to be the easiest bit since all the difficult work was already done by the restoration team. Sadly, like many historic sites in Egypt that are not of the caliber of pyramids, sites such as the sabil are under-visited, and minimally managed. (meaning unless a disaster takes place no one from the authorities will pay attention to the building’s afterlife once it has been restored). English and Arabic publication were created and printed by the AUC press and the architect had dedicated a space for their sale by the entrance of the sabil, yet copies are not available and the space is unused. Inside there is a wonderful courtyard and a small cantina that could serve hot and cold drinks, yet the tables are stowed away and the cantina is empty of supplies. In Cairo’s tourism map, despite the sabil’s location on historic Cairo’s main street, it is off the beaten path and few tourists visit. The community, although they welcomed the restoration, are not invited by the authorities to use the space. The sabil, and others like it dotting Cairo, could be made into pivotal elements in the urban environment, as they once were, with new functions. They can be part of the community and income generating tourist sites. Income generation is essential for restored historic buildings and Muhammad Ali’s sabil has the potential to be economically independent with proper management. Income generated could pay for staff, cover maintenance costs, etc. The unused bookshop and the cafe are missed opportunities. The problem is greater than this particular example and goes back to the bureaucratic structure controlling antiquities but also the very mindset of the institution. Considering how many historic sabils there are, IMAGINE IF there was an expert on sabils, in charge of Cairo’s sabils. Additionally, each sabil would have its own person in charge. As a team these managers would organize events such as poetry readings, political debate, art and music events aimed at the community. They would also manage various income generating sources such as the sale of books and souvenirs, beverages and snacks (if space is available). Sabil walking tours could be organized so that a group can walk from one sabil to another learning about their distinction, architectural significance, historical significance, etc. Income generated would NOT need to go to the SCA’s purse nor to a centralized government account (which is current policy). Imagine how reworking the way these historic buildings are managed can give them new life, make them relevant to residents and tourists. The potential is there and it is achievable. 20 notes 1. cairobserver posted this Blog comments powered by Disqus	<urn:uuid:2a09d13d-c2c4-4725-bac0-48c072ace2fb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.07610690593719482, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9742076396942139, "url": "http://cairobserver.com/post/11551858629/muhammad-alis-sabil-1820" }
Kharosthi alphabet The Kharosthi alphabet was invented sometime during the 3rd century BC and was possibly derived from the Aramaic alphabet. It was widely used in northwest India and central Asia until the 4th century AD. Unlike the Brahmi script, which was invented at around the same time and spawned many of the modern scripts of India and South East Asia, Kharosthi had no descendants. Kharoshti was deciphered by James Prinsep and others around the middle of the 19th century. Since then further material has been found and the script is now better understood. Notable features Used to write: Gandhari and Sanskrit Kharosthi alphabet Kharosthi consonants Kharosthi vowels, numerals and punctuation Sample text Kharosthi sample text Kharosthi information (includes free Kharosthi font) Kharosthi Unicode proposal submitted by Andrew Glass, Stefan Baums, and Richard Salomon - the above script chart and text sample is based on this A Preliminary Study of Kharosthi Manuscript Paleography, by Andrew Glass Writing system used to write Sanskrit Learn Chinese Characters with the Omniglot Chinese app \| Language Jobs at Hosted by Kualo	<urn:uuid:e27b3d82-b9fe-4477-a1af-003a1b3e5ce3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.028442203998565674, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8369237184524536, "url": "http://omniglot.com/writing/kharosthi.htm" }
Psychology Wiki Polarization (psychology) 34,139pages on this wiki In communications and social psychology, polarization is the process whereby a social or political group is divided into two opposing sub-groups with fewer and fewer members of the group remaining neutral or holding an intermediate position. When polarization occurs, there is a tendency for the opposing sides of an argument to make increasingly disagreeable statements, via the "pendulum effect". Thus, it is commonly observed in polarized groups, that judgments made after group discussion will be more extreme on a given subject than the average of individual judgments made prior to discussion. Also called 'group polarization'; used to be called the 'risky shift phenomenon', with particular reference to jury decision-making. See alsoEdit Around Wikia's network Random Wiki	<urn:uuid:d2a1a486-ed70-4123-96c6-d9257ca844f5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.07771861553192139, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8032156825065613, "url": "http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Polarization_(psychology)" }
Russia's Pride, a biography of the inventor of the AK-47; Mikhail Kalashnikov. Essay by BalthomosHigh School, 12th gradeA+, July 2009 download word file, 4 pages 0.0 Downloaded 1799 times In the Great Patriotic War (1941-45), when the Germans invaded Russia, the Russians had a disadvantage in firepower. The Germans had superior firepower over the Russians, but the Russians eventually. As a result, Mikhail Kalashnikov, who was a Russian tank sergeant during the war, invented the AK-47. As a revolutionary, a person who creates a belief or an invention with the intention that it will help people, Kalashnikov change the lives of the people economically, politically, and socially. The affects of the belief or invention is a positive idea from the person and changes society. Kalashnikov's intention when he created the AK-47 was to protect Russia, but now the assault rifle is used worldwide. Kalashnikov's invention, after more than 50 years, is still used today and is known to be the world's best and deadliest assault rifle. With the multitude of people using the AK-47, Kalashnikov has changed warfare, Russia's nationalism, and has been awarded the highest honors. Kalashnikov came from a peasant family and had little education; he had only finished secondary school. Kalashnikov was working in a Russian depot as a technical clerk before he was called up for military services. He graduated from a school of tank drivers. It was during the Great Patriotic War when Kalashnikov, a tank sergeant for Russia's Red Army, conceived the idea of making an assault rifle. The war started when Germany invaded the USSR in June 1941, during WWII. To defend themselves, Soviet troops retreated then returned to attack. By April 1945, Russia had forced Germans back and the war ended in May 1945. The Russians had made huge sacrifices to win the war; about 20 million died and more were wounded. One major factor that many Russians died during the war was that their weaponry was primitive compared to their enemy's weapons. Countries saw the value of the AK-47 and changed their weapons and combat strategies. Kalashnikov revolutionized warfare because many people accepted the significance of his invention. Guy Martin admits, "the Central Artillery Administration of the USSR adopted the AK-47 as the standard issue weapon for the Soviet army" (par. 2). Kalashnikov changed the Soviet army's standard issue weapon into the AK-47. The AK-47 has the highest accuracy and effectiveness of an assault rifle, so the Soviet army's defenses and firepower increased. By equipping the Soviet army with the AK-47, Kalashnikov has increased competition between their opponents. The AK-47 was created to not be a sophisticated weapon, but a simple weapon that can be used by even a child, not that it was created for children to use. It may look like a crude weapon compared to others in the market now, but experienced soldiers can assure that it is the best of their kind. With better weapons, countries can defend themselves more effectively or can conquer others with ease. After having so many people use the AK-47, the Russians were recognized of their invention. After Kalashnikov's influence over warfare, Russians have had a boost in pride for its country. Before Kalashnikov invented the AK-47, Russia was in a deep state of turmoil due to its failures in history. C.J. Chivers adds, "Russia has been struggling with political and military failures ever since the fall of socialism. The invention of the AK-47 was a step towards making up for its failures. Russians carry pride because someone from their country invented such a well known gun that no other can match" (C.J., par. 11). Kalashnikov's influence over the people of his country has been a positive change. Many Russians have lost a sense of nationalism because of past failures in government. Russia's lack of industrialization, about 200 years behind most of the Allies during WWII, made Russia withdraw from the war while giving up a huge piece of land to Germany. These moments of defeat and bitterness has made Russia's history gloomy. The invention of the AK-47 has shined a light over Russia's history because it tells others that Russia had a great affect in the world. Kalashnikov's invention brings Russia to pride and recognition when people talk of the deadly AK-47. Kalashnikov was valued as a great inventor and praised throughout Russia because of the major changes he caused. Kalashnikov was recognized as a hero for his country because of his act of inventing a weapon to protect it. The article, "Legendary Kalashnikov honored on his birthday", points out, "at the age of 30 Kalashnikov won the Stalin Prize and a year later he was awarded an order of the Hero of Socialist Labor" (TASS, par. 2). Kalashnikov received these awards and more because people recognized him for his changes in the world. No one would get an award like the Stalin Prize if he/she didn't do anything important and create a drastic change. Kalashnikov changed the world by inventing the AK-47 and his intentions of inventing it earned him awards and recognition from political leaders to soldiers. The changes Kalashnikov made in the world as well as being well-known by countries and people make him a revolutionary. Kalashnikov has made an impact not only in Russia, but globally. Many countries are manufacturing the AK-47 and they use it because they know of its effectiveness and quality. It isn't remarkable that it is still being favored after 50 years of being invented. The AK-47 won't be replaced as the top assault rifle for a long time. This is because there would be no other inventor like Kalashnikov that can invent for his/her country at such a dire time and for a great cause. Work Cited"AK47 rifle: Brutal but effective." The Engineer. 5 Nov. 1999: 22. Chivers, C.J. "Russia salutes father of the Kalashnikov." The International Herald Tribune. 12 Nov. 2004: 2Hidge, Billy. "Killing Machine." Stuff. Apr. 2005: 112-113"Legendary Kalashnikov honored on his birthday." TASS. 10 Nov. 2004. Martin, Guy. "Killing Machine." Esquire. Jun. 1997: 72+. Tenner, Ed. "Kalashnikov's Gun." Technology Review. Mar. 2005: 68.	<urn:uuid:6ead19f2-1c7e-44f7-9c2f-70381eecac97>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.5756596326828003, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9773691892623901, "url": "http://www.writework.com/essay/russia-s-pride-biography-inventor-ak-47-mikhail-kalashnikov" }
Friday, December 19, 2008 Winter Solstice on Sunday Position of the sun in the sky over the course of the day during the summer and winter solstice days, and both equinox days. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Winter Solstice occurs on December 21, 2008 at 12:04 UT (Universal Time) - or 04:16 Bermuda local time. This means that at noon on Sunday the sun will be at its lowest point relative to the southern horizon for the whole year. The angle of the sun will only be 33* South above the horizon - as opposed to June 21st, when it is almost directly overhead, at 83* South. It will also be the shortest day of the year, with only 10 hours of daylight. The sun will rise at 7:16 am, and set at 5:18 pm - local time The angle of the sun and the length of the day affects the amount of light available for photosynthesis by hard corals, soft corals, and macroalgae growing on reefs. Furthermore, since Bermuda is the most northerly reef in the world, this means that patch reefs obtain more sun on their south sides than they do on their north sides. In my PhD I measured light levels as well as reef coral cover and species diversity on the south and north sides of patch reefs in the North Lagoon of Bermuda. Graph of the proportion of surface light available to southern and northern reef slopes, relative to depth. Light on the shady sides (with a Northern Aspect) have up to 5x less available light as the sunny side. Since light also decreases the deeper one goes, due to the light-blocking effects of suspended sediments, plankton and other things in the water, this relationship decreases with depth. Cartoon of the effects of Bermuda's northerly position on sun angle, and as a result, coral assemblage structure, on patch reefs. The differences in light between the south and north sides of patch reefs in Bermuda results in differences in coral abundance and the kinds of corals that are found on each side. Shade-loving branching corals dominate the north sides of patch reefs, while sun-loving head corals are more abundant on the south sides of the same reefs. Dr. Thad Murdoch - BREAM Project Leader	<urn:uuid:eaebe1f0-40eb-4379-a462-c7051cea9a36>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.11082863807678223, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9352856874465942, "url": "http://bermudabream.blogspot.com/2008_12_19_archive.html" }
Stressed-Out Tadpoles Pump Up Their Tails Stressed-Out Tadpoles Pump Up Their Tails View gallery A wood frog tadpole with a large, predator-induced tail. Tadpoles grow pumped-up tails when stressed out by the threat of predators nearby, a new study finds. These beefed-up tails help the tadpoles escape predators such as dragonfly larvae, according to research published today (Feb. 5) in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. The chemical signal that allows this change is a stress hormone called corticosterone, similar to cortisol in humans. "The larger picture is that we've known for a long time that animals have what are called plastic responses to the environment," said study researcher Robert Denver, an endocrinologist at the University of Michigan, referring to body changes that occur in response to environmental cues. "We provide a mechanism for how the environmental signal is sensed and how that's translated into an adaptive morphological response," Denver told LiveScience. [5 Ways Your Cells Deal With Stress] Stressed-out tadpoles Denver and his colleagues had already observed that tadpoles housed in the same water as predators respond in two ways. First, they freeze up and stay motionless for hours when first exposed. Then, over the next week or so, the tadpoles develop large, thick tails. (A far more natural process than other recent tadpole news, in which scientists induced tadpoles to grow eyes on their tails.) These responses only occur when tadpoles sense a pheromone released by other tadpoles upon being attacked. The tadpoles also release this pheromone when they're poked with a hypodermic needle, Denver said, which allows researchers to collect the chemical without feeding the tadpoles to dragonfly larvae. The researchers wanted to understand how the stress systems of the tadpoles responded to this pheromone. "We know that when animals get attacked by predators, or if there are predators around, they typically mount a stress response, so stress hormones go up," Denver said. But that's not what happened when the researchers exposed wild-caught tadpoles of the wood frog (Rana sylvatica) to water where dragonfly larvae lived (caged off, so they couldn't hunt the tadpoles). In fact, for the first few hours, the tadpoles actually suppressed their stress systems. "This allows them to stay quiet for a few hours," Denver said. The drop in stress hormones leads to less of an urge to move around and forage, he said. Long-term strategy Holding still may work for a while, but tadpoles eventually have to get moving again. Their stress hormones seem to facilitate that: By about 24 hours, they'd risen back to baseline levels, the researchers found, and by four days, they were higher than in tadpoles kept in water without predators. This increased corticosterone level persisted for at least eight days after it spiked. The researchers hypothesized that the corticosterone increase was triggering the tail growth in predator-stressed tadpoles. To test the idea, they exposed tadpoles directly to corticosterone-infused water. Sure enough, the tadpoles' tails grew. In another experiment, the researchers grew tadpole tails in a dish. Adding corticosterone beefed up the disembodied tails, too. Finally, the researchers exposed large-tailed tadpoles to real-life predator scenarios, allowing the dragonfly larvae out of their cages. More large-tailed tadpoles survived than normal-tailed tadpoles, Denver said. "That suggests there is an enhanced fitness of these animals," he said. The researchers next hope to learn more about the structure and the function of the alarm pheromone that triggers these stress hormone changes, ultimately leading to bigger-tailed tadpoles. They'd also like to know more about how corticosterone acts on the tail to make it grow, Denver said. View Comments	<urn:uuid:3efcecd4-1fb2-4a95-ade2-a17410289a6d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.04011034965515137, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9372796416282654, "url": "http://news.yahoo.com/stressed-tadpoles-pump-tails-000515982.html" }
USGS - Science for a changing world Rat Race–Nutria in the City This Science Feature can be found at: Nutria on a partially submerged grocery cart. Photo credit: Trevor Sheffels Urban locales are not the typical place one thinks of when the word “nutria” is spoken. Yet this invasive species is living, nay thriving, in metropolitan Portland, Oregon. Typically found in coastal and inland freshwater marshes, nutria are perhaps better known for their feeding and burrowing behaviors which are destroying coastal wetlands in Maryland and Louisiana, but they can currently be found in 15 states, coast-to-coast. Nutria are large semi-aquatic rodents that resemble native beavers and muskrats. Native to South America, nutria were introduced into the United States for their fur in 1899, and although some populations have been eradicated, other populations exist as remnants or are thriving. Normally this quest for survival takes place in the “wilderness,” not blocks from the local coffee shop. But in Portland, feral nutria have made the metropolitan area their home. Nutria have inhabited the Pacific Northwest since the 1930s, and have frequented the Portland metro area since about 1936 or ‘37. Nutria can be found where there is slow-flowing water deep enough for them to swim in. These herbivores eat aquatic and terrestrial vegetation, feeding on the base of plant stems, and digging for roots in the winter. Their grazing habits can strip large patches of marsh and their digging overturns the marsh’s upper peat level and erodes streambanks. Even though nutria have been in the Pacific Northwest for more than 80 years, there has not been a lot of research on them or their impacts on the ecosystem. Until Trevor Sheffels that is. Sheffels, who studied the metropolitan nutria with the USGS for his doctoral dissertation, looked at habitat suitability, movement patterns and ways to offset the damage nutria cause. His study is the basis of this article. Nutria live about two-to-three years, and they can have two-to-three litters a year with an average of five young in each litter. They are very active during the day, at levels higher than reported previously, providing more opportunities for nutria to be in close contact with humans. People have been observed feeding nutria as if they were pigeons in Central Park, except in this case they are feeding an invasive species that is adaptable to human systems. The nutria in this study stayed within the small urban habitat restoration wetlands instead of traveling long distances, which suggests these restoration sites are suitable for sustaining nutria populations. To manage the species, plastic mesh tubes have been used to protect woody vegetation from nutria, while new multiple-capture live-traps have shown promise for use in urban areas because they virtually eliminated the capture of other species. In the Pacific Northwest and nationally, the nutria problem is likely to worsen as a result of climate change. Coupled with the fact that nutria are inhabiting urban areas, it is important to find ways to minimize habitat degradation, economic losses, and human safety concerns associated with this invasive species. Current research shows that with climate change, nutria in Oregon and Washington may continue to expand eastward, while nationally there is the potential for the animals to move farther north if the temperature changes just a few degrees Celsius. Nutria can be found in many non-marsh systems that have permanent bodies of water such as the ponds in golf courses, urban parks, constructed wetlands used to treat sewage, and drainage canals. In addition to the problems they cause in systems, these areas provide refuges from which their nutria can repopulate areas that have had their nutria populations eradicated or reduced. Want to know more about Nutria? Please visit these resources:	<urn:uuid:0758efb6-de23-4d46-951e-af0087c44434>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.02257436513900757, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9575294256210327, "url": "http://www.usgs.gov/blogs/features/printemail/?post=176662" }
Scurvy, now known to be caused by a lack of vitamin C, is one of the world'soldest and most devastating deficiency diseases. Historians have been describing scurvy since ancient times primarily because the disease so often seemedto attack invading armies, sailors on long sea voyages, explorers, and even crusaders. For example, it was scurvy, rather than savage storms or hostile natives, that killed many of the crewmen who sailed with Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) in 1498 and with Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) in 1519. Scurvy begins innocently enough, usually with mild fatigue, bleeding gums, and hemorrhagic bruises on the skin. However, after several months of a diet lacking any vegetables or fruits, worsening physical condition continues, resulting in weakened bones, loose teeth which ultimately fall out, severe joint pain, profuse bleeding from a simple cut, anemia, and eventually death. Fortunately for later researchers, folk remedies for scurvy occasionally appeared in historical accounts. In 1536, for instance, Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) arrived in Newfoundland deeply concerned about the epidemic of scurvy among his crew members. Friendly Indians advised Cartier to give his men an extract of needles from a local tree (thought be white cedar or spruce). Cartier did so and found that almost all his men showed remarkable improvement. Duringthat same century, several other writers reported similar dramatic cures from (among other foods) cloudberries, oranges, and lemons. Nevertheless, Scottish naval surgeon, James Lind (1716-1794), is generally credited with being the first to discover the cure for scurvy. Shortly after the long sea voyage of Admiral George Anson (1697-1762), from 1740 to 1744 during which more than a thousand sailors out of a crew of 1,955 died primarily from scurvy, Lind began his own investigations into the disease. From his readings of historical accounts, Lind realized that scurvy might bedue to some dietary lack. In 1747, therefore, the physician began treating stricken sailors with various foods, and soon found that citrus fruits producedthe fastest and most effective cures. Although Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy in 1753, it was not until 1795 that the Admiralty prescribed a daily ration of lime juice for all British sailors (Lind's cure gave British sailors their nickname--"limeys"). Scurvy promptly diminished in the British navy; however, for the most part, the rest of the civilized world continued to ignore Lind's findings and to resist the idea that scurvy might be related to a dietary deficiency. During the American Civil War, then, scurvy was still killing soldiers in both the Union and Confederate armies. Ironically, even as late as 1912 when Robert Scott (1868-1912) explored the South Pole,he and his team succumbed not to the intense cold, but to the lack of fruitsand vegetables in their diet. In 1907, two Norwegian biochemists, Axel Holst (1861-1931) and Alfred Frohlich (1871-1953), proved conclusively that a scurvy-like condition could be produced in the guinea pig (one of the few animals unable to synthesize vitamin Cfrom their intestinal bacteria) by restricting certain foods. Equally important, Holst and Frohlich then cured the lab animals by feeding them cabbage. The scientific community was finally convinced that the lack of a specific nutrient must be causing scurvy, and an intensive search began to find the nutrient. The antiscorbutic (or anti-scurvy) factor was not isolated until 1928, however. In that year, two teams of researchers, one headed by Albert Szent-Györgyi in Hungary, the second by Charles G. King in the United States, extracted an antiscorbutic substance from a variety of fruits. The substance was named vitamin C, or ascorbic acid which, in 1933, was synthesized by two other chemists, Norman Haworth (1883-1950) and Tadeus Reichstein. Soon afterward, vitamin C became the first vitamin to be artificially produced and, once marketed for medical purposes, marked the end of scurvy as a deadly disease. Today, those populations in the United States at high-risk for scurvy includealcoholics, drug abusers, and elderly men who live alone and who may experience extremely poor diets. User Contributions:	<urn:uuid:924f5a36-51b9-47ef-9f31-3ca962c33391>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.2352597713470459, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9586760997772217, "url": "http://www.faqs.org/health/topics/51/Scurvy.html" }
Western spotted skunk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Western spotted skunk[1] Spilogale gracilis Spilogale gracilis amphiala Conservation status Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Mephitidae Genus: Spilogale Species: S. gracilis Binomial name Spilogale gracilis (Merriam, 1890) Western spotted skunk range The western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis) is a spotted skunk of the west of North America With a total length of 35–55 centimetres (14–22 in), the western spotted skunk is smaller than the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). The adult is boldly striped black and creamy white, mainly longitudinally, with a white spot on the head between the eyes, and a white patch below each ear. The ears are short and rounded. The animal has a conspicuously large, long haired black and white tail. Distribution and habitat[edit] Skeleton of Spilogale gracilis. The western spotted skunk is found throughout the western United States, northern Mexico, and southwestern British Columbia. Their habitat is mixed woodlands, open areas, and farmlands. They display deimatic (threat) behavior, raising their hind parts in the air and showing their conspicuous warning coloration to scare off predators. They spray by standing on their forelegs and raising their hindlegs and tail in the air. Taxonomy and etymology[edit] The western spotted skunk was first described by Clinton Hart Merriam in 1890;[3] its specific name, gracilis, is derived from the Latin for "slender".[4] Although it was thought for years to be conspecific with the eastern spotted skunk (S. putorius), the presence of delayed implantation in the western spotted skunk clearly sets it apart.[5] Seven subspecies are generally recognized:[1] 1. ^ a b Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 623. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494. 2. ^ Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K. (2008). Spilogale gracilis. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 27 January 2009. 3. ^ ITIS Report. "ITIS Standard Report: Spilogale gracilis". Retrieved December 8, 2007. 4. ^ Verts, Carraway & Kinlaw. (2001) Mammalian Species: Spilogale gracilis. American Society of Mammalogists, 674: 1-10. 5. ^ Smithsonian: National Museum of Natural History. "North American Mammals: Spilogale gracilis". Retrieved December 8, 2007. External links[edit]	<urn:uuid:ff851209-d310-4107-bfcc-272301a71214>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.03398841619491577, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7651572227478027, "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_spotted_skunk" }
Chapter 15 Question Set 1. List the physical and human features make Australia "stand out from all of the other continents? 2. List at least 5 questions that Diamond intends to answer in this chapter? 3. What is the common, non-PC, characterization of "Native Australian soceities"? 4. When were New Guinea and Australia connected? Why? 5. How did New Guinean and Australian societies differ? 6. When did New Guinea and Australia become inhabited by humans? From where? By what means? 7. What evidence suggests that after the initial wave of migration into New Guinea and Australia these populations remained isolated for thousands of years? 8. When did New Guinea and Australia become separate land masses? 9. Summarize the environmental differences between New Guinea and Australia. Be specific and thorough. 10. In which physical environment(s) did agriculture emerge in Greater Australia? Review New Guinea's introduced and indigenous food crops. You learned about these in the 3rd question set. 11. What evidence suggests that New Guinea experienced a population explosion that lasted at least until the 1930s? 12. List several reasons that explain why New Guinea's population explosion didn't lead to the development of metal tools, states, and epidemic diseases? 13. What is the evidence for New Guinea's long history of political fragmentation? 14. What are the reasons that Native Australians did not develop agriculture? Use the following terms in your answer: extinctions, ENSO, domesticable plants. 15. How was nomadism a "sensible" adaptation? 16. How did "firestick farming" work? What were other subsistence strategies? 17. So, "Why didn't Australia develop metal tools, writing, and politically complex societies? 18. What factors explain Australia's technological regression? 19. Why did Australia remain isolated for 40,000 years? 20. Why didn't significant diffusion occur across the Torres Strait? 21. Why did European settlement fail in New Guinea and not in Australia? 22. Why didn't New Guineans suffer epidemics of diseases introduced by Europeans? 23. How did Europeans thrive in Australia? And, why did Aborigines fare much worse than New Guineans?	<urn:uuid:10587308-2429-4bc2-a06d-5ed4c4af07bb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 1.0000085830688477, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9101794362068176, "url": "http://www.csuchico.edu/~sbrady/102ggsch15qs.html" }
This constellation is unique, for it is divided into two parts – Serpens Caput, the head, and Serpens Cauda, the tail. Nevertheless, astronomers regard it as a single constellation. Serpens represents a huge snake held by the constellation Ophiuchus. In his left hand Ophiuchus grasps the top half of the snake, while his right hand holds the tail. Aratus and Manilius agreed that Serpens was coiled around the body of Ophiuchus, but most star atlases show the snake simply passing between his legs or behind his body (for an illustration of the full tableau, see Ophiuchus). Serpens is the second-largest snake in the sky, the largest being Hydra, the water snake. In mythology, Ophiuchus was identified as the healer Asclepius, son of Apollo, although why he appears to be wrestling with a serpent in the sky is not fully explained. His connection with snakes is attributed to the story that he once killed a snake that was miraculously restored to life by a herb placed on it by another snake. Asclepius subsequently used the same technique to revive dead people. Snakes are the symbol of rebirth because they shed their skins every year. Ptolemy in the Almagest listed the stars of Ophiuchus and Serpens as separate constellations, but mythologists such as Eratosthenes and Hyginus dealt with them together. One of the few celestial map makers to show Serpens separately was Johann Bayer, who devoted a page of his atlas to each of the Ptolemaic constellations; however, the snake also appeared in more shadowy form on Bayer’s chart of Ophiuchus. Other major celestial chart makers such as Hevelius, Flamsteed and Bode followed the mythologists in treating Ophiuchus and the snake as a composite figure, with the snake partly obscured by the body of Ophiuchus. When Eugène Delporte came to define the official constellation boundaries in the late 1920s, he was faced with the problem of how to separate the intertwined figures of Ophiuchus and Serpens. His solution was to chop Serpens into the two halves that we see today, the head on one side of Ophiuchus and the tail on the other. The head is by far the larger half, covering an area over twice that of the tail (428 square degrees against 208 degrees). From the western border to the east, the official boundaries of Serpens span nearly 57 degrees of sky, just over half the length of Hydra. Serpens no outline.jpg Serpens as it appears on a modern star chart by Wil Tirion. Mouseover the image to see the outlines of each half. Stars of Serpens, and a gaseous Eagle The star Alpha Serpentis is called Unukalhai from the Arabic meaning ‘the serpent’s neck’, where it is located. The tip of the serpent’s tail is marked by Theta Serpentis, called Alya, an Arabic word that actually refers to a sheep’s tail. The most celebrated object in Serpens is a star cluster called M16, embedded in a gas cloud called the Eagle Nebula, which takes its name from its supposed resemblance to a large bird of prey. The Eagle Nebula was the subject of a famous photograph by the Hubble Space Telescope showing pillars of gas and forming stars. Chinese associations The stars of Serpens were seen by the ancient Chinese not as a snake but as two halves of a wall enclosing the celestial marketplace, Tianshi. Most of Tianshi lay in Ophiuchus and southern Hercules. Theta, Eta and Xi Serpentis formed part of the left (east) wall of Tianshi, while Gamma, Beta, Delta, Alpha and Epsilon Serpentis were part of its right (west) wall. There were few Chinese constellations in present-day Serpens. Omicron and Nu Serpentis were part of Shilou, a six-star loop representing a hall or tower that housed the market office, most of which was in Ophiuchus. Sigma Serpentis and Lambda Ophiuchi formed Liesi, representing an arcade of jewellers’ shops. The single star Mu Serpentis was known as Tianru, ‘celestial milk’, symbolizing rain but also said to represent the mother or wet nurse of the crown prince. © Ian Ridpath. All rights reserved	<urn:uuid:a3c1df9b-1616-4535-a808-b0858b88ec22>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.10090458393096924, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9647701978683472, "url": "http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/serpens.htm" }
ISBN: 9780077911959 Solutions author: Chegg 0 Stars(0 users) a. Show these data graphically. Upon what specific assumptions is this production possibilities curve based? Which characteristic of the production possibilities curve reflects the law of increasing opportunity costs: its shape or its length? c. If the economy characterized by this production possibilities table and curve were producing 3 automobiles and 20 fork lifts, what could you conclude about its use of its available resources? d. Is production at a point outside the production possibilities curve currently possible? Could a future advance in technology allow production beyond the current production possibilities curve? Could international trade allow a country to consume beyond its current production possibilities curve? • Step 1 of 3 Part a: (See figure below.) The assumptions are full employment, fixed supplies of resources, fixed technology and two goods. Part b: 4 automobiles and 21 forklifts; its shape. Feedback: Consider the following example: Assume the economy is producing at point C. Thus, the economy is producing 4 automobiles and 21 forklifts. The cost of producing one more automobile can be found by moving to point D and calculating the number of forklifts given up for the 2 additional automobiles. At point D the economy is producing 12 forklifts, which is a loss of 9 forklifts (moving from C to D) for the 2 additional automobiles. Thus the cost of 1 more automobile equals 9 (forklifts) divided by 2 (automobiles), or (9/2) = 4.5 forklifts. The cost of producing one more forklift can be found in an equivalent fashion. First, we will move to point B (from point C). Here we must give up 2 automobiles to get 6 forklifts. Thus, the cost of 1 more forklift equals 2 (automobiles) divided by 6 (forklifts), which is (2/6) = (1/3). In review, take the cost (loss) and divide by the gain. If we were at point D, the cost of one more forklift equals 2 automobiles (loss) divided by 9 forklifts (gain). Thus, the cost of 1 more forklift at point D is (2/9) automobiles. Increasing opportunity cost implies that we must give up more of a particular good to get an additional unit of a different good. This implies as we move along the production possibilities curve (from left to right) I must give up more automobiles to get an additional forklift. Thus, the SHAPE of the schedule captures the increasing opportunity cost concept. • Step 2 of 3 Part c: Underutilizing. Feedback: The economy is underutilizing resources (inside the PPC). • Step 3 of 3 Part d: No; Yes; Yes. Feedback: No, the country cannot produce outside its PPC. Yes, a technological advance would shift the PPC outward allowing the country produce more with a given amount of inputs. Yes, by specializing in goods we have a comparative advantage producing we can trade to gain access to goods beyond our own PPC. Step-by-step solutions for this book and 2,500 others Already used by over 1 million students to study better	<urn:uuid:be9e3b4b-1823-41a1-bc24-0c60d49450a8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.45920437574386597, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9252413511276245, "url": "http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/loose-leaf-macroeconomics-plus-connect-plus-19th-edition-solutions-9780077911959" }
Topic Page: Get Definition Get Definition Definition: from Summary Article: Copenhagen from The Columbia Encyclopedia Points of Interest The inner harbor of Copenhagen is the channel that divides Sjælland and Amager islands. From the harbor extends a narrow arm, the Nyhavn [new harbor], lined with picturesque old houses and closed off by Kongens Nytorv, an irregular square from which the arteries of the city radiate. The Charlottenborg Palace (17th cent.) and the royal theater (opened 1874) are on Kongens Nytorv. Other landmarks include Amalienborg Square, enclosed by four 18th-century palaces, one of which has been the royal residence since 1794; the citadel (c.1662); the city hall (1894-1905); the round tower, used by the astronomer Tycho Brahe as an observatory; and the Cathedral of Our Lady (c.1209; rebuilt in the early 19th cent.), with sculptures by Albert B. Thorvaldsen. The island of Slotsholmen, with a moat on three sides and the harbor on the fourth, supports an impressive complex of buildings, notably Christiansborg Palace (18th cent.; restored 1916), erected on the site of Archbishop Absalon's original castle and now housing the Danish parliament, supreme court, and foreign office; the Thorvaldsen Museum (opened 1848); and the stock exchange (17th cent.). On Holmen island in the harbor, opposite the royal residence, is the large modern opera house (opened 2005). Favorite spots in the city include the Tivoli amusement park (opened 1843) and the waterfront Langelinie Promenade, near which is the famous statue of Hans Christian Andersen's Little Mermaid. The city recovered quickly after the Napoleonic Wars, and its industrial base grew rapidly in the 19th cent. In World War II, Copenhagen was occupied (1940-45) by the Germans, and its shipyards were bombed by the Allies. The city itself was only slightly damaged, and it retained the charm and design that had resulted in its being called "the Paris of the North." Create a Mind Map for Copenhagen	<urn:uuid:8b11a325-6ed2-4e9a-8653-9d2d91e4ff17>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.0931931734085083, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.949171781539917, "url": "http://public.credoreference.com/content/topic/copenhagen" }
Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy 2011 Edition \| Editors: Henrik Lagerlund • Virpi Mäkinen Reference work entry Poverty was a relative matter in the Middle Ages, as it is nowadays. There were different modes of poverty: voluntary poverty for the religious, the simulated poverty of hypocrites, and the involuntary poverty of mendicants forced to beg in order to survive. Since mendicancy was a serious problem throughout the Middle Ages, the church and, later on, society were forced to create and develop forms of poor relief. The church recommended benevolence toward the poor who did not have means of sustenance, mainly encouraging people to give alms. The common opinion was that one should give alms from one’s surplus and take care of oneself and those closest to one first. The recipient should be in need. However, two natural law principles, the maxims of necessitas non habet legem and of communis omnium possessio founded on canon law, ordered the almsgiving. From the thirteenth century onward scholastics emphasized that property was necessary for functioning in the public sphere, both in the state and in the church. They promoted the idea of limited wealth needed to support life and that a person’s moral responsibility involved having property. The Franciscan ideal of poverty as the renunciation of all modes of rights was criticized as being against the natural duty of subsistence. There was also an important discussion on individual rights and actions, which led to the doctrine of natural rights in the late Middle Ages. Poverty was also seen as one central theme in late medieval political theory concerning the relationship between ownership and political rule. Various concepts marked a contrast between the inferiority of the pauper and the superiority of the person who possessed power (potestas) or civic liberty (civis, burgensis), or wealth (dives). Primary Sources 1. Aquinas Thomas (1888–1906) Summa theologiae, ed. Leonina. Opera omnia, vols 4–12. S. Sabina, RomeGoogle Scholar 2. Aquinas Thomas (1970) Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem, ed. Leonina. Sabina, RomeGoogle Scholar 3. Bonaventure (1898) Apologia pauperum. Opera omnia edita cura et studio pp. collegii a S. Bonaventura, vol VIII. Collegium S. Bonaventurae, Quaracchi, pp 30–330Google Scholar 4. Francis of Assisi (1993) Regula Bullata. Die Opuscula des Hl. Franziskus von Assisi, ed. Esser K. Spicilegium Bonaventurianum XIII. Editiones Collegii S. Bonaventurae ad Claras Aquas, GrottaferrataGoogle Scholar 5. Gerard of Abbeville (1938/1939) Tractatus Gerardi de Abbatisvilla: Conta adversarium perfectionis, ed. Clasen S. Archivum Franciscanum Historicum (1938) 31:276–329; (1939) 32:89–200Google Scholar 6. Godfrey of Fontaines (1904–1937) Les Quodlibets de Godefroid de Fontaines, vols I–XV, ed. De Wulf M, Peltzer A, Hoffmans J, Lottin O. Institut supérieur de philosophie de l’université, LouvainGoogle Scholar 7. Gratianus (1879) Decretum Magistri Gratiani, ed. Friedberg A, Tauchnitz B. Corpus Iuris Canonici, vol I. LeipzigGoogle Scholar 8. Vives Juan Luis (2002) De subventione pauperum sive de humanis necessitatibus: Introduction, critical edition, translation and notes, Libri II, ed. Matheeussen C, Fantazzi C, De Landtsheer J. Brill, Leiden/BostonGoogle Scholar 9. William of Ockham (1940/1963) Opus nonaginta dierum, caps. 1–6, ed. Bennet RF, Sikes JG. Guillelmi de Ockham, Opera Politica, vol 1. University Press, Manchester, pp 287–374 (1940); caps. 7–124, ed. Sikes J, Offler HS. Opera Politica, vol 2. University Press, Manchester, pp 375–858 (1963)Google Scholar 10. William of Saint-Amour (1632) Tractatus brevis de periculis novissimorum temporum, ed. Alithophilius. Opera omnia. Constantiae, Paris, pp 17–72Google Scholar Secondary Sources 1. Brunner O (1984) Sozialgeschichte Europas in Mittelalter, 2. Aufl. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, GöttingenGoogle Scholar 2. Coleman J (1991) Property and poverty. In: Burns JH (ed) The Cambridge history of medieval political thought c. 350–c. 1450. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 607–652Google Scholar 3. Cusato MF (2009) Poverty. In: The Cambridge history of medieval philosophy, vol. II. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 577–592Google Scholar 4. de Vinck J (trans) (1966) Defense of the mendicants. Works of St. Bonaventure, vol IV. St. Anthony Guil, PatersonGoogle Scholar 5. Dyer C (1989) Standards of living in the later Middle Ages: social change in England c. 1200–1520. Cambridge medieval textbook. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeGoogle Scholar 6. Evans GR (2009) Law and nature. In: The Cambridge history of medieval philosophy, vol II. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp 565–576Google Scholar 7. Henderson J (1994) Piety and charity in late medieval Florence. University of Chicago Press, Chicago/LondonGoogle Scholar 8. Kantola I (1994) Probability and moral uncertainty in late medieval and early modern times. Luther-Agricola-Society, HelsinkiGoogle Scholar 9. Kilcullen J (1995) The origin of property: Ockham, Grotius, Pufendorf, and some others. http://www.mq.edu.au/hpp/politics/prop.html. Accessed 15 Jan 2009 10. Lambert MD (1961) Franciscan poverty: the doctrine of the absolute poverty of Christ and the Apostles in the Franciscan order 1210–1323. SPCK, LondonGoogle Scholar 11. Lambertini R (2000) La povertà pensata. Mucchi Editore, ModenaGoogle Scholar 12. Lawrence CH (1994) The Friars: the impact of the early mendicant movement on western society. Lingman, London/New YorkGoogle Scholar 13. Little LK (1978) Religious poverty and the profit economy in medieval Europe. Cornell University Press, IthacaGoogle Scholar 14. Mäkinen V (2001) Property rights in the late medieval discussion on Franciscan poverty. Peeters, LeuvenGoogle Scholar 15. McGovern JF (1970) The rise of new economic attitudes – economic humanism, economic nationalism – during the later middle ages and the Renaissance, A.D. 1200–1500. Traditio 26:217–253Google Scholar 16. McKeon PR (1964) The development of the concept of property in political philosophy: a study of the background of the constitution. Ethics XLVIII:304–312Google Scholar 17. Mollat M (1978) The poor in the Middle Ages: an essay in social history (trans: Goldhammer A). Yale University Press, New Haven/LondonGoogle Scholar 18. Roumy F (2006) L’origine et la diffusion de l’adage canonique Necessitas non habet legem (VIIIe-XIIIe s). In: Müller WP, Sommar ME (eds) Medieval church law and the origins of the western legal tradition: a tribute to Kenneth Pennington. The Catholic University of America Press, Washington, pp 301–319Google Scholar 19. Swanson SG (1997) The medieval foundations of John Locke’s theory of natural rights: rights of subsistence and the principle of extreme necessity. Hist Polit Thought 18:399–456Google Scholar 20. Tierney B (1959) Medieval poor law: a sketch of canonical theory and its application in England. University of California Press, BerkeleyGoogle Scholar 21. Tierney B (1997) The idea of natural rights: studies on natural rights, natural law and church law 1150–1625. Scholars, AtlantaGoogle Scholar 22. Van den Eijnden JGJ (1994) Poverty on the way to God: Thomas Aquinas on evangelical poverty. Peeters, LeuvenGoogle Scholar Copyright information © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011 Authors and Affiliations • Virpi Mäkinen • 1 1. 1.Helsinki Collegium for Advanced StudiesUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland	<urn:uuid:87c6acd1-7c17-4910-aa4a-393886bfde59>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.02677738666534424, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.6930779218673706, "url": "https://rd.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-9729-4_415" }
BackBright Hub EducationBrowse Wanderjahre, a German Tradition for Carpenters, Brick Layers and Many More By Finn Orfano Learn the very particular vocabulary for the German tradition of the Wanderjahre, its history and today's practice and significance. History and tradition The custom of Wanderjahre evolved in the late Middle Ages and lasted until industrialization. Completing one's Wanderjahre, which means three years and one day, was a prerequisite for qualifying as a fully fledged craftsman, allowed to run his own business and to take on apprentices of his own. Only male apprentices went hiking and they belonged to many crafts, although carpenters are the most famous among them because of their distinctive costume. Rules and conditions, which had to be adhered to, were very strict and the journeyman had to carry his Wanderbuch to document where he had been. Nobody who was married, in debt or had a criminal record was allowed to go on Wanderschaft. The purpose was to teach the future Meister responsibility and to give him the opportunity to see the world and hone his skills in foreign surroundings.He was not allowed to accept pay and could work only for food and shelter. A silver earring and ornaments on the waistcoat served as emergency funds should he run out of money or could be sold to pay for his funeral should he die during his Wanderjahre. The apprentice had to wear his distinctive Kluft at all times. Vocabulary for Wanderjahre Die Wanderjahre - years on the road wandern - to hike tippeln - to hike Das Jahr - year Der Geselle - journeyman (approx. meaning of the German term) Der Meister - craftsman (after qualification and exam) zu Fuss - on foot Das Wanderbuch - hiking passport Der Zylinder - top hat Die Weste - waistcoat Die Lehrzeit - apprenticeship Der Lehrling (modern word: der Auszubildende) - apprentice Die Innung - guild Die Zunft - guild Die Schaechte - unions of apprentices Der Freireisende - independant journeyman, not belonging to a Schacht Die Logis - lodgings Der Anhalter - hitch hiker Die Schlaghose - flared pants Der Knopf - button Die Schlafrolle - sleeping roll Die Kluft - traditional clothing etwas hochmachen - to make a good impression Das Schlitzohr - literally: slit ear, meaning a journeyman who had behaved badly and whose earring had been torn out as punishment auf der Rolle - on the roll (hiking) Das Silbergehaenge - silver ornaments worn on waistcoat Das Mittelalter - Middle Ages Modern times During industrialization the tradition of Wanderjahre had declined, but recent times have seen a revival. The most important change is that nowadays, female apprentices are also allowed to go on Wanderschaft. The journeymen are still organized in guilds, but there are many who don't belong to any, known as Freiheitsbrueder. Reunification in Germany and growing unemployment have played a mayor role in the resurrection of the trend, as many young people from the former DDR made their way to West Germany as Handwerksgesellen auf Wanderschaft.	<urn:uuid:4dca1e15-97cb-42bb-b546-7b9c0d6bff52>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.04023522138595581, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.939289927482605, "url": "https://m.brighthubeducation.com/learning-german/33881-wanderjahre-vocabulary-for-german-apprenticeship/" }
Newly Discovered Spider Looks Suspiciously Like a Leaf It's so elusive, scientists have only managed to find two. Matjaz Kuntner/Journal of Arachnology A never-before-documented spider, likely a new species, was recently discovered in southwestern China's Yunnan rain forest. This unique spider has a very specific trait that explains why it has never been seen before: it looks just like a leaf when hanging from a branch. Smithsonian Institution arachnologist Matjaz Kuntner only found the spider when he spotted a strand of silk in the light from his headlamp during an evening hike in the Yunnan. The silk was strangely attaching a leaf to a branch, so Kuntner decided to investigate. "If there's a web, there's a spider," Kuntner told . After carefully searching the branches, he realized that one of the leaves was in fact a spider. "I was so taken aback." The first spider ever discovered that masquerades as a leaf. Matjaz Kuntner/Journal of Arachnology This new type of orb-weaving spider not only masquerades as a leaf, but it also gathers leaves from the forrest floor and hangs them from branches with its silk. When it nestles between the leaves it has hung up, it is incredibly difficult to pick the spider out from the surrounding foliage. The spider is brownish green like the leaves, shares the same teardrop shape, has a long necklike structure, and even has markings that resemble the veins on the variety of leaves it mimics. The spider's technique for remaining hidden, either to stalk prey or avoid predators, is not technically camouflaging but masquerading. Camouflaging is the ability of an animal to appear invisible against its background, while masquerading is the practice of pretending to be something else entirely. The leaf-mimicking spider gathers leaves to hang around it so it blends in more completely. Matjaz Kuntner/Journal of Arachnology "Camouflage is about fooling the senses. Masquerading is about fooling the brain," John Skelhorn, an entomologist at the University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne in the U.K., told . Masquerading is very common among insects, such as and , but it is less frequently observed in arachnids, and never before has a spider been found masquerading as a leaf. "A masquerade is much more likely to be successful if there are lots of examples of their disguise around them," explained Skelhorn, which explains the leaf spider's behavior of gathering real leaves to hide amongst. In fact, the leaf-imitating spider is so good at its masquerade that only two have been found: the adult female that Kuntner found and a juvenile discovered in the same area after days of searching. Preliminary research outlined in the suggests that the leaf-imitating spider is a new biological species, but more study is needed to confirm this. What other undiscovered creatures are hiding in the deep woods of the world? Source: via Advertisement - Continue Reading Below More From Animals читать дальше система автоматического полива газона	<urn:uuid:e9b2a97f-adb3-4e2e-859e-32c18f367153>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.1265302300453186, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9517999291419983, "url": "http://seniorhelpline.info/science/animals/a23923/newly-discovered-spider-looks-just-like-a-leaf/" }
Posted in For Project 7 Examples Example 2 Research: Octatonic scale and Orientalism After writing my first example using the whole-tone scale, I decided to employ octatonic scale for my second example, which results from the alternation of whole and semitone steps. There are two versions, depending on whether the order begins with a whole tone or a semitone. (Fig. 1) Note that there are several other manners to notate the scale, depending on whether sharps or flats are utilized for specific notes. (Fig. 2) With no standardization, all of these notational variants are used, varying from composer to composer, depending on the musical ideas. octatonic modes Fig. 1. Two versions of the octatonic scale octatonic modes 2 Fig. 2. Some notational variations of the octatonic scale But before I focus on the properties of the octatonic scale, I have to address how puzzled I was as to why it was associated with Middle East in the West. I’ve already started my research on the Middle Eastern modes, which you can read in my three-part research here. As I wrote there, the modern practice of Arabic maqam, Turkish makam and Persian dastgah, and the related Afghanistan, Central Asian and Caucasus systems, actually use heptatonic modes. It is in the older traditions that we see the octatonic modes. Schillinger (1946) suggests that eight tone scale was formulated in Persian music in the 7th Century AD, where it was called Zar ef Kend, but there is no maqam or dastgah under that particular name. I think he probably referred to zirafkand, which is the most similar name of a mode that I could find. There are also other eight-note modes, mostly dating from the Middle Ages. For instance, they appear in the very important musical theory of Safi al-Din al-Urmawi al-Baghdadi (Fig. 3) c. 1250-1300 AD, which shows the fusion of Arabic, Persian, Sassanid and Greek cultures. Fig. 3. Safi al-Din al-Urmawi Safi al-Din analyzed the Greek sources, especially Pythagorian tuning that remained a staple of the Middle Eastern modal theory of the time, and the works of Muslim scholars, such as al-Kindi, al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. In his treatise Kitab ad-Adwar or Book of Musical Modes, Safi al-Din shows the division of the octave into 17 steps, and he was the first to look at Middle Eastern modes and try to codify the system into one coherent whole. With the invention of this “Old Orient Sound System with 17 notes”, he is often called the Zarlino of the Orient. He inspired others, such as Qutb al-Din who furthered the categorization process started by Safi in his treatise Durrat al-taj, which contains many more modes. However, these eight-tone modes differ much from the Western notion of octatonic scale, where the whole and semitones alternate. Instead, as I wrote in more detail in the post I indicated above, they use the microtones. I couldn’t find sources for the modes given in Durrat al-taj, so I will mention only the octatonic modes given by Safi al-Din, which include zirafkand, buzurg, nihuft, kawasht, iraq and kardaniye. (Fig. 4) I only found Wright’s transcriptions for zirafkand and iraq, which were comparing the Arabic 17 steps with intervals from the equal temperament. For other modes I had to turn to the paper by Arslan, however these modes were transcribed by comparing the Arabic 17 steps with Pythagorian tuning. In the end, I found it easier to modify Wright’s transcription to match Arslan’s. So, keep in mind that the intervals are given in Just tuning. The sign indicates the lowering by approximately a quartertone, while + sign rises the tone by the similar amount. Fig. 4. The eight tone modes given by Safi al-Din With the use of microtones we see that none of the Middle Eastern octatonic modes can be the complete equivalence to the two versions of Western octatonic scale. Not only that, but just like how the Pythagorean comma and limma system isn’t used as the common Middle Eastern tuning today, these old octatonic maqams are atypical in the modern practice. At any rate, it is highly unlikely that any of them had any role in even inspiring the catalysis of the Western octatonic scale. Instead, the whole/semitone alternation emerged as a Western byproduct of transposing scale fragments around an interval cycle of minor-third. (Chemistruck, 2006: 6) This occurred subconsciously at first. For example, as Taruskin points, in Scarlatti’s K. 319 Sonata, the semitone/tone version of descending octatonic scale appears in the bass in bars 62-80 (Fig. 5), formed from the minor-third relationship of keys in the passage, which occurs from bar 67 – B Bb Ab G (Eb major/c minor), and from bar 75 – F E D C# (C major/a minor). Fig. 5. Scarlatti’s Sonata K. 319, bars 62-80 However, the octatonic bass notes aren’t part of the transposition in the true sense of the word, and in my opinion aren’t the true driving force here. Rather, I noticed the important role of the sequential melody in the middle voice – F Eb D C D in the first fragment (bars 61-73), and its true transposition minor-third lower D C B A B in the second fragment (bars 75-77) and finally B A G# F# G# (bars 78-80). If we combine these notes, we also get the descending semitone/tone octatonic scale, although a different one – F Eb D C B A G# F#. A lot easier to spot is the octatonic scale as a result of direct minor-third transposition, such as in the sequence occurring in higher voices of Bach’s English suite No. 3. (Fig. 6) It starts from bar 17 in Sarabande with Db Bb Ab G, transposed to Bb G F E in bar 18, and finally G E D C# (Db) in bar 19. We get octatonic Db D E F G Ab Bb although with one missing note – B or Cb. Fig. 6. Sarabande in Bach’s English suite No. 3, bars 17-19 Another example is the peculiar passage from Adagio con molto expressione in Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 11 in B-flat, op 22, where transposition also occurs in the upper voices. (Fig. 7) Fig. 7. II movement from Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 11 Starting from the 19th century, the octatonic scale is used very differently. For example, in the chords of coronation bells from the opening scene of Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov, the octatonic scale is formed of two dominant seventh chords with roots a tritone apart. (Fig. 8) DeVoto points out that Tchaikovsky also demonstrated the coloristic potential of octatonicism, in the celesta’s cascading arpeggios in the Sugar Plum Fairy from Nutcracker, made also from the dominant seventh chords, but minor third apart. (Fig. 9) Although Debussy and Ravel also used the scale in interesting new ways, for example DeVoto noticed a passage from Debussy’s Nuages (Fig. 10) with a bold centricity based on diminished tonic triad, the Russian composers were the ones to reinforce the scale, especially Korsakov and his circle of composers in St. Petersburg. In fact, so much so, that the progression became thought of as peculiarly Russian, and the scale was referred to as Korsakovian scale and finally came to be used consciously. Korsakov started using octatonicism after the model in Liszt’s symphonic poem, Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne, where the cycle of minor-thirds was used. It is perhaps with Korsakov’s use of the scale in the exotic works such as Scheherazade and Sadko, that the scale received its association with the Middle East. Here, once again, we find ourselves in the situation similar with the Parisian boleros. In one of my earlier posts, I addressed how bolero conveyed everything Spanish for the mid-19th century composers in Paris, when the French viewed Spanish music as something exotic. I think here we have a similar situation. For Korsakov and other Russian composers, the Western octatonic scale offered harmonies and melodies by which they could explore everything that they considered Middle Eastern. Middle East itself was an idea, rather than reality, as “a scent capable of setting off fantasies”. (Bellman, 133) Orient was favored as something mythical, ungraspable, unreal, and the octatonic scale, although without actual connection to Arabs, Turks or Persians, proved capable of transferring the audience into this esoteric realm of fantasy. On the other hand, for those like Scriabin, it had become more abstract, a “… central means for expressing the numinous, of pointing towards the realm of pure spirit, of a profoundly subtle and rarified state of human consciousness… his own journey towards pure spirit.” His Prelude Op. 74 no. 3 is an example of this. However, this sense of fantasy didn’t exist for those who weren’t Eastern or general mystics, and for them, octatonic scale survived simply as another useful mode for expressing new types of harmonic thought. This is the case with Stravinsky and his use of octatonicism in works like Rite of Spring and Firebird. In any regard, the two versions of octatonic scale are very curious. Both can be thought of two interleaved diminished seventh chords (Fig. 11a), and also containing the first four notes of four minor scales separated by minor thirds. (Fig. 11b) The first version – semitone/tone, is the most commonly used in art music. It enables both the major and minor third above tonic and the tritone and perfect fifth, while stressing simultaneously the dominant seventh and half-diminished seventh sound. It is versatile with a somewhat static feeling due to the lack of major-seventh leading tone. The second version – tone/semitone, is not as common, being somewhat unusual by lacking the perfect 5th on tonic and possessing only minor third above it. Yet it has strong leading tone due to the presence of natural 6th degree and major-seventh leading tone. Comparing to the first version, it has a stronger feeling of two interleaved diminished seventh chords, since there is no additional sound of the dominant or half-diminished seventh chord to obscure it. We’ve seen the genesis of octatonic scale with minor third transpositions. This is not surprising, since these mediant relationships and borrowed harmony are present within the scale. In the first version in C, we have three triads – C major, Eb major and A major, all co-existing. In the second version in C, there is the simultaneous presence of the major and minor subdominant and submediant triads – F major/minor, Ab major/minor and also A minor, linking it to the polarity theory. With all this, plus the symmetrical nature of the scale, by which it is limited to produce complete invariance at four levels of transposition and inversion, Massien states how octatonic scale is “in the atmosphere of several tonalities at once, without polytonality, the composer being free to give predominance to one of the tonalities or to leave the tonal impression unsettled.” So we see that any triad within the given octatonic collection can act as tonic. In this respect, octatonic music is more like modal diatonic music, in which almost any scale degree can function as tonic. But as Lerdahl (255) writes: “Tonicity is more ambiguous though, because of the intervallic repetitiveness, which makes position-finding within it quadruply redundant. As a result, judgments of octatonic tonicity depend more heavily on surface perceptual salience than they do for diatonic tonicity.” In other words, predominance of a tonality typically arises from notes that are stated frequently, sustained at length, placed in a registral extreme, played loudly, rhythmically or metrically stressed, depending also on voice leading and harmonic progression. To conclude, I really enjoyed reading about this peculiar eight-tone scale, its history and its features. For my example, I chose to explore the second, more rarely used version. You can check it out here. List of illustrations: Fig. 1 Two versions of the octatonic scale Fig. 2. Some notational variations of the octatonic scale Fig. 3. Safi al-Din al-Urmawi (Author: Amir a57 [2012] Schillinger, Joseph (1946) The Schillinger System of Musical Composition, Vol. 1: Books I–VII. Edited by Lyle Dowling and Arnold Shaw. New York: Carl Fischer. Chemistruck, D. (2006) ‘Imposing Harmonic Restrictions on Symmetrical Scales: Creating a Tonal Center in the Half/Whole Octatonic Scale’ [Undergraduate (hons)] Central Connecticut State University Locke, Ralph P. (1998) ‘Cutthroats and Casbah Dancers, Muezzins and Timeless Sands: Musical Images of the Middle East’ In: Bellman, Jonathon (ed.) The Exotic in Western Music. Boston: Northeast University Press pp. 104-136 Lerdahl, F. (2001) Tonal Pitch Space. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Inc. One thought on “Example 2 Research: Octatonic scale and Orientalism Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. 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'HATCHET' - Survivor Unit Term 2 Yr 8 English - Ms Bedggood's class During Term 2, I read the novel 'Hatchet' by Gary Paulsen. It is about a boy whose parent have divorced and are living in different cities. The book begins with Brain travelling to visit his father by aircraft. while waiting for the plane to take off, his mother presents him with a small axe (hatchet - hense the name of the book). The storyline follows the survival of Ryan after the plane crashes into the wilderness. For this assignment, I had to choose a numbe of tasks from a grid sheet that my teacher had given me. These are below. TASK 1 - create a muscial soundtrack for the novel The songs I think would be good for the movie about this novel are: Cam Meekins – 'Top of the World'. This song is slow and it reminds me of an adventure. the song would fit in when he starts to get stuck in to word by macking a hut and starting fires. 360 - 'Run Alone'. It's a slow song that makes you feel alone. The song would go well when he realises that he's all alone on a massive bit of land.	<urn:uuid:1e0324b8-2547-46fd-841d-6bfd3afae18e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.022542715072631836, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.970270037651062, "url": "https://www.smore.com/0zfk8" }
Yamato Clan and State Map of Yamato state Map of Yamato state The Yamato court is known as the birthplace of the Japanese political state. It is a term applied to the political system of the Kofun period but also its development and refinement in the late fifth to seventh centuries c.e. The Yamato state unified north Kyushu, Shikoku, and southern Honshu. The people were a clan-, or kinship- (uji), based society, where religion played an important part in controlling their lives, but during the Kofun period (the name given to the large key-shaped burial mounds of the time) powerful clan leaders and their families started to emerge as the stratiﬁ cation of communities evolved within the late Yayoi culture. Small kingdoms were established, each ruled by a different clan. The rulers at this time were mainly religious figureheads using the people’s faith to govern them. One of the most powerful was the Yamato clan, and after continual warfare among the different kingdoms a union of states developed—the Yamato state, under the rule of the Yamato clan. In the fourth century c.e. the Yamato were situated in the rich agricultural region around the modern city of Kyoto. In the fifth century, when the Yamato court reached its peak, there was a shift in the power base to the provinces of Kawachi and Izumi (modern Osaka). The emergence of such powerful clans is evidenced by the increased elaboration of their burial mounds in comparison with the Yayoi period. Burial sites in the Kofun period illustrated a segregating of the workers and elite of the community. The burial mounds took on a new shape, a "keyhole" design, were larger in size, and were surrounded by moats. By the fifth century it was evident that the power of the Yamato clan had increased. These huge tombs represented the power of the Yamato aristocracy, holding swords, arrowheads, tools, armor, and all the signs of military might. Only religious and ceremonial items had been placed in earlier burial mounds. As Yamato had increased the contact with mainland Asia, the items in the burial tombs reflected their power and influence. Besides the military items, there were such things as gilt bronze shoes and gold and silver ornaments. The Yamato clan and its strongest allies formed the aristocracy of the Yamato state, occupying the most important positions in the court. A hereditary ruler headed the Yamato court, and because intermarriage within clans produced a large family network, there were constant struggles for power. Believing that they were descendants of the sun goddess, the Yamato clan developed the notion of kingship and thus began the imperial dynasty. An emperor, based on the Chinese system, represented it. The first legendary emperor of Japan was Jimmu. The emperor, the supreme religious symbol of the state, had no real political power. The power base lay with the clan leaders, headed by a prime ministerstyle official. These officials had very close ties with the ruler, showing the importance that was placed on the harmony between religion and the governing of the people. There was also economic and military support from the occupational groups within the court known as be. Heavy military of Yamato clans Heavy military of Yamato clans These groups consisted of rice farmers, weavers, potters, artisans, military armorers, and specialists in religious ceremonies. They were subordinate to the ruling families. One group of be were especially important to the ruling family as they consisted of highly skilled immigrants from mainland Asia, who specialized in iron working and raising horses. The Yamato court became the unifying force in Japan. They began to limit the power of the lesser clan leaders and started to acquire agricultural lands to be controlled by a central body. A bureaucratic ranking system was developed when the separate kingdoms were incorporated into the Yamato court, and the stronger clan leaders were given titles to reflect their status as regional chiefs. The two titles bestowed on the chiefs were muraji and omi. The greatest of the chiefs lived at the court and as a collective ruled over the productive lands and hence the farming communities. This also gave them access to large resources of manpower to be used in such activities as burial mound building and also as conscripted troops for the military forays into the Korean Peninsula. By the fourth century the Yamato court was developed enough to send envoys to mainland Asia, sometimes military, but mostly to gain knowledge of the political and cultural aspects of the far more advanced Chinese and Korean civilizations. They also procured supplies of iron resources said to be plentiful in the south of Korea. By the end of the fourth and in the beginning of the fifth centuries the military were involved in the expansion of Yamato power throughout the Korean peninsula. At the same time Korea was going through cultural and political changes, with warring between the three kingdoms, Koguryo (north), Paekche (east), and Silla (west). Alliances were made with the Paekche, against the Silla, with Yamato gaining some power in the region. However, in the sixth century Silla became more powerful militarily, causing Yamato to face power reversals in the region and forcing them to withdraw from the peninsula. Paekche began to exchange knowledge and resources with the Yamato; scribes, sword smiths, horsemen, and horses were introduced to the court. The Yamato court had a large number of mainland scholars brought over for their advanced knowledge and skills. The Paekche court also sent a Confucian scholar, a Buddhist scholar, Buddhist scriptures, and an image of the Buddha. These scholars dramatically altered the fast-developing Japanese culture. Scholars were sent to China to learn about their political and cultural ideals, and in the sixth or seventh century they were brought back to the Yamato court to establish a written system based on Chinese characters and the grounding for the establishment of a parliamentary system. Based on Chinese models of government, the Yamato court developed a central administrative and imperial court. The sixth century saw the Soga clan’s rise to power. The Soga clan, which did not claim to be descended from the gods, had entrenched themselves in the Yamato court by establishing marital connections with the imperial family. As well as having administrative and fiscal skills, this allowed them considerable influence within the court structure. They introduced fiscal policies based on Chinese systems and established the first treasury. They collected, stored, and paid for goods produced by employees. The Soga introduced to the court the idea that the Korean peninsula could be used as a trade route rather than for military conquest. The powerful Soga clan was in favor of the introduction of Buddhism to Japan, but in the beginning the Soga found opposition from other clans, such as the Nakatomi, who performed the Shinto rituals at the court, and the Mononabe, who wanted the military aspect of the court to be maintained and elevated in importance. Conflicts arose between the clans, with Soga vowing to build a temple and encourage the spread of Buddhism as the main instrument of worship if successful in battle. They were successful, and there were several Buddhist temples built, and Buddhism became a strong religion in Japan. The Soga believed that the teachings of Buddhism would lead to a more peaceful and safe society. The intermarriage of the Soga with the imperial family paved the way for Soga Umako (Soga Chieftain) to install his nephew as emperor, later assassinate him, and replace him with Empress Suiko. Unfortunately, Empress Suiko, was a puppet for Soga Umako and Prince Regent Shotoku Taishi. A system of 12 ranks was established, making it possible to elevate the status of officials based on merit rather than birth right. Prince Regent Shotoku Taishi Prince Regent Shotoku Taishi Prince Regent Shotoku Taishi was a devout Buddhist and a scholar of Confucian principles. Under his instigation Confucian models of rank and etiquette were introduced, and he introduced the Chinese calendar. He built numerous Buddhist temples, had court chronicles written, and established diplomatic links with China. However, with the deaths of Prince Regent Shotoku Taishi, Soga Umako, and Empress Suiko, there was a coup to gain succession to the imperial throne. The coup was led by Prince Naka and Nakatomi Kamatari, who introduced the Taika (Great Change) Reforms, which established the system of social, fiscal, and administrative codes based on the ritsuryo system of China. The reforms were aimed at strengthening the emperor’s power over his subjects and not leaving the ﬁ nal decisions to his cabinet. These reforms ushered in the decline of the Yamato court by lessening the control of the court clans over the agricultural lands and the occupational groups. The reforms abolished the hereditary titles for the clan leaders and instead of them advising the emperor there would be ministries. The new order wanted to have control over all of Japan and make the people subjects of the throne. There were taxes placed on the harvests, and the country was divided into provinces headed by court-appointed governors.	<urn:uuid:05dbb1a0-dc43-4fda-9f6c-f5698023645a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.27259719371795654, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9790397882461548, "url": "http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/01/yamato-clan-and-state.html" }
What is Phosphor? Phosphor is a substance that displays the property of luminescence. In the case of LED lighting the type of luminescence is specifically fluorescence, the emission of light caused by the absorption of blue light energy emanating from the LED chip. When a phosphor absorbs a photon of blue light it emits a photon of longer wavelength, extending the spectrum toward the red. Different phosphors have different emission characteristics and thus when combined with the blue light and each other, a high quality light spectrum is produced. Phosphors are manufactured in ways to make them most suitable for consistent, high yield LED manufacturing. Most phosphors are packaged as powders of well formed, micrometer scale particles. These can be integrated into carrier materials that then coat and form LED components in many different ways. Intematix also offers easy to use phosphor solutions that make LED manufacturing easier. Phosphor Diagram Why do we need it? In the simplest of terms, phosphor is what makes LED light usable. LED chips are intrinsically blue, red or green with the blue variety of LEDs being the most commonly used in solid state lighting. However, the blue light that they produce is unusable for everyday lighting and must be covered with a phosphor. While the efficiency of an LED is largely controlled by the blue chip, the color quality that we see is almost entirely dependent on the phosphor that is used. Intematix offers four main types of phosphor to ensure correct color targeting and very high light quality. • Silicates offer some of the brightest phosphors making them an excellent choice for displays. • NYAG (Garnet) phosphors can be used as single solution phosphors for industrial or outdoor lighting where efficiency is the name of the game; not necessarily the quality of light. However, they can also be combined with other phosphors to make +80CRI quality white light. • GAL (Aluminate) phosphors are Intematix proprietary phosphors that can be blended with red phosphors (particularly, the Intematix XR red nitrides) to create some of the highest quality white light currently available in the market – this combination of phosphors (GAL + red) to create white light is patented by Intematix. • Red Nitride phosphors are a crucial ingredient to creating high quality light with an R9 value of up to 98. If you want an LED that compares to an incandescent light source, red nitride is currently a must. • KSF Phosphors have an extremely narrow band emission making them ideal for display lighting where they enable significantly higher screen brightness, efficiency, and wide color gamut displays. Do you have questions about phosphors and how they make LED lighting better? Consult our glossary and if that doesn’t help, please feel free to contact us at sales@intematix.com.	<urn:uuid:67b75bc2-db56-4b4c-b8c6-eed724f24530>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.030795037746429443, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9269195199012756, "url": "http://www.intematix.com/technology/whatisphosphor" }
The Jeffers Petroglyphs Historic Site Adapted from the Jeffers Petroglyphs School Programs Manual The Jeffers Petroglyphs are approximately 5000 American Indian images carved in quartzite outcrops preserved by the Minnesota Historical Society since 1966. This historic site contains 160 acres of native and restored prairie. It is located in southwestern Minnesota where the Sioux quartzite bedrock is exposed along an east-west trending ridge up to 50 feet high, three miles wide, and 25 miles long. Archaeologists date the carvings from as far back as 7000 years old to 250 years old. This area was purchased by the US government by treaty from the Dakota in 1851. The site is named for the last private owner of the site, W.R. Jeffers. Jeffers Petroglyphs is a living sacred site used by people for thousands of years. Today American Indians visit and worship at this sacred site. Many of those people whose ancestors are known to have lived in this area, the Iowa, Arapaho, Cheyenne and Dakota peoples come to pray at this sacred site. Elders from these Nations, along with archaeologists, rock art conservators, botanists, and Minnesota Historical Society staff guide the public interpretation and preservation of Jeffers Petroglyphs Historic Site. Elders have told us that Jeffers Petroglyphs tells the story of the survival of people in a formidable environment for thousands of years. It speaks of their deep connection with the land and their creator. It speaks of spirituality thousands of years old. Fourteen thousand years ago, mile-high glaciers forced their way from the northwest, scouring and smoothing the 1.6 billion year old Sioux quartzite rock formations in southwest Minnesota. Three thousand years later the climate warmed. In the shadows of retreating glaciers, American Indians lived in the cool and wet forest of southwest Minnesota. In time, as the weather continued to warm and dry, prairies replaced the forests and people began to write on the quartzite. On the polished face of the rock outcropping at this site are the carvings that record thousands of years of human interaction with a spiritual world. These carvings represent the prayers of people seeking spiritual guidance. They sought help in healing sickness, acquiring food and maintaining social relationships. These carvings also record stories, parables, and historic events. Several different communities of American Indians made them over a long period of time. The writing on the rock at this site documents the perseverance of people at this prairie for thousands of years. Most importantly, these engravings tell us that people survived on the prairie because of their deep understanding and intimate relationship with their physical and spiritual world. Minnesota contained the northeastern edge of a tall grass prairie that covered 400,000 square miles of North America. It extended to Manitoba in the north, Texas to the south, Montana to the west, and Indiana to the east. Today less than 1% remains. Jeffers Petroglyphs Historic Site is situated on the eastern slope of the Coteau des Prairies. This French phrase, meaning divide or edge of the prairies, refers to a broad highland that separates the Mississippi and Missouri watersheds. It ranges northwesterly from Jackson, Minnesota to Sisseton, South Dakota. This highland rises above the Minnesota River valley in a series of steps to a height of 1900 feet at Pipestone. Jeffers Petroglyphs has 160 acres of native, restored, and being-restored prairie and a commanding view of the countryside. It is located on the Blue Earth Till Plane. The black soil prairie adjacent to the outcrops overlays clay loam soils. The original 80 acres of the site, purchased from the Jeffers family in 1966, contains approximately 33 acres of relatively undisturbed prairie along the northern side. Like all prairies, it is a mixture of forbs (flowering plants) and grasses. The southern 47 acres was one of the first prairie restorations in Minnesota. This 47 acres was in cultivation when the site was purchased and had probably been farmed for much of the 20th century. In 1974, the cultivated 47 acres was planted with big blue stem, switch grass and Indian grass. Work is proceeding on restoring the newest 80 acres, purchased in 2002. Approximately 230 species of plants are found here, including some that are very rare. One of the largest populations of Prairie Bush Clover in the world thrives at Jeffers Petroglyphs. It grows only in Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin and Illinois. This grassland is unique in other ways. Prairies are classified as wet, mesic, or dry. All three types are found here because of the rock formation. Because of the diversity of habitat, Jeffers offers a diversity of animal and plant species. A prairie, forest or desert is made of a system of inseparably integrated living and nonliving communities: animals, plants, bacterial, soil, air and water. This system of communities is called an ecosystem. A healthy prairie ecosystem contains 16,500 acres, a complete river drainage system, 200 species of plants, 250 species of birds, 80 species of mammals, as well as numerous fungus, bacteria, insects, amphibians, and reptiles. The plants included buffalo grass, big blue stem, cord grass, asters, and roses. Among the birds were prairie chickens, spotted sandpiper, grasshopper sparrows, burrowing owls and bald eagles. Moles, mice, badgers, fox, elk, buffalo and humans represent the mammals of the prairie. All ecosystems contain species that are key to its health. Two keystone species of the prairie are humans and buffaloes. With the prairie's grasses and forbs came buffaloes and people thrived; both their populations grew. Buffalo provided the large quantities of essential protein, vitamins, skin shelters, clothing, containers and tools that people needed to flourish in an otherwise sparse environment. The prairie fed the buffalo and provided other animal and plant food and raw materials to people. This seemingly lopsided relationship between people, buffalo and grasslands was perfectly balanced. Grazing buffaloes remove mature plants giving young plants and different species an opportunity to grow. Their manure adds nutrients to the soil. Each spring buffalo must remove their thick winter hair and they will scratch themselves on anything available. They rub against rocks, shrubs and trees, polishing the rocks and destroying the trees that encroach on the prairie. About 5000 years ago the climate changed from warm and dry to a cool and wet. Since trees replace grass if enough water is available, forest should have replaced the grasslands. However, when the weather conditions turned wet, buffalo and humans kept the trees at bay and preserved the prairie. This balance insured the survival of people, buffalo and prairie for thousands of years. They became intimately involved with each other. To encourage buffalo to graze near their villages, people burned the prairies destroying tough full-grown grasses and flowers. Thus assuring the new growth of the young tender grass and flowers that buffalo much preferred. Burning can improve prairies because unlike trees, the near ground growth structures of prairie plants are not affected by fire. In the spring, a fire-blackened prairie allows the spring sun to warm the soil promoting early growth. Most important, ash from the burned plants adds nutrients to the soil. Buffalo and people were so important to each other that according to prairie people they became honored relatives. The rhythms of the herds became the rhythms of human secular and spiritual life. We do not know the names of the earliest tribes that inhabited what is now southwest Minnesota. However, according to American Indian and Euro-American histories during the last four hundred years, Ottoe, Iowa, Arapaho, Cheyenne and Dakota peoples lived in this area. After the 1862 war, most of the Dakota were driven from Minnesota. Before they left some of their leaders prayed for guidance at this site that later became Jeffers Petroglyphs Historic Site. When the railroads arrived in the 1870's, European and American settlers came in large numbers. Their farming altered the landscape. Along the northern border of the site is a wagon trail created in the first years of settlement. These immigrants plowed the prairie, and introduced exotic plants from Europe, Asia and Africa. On the horizon you see the fields, houses, barns and grain silos of contemporary farmers. In the late nineteenth century, the dispersed Dakotas came back to Minnesota and settled in communities such as the Upper Sioux community at Granite Falls, the Lower Sioux community at Morton, the Shakopee community at Prior Lake and Prairie Island community at Welch. Sometime in the next century, the Dakota began to visit Jeffers for prayer clandestinely because the US government forbade them to practice their ceremonies until 1978. In the 1960s, local residents recognized the cultural and environmental value of the site. They cleared it of fieldstones and refuse, identified and recorded the carvings and plant life, and urged the Minnesota Historical Society to acquire the site. In 1966, the Society purchased the site with the hope of providing knowledge of and appreciation for the history of the rock carvings, the environment in which they are found, and of the people who made them. In 1974, MHS began to reconstruct a prairie ecosystem in 47 formerly cultivated acres by planting several species of prairie grasses. Twenty-four years later and after several planned therapeutic burnings of the grasses, a systemic survey pronounced the efforts successful. The reconstruction produced a maturing prairie ecosystem. This is a testimonial to health of its prairie and the commitment and hard work of many people to the preservation and interpretation of Jeffers Petroglyphs Historic Site. Built in 1998, a new visitor center contains hands-on activities, exhibits, a multimedia presentation, modern restrooms, and a gift shop. Jeffers Petroglyphs' professional staff and informative signs guide visitors through the prairie and carvings. Main Page	<urn:uuid:1c33b7d8-e62f-48f1-ad68-a4ac098511ee>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.018576741218566895, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9491471648216248, "url": "http://www.thudscave.com/petroglyphs/history.htm" }
Daily Lessons for Teaching I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem Buy the I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem Lesson Plans Objective: Forward Tituba's trial for witchcraft was in the 1600s, during a time where discrimination was the norm. Discrimination is a significant theme in the text because Tituba's experiences with white Christian men all seem to fall to discrimination. Christianity in the 1600s in Salem was stern, rigid, and Puritanical. There was no room for Tituba's mysticism, as it would be considered dealing with Satan. Tituba is unable to retain her identity when she lives in Salem. She does not get to explore three of her identities in terms of race, religion, or gender. This lesson will explore discrimination as a theme in the text. 1. Class Discussion: Based on the reader's first impression, why is Tituba discriminated against? What kinds of relationships lead to discrimination for Tituba? What role did spirituality play in discrimination against Tituba? What role do Tituba's different identities play in the discrimination against... (read more Daily Lessons) This section contains 7,219 words (approx. 25 pages at 300 words per page) Buy the I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem Lesson Plans I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem from BookRags. (c)2018 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved. Follow Us on Facebook	<urn:uuid:f8c15ec0-5d0e-4688-b1e0-9d06c2c00b9e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4, "fasttext_score": 0.03727072477340698, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9407311081886292, "url": "http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/i-tituba-black-witch-of-salem/lessons.html" }
NOAA-funded researcher Libby Barnes talks about the special challenges of forecasting in the gap between weather and climate May 31, 2017 As Edward Lorenz famously said in 1972, the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil could spark a series of complex atmospheric events, eventually causing a tornado in Texas. But just as it would be impossible to know in advance the exact moment when a butterfly would flap its wings a thousand miles away, it is impossible to know of all the atmospheric complexities leading to a specific extreme weather event at a given time and place. Weather events like a tornado form rapidly and change quickly, and even the tiniest—seemingly insignificant—differences in the state of the atmosphere at a point in time will change the final outcome: when, where, or even if that tornado or extreme rain event will form. Oroville Dam reservoir, spillway, flooding, erosion A series of atmospheric river events in January 2017 pushed California's Oroville Reservoir beyond its capacity. Dam managers had to use an emergency spillway to release water after a breach developed in the primary spillway several days earlier. Libby Barnes and her colleagues hope to predict such extreme rain events several weeks in advance. Photo by Kelly M. Grow, California Department of Water Resources. Since the 1960s, scientists have used the so-called "butterfly effect" to explain why we struggle to predict such extreme events with more than two weeks of advanced notice. But Elizabeth Barnes, Assistant Professor at Colorado State University, is pushing the envelope. Barnes likes making complex things simple, and with her team, she is turning the theory about Earth’s chaotic weather patterns on its head. photo of libby barnes standing at her desk, with two computer monitors showing weather maps and drawings Assistant professor Libby Barnes at her desk at Colorado State University. On the monitors are images of some of her research interests: on the left a water vapor image of an "atmospheric river" in the Pacific Ocean; on the right, a diagram of atmospheric circulation in the tropics. Image courtesy Libby Barnes. Barnes has been simplifying complicated problems her whole life. Before the atmosphere, it was particle physics. “I was 12 years old, and I saw the movie Contact with Jodie Foster,” Barnes said. Foster plays an astrophysicist in the movie. “I decided I was going to be an astrophysicist, too, even though I didn’t know what a physicist was.” As a physics and math major at the University of Minnesota, Barnes spent her college summers studying neutrinos (nearly massless, neutral particles produced from events like exploding stars) at a high-energy particle accelerator, and at detectors throughout the United States. That was when she realized that, as a particle physicist, she might spend her whole life simplifying and finding an answer to the single question of how neutrinos change as they travel. Instead, Barnes knew she wanted to ask lots of questions about the most complicated system she could think of, the Earth system, which involves complex interactions between many of our planet’s components such as the atmosphere, ocean, and land. At different lead times (horizontal axis), different parts of the Earth's climate system (atmosphere, purple; land surface, green; ocean, blue) become more or less important to forecast skill (vertical axis). For short lead times, knowing the initial state of the atmosphere counts the most. At 2- to 4-week lead times, knowledge of the land surface is also needed, including things like soil moisture, snow cover, and vegetation. Forecasting more than 30 days ahead typically requires knowledge of the ocean, such as the sea surface temperature variations linked to El Niño. NOAA graphic, adapted from original by Paul Dirmeyer. Barnes then decided to obtain a Ph.D. in atmospheric science at the University of Washington. “Ever since I’ve been playing with really interesting questions and seeing what the Earth can tell us about how it works,” Barnes said. One of the questions she’s focused on these days is whether we can overcome the butterfly effect and make better predictions for atmospheric rivers. These “rivers” of tropical moisture get their name because, from a satellite view, they look like rivers of water flowing across the sky from the tropics to the mid-latitudes. Also, the heavy rain or snow they cause can seem like a river of water pouring from the sky when they make landfall on the west coast of North America. Both a blessing and a curse, atmospheric rivers provide the west coast with 3050% of its annual precipitation, but they also cause damaging floods as seen in California in early 2017. Rivers of tropical moisture flowed from the western Pacific to California from January 15–January 31, 2016. This animation is based on satellite-based estimates of "total precipitable water," which is the amount of liquid water available in the atmosphere to fall as rain or snow. NOAA animation by Dan Pisut, NOAA Environmental Visualization Lab, based on data provided by the University of Wisconsin/SSEC MIMIC. Because “upstream” atmospheric conditions can change so quickly, scientists struggle to predict atmospheric rivers beyond our current weather forecasting capability of seven to 10 days. But Barnes is trying to push through the butterfly effect. She wants to determine whether we can skillfully predict atmospheric rivers multiple weeks in advance by looking for “teleconnections”—long-distance relationships between the state of the atmosphere in one place, and the state in another place hundreds or even thousands of miles away. Barnes and her colleagues at Colorado State University are finding that the answer may lie in the tropical ocean. One pattern in the tropics, called the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), is particularly promising. The MJO is a disturbance of clouds and rain that circles the world every 30 to 90 days, beginning in the Indian Ocean. This large cluster of thunderstorms moves through the atmosphere like a whale through the ocean, making waves that meteorologists call “Rossby waves. Madden-Julian Oscillation schematic The exact location of the crests and troughs of these planet-spanning Rossby waves influence where and when heat and moisture move between the tropics and higher latitudes. When the MJO is in particular phases of its global trek, these Rossby waves can become nearly stationary, and the location of atmospheric high and low pressure systems can get stuck in a configuration that tends to block atmospheric rivers from making landfall in California. Instead, they are diverted towards the Gulf of Alaska. animation of the global trek of the storms associated with the MJO and the impact of that circulation on which parts of the West Coast of North America are hit by atmospheric rivers As the cluster of storms and rainfall (green areas) known as the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) travel around the tropics, they kick off planetary-scale waves in the mid-latitude atmosphere. Depending on the phase (location) of the MJO, the waves can alternately block or steer the flow of atmospheric rivers ("AR") around various high and low pressure systems and toward either the Gulf of Alaska or the U.S. West Coast . NOAA animation, by Cordelia Norris. “We have this whole arc of how that tropical information may tell us something about weather extremes due to atmospheric rivers hopefully beyond the one- to two-week weather timescale,” Barnes said. Barnes is applying this research to her role as lead of the NOAA-funded Subseasonal to Seasonal (S2S) Prediction Task Force. The goal of the S2S Prediction Task Force is to improve understanding and predictability of weather and climate phenomena falling within the two-week to two-month timescale. Past prediction efforts have mostly focused on forecasting either the weather timescale—days to one or two weeks in advance—or the seasonal climate timescale—two or three months ahead. However, accurately forecasting the time range in between is key to allow emergency and reservoir managers to prepare for many different extreme events such as heat waves, hurricanes, and atmospheric rivers. “In terms of the actual science happening [in the task force], it’s all over the board, which makes it really exciting every time you talk to anyone on the task force,” Barnes said. “They might be thinking about completely different science questions than you, but what links you is your timescale.” Task force projects cover topics like the stratosphere, MJO, ocean circulations, tropical cyclones, drought, and land-atmosphere interactions. As the task force lead, Barnes is aiming to help the group leverage each member’s efforts and integrate their research towards a broader goal. The task force is already starting to find ways to bridge the weather-climate gap, and they are just getting started. As for Barnes’ particular question, she is looking for more phenomena in the Earth system that may hold information to help with atmospheric river forecasting. She has many more questions to ask but is optimistic about the progress so far in pushing the envelope and moving beyond the butterfly effect. “We can actually tell you something about atmospheric river activity three weeks from now,” she said. “That would have been absolutely baffling two decades ago.” Barnes is supported by the NOAA Modeling, Analysis, Predictions, and Projections (MAPP) Program and the National Weather Service Office of Science and Technology Integration.	<urn:uuid:fa42da52-ce2b-4762-82c8-d2e0171d1040>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.15100866556167603, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9445210695266724, "url": "https://www.climate.gov/news-features/features/noaa-funded-researcher-libby-barnes-talks-about-special-challenges" }
(B) Ages 4-8, (C) Ages 8-10, (D) Ages 10-12, (E) Ages 12-15, (F) Ages 15-18, Book Reviews, Nonfiction, Picture Books Leave a comment Pass Go and Collect $200 by Tanya Lee Stone Pass Go and Collect $200 is fun, relatable social history for Monopoly fans and anyone who ever had a great idea. Ages 6-up Pass Go and Collect $200: the Real Story of How Monopoly Was Invented by Tanya Lee Stone, Illustrated by Steven Salerno. Henry Holt, 2018, 40 pages. Reading Level: Middle Grades, ages 8-10 Recommended for: ages 6-up “What kind of Monopoly player are YOU?” Almost everyone from the age of 8 to 80 has played the game at one time or another–and that has been the case ever since the 1930s. Its origins are as complex as the game itself, beginning with the financial crises of the late 19th century and a pioneering woman named Lizzie Magie. Lizzie was an opponent of rapacious landlords who used their wealth to buy up desirable properties and charge outrageous rent. Her “Landlord” game featured two sets of rules: one for ruthless competitors and the other showing “a fairer way to play, which had people sharing money when it was earned . . . Lizzie hoped kids would see just how unfair the first set of rules was and grow up to play by the second set in life.” Perhaps they did, but ruthless competition made for a more dynamic game. Lizzie patented “Landlord” and tried to sell it to the three Parker Brothers. They were intrigued but thought it would never catch on. The game passed into the public domain, collecting fans and improvements, but it took a busted entrepreneur named Charles Darrow to make “Monopoly” a nationwide hit. Meanwhile, what about Lizzie Magie? The author drops a few hints about her sympathies but gives all the major players a fair shake. Clever illustrations that incorporate elements of the game (like Chance cards and player tokens) add to the enjoyment of learning some social history and basic economics. The narrative ends with historical trivia and a page of math word problems based on Monopoly finance. Monopoly is a cutthroat game, but the book is good-natured fun. Cautions: None Overall Rating: 4.25 (out of 5) • Worldview/moral value: 4 • Artistic value: 4.5 Talk amongst yourselves... Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:6d8b8ce0-3247-4704-b122-6f6d2dcd802b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.020368337631225586, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9466515779495239, "url": "https://redeemedreader.com/2018/08/pass-go-and-collect-200-by-tanya-lee-stone/" }
Alternative Title: boudin Boudinage, (from French boudin, “sausage”), cylinderlike structures making up a layer of deformed rock. Seen in cross section, the cylinders, or boudins, are generally barrel-shaped but may be lenslike or rectangular. They commonly lie adjacent to each other and are joined by short necks to give the appearance of a string of sausages (hence their name). The thickest boudins are about 20 m (65 feet) thick, and the thinnest about 1 cm (0.39 inch). Boudinage results from the stretching of a firm but flexible stratum, as during slip or flexure-slip folding. The exact method of formation is not clearly understood. Generally the boudins lie parallel to the fold axes, but occasionally two sets of mutually perpendicular boudins may occur in the same stratum, one set parallel to the fold axes, the other perpendicular to them. Adjacent weak strata may flow into the necks of the boudins, or the necks may be filled with recrystallized minerals such as quartz, feldspar, or calcite. Boudinage occurs in a variety of rock types and is one of the more common structures found in folded rocks. You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Tips For Editing Thank You for Your Contribution! Uh Oh Keep Exploring Britannica Email this page	<urn:uuid:2f1784dd-a091-474f-9b37-8dbb4561eafa>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.023633360862731934, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9142279028892517, "url": "https://www.britannica.com/science/boudinage" }
yun 于2016-03-26发布 l 已有人浏览增大字体减小字体 Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay onthe following question. You should write at least 120 words but no more than 180 words. You must select a person to train others to do a job. Which one of the following is the most important for you to consider in making your selection? 1、The person's education 2、The person's work experience 3、The quality of the person's previous work Quality Is the Most Important Training someone to do a job is an important task. It requires a good education, work experience, and skilled job performance. Of these three requirements, I believe it is most important that a potential job trainer be judged by the quality of his or her previous work. First, a person may be well educated, but not able to do the job proficiently. For example, a doctor may know how to treat children's diseases, but not be able to train medical students to perform surgeries. Second, a person may have a lot of work experience, but not be able to do the job well. A typist may have typed for ten years, but may not type at a speed of over 30 words a minute. A person who does a job well is the one you want to train. I think people always choose a pilot who has faced a lot of mechanical problems in flight and never had an accident. As in all things, it is quality that we look for, not general knowledge or void time spent in an occupation. 1 2 下一页	<urn:uuid:4520afb1-420b-45a7-a6d6-9799b2a877c1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.6667732000350952, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8712931871414185, "url": "http://www.en8848.com.cn/cet4/writing/topicfw/304206.html" }
History of the Notary Seal You may be generally aware of what’s involved with “notarizing” a document as part of a transaction, but do you really understand the reasons why a notary seal is required? The mandate of having paperwork executed with a notary service goes back many years, and the process is actually founded with a view to deterring fraud. Have a look back at the history of the notary seal, from early to modern times, to help you better understand why it continues to play a role in many transactions. The Notary Seal from Ancient Times to the Middle Ages: The earliest evidence of notary public were the scribes used in Egypt, dating back to 2750 BC. These chroniclers were entrusted with handling official communications, including letters, proclamations or tax documents which must go through their hands to be effective. There is also proof that Rome required a type of commission for a “notarius,” who would prepare written contracts, wills and other documents, literacy being not widespread. In the Middle Ages, notary services can be traced back to the Order of the Knights Templar around 1099-1307 AD. This quasi-military group was entrusted with protecting Christians en route to the Holy Land, and became very powerful as a result. They established modern banking and loan processes, so the Knights became central as notaries for business transactions and official documents. The Notary Seal in Common Law England: The first indication of the role of notaries in England dates back to the 13th and 14th Centuries as the country’s form of common law developed separately from the Roman legal system. A notary public was typically a member of the clergy and would be appointed by a high-ranking church official, either the Papal Legate or Archbishop of Canterbury. However, over time, the requirement of being a clergy member became less important as cities and trading centers positioned notary service in high demand. Notary Seal from Early America to Modern Times: Because the U.S. draws its legal system from England – common law, i.e., the law of precedent – notary public professionals have been used in our country since colonial times. Only individuals of high moral character were appointed to certify documents, verify the identification of individuals and keep official papers safe. These early notaries contributed much to the U.S. becoming a business and trading center, as they were very trusted, neutral individuals that could ensure that a transaction was open and honest. Today, it’s still necessary to obtain a notary seal on certain documents, including those involving real estate, wills or estate planning documents, powers of attorney and other papers as defined by state law. This overview of the notary seal throughout the ages is helpful in explaining why notarization is necessary when it comes to certain documents and transactions. Our ancestors fear of fraud prompted them to found a process that would reduce the potential for misconduct in executing some types of paperwork. Keep this in mind when you’re looking to retain the services of a notary public or signing agent for your needs. Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:4d99e2b7-5993-4a13-969d-ce12abc9bbaa>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.03312206268310547, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.973018229007721, "url": "https://www.superiornotaryservices.com/blog/history-of-the-notary-seal/" }
Category Archives: For Educators Are the Fastest-Growing Occupations Really the Best Choice? Last week the Bureau of Labor Statistics released the occupational employment projections for 2016 to 2026. Almost immediately, the media outlets began publishing articles touting the fastest-growing (and bashing the fastest-declining) occupations. Here is a brief rebuttal to all of those articles. Percent change in employment, whether it be growth or decline, does not tell the whole story about an occupation. Some fast-growing occupations have very few openings. Conversely, some rapidly declining occupations have many openings, largely due to the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Let’s consider a few examples in the tables below. Fastest growing occupations Notice that the four fastest-growing occupations highlighted in red are projected to have fewer than 5,000 annual openings nationwide. Fastest Declining Occupations Notice that the two fastest-declining occupations highlighted in green are projected to have greater than 15,000 annual openings nationwide. Granted, due to the decline, a worker may have a greater risk of being laid off from one of these jobs. However, which would be the better choice—an electrical and electronic equipment assembler job with 18,200 openings or a bicycle repairer job with only 2,100 openings? Of course there are other factors to consider, such as salary, working conditions, and skill and interest matches. And that is exactly the point. We should not make hasty career decisions based on overhyped lists of fastest, biggest, or best. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has an excellent short video on understanding labor market data. For more information on the occupations with the most openings, please see my LinkedIn post. What My Online Jazz Course Taught Me About Career Counseling Even if you do not like jazz, please keep reading. This analogy works for whatever genre of music or form of art that you do like. I recently completed an online jazz appreciation course, and when I began I could only use layman’s terms to describe what I liked or disliked about a particular song. During the course the professor’s goal was for us to progress to the point where we could use jazz terminology to support our musical preferences. So, “I liked it because it was energetic and the band had a trumpet (my son plays the trumpet in his high school band)” became “I enjoy the combination of blues and bebop, as well as the trumpet player’s motivic development.” What does that have to do with career counseling? Job seekers can usually describe in layman’s terms what they like or dislike about the jobs they have had. When counseling them, what if we help them to see how their preferences translate into workforce development terminology? Would that help them to understand their personal traits better, and would they then be more likely to make better career decisions? Here is a before and after example to illustrate how this strategy would work. Counselor: You scored very high in the Realistic interest area and your highest work values are Relationships and Working Conditions. Have you considered training to become a computer user support specialist? Job Seeker: Huh? Now let’s try an approach where the counselor helps the job seeker to understand their experience in terms of workforce development terminology. Counselor: You told me that one of the things you enjoyed most about your last job was fixing the machines when they broke down. That confirms your high Realistic score on your interest profiler. A person who scores high in the Realistic interest area enjoys finding practical solutions to problems. Job Seeker: Yes, that really sounds like what I like to do. Counselor: Also, you didn’t like the competitive environment among your co-workers and wished that you could have had some customer contact. That matches well with one of your high scores on the work importance profiler, Relationships. Now there are a few occupations that allow you to fix things and still have some customer contact. One of them that is in demand, pays a reasonable wage, and offers some job security is computer user support specialists. You might call the person who does that job a help desk technician. Could you see yourself doing that? Job Seeker: Well, I don’t know. How could I qualify for a job like that? Of course, many of my readers could lead that discussion much better than I could. In the career to counselor ratio I am about 90% career and probably only 10% counselor. But I am hoping that I was able to present the concept in a way that makes sense. I would be happy to hear your thoughts on this idea. And if you try it, please let me know how it works. Image above from What Kind of Job Can I Get If My College Major Is… This question is sometimes difficult to answer because colleges and the workforce do not always speak the same language. That is the bad news. The good news is that you can translate between the CIP (Classification of Instructional Programs) codes used by colleges and SOC (Standard Occupational Classification) codes used in the labor market. Sometimes the translation is obvious—for example, B.S. in Electrical Engineering to Electrical Engineer. Other times it is more complicated. Consider a degree in Communications, which will not get you a job as a Communicator. So what will it get you? Here is a web site with a useful crosswalk from college major to job title: Simply plug in the name of your degree program, and you will get a list of occupational matches. Unfortunately, you may find more matches than you expected. For example, the crosswalk lists more than 20 different types of communication degrees. So you will have to choose the one that makes the most sense to you. Of course, in the world of the job seeker, we just crossed the street without looking where we are going. You would do better to look before you cross. What I mean is that you would really benefit from choosing your desired job (or at least the job family or industry cluster) first and then finding a degree program that will get you safely to your destination. Image Source: Dogmadic, Beverage vs. Adler Lou Adler offers an interesting perspective on the Labor Department’s job openings numbers in his post “The Feb 11 JOLTS Report Predicts…” I am really glad that he discussed the JOLTS numbers. It is important to look beyond the two pieces of data—the official Unemployment Rate and the monthly jobs report—on which the media fixate. There is a trend that comes out of the job openings numbers that you should be aware of: The Beveridge curve. (Okay, I admit that I intentionally misspelled it beverage in the post title so that I could use the soft drink image). The Beveridge curve takes the job openings rate and compares it to the Unemployment rate. As the job openings rate goes up or down, so does the Unemployment rate. Here is why you should be especially concerned about the relationship between job openings and Unemployment today. In 2010 the Beveridge curve shifted up and to the right where it has stayed through the end of 2013. That has been evidenced by relatively high Unemployment at a time when there are high numbers of job openings. The Bureau of Labor Statistics describes this situation as ‘inefficient job matching.’ It is a source of frustration for both businesses and job seekers and a real challenge for workforce professionals. So, is the coincidence of high numbers of job openings and high Unemployment a cyclical issue that will eventually correct itself? Or is it a reflection of a real lack of skills among workers? We cannot be certain. But anecdotal evidence suggests that businesses should focus on developing the skills of their workers and job seekers should take the initiative to build their own skills. If the data really interest you, information about the Beveridge curve can be found on pp. 19–23 of this document. Opening soft drink image is from Job Projections to 2022 Troubling The Bureau of Labor Statistics released their Occupational Employment Projections, 2012–2022, today. Here is my initial reaction. I try to be optimistic about economic data—and still believe that there are tremendous career opportunities for job seekers who understand where they fit in the labor market—but I am disappointed by these numbers. Comparing the new projections to the old ones (2010–2020), we are seeing a significant decline in projected growth. According to the old forecast, we were to see 164 million jobs in 2020. The new projection calls for only 161 million jobs two whole years later. That is about 2.5 million jobs too few for the projected size of the labor force. Although that is much better than the difference between workers and jobs of nearly 10 million in 2012, wouldn’t it be better if there was a job for every worker? The outlook for 19 of the 22 major job families has been downgraded with the largest downward revisions in Office & Administrative Support and Sales & Related Occupations. The bright spot in the revisions is in Management Occupations, for which end-year (2022) employment has been adjusted upward by 20,800 (3.4%). My understanding (from a non-economist’s point of view) of the reason for the changes is that the economy in general is recovering from the Great Recession far more slowly than expected. Thus forecasted job growth has been revised downward. 6 Fastest-Growing Occupations for the New Year: Don’t Believe Them! Tomorrow (Thursday, 12/19/13) the Bureau of Labor Statistics will release their Employment Projections for 2012–2022. Then you will see the writers begin to write about the hottest, best, or fastest-growing occupations for the next decade. Among the jobs that are hyped, you will see some really bad choices. Perhaps the list will include biomedical engineers with a 50+ percent growth rate. (No, I do not have an advance copy of the new projections; I am just guessing based on the old projections). Why They May Be Bad Job Choices Over the weekend a friend of mine told his teenage son that he would double his allowance if he would shovel the snow from the driveway. Why did his son refuse the offer? The dad does not even give him an allowance, and the young man realized that two times zero is still zero. The same is true of some of the “fast-growing” occupations. If you take an occupation with a very small number of job openings and increase it by 50%, you are still going to end up with a very small number of openings. The 2010–2020 projections showed an annual average of 1,310 openings for biomedical engineers. That may seem like a large number, but when you divide it among the 50 states and the District of Columbia, it is far from being a “hot” job. For example, New York State’s share of the annual openings is only 30. When a Decline Is Better Than an Increase You would actually be better off pursuing a career as a postal service worker. With a double-digit decline, no one is going to place postal workers on their list of best jobs. However, the projections to 2020 showed an average of 12,630 yearly openings—nearly 10 times as many as biomedical engineers. So when you see those articles about the fastest-growing occupations for the New Year, make sure that the writers are not trying to sell you on two times zero. Image above from How Much Does a Job Pay in Rochester, NY?	<urn:uuid:a0173c77-8817-4aa9-96cf-8505693fbd61>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.03884798288345337, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.959068238735199, "url": "https://lkoslow.wordpress.com/category/for-educators/" }
• e1 The Muisca Raft: The golden statue that may be the key behind the myth of El Dorado El Dorado (The Golden One) was not a place, but a person The legend of El Dorado was born in the 16th century when the Spanish arrived in Muisca territory and spread rumors that there was a city of gold deep in the Colombian mountains. Since then, the myth of El Dorado has attracted explorers and treasure hunters into the mountains of South America. Over the years, however, the real story behind the myth has been revealed, and El Dorado (The Golden One) was not a place, but a person. (The origins of the legend lie in the story of a Muisca ritual) The most representative symbol of the El Dorado myth is the Muisca Raft, an outstanding example of pre-Columbian gold votive discovered in a cave near Bogota in 1856. It belongs to the late period of the Muisca culture, sometime between 1200 and 1500 BC. (As recent archaeological research confirms, El Dorado -the Golden One- was not a place, but a person) The Muisca tribe is one out of four advanced civilizations of the Americas (apart from the Aztec, Mayas, and Incas), best known for their skilled gold working. (Representation of the famous El Dorado ceremony, an initiation of the new zipa -ruler- in the lake of Guatavita) The golden sculpture is made of an alloy of pure gold (over 80%) with native silver and a small amount of copper alloy by using the lost wax method and depicts the ceremony ritual of the new zipa (ruler) of Bacatá at the lake of Guatavita. He is surrounded by other chiefs, all adorned with feathers, pendants, armlets, crowns, and earrings, carrying musical instruments, jaguar masks, and shaman maracas in their hands. The tribe members located at the edges seem to be oarsmen. (Gold objects were not considered symbols of material wealth within Muisca society. They were used only for ceremonial and decorative purposes) When a leader died within Muisca society, a new chief was acknowledged, usually the nephew of the previous chief, who used to cover his body in gold dust, and standing at the center of a raft, he offered treasures to the Guatavita goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca ceremony became the origin of the El Dorado legend. The piece is now on display at the Gold Museum in Bogota and may be the key to the greatest treasure never found.	<urn:uuid:05013e7b-161c-4865-9f5f-c471eed2584a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.06966739892959595, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.952941358089447, "url": "http://en.protothema.gr/the-muisca-raft-the-golden-statue-that-may-be-the-key-behind-the-myth-of-el-dorado/" }
Tuesday, May 3, 2011 previous article Introduction: Who is responsible for the events that occur in the world? Hegel said it is history. Marx said it is “the system.” Various views have been propounded to explain the occurrence of events. These theories put forward mutually conflicting answers to the question of who or what causes events in this universe to transpire. An event does not take place because of one reason. There are always more than one factors involved. Per Jain philosophy, a situation develops or an event happens because of five reasons operating simultaneously. Some schools of thought believe that whatever happens is God’s wish. They think that • God has created the universe • God manages the universe • God decides who gets what This type of belief contrasts with that of the Jains, who believe that the six basic substances of the universe are eternal and they are: • Soul (Jivästikäya) • Material atoms (Pudgalästikäya) • Medium of motion (Dharmästikäya) • Medium of rest (Adharmästikäya) • Space (Äkäshästikäya) • Time (Käl) They are indestructible and cannot be created. Nobody manages the universe. Everything in the universe takes place in accordance with the laws of nature. Every individual feels the appropriate repercussions of his/her actions in accordance with his/her own Karma. Samaväya (Casual Factors) Samaväya is the name of the group of five causes that are associated with every situation or event. It gives the connection between action and causes. Without a cause, no action can take place. These five causes have a deep connection with everything that takes place in the universe. These all are responsible for all events (positive or negative) in the universe. The five Samaväya (group of factors functioning simultaneously) are: • Käl (Time) • Svabhäv (Nature of a Substance) • Niyati (Fate) • Nimitta and Prärabdha (External Circumstances, and/or Karma) • Purushärtha (Self Effort or Free Will) Some people give focus only to one of these causes and ignore the others. The theory of Anekäntaväda, the Jain philosophy of multiplicity of viewpoints, rejects this way of viewing matters from a single angle. The Jain philosophy views and reveals the importance of each Samaväya from the Anekäntaväda and considers these five Samaväya as the causes for any action or reaction. Without these five, nothing can take place. Käl (Time) Time gives sequence to whatever happens in the universe. The Karma that are bound to the soul due to activities may not immediately manifest their fruits as soon as they are bound. The fruits of Karma appear at a specific time depending on the nature of the Karma itself. Karma have to depend on time to present their fruits. One cannot have fruits the very moment a tree is planted. The seed cannot neglect the temporal limitation set out by time for its transformation into a tree; even nature depends on time for its manifestation or actualization. Time is a controlling principle. Without it, temporal order cannot be accounted for. If there were no time, a spout, a stem, a stalk, a flower and a fruit - all would emerge and exist simultaneously. We cannot but acknowledge the fact that time plays an important role in the events of one’s life. If man understands that time is one of the important factors that produces an effect, he will learn to be patient during the period from the inception of the work to its completion or accomplishment. Otherwise, he will wrongly expect success or accomplishment the moment the work has commenced or at least before its due time. He may then lose all hope on account of not attaining success. This will make him slack in his efforts. As a result, he may be deprived of success in the future. Svabhäv (Nature of a Substance) Every substance has its own nature and they generate effects according to it. Time is not everything. Even if the right time arrives, certain seeds do not sprout. Why are thorns sharp? Why do most flowers have beautiful colors? Why are some animals cruel? Why are some animals clever and capable of rapid movement? Why does a dog bark? A single answer to all these questions is, it is their nature (Svabhäv). For example, to bark is a dog’s nature. You will not be able to grow mangoes on a lemon tree. In matters like these, individual nature is considered as the main cause. Nothing can generate an effect against its own inherent nature, even if all other causal conditions such as time, human effort, etc., are present there. An insentient or sentient thing produces an effect strictly in accordance with its own inherent nature. Undoubtedly, the place of inherent nature is very important in the production of an effect or in the occurrence of an event. Niyati (Destiny) Niyati means destiny or fate. In this world, there are certain things that are predetermined and unalterable. In these situations, whatever has been destined will take place. Whatever has to happen keeps happening. In this process, change cannot be made despite our best laid plans. For example, even if we make all possible efforts, we cannot prevent the aging process or may not be able to save someone’s life. If someone were going to hit our car from behind, he/she would do so despite our best efforts. In essence, although we are in control of most events that occur throughout our life, there are certain things that are beyond our control. Destiny can be regarded as identical to a certain type of karma, an unalterable karma. In Jain terminology, it is called ‘Nikächit karma’. The Nikächit karma is that which is unalterable and which most certainly causes the experience of pleasure or pain to the concerned soul at the time of its fruition. The fruit or result of such type of karma being Niyat (fixed and unalterable), the karma is known by the name ‘Niyati’. However, it must be stressed that the concept of Nikächit only applies to a select few karma and cannot be used as a justification for apathy or evil. Nimitta or Prärabdha (External Circumstances and Karma) Nimitta is an apparent cause of a result or a catalytic agent (helper) of a process, result or activity. There can be one or more Nimitta in any given event. Nimitta can be either external (person, objects) or internal (Karma). Guidance of a Guru and scripture or an event can be an external cause. Happiness, misery and various conditions related to us depend on diverse karma. Sometime we notice that good deeds yield bitter fruits and evil deeds yield sweet ones. Behind this apparent anomaly, it is the force of karma that is at work. All strange things and all the sad and happy things we experience; are all due results of previously bonded Karma. A mother gives birth to twins. Still one turns out to be different from the other. This is because of one’s own Karma. The rich become poor, poor become rich, rich become richer and poor become poorer. This is also because of one’s own Karma. Every one has to experience both the good and the evil consequences of their Karma. There occur inexplicable or strange events in the life of an individual or of a group, which are described as ‘determined or controlled by Fate’. From such events, we get the idea of the existence of karma. Purushärtha (Self effort or Free Will) Purushärtha or individual effort has a special place. A person cannot progress if he/she depends on Time or Nature or Destiny or Karma and if he/she does not put forth effort. The human race has progressed because of efforts and initiatives. It is not possible to improve anything without effort. Which one is the most important of these five? Which is the most effectual? The controversy regarding these questions is not of today; but has existed for centuries. Countless arguments and counter arguments have been made for and against one or another proposition. One who supports one view disagrees with other causes. However, Jain philosophy does not consider these five from a single point of view; nor does it consider anyone of them as the only right one. The Jain philosophy considers their collective effect as valid and right. We must understand that in the production of each and every effect, all five causal factors are not equally important. Of course, all of them are necessarily present there simultaneously to produce an effect. However, with respect to a particular effect a particular causal factor acts as the principal one and the rest act as subordinate to it. However, Jain philosophy does put more emphasis on individual effort (Purushärtha), because individual effort is the only one in our control. Individual effort can change or eradicate one’s Karma. Purushärtha of the past is Karma of the present and Purushärtha of the present is Karma of the future. If we continue to put forth self-effort to shed our Karma, our destiny will improve and that can happen sooner depending upon the eradication of Karma. However, we must understand that it takes all five causes for any action to take place. We cannot help but recognize the importance of human effort. Those who regard karma as supreme should question themselves as to who generates karma. It is the activity and passions of the soul that generates karma. Karma makes the soul wander in the cycle of life and death, whereas human effort wages war against karma destroys their entire force and leads the soul to the Abode of the Liberated. It is not the force of karma that brings about the manifestation of the state of liberation. In fact, it is the destruction of karma that is the only cause of liberation. It is only human effort that can destroy karma. When one directs one’s attention to this uncommon characteristic of human effort, one finds it improper to give sole importance to karma. This is the reason why the knowledgeable and wise saints have taught us that the only means for improving and destroying karma is one’s firm determination to keep one’s mental, vocal and bodily operations auspicious (virtuous) or pure while performing spiritual good, auspicious, praiseworthy and compassionate acts. Those who depend solely on karma become despondent and indolent. Hence, they are deprived of success. Though human effort has to depend on time, nature, etc., it is the most efficient way to bring victory to man. In the modern age, many wonderful things have been invented and widely used. These inventions serve as brilliant instances of the efficacy of human effort. Individuals or nations that put forth great efforts make progress and attain prosperity and welfare. On the other hand, idle individuals and nations fall behind and degenerate on account of their lack of vigor and vitality; they consequently become slaves of others and subject themselves to their oppressions. If the achievements attained or inventions made by human effort are misused, it is the people who misuse them that are at fault and not the achievements or inventions. We have now seen the importance of the five causal factors. All five are useful in their own places. All contribute to the production of an effect. We should not give exclusive importance to any one of them, rejecting all others or relegating them to an utterly insignificant place. The believers in the doctrine of time are under the sway of illusion, if they accept time while excluding the other factors without properly evaluating their contribution. This view is the right view, which accords proper placement to all the causal factors. Contrary to it, the wrong view is that, which regards anyone of them as the sole cause, neglecting the rest. Jainism puts most emphasis on Purushärtha (to rely a great deal on one’s own efforts and initiatives) since it is the only one in our control and can make an impact on other Samaväya in future. No progress can be made if one depends only upon fate or Karma. Individual effort (Purushärtha) can help in shedding Karma and in purifying his/her consciousness. Believing in these five causes is the beginning of the theory of multiplicity of views (multifaceted truth or Anekäntaväda). Significance of Samaväya: • To form an opinion on any one of the five causes indicates our ignorance about Jain reality. • However during our spiritual growth period, we should reflect on one cause that will reduce or minimize our vices and enhance our spirituality. • During the action or activity period one should reflect on: One’s own effort for the success (Determination, Free will, Self effort) • At the conclusion of an activity or action one should reflect on: If the result is positive the success was due to the help from others (external Nimitta or circumstances). If the result is negative the failure was due to my past karma (internal Nimitta) or the failure was Predestined or My effort was not adequate • Person needs Freewill, Determination, and Effort to progress from Illusionary/Ignorant state (1st Gunasthan) to Monk-hood state (6th Gunasthan) • Person can not spiritually progress further without dissolving his/her ego. • To the egoless person, all events that occur in the universe seems predestined • This does not mean that events are predestined in reality (all five causes are equally present) • We may continuously change two of the five causes: Purushärtha and Nimitta (Self Effort or Free Will, Karma and External situation) Hence the probability of all events are predetermined is very low • During an ignorance state a person is controlled by surroundings (Nimitta). • Hence on the path of spiritual progress the person should be surrounded by proper Environment • As spiritual progress occurs, the effect of external causes reduce, and the power of soul Karma philosophy applies to ourselves, Compassion applies to all. courtesy: Jain Philosophy & Practice-2 1. Its explain in a very simple language. I was looking for something can easily explain to 10 year old kids and it helped me to prepare my notes for them. Thank you	<urn:uuid:fe3e281c-8d03-411b-92aa-845918bd88ee>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.09112268686294556, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9414165019989014, "url": "http://jaincosmos.blogspot.com/2011/05/anekantavada-part-5-five-samavaya.html" }
Presentation is loading. Please wait. Presentation is loading. Please wait. Flash activity. These activities are not editable. Similar presentations Presentation on theme: "Flash activity. These activities are not editable."— Presentation transcript: 1 Flash activity. These activities are not editable. Holes by Louis Sachar Icons key: For more detailed instructions, see the Getting Started presentation Flash activity. These activities are not editable. Teacher’s notes included in the Notes Page Extension activities Web addresses Accompanying worksheet 1 of 33 © Boardworks Ltd 2006 2 What are your first impressions of the novel? The cover What are your first impressions of the novel? Does the front cover attract you and make you want to read the book or does it put you off? Why? Without reading any of the novel, or even the blurb, try to guess what the story is, using only the title and book cover to help you. Worksheet One accompanies this slide. You may wish to ask students to consider this question: Do you think Holes is a good title? Presuming students have the Bloomsbury edition you can ask: What might be the significance of the lizard? What might be the significance of the blue sky and desert landscape? 4 The word hostile means unfriendly or unwelcoming The setting Read the first chapter of the novel. Sachar gives his novel a very harsh setting. How has he managed to do this? Worksheet One accompanies this slide. Students’ attention might be brought to the following: The fact that there is no lake at Camp Green Lake. The camp is a ‘dry, flat wasteland’ – The heat is unbearable and there is no shade available. The town, lake and people who once lived there have ‘shrivelled and dried up’ which suggests that it is a dead place. There is only one hammock, but it is reserved for a figure referred to mysteriously as ‘the Warden’. The camp accommodates rattlesnakes and scorpions – animals dangerous to humans. The author uses many short sentences in the first chapter, which serve to add tension to the story. Suggested extension activity: Students could be asked to use Sachar’s opening to help them to create their own hostile and unfriendly setting for a story. Make a list of all the words or phrases which make Camp Green Lake sound hostile. The word hostile means unfriendly or unwelcoming How does Sachar create a sense of tension? 5 Openings Read Chapters 1 and 2 thoroughly before answering the questions below. Why are openings important in stories? Has Sachar managed to create an engaging opening to Holes? Now that you know a little more about the setting, can you guess what the main themes of this novel will be? What questions are raised in these chapters which you are interested in finding the answers to? The first three questions could be answered verbally as a class. You may wish to ask students to write down their questions, in response to question 4, in the table on Worksheet Two. They can then complete the answers as they read the book. An example question is provided. 6 Stanley Yelnats – true or false? You may wish to ask students to complete the character card for Stanley Yelnats, on Worksheet Three, before showing this slide. 7 Camp Green Lake Students will need to have read as far as the second page of Chapter 7 (page 27 in the Bloomsbury edition) to complete this quiz. 8 What’s in a name? This quiz is best completed once students have read Chapter 5. You may like to ask students to name each character’s nickname on Worksheet Two first, and then check their answers by completing the interactive activity as a class. 9 Character profiles What do you think the characters look like? Draw a picture of two characters from the book and label them to show why you have decided to draw them in the way you have. Here is an example to help you think about it. Stanley Sunburned due to working in the heat all day Friendly face to show he is kind tired eyes 10 The sub-plot A sub-plot is the part of a story which is told alongside the main plot, but is different from it in some way. Often the significance of a sub-plot is not revealed until the end of a story. In Holes, there is a sub-plot which runs parallel to the main plot set at Camp Green Lake. What is the sub-plot of Holes? Who are the main characters of this sub-plot and how are they related to the main storyline? Write down your ideas. love Click to give students a few clues. Direct students to Chapter 7. The sub-plot is the story of Madame Zeroni and Stanley’s great-great-grandfather, Elya Yelnats who is in love with a brainless girl called Myra. You may wish to ask students to write their own summary of the sub-plot so far using the words shown. Worksheet Four accompanies this slide, and includes extension questions. Madame Zeroni America stream pig 11 Stanley’s pig-stealing-great-great-grandfather! 12 Stanley’s diary Read Chapters 7–9, which describe Stanley’s first full day at the camp. Can you explain Stanley’s letter to his mother? Why does he lie to her? Imagine that as well as writing home to his mother, Stanley also keeps a diary in which he is completely truthful about his life at the camp. How would it differ to his letters home? Worksheet Five accompanies this slide. This diary entry could be the first in a series which students are asked to write providing an ongoing summary of the novel. This would allow you to assess the extent to which students know the text and understand the characters’ situation and emotions. Write an honest diary entry for Stanley’s first full day at Camp Green Lake. 13 Comprehension Read Chapters 10 and 11 and then complete the questions below, using full sentences and giving reasons for your answers wherever possible. Chapter 10 How can you tell that Stanley is tired? Why does Stanley show the fossil to Mr Pendanski? How can you tell that Mr Pendanski is not interested in the fossil? Chapter 11 Why does Stanley agree to give anything he finds in the future to X-Ray? What prompts Stanley to think of Derrick Dunne? How does he feel about Derrick Dunne? Worksheet Six accompanies this slide. These questions require more than a factual knowledge of the text, required by the quizzes. Students should be encouraged to write extended answers which show understanding and which are supported by evidence from the text. 14 Predictions Can you guess why this object might be more ‘interesting’ to the Warden than the fossil which Stanley also found? What do you think the tube is? 15 The Warden In Chapter 14, we meet the Warden. Read the description of the Warden from ‘A tall woman…’ until ‘Her voice was soft’. This description does not say the warden is a bad person. However, how has Sachar hinted at a darker, or more sinister side to her? This description appears on page 66 of the Bloomsbury edition of the novel. Possible ideas in response to question: The Warden is responsible for the boys at Camp Green Lake and therefore responsible for their hot days digging holes. The Warden is unafraid to walk straight up to X-Ray (the toughest boy in the group) even though she does not know him. The Warden is amazed by Mr Pendanski’s question and does not seem to like it because she stares ‘hard at him’. The softness of her voice is not intended to sound friendly but to be quietly threatening and frightening. Finally (and arguably), the Warden is a woman, when the reader may well have been expecting a man. It could be suggested that it takes a strong or harsh woman to be responsible for such a tough camp which is run for boys only. Her clothes are cowboy-like and therefore quite masculine. Extension question: In what way does the remainder of Chapter 14 convince you that the Warden has a sinister side to her personality? 16 Complete the Warden’s identity badge: Name: Age: Occupation: Duties and responsibilities: ______________ ______ ____________________________ ______________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________ You may like to ask students to complete their own identity badge for the Warden on Worksheet Seven, before feeding back to the class. Some of the details will have to be invented – the purpose of the task is to get students thinking about the roles of the adults at the camp. It will also require students to have carefully read the description of the Warden. 17 Teamwork 18 Reading and writing In Chapter 18, Zero asks Stanley to teach him to read but Stanley refuses. Stanley seems to be quite kind, so why doesn’t he want to help Zero? What kinds of things do people who cannot read or write miss out on? Why is it important to learn how to do these things? 19 Zero You may wish to ask students to complete the character card for Zero, on Worksheet Seven, before completing this activity. 20 Kissin’ Kate Barlow 21 Sam and Kate’s relationship 22 Kissin’ Kate Barlow – comprehension The love story between Katherine and Sam is important in the novel. Can you guess why? When do Sam and Katherine fall in love and how do they manage to see each other regularly? Why do the people of Green Lake disapprove of the relationship between Sam and Kate? What do they do as a consequence of their hate? Who is the main instigator of the trouble? Can you work out why Camp Green Lake becomes dry and barren? These questions relate to Chapters 23, 25, 26 and 28. Worksheet Eight accompanies this slide. 24 Atmosphere Read the first page of Part 2 until ‘a barren wasteland’. What atmosphere is created by Sachar at the start of Part 2? How can you tell that something important is about to happen? What do you think it is? Part 2 begins on page 127 of the Bloomsbury edition of the novel. The fact that there is a change in the weather is significant because the weather has been consistent up until this point. The bad weather seems to be a warning to the boys at the camp that something important, and possibly bad, is about to happen because it does not only change, but changes ‘for the worse’. These words get their own line in the text which gives them weight. Teachers may wish to discuss the relevance of weather in Shakespeare plays (such as Macbeth) or even in the Bible where poor weather is often a communication or punishment from God. 25 Zero, Zigzag and X-Ray Students will need to have read to the end of Chapter 30 to complete this activity. Worksheet Nine accompanies this slide. Students could be asked to complete Worksheet Nine with as much information as they know about the three characters. This interactive activity could then be completed as a class, with students then volunteering any additional information they have noted about the characters. 26 Conflict – comprehension In Chapter 30, Stanley and Zigzag fight. How does the argument start between Stanley and Zigzag? Why does Mr Pendanski encourage the fight? How can you tell that Zero and Stanley have developed a bond? How does the Warden try to humiliate Zero? Why do you think Zero runs away? Why do none of the adults try to stop Zero from escaping? Worksheet Ten accompanies this slide. 27 Stanley’s diary When Zero runs away, Stanley is left alone and another boy, Twitch, arrives in Zero’s place. Finally, Stanley decides to leave too. Imagine that you are Stanley. Write a diary entry in which you are completely truthful about what has happened at camp and why you decided to run away. Think especially about how Stanley would feel about the Warden’s attitude to Zero’s disappearance. Remember to mention any fears he might have as well. Worksheet Eleven accompanies this slide. Students should have read up to and including Chapter 33 in order to complete this task. It may be useful to run through conventions of diary writing for less able students. Remind the students that the Warden’s solution is to destroy all Zero’s records and pretend that he never existed. 28 Sploosh! A food company has decided to produce bottles of Sploosh! Imagine that you are part of the marketing team. Spoolsh Students should have read up to and including Chapter 35 in order to complete this task. N.B.: Students are being asked to create a label for Sploosh which is a peach-based food here, not an odour eater product, as is advertised by the character Clyde Livingstone in Chapter 50. You may wish to ask students to create their design within the box on Worksheet Twelve. You can then cut these out, paste them around old glass containers and display them. You may also like to show students examples of fruity products’ packaging before discussing persuasive techniques used on packaging. Your task is to design the label for the bottle of Sploosh to encourage shoppers to buy it. Think carefully about the words and pictures on the label. 29 I’m an English student…Get me out of here! 30 Treasure maps Draw a detailed treasure map of Camp Green Lake and the surrounding area. X Worksheet Thirteen accompanies this slide. This exercise tests students’ knowledge of the text and their ability to understand the significance of places in the novel. Locations students may mark on their maps include: The big thumb, where Zero and Stanley go for safety X, where the treasure is buried Holes, where the boys have worked The Warden’s hut, where the Warden scratched Mr Sir on the face. Differentiation is by outcome – only the most able students will be able to fully complete the second part of the task. Once you have done this, write down an important thing that happens at each location. 31 Test your knowledge What was the curse on Stanley’s family? Why were Stanley Yelnats’s family cursed in the first place? How was the curse lifted? How did the Warden know there was treasure buried at Camp Green Lake? Why was Stanley’s name written on the buried treasure? Worksheet Fourteen accompanies this slide. These questions are basic and test only the students’ overall knowledge of Part 2. Students should have finished the book before answering these questions. 32 Test your understanding 1. How can you tell that Stanley and Zero are friends? 2. In what ways do the Warden and Mr Sir reveal themselves as villains in Part Two? Worksheet Fifteen accompanies this slide. These questions are more taxing and test the students’ overall understanding of Part 2. 3. In what ways do Stanley and Zero undergo a change in their lives once they have left Camp Green Lake? 33 Holes – evaluation What kinds of qualities make a character a hero or heroine? Make a list. Which of these qualities does Stanley possess? Write a short article entitled: Worksheet Sixteen accompanies this slide. These questions are the most difficult and help teachers to assess students’ overall ability to evaluate the novel. Before students complete the worksheet you may wish to run through with them the typical style of writing in newspaper reports. Qualities to suggest might be some of the following: Determination Kindness Physical strength Strength of mind The ability to overcome obstacles Honesty Bravery Selflessness You may, if you wish, write it as a newspaper report. Download ppt "Flash activity. These activities are not editable." 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1. Ans: a – 2, b – 4, c – 1, d – 3 Sol: All the matches given in C are correct. 2. Ans: Ι, ΙΙ and ΙΙΙ only Sol: Monographs contain information on any one taxon. 3. Ans: Kingdom → Division → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species Sol: The order given in D is correct 4. Ans: Mycelium is coenocytic and aseptate. Sol: Mycelium is septate 5. Ans: Fungi Sol: The features given are those that of fungi. 6. Ans: Gracilaria, Gelidium, Porphyra, Sol: All these algae given in ‘C’ are 7. Ans: Families like Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included in the order Polymoniales mainly based on the floral characters. Sol: Biological names are written in latin. 8. Ans: Euglenoids Sol: Instead of cell wall euglenoids posses a pellicle layer. 9. Ans: ΙΙ and ΙV only Sol: Salvinia and Selaginella are heterosporous pteridophytes. 10. Ans: a – 3, b – 1, c – 2 Sol: All the matches given in B are correct. 11. Ans: Bryophytes can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual Sol: Water is required for the movement of 12. Ans: (a), (b) and (c) alone are correct Sol: In angiosperms zygote develops into 13. Ans: a – 4, b – 3, c – 2, d – 1 Sol: All the matches given in A are correct. 14. Ans: Sweet potato and Pistia Sol: In sweet potato, adventitious roots store 15. Ans: Parietal and free-central. Sol: The placentation seen in Argemons is 16. Ans: (a) and (d) only Sol: Fabaceae shows marginal placentation. 17. Ans: (b) and (c) only Sol: Polyarch xylem and casparian strips are seen in dicot roots. 18. Ans: (a), (b) and (e) are correct. Sol: Solanaceae shows cymose inflorescence and bilocular ovary. 19. Ans: The cell wall of parenchyma is made up of Sol: Cell wall of parenchyma is highly 20. Ans: ΙΙΙ only Sol: Monocots posses closed vascular 21. Ans: Spring wood and autumn wood Sol: Spring wood is lighter in colour and has a lower density whereas autumn wood is darker and has a greater density. 22. Ans: Endodermis Sol: Endodermis in dicot root contain suberin 23. Ans: (b) and (c) only Sol: Vibrio – comma shaped bacteria. Lysosome rich in hydrolytic enzyme. 24. Ans: ΙΙΙ only Sol: Ribosome is absent in golgi apparatus. Sol: The matches given in option C is correct. 26. Ans: G. N. Ramachandran Sol: G.N. Ramachandran discovered the helical structure of collagen. 27. Ans: Metacentric and telocentric Sol: Based on the position of centromere there are different types of chromosomes. Sol: All matches given in C are correct. 29. Ans: Glycerol is a trihydroxy propane. Sol: Arachidonic acid has 20 carbon including carboxyl carbon. 30. Ans: Niacin Sol: The coenzymes NAD and NADP contain the vitamin niacin. 31. Ans: 2 and 4 only Sol: Morphine is alkaloid, curcumin is drug. 32. Ans: Cells swell in hypertonic solutions and shrink in hypotonic solutions. Sol: Cells shrink in hypertonic solutions and swell in hypotonic solutions. 33. Ans: Potassium and Magnesium Sol: Potassium helps in closing of stomata and magnesium helps in maintain the structure of ribosome. 34. Ans: Iron, Manganese, Copper, Molybdenum and Zinc. Sol: Micronutrients required in very small 35. Ans: a – 2, b – 3, c – 1 Sol: All are corectly matched in the option A. 36. Ans: NADPH + H is synthesized. Sol: NADPH + H never formed in cyclic 37. Ans: Ι and ΙV only Sol: Two decarboxylation reactions take place in citric acid cycle. 38. Ans: C3 plants – Maize Sol: Maize is C4 plants 39. Ans: (c) and (d) only Sol: Facilitated transport never requires ATP and never follow uphill transport. 40. Ans: Ι, ΙΙ and ΙV only Sol: Oxidative decarboxylation of pyrauvic acid results during Kreb’s cycle of aerobic 41. Ans: (d), (a), (c), (b) Sol: Fructose 1, 6–phosphate splits into glycerate 3 - phosphate then into 1, 3 bisphosphate, 3 – phosphoglyceric acid and 2 – phosphoglycerate. 42. Ans: Beijernickia Sol: Rhizobium is symbiotic bacterium. Rhodospirillum is anaerobic. 43. Ans: Gibberellic acid Sol: GA increases internode growth in sugar 44. Ans: ΙΙΙ and ΙV only Sol: Non–showy and no nectar are the characters of both wind and water pollinated flowers. 45. Ans: Gibberellin, auxin and ABA Sol: ABA is known as plant stress hormone. 46. Ans: Helps to overcome apical dominance Sol: Cytokinins help to overcome the apical 47. Ans: (b) and (d) only Sol: Water hyacinth, Yucca and Amorphophalus are pollinated by insects. 48. Ans: Fragmentation Sol: Leaching, humification, catabolism, mineralisation and fragmentation are the steps seen in decomposition. 49. Ans: Very small animals are commonly found in polar regions as they have to spend less energy to generate body heat. Sol: Very small animals have to spend greater 50. Ans: Commensalism Sol: In commensalism one species benefits and the other neither harmed nor 51. Ans: Late August and early October Sol: The ozone hole over Antartica develops each year between late August and early 52. Ans: Intrinsic rate of natural increase. Sol: r represents intrinsic rate of natural 53. Ans: Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area. Sol: Secondary productivity is the rate of formation of new organic matter by 54. Ans: Lichens and phytoplanktons Sol: Pioneer species in xerarch and hydrarch are lichens and phytoplanktons 55. Ans: The nutrients such as sulphur and phosphorus encourage the growth of aquatic organisms in the lake. Sol: Nutrients such as N2 and P encourage the growth of aquatic organisms in the lake. 56. Ans: Soil formation. Sol: According to Robert Constanza 50% of total cost for ecosystem services goes to soil formation. 57. Ans: ΙΙ and ΙΙΙ only Sol: In terrestrial ecosystem a larger fraction of energy flows through detritus food chain. 58. Ans: Salmonella typhimurium Sol: Antibiotic resistance gene was linked to the native plasmid of Salmonella 59. Ans: In vitro replication of specific DNA sequence using thermostable DNA Sol: Taq polymerase is the thermostable DNA polymerase enzyme used in PCR 60. Ans: Processing of large volumes of culture. Sol: Bioreactors are useful in processing of large volumes of culture. 61. Ans: Flippers of penguins and dolphins are examples for homology Sol: Flipper of penguins and dolphins are examples for analogy. 62. Ans: 1 - b, 2 - d, 3 - a, 4 - c Sol: The matches given in option B are correct. 63. Ans: Homo erectus Sol: Homo erectus had a brain capacity of 900 64. Ans: Coelenterates Sol: Coelenterates have tissue level 65. Ans: i - d, ii - a, iii - b, iv - e, v - c Sol: The matches given in option C are correct. 66. Ans: II, III and V only Sol: Polyps produce medusae asexually and medusae from polyps sexually 67. Ans: Teeth in Chondrichthyes are modified ctenoid scales Sol: Teeth in chondrichthyes are modified placoid scales. 68. Ans: Proventriculus Sol: Proventriculus or gizzard is a part of digestive system in cockroach. 69. Ans: Male genital pore - 9 Sol: The male gential pore is present on the 70. Ans: joins the sclerites Sol: In cockroach the arthroidal membrane joins the tergites and sternites (sclerites) 71. Ans: Special venous connection between liver and intestine called renal portal system is Sol: The venous connection between liver and intestine is known as hepatic portal 72. Ans: i, iii and iv only are wrong Sol: Gap juncitons facilitate the cells to communicate with each other. 73. Ans: Dense regular connective tissue Sol: Tendons and ligaments are dense regular connective tissue. 74. Ans: ABO blood types Sol: ABO blood types is an example for multiple allelism. 75. Ans: Reginald C. Punnett Sol: The representation is known as Punnett 76. Ans: Closely located genes in a chromosome always assort independently resulting in Sol: Closely linked genes are not always subjected to independent assortment. 77. Ans: Tyrosine Sol: The affected person do not produces an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. 78. Ans: In a nucleotide, the nitrogenous base is linked to a phosphate group Sol: The nitrogenous base is linked to the first carbon of pentose sugar. 79. Ans: In insects with XO type of sex determination, all sperms bear X-chromosome besides autosomes Sol: In insects 50% sperms contain X-chromosome while the remaining 50% sperms lack sex chromosome. 80. Ans: Destroy itself after every cell cycle Sol: The genetic material will be passed on to the newly produced daughter cells. 81. Ans: 1-b, 2-d, 3-c, 4-a Sol: The matches given in option C are correct. 82. Ans: Val, His, Leu, Thr, Pro, Val, Glu Sol: In sickle cell anaemia, glutamic acid at the position is replaced by valine. 83. Ans: UAA Sol: UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons. 84. Ans: 2 and 5 only are correct Sol: RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA. 85. Ans: X-ray diffraction data of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin was the basis of Watson and Crick’s DNA model Sol: Haploid content of human DNA is 3.3 × 10 86. Ans: Formation of peptide bond Sol: Aminocylation of tRNA is also known as charging of tRNA. 87. Ans: Exons Sol: The non coding sequences are called 88. Ans: Anticodon Sol: tRNA reads the triplet codes on mRNA using anticodon loop. 89. Ans: Meselson and Stahl – regulation of gene Sol: Meselson and Stahl proved semiconservative mode of DNA 90. Ans: DNA polymorphism Sol: Inheritable mutation observed in a population at high frequency is called DNA 91. Ans: hnRNA Sol: RNA polymerase II transcribes the precursor of mRNA i.e. hnRNA 92. Ans: 1-c-i, 2-a-iii, 3-d-ii, 4-b-iv Sol: All the matchings given in option `c’ are 93. Ans: The optimum pH for salivary amylase activity is 8.9 Sol: The optimum pH for salivary amylase activity is 6.8 94. Ans: Diaphragm Sol: Diaphragm and external and internal intercostal muscles help in breathing. 95. Ans: The total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the end of a forced inspiration is called the vital capacity. Sol: The total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the end of a forced inspiration is called total lung capacity. 96. Ans: i-d, ii-e, iii-a, iv-b, v-c Sol: All the matchings given in option D correct. 97. Ans: Enzymatic reactions in coagulation of Sol: Thromokinase is required for the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin during coagulation of blood. 98. Ans: pO2 95 mm Hg; pCO2 40 mm Hg Sol: Systemic arteries carry oxygenated blood. 99. Ans: Actin and myosin Sol: Actin and myosin are two important proteins seen in the myofibril. 100. Ans: a-sphenoid bone; b-occipital bone; c-zygomatic bone; d-parietal bone, e-frontal bone; f-temporal bone Sol: All the labellings in the option `C’ are correct. 101. Ans: Hyoid Sol: Hyoid bone is included in the skull. 102. Ans: A neuron is polarized only when the outer surface of the axonal membrane possess a negative charge and it’s inner surface is positively charged. Sol: In a depolarized neuron the outer surface of the axonal membrane posses a negative charge inner surface positive 103. Ans: Myasthenia gravis Sol: Myasthenia gravis leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal 104. Ans: Parathyroid hormone decreases the Ca levels in blood Sol: Parathyroid hormone increases the Ca ions in blood. 105. Ans: i-c, ii-a, iii-d, iv-e, v-b Sol: All the matchings given in option `D’ are 106. Ans: Central part of I-band – M-line Sol: Central part of Ι - band – Z line. 107. Ans: Small fat globules coated with protein. Sol: Chylomicrons are transported into the lacteals in the villi. 108. Ans: Sigmoid Sol: Sigmoid curve is called the oxygen dissociation curve 109. Ans: Adrenal medullary hormones can increase cardiac output Sol: Adrenal medullary hormones are called 110. Ans: To prevent diuresis, AHD facilitates water reabsorption from the latter parts of the Sol: ADH deficiency leads to diabetes 111. Ans: Macula lutea Sol: The yellow spot is the region with greatest 112. Ans: Secondary spermatocytes are diploid. Sol: Secondary spermatocytes are haploid. 113. Ans: Endometrium Sol: The inner glandular layer of the uterus is 114. Ans: Spermiation Sol: The release of sperm from the seminiferous tubule is called spermiation. 115. Ans: in situ conservation - IVF Sol: IVF is an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART). 116. Ans: Biosphere reserves Sol: Biosphere reserves are in-situ conservation strategy. 117. Ans: Norman. E. Borlaug Sol: Norman. E. Borlaug is revered as the ‘Father of Green Revolution’ at International level. 118. Ans: Establishing the potential of penicillin as an effective antibiotic Sol: They established the antibiotic potential of 119. Ans: 1 - d, 2 - c, 3 - e, 4 - b, 5 - a Sol: The matches given in option (A) are 120. Ans: Biological control agents Sol: Nucleopolyhedroviruses have a narrow spectrum insecticidal property. Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Cancel anytime.	<urn:uuid:5f8c6bbf-cda7-44d3-8136-4590644aed48>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.029591143131256104, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.778788685798645, "url": "https://fr.scribd.com/document/227544905/Solutions-for-Paper-2" }
Elements of Medieval Philosophy as Exemplified in the Life of Joan of Arc Medieval Europe was characterized as a time of religious dominance. The power and influence of the Church is felt in almost all aspect of life. The Pope as the representative of the Church had the power to influence even the kings and their advisors. The Church is the center of mans life and whatever the Church said is considered to be an irrefutable command. The Church served as the source of knowledge, power, and security. Obedience to the command of God (Church) is the only rule because defiance to it may mean your death. In as much as kings also held power, obedience to rulers is always limited by obedience to the commands of God (Kilcullen, 2006). Philosophy did not escape the influence of the Church. During this era, knowledge is taken to be visionary. It is achieved through meditation and contemplation just what St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Anselm experienced. It is through divine providence that man came to know things about life. Divine foreknowledge is taken to reign supreme amongst all other forms of knowledge. Joan of Arc is one the few medieval female personalities who gained prominence in the Middle Ages. She is an epitome of religious piety, simplicity and honesty. She constantly engaged herself in prayers and was fortunate to become a vessel of Gods message to the French people. At a very young age, she embarked on a journey no female would dare to embark upon because of the danger it would pose to her life. She was to save France from destruction. She is considered to be a visionary, an individual with divine foreknowledge of eventualities in the world. She received her very first vision from God at the age of twelve which was further followed by several more visions. She claimed that this visions or knowledge directly descended from the heavens and God chose her to bring forth the victory of France. Women during these times are not taken that seriously. They are considered a minority in a society and should be confined at home. Women are followers and helpers of men and should never reign supreme over them. They are considered to be subordinates and should always be obedient to their husband. Joan of Arc, because of her firm faith and conviction on divine foreknowledge challenged and defied the ordinary customs and traditions even if it meant death on the stake for her in the future. She led the kings army and clothed herself with knights apparel, an act which is inconceivable during that time. She valiantly fought the enemies and gained strength because of her devotion to the Almighty. She entrusted her life to Him and never doubted the integrity of her visions until the end. Her visions also played a major role in the coronation of Charles VII. The success of her military quests proved the validity of her visions and reiterated the validity of Charles VII right to succession. At these times, it is important that benediction comes from heaven because such evidence will make ones claim to the throne stronger. The monarchy is in turmoil and everyone wishes to become the heir to the throne. Almost every royal blood wishes to claim validity to the throne and to have the heavens stand by your side will be enough to silence the other parties. The death of Joan of Arc on the stake is proof that Medieval Europe is not yet ready to accept the fact that women can rule over men. It is a patriarchal society and women should remain submissive to men. One of the reasons why she was condemned to the death is the fact that she wore men clothing, a knight clothing. It is a direct defiance to the rule of modesty and chastity which is severely followed during that time. Nevertheless, her visions and the role it played in the success of France became her greatest tool in gaining supremacy and soon beatification as a saint. Post a Comment	<urn:uuid:5d4315ee-df8e-449a-84d6-9a9bbbc8257c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.024303972721099854, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9787588715553284, "url": "http://definitionofphilosophy.blogspot.com/2016/03/elements-of-medieval-philosophy-as.html" }
challenge 1 challenge 2 IMG_3018 IMG_3029 How far does water travel up a paper towel? Can you ‘move’ water? We set up an experiment to see if the coloured water would travel up the pieces of paper towel at the same speed.We found out that they did travel at the same speed. We set up 5 cups numbered 1 to 5, so that we could see if the water would travel over the paper bridges.1 was blue, 3 was yellow, 5 was red We found out that the primary along the bridges to make secondary colours.	<urn:uuid:37a70c1e-71de-4dc9-a285-7e90645406dc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.2795734405517578, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8780552744865417, "url": "https://www.dargavilleprimary.school.nz/2016/06/18/room-7-paper-towel-bridge-challenge/" }
25 de Abril de 2018 Portal Educativo de las Américas Colección: INTERAMER Número: 59 Año: 1999 Autor: José Luis Romero Título: Latin America: Its Cities and Ideas Hidalguia and Style of Life During the two centuries that followed the founding of the cities, urban societies were under a host of different presures and incitements, but they were still defined by the preeminence of the hidalgos, who impressed upon them their own conception of life and tried to erase all signs of the influence that other social groups were struggling to exert. The gentrified cities of the Indies were the consequence of the attempt by their dominant groups to vehemently assert a social order at odds with their economic reality. That reality, which they vehemently denied, was nonetheless their enduring temptation. In Spain and Portugal, as in the rest of Europe, cities had attained their splendor with the development of trade and the growth of the new bourgeoisie. In some cities, a singular social process had pushed class differentiation to the extreme and had transformed the upper middle classes into a kind of aristocracy. Out of this process were formed the Baroque cities of Spain and Portugal. They were more polarized there than in other areas of Europe and less likely to solve the problems that the pressures of the mercantile world had created. But in the Indies, the conquest had drawn a social map that prefigured the situation of the privileged groups. Those who in Europe had been socially and economically marginalized were mirrored in America by the group that the conquest subdued and marginalized with a single blow. Actually, the colonizers found themselves, all at once, in a situation of privilege that the patrician classes of European cities had labored to attain. The conquest imposed on the new continent an ideology that had already assigned fixed meanings to the different components of an idealized social world. Thus, it established in the Indies, from the very beginning, urban societies that mirrored those of the mother country at the time. But, in doing so, it ignored or discarded the first phase of urban development, which was inextricably tied to the mercantile system and to the attitudes of the incipient middle class that the system had created and sustained. The mercantile world was prospering, but the gentrified cities of the Indies, like Spain herself, pretended to ignore that fact. A hunger to enjoy the fruits of trade was throbbing underneath the pretense, but the dominant concern of the hidalgos was to consolidate their privileged position. And so a baroque society was implanted in the cities of the Indies: it was a mirror image of the baroque societies of Spain and Portugal, altered only by the copper-colored skin of its underprivileged groups. Before long, the cities of the Indies began to acquire individual, distinctive traits. Capital cities with a wide jurisdiction—e.g. Mexico, Lima, or Bahia—became markedly different, in size and importance, from lesser capitals, like Guatemala, Bogota, Santiago de Chile, Caracas, Havana, Buenos Aires, Santo Domingo, Olinda, or Rio de Janeiro. There were wide differences in the size of their population, their density of building, their standards of living, their economic activity, and cultural development. More remarkable still was the difference between the cities and the municipal centers, small villages where life was dull and slow and where progress often would come to a halt. Even among the cities that maintained or increased their importance, differences began to appear, not only in quantity but in quality as well. For some of them remained gentrified, while others quickly began to acquire a mercantile cast. The first were primarily the viceregal courts and the seats of local and municipal government, but also the cities where the encomenderos or the rich mine owners hastened to consolidate their wealth by adopting aristocratic forms of life that allowed them to show off their riches and to make the division between classes much more pronounced. Those that became more mercantile were mostly the ports and some mining cities that, like Potosí, underwent a vigorous economic development sparked by the thrill of adventure. Each type of city fashioned its own ideal forms of life and social paradigms, reflecting a distinctive cast of mind that pervaded the entire city even though it belonged exclusively to the dominant classes. These ideal forms and paradigms became valid for other cities, where hidalgos looked down on merchants and merchants looked down on hidalgos, or envied them. The gentrified cities—those where the character of urban life was dictated by strong upper classes firmly set in their position as lords and masters—were, above all, the courts that grew around the centers of power. After he married doña María de Toledo, Viceroy Diego Colín gathered around himself a small aristocratic court that included the proud encomenderos against whom Friar Antín de Montesinos lashed out in 1510. Bishop Alejandro Geraldini, however, praised, in elaborate Latin words, the illustrious and noble city in which the Viceroy had built his castle. Court cities served as the trappings of viceregal power in Mexico City, as early as the period of Antonio de Mendoza, or in Lima, during the governments of Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza and the Prince of Esquilache; and it was also a court that the Governor Jorge de Albuquerque Coelho gathered around in Olinda. Groups of rich gentlemen and ladies fond of poetry, surrounded by clergy, jurists and public officials, were intent upon displaying a lifestyle similar to that of the courts on the Iberian peninsula. For they were anxious to make safe and secure their place in society and had also the dream to lead a noble life in their colonial exile. Leading a noble life was the obsessive concern of those who were or claimed to be upper class hidalgos. Their most distinctive trait was a disdain for all kinds of manual work and a desire to keep gentlemen separate from workmen, as jurist Juan Matienzo wanted. An entire system had to be organized so that the upper classes should lead an aristocratic life and everyone else should look at that life as a display of the superiority of the privileged few. These privileged few were the great families, the ones who lived on the best streets in Mexico City and deserved that Cervantes de Salazar mention them by name—the Mendozas, Zuñigas, Altamiranos, Estradas, and the like; they were also those who would decide, sword in hand, their disputes over a municipal post, as happened, in Santiago de Chile, with the relatives and friends of the Lisperguers and the Mendozas, on Saint Bartholomew’s Day in 1604. Proud of their ancestry and zelous for their own pre-eminence, the great families would display coats of arms and recite genealogies. Well above their petty disputes, they were bound together by a strong sense of class, and they closed ranks whenever they could. They had their brotherhoods and guilds; they had festivities in which they would recognize one another and ceremonies in which only the members of their class could occupy the places of honor. Bernardo the Balbuena praised their way of life in Mexico in the following words: Callo su altiva gallardía, y callo la generosidad, suerte y grandeza de corazón que en sus costumbres hallo. Su cortés compostura, su nobleza, su trato hidalgo, su apacible modo, sin cortedad ni sombra de escaseza; aquel prídigamente darlo todo, sin reparar en gastos excesivos, las perlas, oro, plata y seda a rodo; si aqueste estilo aun vive entre los vivos, este delgado suelo lo sustenta y le cría en sus nimos altivos. [I speak not of their exalted gallantry, not of the generosity, the nature and the grandeur of heart I find in their habits. Their courteous countenance, their nobility, their civilized intercourse, their gentle ways, with no smallness nor shadow of scarcity; their prodigal way of giving out all things, taking no heed of excessive expense: pearls and gold, silver and silk in plenty; if such a style is still alive among the living, this meager soil sustains and grows it in their exalted souls.] This lavishness was nothing but a sign of the desire for luxury and ostentation that drove the class of hidalgos. At the end of the sixteenth century, Father Cardim discovered this in Olinda, where the court of Jorge de Albuquerque Coelho was so flamboyant that one “would find more vanity there than in Lisbon.” Cardim went on to say, “Men were dressed in velvet, damask and silk; they spent dashingly on horses whose saddles and reins were of the same silk their own garments were made of. The ladies too loved to show off their luxury; and they liked parties far better than prayer.” Friar Tomás Gage made similar remarks about Mexico City around 1625: It was said that the number of Spaniards living in the city was close to forty thousand, all of them so rich and vain that more than half had carriages; so it was a most credible report that at the time there were more than fifteen thousand coaches in town. There is a saying that in Mexico one would find four things that are definitely beautiful: the women, the garments, the horses and the streets. One could add a fifth one: the retinues of the gentry, which are much more splendid and costly than those in the courts of Madrid and other kingdoms of Europe; for in Mexico they spare neither gold, nor silver, nor precious stones, nor gold brocade, nor the exquisite silks from China in order to enrich their train. As for Lima, Father Cobo wrote of the “vanity in the garments, galas and pomp of servants and livery;” and around the same years, the Crónica [Chronicle] of the “Portuguese Jew” offered the following description: They [the women] go to mass and make their calls in sedan chairs carried by blacks; they have fine carriages, and mules and horses to pull them, and black coachmen to drive them. In Lima the gentry enjoy a paradise in this world, for the city has the best climate, since one knows today precisely what the weather will be tomorrow. If the women are beautiful and elegant, the men, in turn, are gallant and brave. All are generally well-dressed, in silks and fine wools from Segovia, with rich collars made of costly lace from Flanders. Everyone wears silk stockings. All are tactful, affable and well-mannered. All observe every rule of etiquette. They are all prodigal spenders who squander their money without rhyme or reason. They all boast about their noble lineage, and there is not one who does not consider himself a gentleman. They all go about the city on horseback, except for some who are very poor. The desire for ostentation and luxury was evident everywhere: in the big houses that tried to parade as palaces; in all the furnishing and tableware shipped over from the peninsula; in the paintings that adorned the private chapels and even in the ceilings and walls of the homes, in the carvings and engravings, in the books and in the jewels. But the material possessions were not enough. They had to be used elegantly, as befits people of high station. The gentlemen were liberal spenders and liked to surround themselves with the kind of people, half-proteges, half-servants, who were the customary members of a nobleman’s train. These were the people who escorted them when they went hunting, like those who were with the Archbishop of Bogota, Friar Luis Zapata de Cãrdenas, in 1590, when he died hunting, “escorted,” as Rodríguez Freile recalls, “by his servants and relatives, and a number of clergy and lay people.” These were also the people who attended them in their duels, or lent an ear to their poetic ambitions, or served as go-betweens in their romantic escapades, or went with them on their nocturnal sprees, as they cavorted with women and wine. That entourage was the mark of their status as noblemen, the mark, that is, of those who made of idleness and sensual sport the essential condition of aristocratic life. The class of hidalgos was at home in parties and soirees. There the select few came together, practiced the fine art of courtesy and etiquette, flirted and spoke of poetry; there they also sang and danced in an atmosphere of refinement and elegance. Pity that the context for such grandiose aspirations should be so irreparably modest: if the big houses were comfortable and well-furnished, the streets were, but for a few exceptions, made of dirt, public lightening was scarce, and drainage insufficient. But in the seventeenth century, both Mexico City and Lima got their promenade for the aristocrats, the Alameda, where the most distinguished members of society would meet. “The place for promenading is charming,” wrote Bachelier, in the early eighteenth century, in reference to the promenade in Lima. And he continued: It is a handsome, very wide avenue, with a long, vanishing perspective; it has four rows of beautiful orange and lemon trees, two brooks of crystal-clear water that run alongside it, and at the end, on the horizon, the main front of one of the finest convents. All in all it makes a very pleasing impression upon newcomers. Carriages and coaches come to the promenade by the hundreds in the afternoon, as this is the meeting place of all the distinguished people in the city. Young men in love court their sweethearts and take it as an honor to follow them on foot, leaning at times on the doors of their coaches. As for the Alameda in Mexico City, Friar Tom s Gage said in 1648: Everyday, at about four o’clock in the afternoon, the greatest among the city’s aristocrats arrive—some on horseback, some in coaches—at a delightful promenade, called the Alameda, shaded by many rows of trees. There usually are about two thousand coaches full of hidalgos, ladies and wealthy citizens. The hidalgos come to see the ladies, some served by a dozen of African slaves, some with a smaller train, but all with their servants dressed in costly liveries and covered with gold and silver lace and flowers, silk stockings, roses on their shoes, and the customary dress swords by their sides. The train of the Viceroy, who often visits the Alameda, is no less brilliant or splendid than the train of his master, the King of Spain. The merry life of the hidalgos must have made such an impression upon the observer that Bernardo de Balbuena devoted nine tercets of his La Grandeza Mexicana (Mexican Greatness) to its description: Recreaciones de gusto en que ocuparse, de fiestas y regalos mil maneras para engañar cuidados y engañarse; conversaciones, juegos, burlas ,veras, convites, golosinas infinitas, huertas, jardines, cazas, bosques, fieras; aparatos, grandezas exquisitas, juntas, saraos, conciertos agradabales, músicas, pasatiempos y visitas; regocijos, holguras saludables, carreras, rúas, bizarrías, paseos, amigos, en el gusto y trato afables; galas, libreas, broches, camafeos, jaeces, telas, sedas y brocados, pinte el antojo, pidan sus deseos. Escarches, bordaduras, entorchados, joyas, joyeros, perlas, pedrerías, aljífar, oro, plata, recamados; fiesta y comedia nuevas cada día, de varios entremeses y primores gusto, entretenimiento y alegría; usos nuevos, antojos de señores, de mujeres tocados y quimeras, de maridos carcomas y dolores; volantes, carzahanes, primaveras, y para autoridad y señorío coches, carrozas, sillas y literas. [Pleasurable recreations to keep oneself busy, a thousand forms of treats and celebrations to trick one’s worries and deceive oneself; talks, games, light jokes and serious things, feasts and numberless delicacies, gardens, chases, forests, and wild beasts; ceremonies and exquisite magnificence, assemblies and soirées and pleasant concerts, music, visits and pastimes; rejoicings, salutary merrymakings, races, courtings, gallantries and roamings, friends who are genial in taste and in behavior; trappings, liveries, brooches, cameos, harnesses, cloths, silks and brocades, as fancy may paint or desire may ask for. gold cloths, needlework, gold threads, jewels and jewelers, gems and precious stones, pearls, gold, silver and embroideries; parties and a new comedy on stage each day, and from varied short pieces and lovely things, pleasure, amusement and merriment; new fashions, the fancy of gentlemen, women’s hair-styles and fantastic dreams, the perpetual worries and the pain of husbands; ruffles, trimmings, silk-embroidered flowers and, for authority and lordliness, coaches, carriages, saddles and horse-pulled litters.] A subtle compendium of baroque gentry, the Grandeza Mexicana reveals some of the secret mechanisms behind the gentry’s frivolous conception of life. But not everything was that way. There was another, not so easy, not so sterile side to the life of the hidalgos: some were high-ranking officials with obligations and responsibilities which were often ordinary but on occasion unexpectedly complex and demanding their full attention and even self-sacrifice; others were military officers who had to defend the city from corsairs and pirates or wage war against the Indians. When time came to undertake these duties, their frivolous conception of life was set aside, but it persisted as a general aspiration, since a noble and idle life seemed to be the only one befitting an hidalgo. Aesthetic pleasure was considered suitable for hidalgos, as were on occasion some forms of elevated thoughts. As Sor Juan did in her Mexican convent, many women wrote poetry, like Leonor de Ovando in old Santo Domingo. Conventual life shared in the dignity of the upper classes, and it fostered the study of letters and the pursuit of learning. But letters and learning were not confined to the convents. Secular clergymen were also devoted to them, like Bernardo de Balbuena, Juan de Castellanos or Francisco Cervantes de Salazar. And then there were the court circles where poetry and drama would shine: the one in Mexico City, which had Gutierre de Cetina, Mateo Alemán, Juan de la Cueva and Francisco de Terrazas, and many other minor authors, so many in fact that one poetry contest in 1585 drew over three hundred entries; the one in Olinda, where Bento Teixeira Pinto wrote his Prosopopia [Prosopopoeia] in honor of Governor Albuquerque Coelho; or the one in Lima, where learned viceroys like Montesclaros, Esquilache and Castelldos Rius would surround themselves with poets like Juan de Miramontes y Zu zola, or humanists like Pedro de Peralta Barnuevo. The theater—which began in Mexico City in 1597 and in Lima in 1602—was both a literary center and a place for the fashionable gathering of hidalgos. These hidalgos were, indeed, the butt of satire: in Rodríguez Freyle’s mischievous tale, that captured the gossip rampant in Bogota, or in the witty prose of Juan del Valle Caviedes, who made fun of the women and men of Lima, or in the more severe words used by Gregorio de Mattos to criticize the Brazilian society of Bahia, where a fidalguia no bom sangue nunca est “nobility never had anything to do with blood or lineage.” Even the universities—first, those of Santo Domingo, then those of Mexico City and Lima, both founded in 1551, and later the ones that were established in Bogota, Quito, Cordoba, and other cities—had an aristocratic cast, the one that Cervantes de Salazar found worthy of praise at the university of Mexico, the same one that shows through the very founding of the Colegio del Rosario in Bogota. This class of hidalgos flourished in the seats of the viceroys, of the regional governors and the municipal councils, that is, in all the centers of power, big and small. For it gathered strength by leaning on the direct authority of those who represented the power of the conquest. Wealth was always essential and decisive. But not all forms of wealth were equally acceptable during the two centuries that followed the founding of the cities. Good wealth had to have its sources not too close at hand, not too obviously visible. It had to come across the wide chasm that set the encomendero apart from those who worked his land, the legitimate mine owner apart from the mine ore. It had to come, that is, through some kind of ranking scale, so as to feed the illusion that it was “old wealth,” like that of the nobility in the mother country, so well-rooted and long-assented to that its beneficiary should have nothing to do except sit back and take it, with no need to soil his hands. This was the illusion of the hidalgos, but one they held so close and hard that it was perceived as something real, masked, as it was, by a whole system of conventions that secured the distance between the hidalgo and those who served him, and that sanctioned his innate superiority. These were the mechanisms that gave their aristocratic character to cities like Puebla, Guanajuato, Taxco, San Luis de Potosí, Morelia, Popayán, Tunja, Arequipa, Olinda, in Brazil, or Trujillo, in Peru. A few generations were enough to root a lineage. The class that inherited the privileges of the conquest and all the sources of wealth amassed so much social and economic power that all the other groups fell well below. Even the whites engaged in manual labor or small-scale commerce were viewed as inferior. But it was the Indians, blacks and mestizos that suffered most from the disdain and suspicion of the dominant class. Engaged in the humblest trades and occupations, they had few prospects and very limited opportunities. In the neighborhoods where they lived, they would form tightly knit communities around their churches or in their guilds and brotherhoods; and in their celebrations, they would stay together, either by group or caste. But they could also be seen elsewhere in the city: in the streets, as they performed their jobs, or congregated in the marketplace which was, in fact, their own kingdom. At public celebrations, where the hidalgos shone, they were the huddle that applauded the magnificent spectacle the wealthy offered them. Low standards of living were the rule in the neighborhoods of the common people (barrios de castas). But the cities, especially the major ones, offered some openings through which the lesser groups could escape in search of better fortunes. It was by dint of cunning that they would improve their lot and, as it happened in the peninsula, the mere attempt turned them into rogues pícaros. The Indies had their own picaresque fiction, which was the inevitable response to the conditions of a society fashioned and controlled by hidalgos. Different groups, by different routes, tried to escape those conditions. Black women, alluring and apparently carefree, found their way to the hidalgos and used their closeness to place everyone they wanted under the protection of their own patrons. Dressed to attract attention, they added a picturesque and exciting touch to the city, not only in their own neighborhoods but also in those of the upper classes, where they rendered their services and did a variety of jobs. Black slaves could pay their masters a sum of money to buy the right to engage in some kind of trade or business of their own. If they earned enough to buy their own freedom, they could then increase their earnings and attain a position in the middle of the social scale. Mestizos and mulattos had the same possibilities, especially if they could count on the support of their white relatives. Because of their mixed race, they were often viewed as useful mediators between the masters and the blacks or Indians who worked in their service. As foremen or overseers, they had an opportunity to earn money and also get closer to the privileged classes in a kind of conspiracy against the groups subjected to servitude. But their possibilities did not end there. The economy offered many untapped opportunities which opened the way for those who dared and, in particular, those who had no other choice but to resort to heroic means in order to change their station in life. The bandeirantes, or mamelucos, as the Spaniards called them, were Brazilian mestizos from São Paulo who, when successful in their undertakings, would return laden with riches and attain, shortly thereafter, the same remarkable position that Alfonso Sandinha the Young rose to in São Paulo. Economic activity was at the center of urban life, even in the most gentrified cities, and it imposed its own rules for development, which in the end proved to be, almost everywhere, stronger than the rigid structure of baroque society. Perhaps the hidalgos believed that their two-tiered society was immutable, since it was sustained by the tenacity of prejudice and by the gap of opposing casts of mind. But business and trade created zones of contact where money would bring the different groups together in transactions that called for both the rich and the poor, both the hidalgos with influence in the courts of law and the blacks and mestizos who knew all the twists and turns of city life. Certainly, this new economic force was a call to realism for a society that wanted to remain unchanged, frozen in its illusory order; but it worked to the fullest of its strength in the cities that had been mercantile centers from the start. The marketplace was the heart of the city: there, wealth was amassed and circulated, and as prosperous as the market was, so was the city. It is interesting to note how López de Velasco explains the progressive depopulation of Santo Domingo and Santiago de Cuba. Both cities—he says—had had as much as one thousand residents, but by 1574 Santo Domingo had only five hundred and Santiago de Cuba only thirty. The explanation is the same for both cities: “because merchants do not come to this island to trade goods,” or “because ships do not come here to do business.” In Mexico City there were four open markets which had—according to Vázquez de Espinosa—"merchandise in great quantity: silks, fabrics, and everything one would find in the best markets in the world." Of the largest of these markets, which was on the Main Square, López de Velazco said: “As many as one hundred thousand people can do business there; the entire square is lined by arcades with designated places for each trade and type of good; there is a great variety of merchandise and a large volume of retail.” Lima’s market—el Gato, as the locals would call it—was a smaller one, but still it deserved these words from Father Cobo: All kinds of fruits and foodstuffs are sold here; the vendors are black and Indian women, and there are so many of them that the place seems a veritable ant hill. Any well-provisioned republic could live and feast upon the many and varied goods sold in this market. There are also countless little shops and stalls and Indians peddling a thousand little things. All along the Palace pavement is a string of wooden shops where hucksters sell their goods, and there are also many little vendor stands along the two sidewalks and even at the center of the marketplace; near the City Hall one can always find used clothing and furnishings for the home on sale at very low prices. On a large or small scale, there were markets in every city, all of them similar in kind. In some cities there were also fairs with some unique traits. And yet, not all the business was done in the marketplace. There were well-established shops on the city streets, and indeed some of those streets were named after the major shop owners. On occasion, the owners were not simple merchants but artisans who sold the products of their special craft or trade. Among them, the most notable were the silversmiths, who by the late sixteenth century had already formed powerful guilds in Mexico City and in Lima. There were also dealers who would do large-volume business with wholesalers and exporters. This economic activity brought to the more gentrified cities a way of life that had little to do with the aristocratic attitude of the upper classes. And yet a good number of the main business players were members of that class— hidalgos, public officials and ecclesiastics—, although they often acted through middle-men. But there were also professional businessmen who were entirely devoted to commercial transactions and had accepted their secondary role in the traditional cities of the hidalgos. They were at the top of a scale that had at its lowest end those engaged in shipping or retail sales. All of them certainly enjoyed a very different position in the cities with a more definite mercantile cast. Some of the mining centers began rather quickly to look like mercantile cities. The sudden discovery of a new vein would unleash a whirlwind of bold venture that neither the prejudice of the hidalgos, nor their rhetorical strictures, nor their scruples were able to contain. Silver was there, within everyone’s reach, and many tried to grab it. A few years after the discovery of Cerro Rico, around 1550, Cieza de León wrote the following about the attraction the place exerted on so many: Although, at the time, Gonzalo Pizarro was waging war against the viceroy and the kingdom was in upheaval because of his rebellion, settlements began to fill the foot of the hill; many large houses were built there; the Spaniards established their principal residence in those parts, and so did the courts of justice. The town was left almost entirely deserted. So many people rushed to dig silver on the hill that the place began to look like a great city. But perhaps the most remarkable thing was the quick growth of an extraordinarily active market where countless secondary activities were conducted. Cieza de León compares the market in Cuzco with the one in Potosí in these terms: But neither this [Cuzco’s] market not any other in the Kingdom can equal the superb one in Potosí, because business was done there on such a scale that, at the times when the mines were prosperous, between twenty-five and thirty thousand—on occasion over forty thousand—gold pesos worth of goods were sold daily among Indians alone, not including the Christians; which is an amazing thing; and I believe that no other market in the world can equal this one in its dealings. I noticed this several times: on the flat surface of the square, I saw, here, a line of baskets full of coca, which is the most abundant among the riches of these parts; there, heaps of shawls and fine shirts, both light and heavy; in another spot, mountains of corn, dried potatoes and other foodstuffs; and in addition, a lot of beef, the finest in the kingdom. Many other things, too numerous to mention here, were also for sale. The market day or fair lasted from morning to nightfall. Since silver was being mined everyday and the Indians—especially those who did business with the Spaniards—were very fond of eating and drinking, everything that was brought to the market was immediately bought or consumed, so much so that people from all over the place would bring in all sorts of provisions and supplies. This way, many Spaniards got rich here, in Potosí, just by having two or three Indian women do business for them in this market; and from every corner came large gangs of anacondas, that is, free Indians who may choose to serve whomever they wish; and the most beautiful Indian women of Cuzco and of the entire kingdom came to live here in Potosí. One thing I noticed in the time I spent in these parts: fraud and deceit were routine. There was so much merchandise that fine linen and fabrics were sold almost as cheap as in Spain, and I saw things on sale at such low prices that even in Seville they would be deemed inexpensive. Many men who had made big fortunes, lost them all, as their insatiable greed compelled them to try to buy and sell. Some of them fled to Chile, or Tucumán, or other places, for fear of the debt collectors. And thus most of their dealings were lawsuits and disputes with one another. Seventy years later, “the Imperial City of Potosí—the happiest and most fortunate one among those known in the world for their riches”—has a population of “four thousand Spanish homes and between four and five thousand men at any time,” as the “Portuguese Jew” says in his Descripción. And he goes on: “Some of these men are engaged in mining; others, who are merchants, sell their wares all across the kingdom; . . . and still others live out of gambling and bold ventures.” He also adds: “Merchants trade here in large scale, and the shops are very large and brimming with goods of every kind. Potosí does a lot of business with Lima; many merchants from here go to Lima, Mexico City and Seville to buy their supplies, and the city sends quite a number of very rich men to live in Spain.” The area of Minas Gerais held the same powerful attraction in Brazil. Once it became known that the area was rich in gold, not only the bandeirantes from São Paulo rushed there, but also the “bahienses”—the Northern Brazilians—as well as many Portuguese, the first ones to emigrate to Brazil by their own choice. The fierce competition between the bandeirantes and those they viewed as foreigners gave way to an all out war: “la guerra dos Emboabas.” Together, however, all these groups produced an extraordinary display of mining wealth. Villa Rica—present-day Ouro Preto—was called “the Potosí of gold;” and there, as in Potosí and all the other mining cities in the Hispanic world, the gathering of adventurers produced the same social phenomenon. The hope of riches set aside all worries and made equals of all the whites who engaged in mining; black slaves labored and died by the hundreds in the mines, as did the Indians under Spanish control. Squandering, gambling, prostitution, orgies, and crime were the distinctive marks of life in Villa Rica; and, as it happened in Potosí, once the gold boom was over, the urban society of this village, turned into a city in 1711, ceased to develop, and the city itself became a ghost-town. Other cities—Guanajuato, Taxco, Zacatecas—came into being thanks to the riches that the mines provided. They all began, like the other mining towns, with quite a scramble of social groups. No one there cared much about the claim of noble lineage, although the way they dressed would match the description of the inhabitants of Potosí that Arzans de Ursúa and Vela wrote in the eighteenth century. What everyone wanted was simply wealth. No one tried to show off an aristocratic way of life. The distinctive traits of these cities were gambling houses, where entire fortunes were staked, brothels of every type and, above all, every sort of reckless passion. “This ill-fated town—remarked Arzans de Ursúa in his history of Potosí—does not seem to be inhabited by Christians, but by the cruelest of barbarians;” for men and women alike were carried away by violence. But the force that defined the peculiar forms of social life in the mining cities was the ease with which enormous fortunes could be made and the opportunities for new business. The mercantile spirit was irrepressible, and in the end it triumphed over all social concerns, perhaps because many foreigners, especially Portuguese, flocked into the Hispanic dominions and changed the old-fashioned attitude of the Spaniards so attached to their hidalguía. And yet in some cities, the wealthy turned themselves into hidalgos at the end of the seventeenth or the beginning of the eighteen century, precisely when the very notion of hidalguía was beginning to be questioned. From the very beginning, economic activity had played an essential role in port cities. It was precisely in these cities that the mercantile spirit became most pronounced and acquired a character much more akin to that of the bourgeois cities of Europe. Using figures from 1574, López de Velazco illustrates the differences in social structure from city to city, as he cites the number of Spaniards in each social group. He finds, for instance, sixteen encomenderos among the thirty families that reside in Popayán; among the five hundred Spaniards in Guatemala City, seventy were encomenderos and the rest colonists and merchants; among the thirty-six who resided in Cali, twenty-four were encomenderos; there were sixty-three encomenderos out of the eight hundred residents of Cuzco; and twenty-three out of the three hundred of Trujillo in Perú. But when López de Velazco refers to Potosí, he writes as follows: “Four hundred Spanish houses, and not a single encomendero: all are merchants, dealers and miners, most of them people who move around.” Of the inhabitants of Veracruz he says that they were all merchants; among the two hundred and fifty residents of Cartagena, sixteen were encomenderos and the rest merchants and dealers. Portobelo, Havana, Cartagena, Veracruz, La Guayra, Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Panama City, Guayaquil, El Callao, Valparaíso, Buenos Aires, São Vicente, Rio de Janeiro, Bahía, Recife, all the port cities had their distinctive lifestyle. Major businesses had set up their headquarters there, so that these cities became home to the most powerful economic groups, which were a determined, pragmatic and rather efficient lot. From the beginning, the groups that did business with the mother country had a very definite social and mental profile. Soon, another profile would emerge among two new business types that became especially significant because they amassed big fortunes and came to occupy a unique position in social life: the slave-traders and the smugglers. Not unlike the groups that made up the urban societies in mining cities, these business groups had little scruples when it came down to handling their own interests, which they took in their own hands. They may have chosen these activities because they were only too determined to get rich, and to do it quickly, and had little room for social concerns. But they forged, in any case, the type of bourgeois merchant that would gain more and more acceptance as colonial life went on. In Brazil, a number of unique circumstances shaped the mercantile, bourgeois model of life. Sugar exports opened up much wider prospects of the world market than the ones Spain’s monopolistic policies could ever allow. These prospects improved when the Dutch established themselves in Recife, in 1630, and made it a typical bourgeois, mercantile city, patterned after far-away Amsterdam, as were other cities that they founded: New Amsterdam, today’s New York, in 1624, and Willemstad, in Curacao, in 1634. Under Maurice of Nassau, between 1637 and 1644, Recife was not simply an economic emporium but also a model of the bourgeois way of life that the Portuguese imitated and continued after they recaptured the city in 1654. When Recife was compared to Olinda, which had maintained the social traditions of the hidalgos, the contrast between the two types of cities was even starker. Recife showed the way that the upper classes would eventually follow, even though some vague aristocratic tendencies were kept alive. The significance of the mercantile and bourgeois way of life increased with the establishment of the Companhia Geral do Comercio do Brasil (1649) and of the Real Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas (1730). Trading post and their agents brought a new economic and social attitudes to the cities where they operated. Those who saw their interests and styles of life affected by the new trading system rose up against it. The rebellions headed by Jerónimo Barbalho in Rio de Janeiro and of Captain Leín in Venezuela responded to this dual, social and economic, concern. The cities where the hidalgos prevailed and those where business was preeminent fashioned two distinct styles of life, according to the tendencies of their dominant classes. The two styles did in fact coexist in every city, because the hidalgos did not avoid getting their hands into mercantile deals nor did the mercantile groups ever abandoned their hope of attaining one day the luster of the idle rich. Aristocratic status had been everyone’s overriding obsession during the first two centuries following the founding of the cities And it was not until the mid-eighteenth century that a growing pragmatism, sustained by the ideas of the Enlightenment, made it possible for all the fortune seekers to abandon, little by little, their fantasies of showing off old family trees and coats of arms. When the simple fact of being rich seemed enough of a merit, no one tried to hide any longer the fact that his coat of arms had been bought and paid for, perhaps because the Crown itself did not hide the fact that it had set the price.	<urn:uuid:8f41af73-a32f-4ce2-9f6f-08f27448b774>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.03925967216491699, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9714881181716919, "url": "http://www.educoas.org/Portal/bdigital/contenido/interamer/interamer_59/chap3/hidalguia.aspx?culture=es&navid=2" }
Stop Disasters! Play the game by going to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction website. Screenshots used with permission from the UN ISDR Aims: for students to develop their critical thinking, collaboration, reading and note-taking skills, widen their lexical range, and practise using the first and third conditional in the context of a disaster simulation Resources: Stop Disasters! game, one computer with Adobe Flash player per 2-3 students, worksheet Age: 11-14, 15-18 Level: B2+ Time: 45-60 minutes plus optional extension Before the lesson 1. Prepare a worksheet for students to complete while they play the game: Disaster type: Location: Terrain: Difficulty level: Population: Budget: Useful language: during the game Let’s [put some defences here]. Maybe we should [put the hotel here]? I think we should [develop this land]. It’d be a good idea to [build the hospital here]. If we [build a house here], we’ll [be able to accommodate ten people]. If we don’t [buy an early warning system], people [won’t be able to evacuate] in time. If we [plant trees here], it might [save lives]. If we [had more money], we could [build another hotel]. Buildings destroyed: Total damages: Population housed: Population dead: Population sheltered: Population injured: School(s) built: Hospital(s) built: Mission successful: Key facts found: Budget remaining: Final score: Useful language: post-game discussion Our most successful decisions were [building the hotel here and putting the defences here]. It was a bad idea to [put the defences here]. I don’t think we should’ve [developed this land]. I think we should’ve [built the hospital here]. If we’d [built more houses here], we could have [saved more people]. If we’d [bought an early warning system], people would have [been able to evacuate] in time. If we’d [planted trees here], it might have [saved lives]. If we’d [had more money], we could have [built another hospital]. During the lesson 1. Introduce the theme by asking students to brainstorm as many kinds of natural disasters as they can. Get feedback from different groups. Use images, screenshots from the game or the first page of the game to elicit ‘tsunami’, ‘hurricane’, ‘wildfire’, ‘earthquake’ and ‘flood’. 2. Tell students to choose one type of disaster and create a mind map with the following headings: ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘who’, ‘why’ and ‘how’. Set a time limit of five minutes for them to write as much information as they can. Collect feedback from one or two groups, or ask groups to exchange mind maps and comment on them. 3. Explain that students are going to take part in a simulation and attempt to minimise the impact of their disaster. Put students into pairs, in which student A is the surveyor and student B is the official. Explain that As will play the game and Bs will give instructions and write information on the worksheet. 4. Tell students to start the game and choose the ‘medium’ version, which lasts 15 minutes, unless they trigger the disaster. Hand out the worksheet and ask them to complete the first section before they start building. 5. Focus students’ attention on the useful language. Students begin the scenario, discussing their ideas in English. Tell them to change roles every three or four minutes. 6. Once 15 minutes have passed, ask students to watch the disaster and make notes on the worksheet in the final section. This should include a discussion of what went well, what went badly, and what could have been done differently to get a better result. Here students can also use the news report to help them. 7. Put pairs who have worked on the same disaster into groups of four and tell them to share their experiences, saying what they could have done differently to reduce the impact of the disaster. Get feedback from one or two groups. Depending on your students and the time available, you could: • ask students to repeat the same disaster in new groups, this time making different decisions and noting down all 15 ‘key facts’ in their own words • ask students to all choose the same disaster and then doing a role play once the disaster has happened, in which local people complain to officials, who must justify what they decided • set a homework task in which students write a letter from someone in the community to local officials about the disaster or officials write a report saying what happened • set the game as a homework task and ask students to write a more detailed reflection, in which they describe what they did, why they did it and what they learned from the game • ask students to discuss natural disasters in their country or region. Do you feel you could use this lesson idea with your students? If so, how would you integrate it into your curriculum? How would you make sure your students used English? Can you think of any other ways of using Stop Disasters! in the classroom? This plan is partly based on an idea taken from Digital Play, the award-winning blog and book about digital games in English language teaching written by Kyle Mawer and Graham Stanley. It is also based on a lesson plan by Mike Farley, founder of ChangeGamer. No comments yet. Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Google+ photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s Blog Stats • 6,095 hits %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:00ae7b6f-b1e5-4ce2-9224-7b00cabb29ae>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.9375, "fasttext_score": 0.02196216583251953, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9283361434936523, "url": "https://digitalalternatives.wordpress.com/lesson-plans/simulation/stop-disasters/" }
Paul Budde Paul Budde's History Archives In pre-historic as well as in historic times till approx 1000BCE most of the land north of the main rivers of what is now Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland and large parts of Groningen was waterlogged and marshy land, very thinly populated and the land was marginal. People settled on the higher grounds in the dunes along the North Sea and on the higher sand hills along the rivers. In the north farmers built terpen ( man made mounds) and tended sheep on the marshy lands. Many people here supplemented their livelihood with fishing and hunting. The Frisians dominated most of the land north of the rivers. In the Middle Ages the key towns north of the rivers were: Utrecht, Dorestad, Tiel, Kampen, Deventer, Zwolle and Zutphen. After 1021, in theory large parts of what was Frisia became part of the Bishopric of Utrecht. However, in reality Friesland and Groningen remained largely independent and in what now is Overijssel the major cities along the Zuiderzee and the River IJssel dominated this part of the region. Furthermore there were a large number of ‘independent’ enclaves linked to German princes and bishops After the conquest of Charles V during the early 16th century Stadholders (provincial governors) were appointed as the representative of the Emperor in both Friesland and Utrecht. They were mostly appointed from among the nobility of Flanders and Brabant. The baljuws – the main judicial officers in the regional areas – were also appointed by the Emperor, they were mostly selected from the local loyal fractions. Prehistoric and Roman times The first possible indication of people inhabiting the area is the Elp culture (1,800 – 800BCE) a sub set of the Beaker Culture. They started to build ‘terpen’ (artificial settlement mounds) in what is known Friesland from around 700BCE. There are indications that the early Frisii arrived from the higher grounds in Drenthe after the Cetlic tribes had left the area. They most likely settled in the area between the Elbe in the east and the Scheldt in the west. One of the major pagan site of the Frisians was on Heligoland and became a major aim for destruction by the missionaries who arrived a few hundred years later in the area, such as Willibrord and Boniface. The Frisii were mentioned by Tacitus and were ‘conquered’ by Drusus in 12, but the Romans never had a good grip on the Frisii, they remained largely independent and a continuing a problem for the Romans (and later for the Merovingians and Carolingians). After the uprising of the Batavii in 69CE which was supported by several other Germanic tribes including the Frisii, the Romans took stricter control and what is now the Netherlands became divided in four areas: • Celtic tribes concentrated below the rivers, • Batavii between the big rivers (Betuwe island), this group became strong allies of the Romans and provided lots of soldiers for their armies. • Cananefaten, in the coastal area above the rivers these lands remained very lightly populated • Angles and Saxon who mixed with the original Frisii in the northern and eastern parts. The heartland of the Frisians – the current Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen – remained largely outside the control of the Romans. Part of the reason why the Romans disappeared from the are around 250AC has been linked to climate change events. Also the Cananefates disappear from the area around this time. After the Roman time there was a further strong depopulation during an extended period of high water. Apart from the higher laying lands along the rivers, occupation of most of these lands was limited by the changes in sea and river levels. Sometimes that meant that they wear only able to occupy the dune strip along the coast with the North Sea and on the sand and clay deposits of the rivers. In the north man made hills had to be built to make the environment inhabitable and some basic farming possible sheep and cattle). The change in climate changes saw an increase in storm activity and by 500 large parts of land behind the dunes had turned into bogs and peat areas. Those who were able to survive; became fishermen and skippers New Frisians Slowly around 400 the Rhine Delta became populated again, new people had moved into the area and in the chronicles of the day they were referred to as New Frisians, who must have mixed with the remaining Frisii who lived scattered around the terps. The Romans had established their Limes along the rivers Rhine and Maas, with a large number of fortresses protecting the boarder. Several of those fortress were used by Frisians around 600 to start their own new settlements. With trade increasing the focus of Frisia moved towards the river lands. The New Frisians also played a key role in the Anglo Saxon migration to England. After the collapse of the Roman Empire we also see Slavic tribes moving deeper into eastern Europe and this caused a collapse of trade between the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean. This provided the Frisian with opportunity to fill that gap By 400 they havdtaken over the river area, river delta, coastal area and still occupied their traditional lands further north. The Celts were replaced and/or did intermingle with the Salii Franks who had moved south down from the IJssel River region. This happened after the Saxons had encroached on their lands and had occupied the eastern part of what is now the Netherlands. The river became the border between these tho confederations of Germanic tribes. Schaapskooi (sheep pen) Dwingelo Drenthe 1972 The heartland of the Frisii (Friesland and Groningen) had large sections of land that was not protected by sea dykes, over time sufficient land was deposited to keep it dry most of the time, but when there was above normal high water the area would still flood, it is in these areas (kwelders) that they built their ‘terpen’ (there are close of 2000 of them and they would contain a few farms and later even small villages). The kwelders were ideally suited for the farming of sheep. The combination of surplus wool and seafaring created an ideal export opportunity. It is believed that this combination made the New Frisians the key traders in north-western Europe. Characteristic of this period is the combination of farmers, tradesmen and merchantmen, often combined in the one person. The early Medieval Frisians became famous for their cloth (pallia Fresonica). Charlemagne used it as a gift to the Emperor of Persia. However, through trading the wool was no longer just locally produced they most probably obtained it also from some of their others Anglo Saxons ‘brothers’ who had moved to the British Isles. The cloth industry, the Frisians helped to develop, slowly started to become the basis for an industry that would propel northern Europe into an economic powerhouse. Throughout northwest Europe they became famous traders and operated from their major centre the town of Dorestad (near the current town of Wijk bij Duurstede). This rapidly became the largest city in the north. During their heydays between 750 and 850 the town had a kilometre long street, parallel to the river, complete with timber fortifications and timber houses, most with their moorings in front of the house. Interestingly these houses showed combinations of farmers, tradesmen and merchantmen. According to archaeological evidence, the Frisians were also frequent visitors at the southern Brabantine river port of Ename on the Scheldt. At the provincial museum in this town we visited the very interesting and innovative display that also talks about the Frisian tradespeople from Tiel visiting their port. This Frisian city minted its own money (sceattaes) between 650 and 755.Coins from Dorestad and Tiel have showed up everywhere around Europe. From 800 onward there are also indications that land reclamation started to occur, which might have led to the development of the town of Sneek. Merovingian/Carolingian – Frisian wars It was not until the 7th century that, for the first time, we see the emergence of an early form of central leadership in Frisia. Initially the Frisians were successful to withstand the ever expanding Franks (Merovingians) who were attracted to the area by the wealth that the trading activitiesbrought with them. The most famous and successful Frisian king was Radbod, son of Aldgils, the first know Frisian king who had established Frisian rule in Frisia, Utrecht and Holland (than called West Frisia). Both ruled a country – that stretched from the Scheldt to the Weser – from Dorestad and/or Utrecht. There was another fortress in this region, Heimenberg, strategically position on the Grebbeberg on the ‘Utrechtse Heuvelrug’ near Rhenen. The fortress dates back to 2000 BC. During the time of the Frisian wars it was used as a ring-wall fortress, however it is uncertain if this was built by the Frisians or the Franks. One of the richest graveyards of the Merovingian period is also positioned here, on the Donderberg – a reference back to Donar. Here some 1100, largely rich elite graves, were unearthed in 1950, dating back to the period 375 – 750. Perhaps there is a link between the fortress and the nobility Abbot Wilfrid of the Ripon Monastery in Yorkshire received, according to his records, accommodation in the Frisian ‘capital’ Dorestad from Aldgils during the winter of 678 – 679, on his visit across the Channel. Around 675, the Merovingian king Dagobert asked Archbishop Cunibert from Cologne to establish a fortress at one of the other Frisians town, Utrecht to from here keep an eye on the Frisians. This was probably erected on the remains of Roman fortress Traiectum (a passable stretch in the river). Uut- Trecht (Below the Trecht) seems to be the place were the new settlement got established. The castle grounds became also the first place for the early churches that were built here and eventually the current Dom cathedral. The importance of the Frisians was also highlighted by the fact that Grimoald II, the son of the Merovingian Mayor of the Palace Pippin II (the Middle) and his wife Plectrude, was married, in 711, to Theutsind the daughter of King Radbod in order to force a truce. Pippin had beaten Radbod at Dorestad in 695 and to seal the peace Radbod offered his daughter as bride to Pippin’s son. The seat of power now moved to Utrecht. After the victory and under the protection of the Merovingians, the recently consecrated bishop Willibrord established a church in Utrecht. After the sudden death of Pippin, in Jupille in 714, Radbod recovered Utrecht and Dorestad and expanded his reign again to the Scheldt and even took a navy fleet up to Cologne. Willibrord had to leave the city and later on Boniface reported from Utrecht at that time that the churches were demolished, he also reportedly visited Radbod in this town. Grimoald also dies in 714 and Pippin’s other son Charles Martel took over as mayor of the palace. After Radbod’s death in 719 Charles was able to conquer more and land from the Frisians. This also meant the end of the independent kingdom of Frisia. His death also finally allowed Willibrord to now return more permanently to Utrecht and together with Boniface he preached in what is now the Netherlands. In 734 the Frisians under Duke Bubo launched another revolt halting the spread of Christianity and Charles launched a sea and land attack crushing the revolt to beyond the Zuiderzee. While the occasional battles continued during the rest of that century, the Frisian never recovered from this defeat again. Between 800 and 1000 the Vikings regularly raided Frisia (along the coast and rivers). This despite the fact that they saw each other as related people and could communicate with each other in their own languages. Furthermore since the 7th century they had been their major trading partners and Frisians were instrumental in the foundation of the Scandinavian trading cities Ribe and Hedeby (both in modern Denmark). No other people were able to trade with Scandinavia and the Frisians held a key trading position that they were able to exploit as far south as Italy. Politically and military the Vikings ruled Frisia from approx 833 and approx. 873. This period is covered in a separate chapter. Lotharinghia in general and this region in particular – being at the far edge of their realms – remained a contested area between the East and West Francia rulers. However, the Franks never seemed to move further north above the main rivers. It was not until the 16th century that Frisia finally totally lost it independence. In the meantime the Frisians kept their key role in the river trade. The merchant population in Dorestad and later Tiel, Utrecht and probably also Deventer were dominated by Frisian merchants, but obviously over the years that started to blend. Frisian traders were still specifically mentioned as key traders for example in Tiel in the 11th century. West Frisia It wouldn’t be until the 11th century before we start seeing central leadership returning to the coastal regions (Holland at that stage still called Frisia). By that time the Frisians had again regained their strong trading tradition and had become the first merchant economy in north western Europe (see: High Middle Ages). These developments coincided with a significant growth in population and we start see the disappearance of forests to make place for land that needs to be cultivates, peat areas were developed into agriculture land, however for this they needed to drain the water out of these areas. Peat works like a sponge and when it dries out it shrinks. This land couldn’t be used for agriculture any more and became grazing land; often the land sank that low that it filled up with water which a few hundred years later required it to be pumped dry again with the assistance of the Dutch version of the windmill. At the same time of course these events also required that dykes needed to be built, and because of the disturbance that has been set in motion, these dykes frequently needed to be raised a process that is continuing till today. The agriculture developments made the nobels in this part of Frisia increasingly more important and they started to become more and more independent. Initially we see that Frisians were able to resist the upcoming power of Holland, whenever possible the also used disunity within the family of the Holland nobility to protect their own independence. This for example happened in 1132 when Floris the Black challenged his brother Dirk VI for the leadership of Holland, the West Frisians joined Floris. However, despite some earlier successes by 1200 the Counts of Holland had largely taken control over the area behind the sand dunes. The ‘Frisian’ were now forced to retreat to the north what was called West Frisia. In 1257 Count Willem II attacks West Frisia, but also this attempt failed. His son Floris V tries it again in 1272 again without any result, finally ten years later he is able to defeat the West Frisians. The murder of Floris V 1n 1296, gave the West Frisians new hopes and the used the event to revolt, however, they were badly defeated the following year and their annexation was now fully confirmed. The whole are between the North Sea and the Middle Sea (Zuiderzee) was now part of Holland. For more information on the combined Frisian and Holland history see: Holland and Zeeland. After the Treaty of Verdun the border between the Middle Kingdom and East Francia on the far norther side is unclear. The question is if there indeed ever was defined boarder and possibly the ‘unofficial’ border might have cut somewhere through the middle of what is now Friesland. The modern provinces of Groningen and Friesland remained more or less independent. The centre of Frisia during this period Dorestad; together with Utrecht and Tiel this part along the river was more developed than the more northern regions of Friesland. However, the sheep farming in the north provided the Frisian merchants with a valuable trading good which made them famous traders throughout northern Europe. An influential noble family that played a key role in Middle Friesland were the Brunoanen, they were a Saxon family. After the Saxons were finally conquered by Charlemagne several of their warlords became important landowners in the conquered area; it is possible that Bruno of Saxony who was one of them. They became the counts of Brunswick (Eastphalia). They were a branch of the Liudolfings (East Saxony) to which also the Ottonian German Emperors belonged – the first one being Henry I the Fowler. Liudolf is the first known count of this branch who was born around 805 and dies around 865, he married Oda, a Frankish princess, very much along Charlemagne tradition to ensure the integrity of the Frankish Empire. They also used their Carolingian heritage to increase their influence in the old Carolingian Middle Kingdom. During the following centuries the Frisian counts – being closely linked to the German Emperors – did rise in power, which assisted in maintaining their independence. Already around 1000 the Brunoanen were able to extend their powers to the west, probably by defeating the Frisians who had their power base on the other side of the Middle Sea (Zuider Sea) in Holland. Increasingly these two Frisian branches formed independent entities, with the West Frisians (in what would become Holland) trying again and again to win back their power in East Frisia (current Friesland and Groningen). An interesting development that shows the independence of the Frisian happened in 1099 when the Saxon Count Henry the Fat (c. 1055 – 1101) – linked to the Brunoanen – was bestowed by the title of Margrave of Frisia by Emperor Henry IV. He immediately tried to regulate Frisian shipping and ignored the privileges granted to the town of Staveren. The Church, feeling threatened by Henry, allied with the merchant class and the townsmen. Though they received him on seeming friendly terms, he perceived their threat and tried to flee by boat. His ship was attacked at sea and sunk, though his wife escaped the assault. The day of his death is not known precisely, but he was buried in Bursfelde on 10 April 1101. As independent people the ‘free’ Frisians were able to maintain their status by providing support to the German Emperor. Emperor Willem III for the first time officially recognised them in a privilege of 1248, which was again confirmed in 1417. The exact nature of what is called the ‘Friese Vrijheid” (Frisian Freedom) is unclear as at the same time there were ‘Counts’ of Frisia, but most certainly their feudal power over the local farmers and townsfolk was severely limited. During the 13th century they established a loose federation; representatives of the combined Frisian lands met – according to age old tradition – at a hill in the forest at Opstalboom, in Eastern Friesland. However, this didn’t last long; they met the last time in 1361. As there was no central authority and little unity among the people in these areas; neighbouring Dukes and Counts from Holland and Gelre regularly tried to take a slab of the region, but long term they were never totally successful. The Battle of Ane in 1227 is probably the most famous of all of the Frisian freedom battles (see below). Another one is known as the Battle of Stavoren (or Warn) in 1345 where again the Hollanders under the leadership of Count Willem IV of Holland were defeated by the free Frisians. Until this time the Frisian city of Staveren (Stavoren) had usually sided with Holland, its most important trading partner. However, with the assistance of the Vetkopers (see below) the Count of Holland was in 1396 able to occupy all of Friesland. However, with the assistance of Schieringers they were expelled again in 1414, shortly after that the Emperor again confirmed the Friese Vrijheid. The end of this ‘Freedom’ happened when Albrecht Duke of Saxony, an astute military commander earned the respect of the Dukes of Burgundy. In 1488 Albrecht was able to liberate Duke Maximilian, who was captured by the citizens of Brugge. He also assisted the Burgundians to recapture Holland, Flanders and Brabant. In 1498 he was rewarded for this and received the title Governor of Friesland – with a history of Saxon Counts in Frisia this was an interesting historic development. However, against the old traditions, he was not allowed to plunder the captured regions. This led to a severe financial loss for Albrecht. However, the power of the ‘free Frisian’ had been undermined already for a long time by discord among the forever warring lower nobility (hoofdelingen) who all want to extend their local power from their castles (borgen/stinsen). This escalated in the 14th century when foreign powers – all too eager to do so, became involved. Since 1325 a civil war between the Schieringers and the Vetkopers. Schieringers and Vetkopers The Schieringers and Vetkopers were two opposing Frisian factional parties. They were responsible for a bloody civil war that lasted for over a century (1350–1498) and which eventually led to the end of the highly praised “Frisian freedom”. The real reasons for the conflict are uncertain but similar to those in Holland (Hoekse and Kabeljouwse Twisten) and Gelre (Heekeren en Bronkhorst ). It looks like these factional conflicts, at least partly, arose because of economic downturn and political frustration.A conflict between the Cistercians and Premonstratensians (Norbetijnen) monks – showing a decline in the integrity of the monasteries – as well as a decline in other communal institutions and social discord this led to the emergence of opportunistic hoofdelingen (“headmen”), wealthy landowners possessing large tracts of land and fortified homes. They used the turmoil to extend their powerbases. The Schieringers got their name from ‘schiere (grey) monks’ linked to the Cistercians, they had their powerbase in Westergo (West-Friesland). The Vetkopers are linked to the Norbetijnen, who were involved in cattle farming (fat meadows), their powerbase was to the east of the no longer existing Middle Sea with key cities: Dokkum, Leeuwarden, Groningen as well as East-Friesland. The hoofdelingen also took over the role of the judiciary as well offering protection to their local inhabitants. Internal struggles between these regional leaders resulted in bloody conflicts and the alignment of regions along two opposing parties: the Schieringers and the Vetkopers. However, alliance could shift as we also saw in the conflicts in the other provinces.In the second half of the fifteenth century the Vetkoper’s town of Groningen, which had become the dominating force in Frisia, tried to interfere in Mid-Frisian affairs. The meddling met strong opposition in Schieringers held Westergo and ended in a call for foreign help. On 21 March 1498, a small group of Schieringers from Westergo secretly met with the Stadholder-General of the Netherlands, Albert, Duke of Saxony in Medemblik, requesting his help. Albrecht, who had gained a reputation as a formidable military commander, accepted and soon conquered all of Friesland. His overlord Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg appointed Albrecht hereditary governor of Friesland in 1499. A year later the Vetkopers invited Duke Charles of Gelre to assist them in getting rid of the (foreign) soldiers. This led to further devastation as the unpaid troops of Albrecht roamed the region both inside and outside Friesland (see below). In the meantime the abandoned troops of the Duke – known as the Grote Garde – started to roam the region. They were either not or poorly paid and were not allowed to plunder. However once abandoned some 4,000 of them went on a rampage through the region, in 1499 they also laid waste to Twente. After the death of Albrecht in 1500, his son Georg became the new governor, who started to reform the provincial administration, but he received fierce opposition from the Vetkopers. After the defeat of the Habsburg Prince Philip the Fair in Gelre in 1504/1505, Georg had to fled Friesland. The Vetkopers turned to Charles of Gelre for assistance against the Habsburg forces, who was only to pleased to oblige. This led to a counteraction of the newly appointed Stadholder of Frieland, Floris van Egmond. However, there was no clear outcome and this led to another period of instability. Some local strongmen were able to grab power for a while. A famous warrior peasant Greate (Grote – Big) Pier joined the Frisian forces to attack the occupiers during 1514 and 1515, he led a pirate fleet that ravaged havoc in particular in Holland. He became (and still is ) a man of legends. In order to differentiate the Frisians from the Hollanders he let people repeat the following rhyme: bûter, brae en griene tsis, wa’t dat net sizze kin, is gijn oprjochte Fries (butter, rye bread, green cheese, who can’t say this is not a real Frisian). After a failed attack from Holland on the Vetkopers and the Duke of Gelre in 1517 the other party plundered an area from Medemblik to the walls of Amsterdam. In 1521 the States of Holland provided exceptionally large funds for an expedition to Friesland Finally, in 1523, Frisian resistance collapsed, the Gelre alliance proofed to be opportunistic as they largely abandoned the Frisian. A year later Friesland was integrated by the emperor in the Dutch Burgundian Lands. This meant the end for the Frisian Freedom. But even under his reign it was difficult to unite the Frisians. This continued to well into modern times. Under the Dutch Republic, Friesland became one of the Provinces who joined the Dutch Revolt. But when Friesland had to represent itself at the General States in The Hague they first had to get the support of the 30 smaller communities and the eleven major towns. This always took a long time and even in modern times when something is done very slow the well known and common Dutch expression is: “it is done at the pace of 11/30”. There are several place names in the Netherlands that remind to these ongoing conflicts, from this period dates the village name Hebbrecht in Groningen (it means conflict seeker). Most probably referring to the conflict between the cities in Groningen and the Bishop of Münster. Groningen and the Ommelanden Groningen has an interesting position in the northern Netherlands. It was originally part of the pagus Drenthe, but perhaps as early as 800 (Charlemagne) the city received its own status and became part of the Bishopric Utrecht. However, there was hardly any effective control and the community largely operated independently as a city state. It became a Hanse city and developed into the largest city in the northern Netherlands, it was also large enough to have its own city militia that proofed to be very effective in the many local conflicts. Originally also the language was Frisian but during the Late Middle Ages – and perhaps under the influence of its Hanse trade – a separate city language developed more based on the Germanic variant of Low German (Niederdeutsch, Nedersaksisch) and slowly also the Ommelanden took over the new language. Groningen has a unique position in Dutch history as it used its power to subdue the Ommelanden (originally part of Frisia) under its rule. It forced the region to use the staple right of the city. Farmers had to sell their grain in Groningen and couldn’t sell it to others. It also forced the region to buy certain products (such as for example beer) in the city, they couldn’t brew this themselves. All of this led to centuries of conflict between the city and its region. During the Frisian conflict of the Schieringers and Vetkopers, Groningen chose the site of the Vetkopers and the Ommelanders the side of the Schieringers. Groningen lost its independence as a city-state when Duke Albert of Saxon took control over Friesland on behalf of Emperor Charles V in 1499 and against its will incorporated Groningen and the Ommelanden in the Burgundian Province of Friesland. During the Dutch Revolt the catholic city stayed loyal to the Spanish King Philip II, but the Ommelanden used the opportunity to free them from the city and choose the side of the Revolt. However, this all ended when Groningen was conquered by Prince Maurits and in 1594 Groningen and its Ommelanden became the 7th province of the Republic. It was not until the French Revolution that the towns in the Ommelanden received their status as independent municipalities.	<urn:uuid:1307e507-f32d-4007-8d71-372dffc4a97b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.054618775844573975, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.969588041305542, "url": "http://paulbuddehistory.com/europe/frisia-and-utrecht-2/" }
Definition of Reactive 1. Adjective. Participating readily in reactions. "Free radicals are very reactive" 2. Adjective. Reacting to a stimulus. "The skin of old persons is less reactive than that of younger persons" Exact synonyms: Responsive Similar to: Sensitive Derivative terms: React, Reactivity Definition of Reactive 1. a. Having power to react; tending to reaction; of the nature of reaction. Definition of Reactive 1. Adjective. that reacts or responds to a stimulus ¹ 2. Adjective. (chemistry) that readily takes part in reactions ¹ 3. Adjective. (electronics) Characterized by induction or capacitance rather than resistance. ¹ 4. Adjective. Reacting to the past rather than anticipating the future, not predictive. ¹ ¹ Source: Definition of Reactive 1. tending to react [adj] Reactive Pictures Lexicographical Neighbors of Reactive reactive (current term) reactive armor reactive armour reactive astrocyte reactive attachment disorder reactive cell reactive depression reactive hyperaemia reactive inhibition reactive intermediate reactive mind reactive oxygen species reactive perforating collagenosis reactive power Literary usage of Reactive 1. Essentials of Alternating Currents by William Henry Timbie, Henry Harold Higbie (1919) "To Determine the reactive Power. Since the •eactive factor is the fraction which the reactive power is of .he apparent power, then reactive power = reactive ..." "These reactive species are formed as intermediates in mitochondrial ... In addition, neutrophils and other inflammatory cells generate and release reactive ..." "A reactive- factor meter can be made out of the above described ... In some reactive factor meters the functions of the outer and the inner windings (Fig. ..." 4. Principles of Electrical Engineering by Harold Pender (1911) "reactive Power. — The expression reactive power is used for the product of the effective current and the effective value of the pd in quadrature with it; ..." Other Resources Relating to: Reactive Search for Reactive on!Search for Reactive on!Search for Reactive on Google!Search for Reactive on Wikipedia!	<urn:uuid:11dedfb4-ca21-45bb-ab5f-2f8858f946a6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.08138006925582886, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8683362603187561, "url": "http://lexic.us/definition-of/reactive" }
Atom Adventure Today the 5th graders learned about Global Warming, climate and weather. They also learned about the North and South Poles. The 5th graders were given a stack of cards, listing things that the Arctic and Antarctic either indiviually had, or shared. They made predictions about where they thought each card would fit, once all the groups finished, the class went over their predictions together. Afterwards, the students participated in an activity that would help them understand the effects of the Industrial Revolution on our atmosphere. The students rolled a die 10 times. Depending on what they rolled, the students would have to Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:c4d20e22-01db-475b-b02a-7da7792d4823>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.2877596616744995, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9703845977783203, "url": "http://bsfstemscholars.com/uncategorized/atom-adventure/" }
Definition of Collusion What does the term "collusion" mean? What is meant by the term "collusion"? Collusion is an agreement between multiple parties for a fraudulent or deceitful purpose. Definition of Collusion - Financial DictionaryFor instance, in a game of cards, if two people are "colluding" with each other, this means that they have entered into a secret agreement to cheat the other players at the table. Let's take a look at a couple of other examples of "collusion": 1. In a fictional sports league, the owners of all of the franchises reach an agreement to severely limit the amount of money that they pay to free agent players. This would be collusion. 2. The owners of a number of local gas stations have a meeting and decide that they will all be raising their prices by X amount. This secret agreement would operate to the detriment of the consumer, which would make it a clear case of collusion. -- Articles That Mention Collusion:	<urn:uuid:9c90f4a4-4448-4aa2-a0cd-1e29f6b3083e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.9648941159248352, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9660837054252625, "url": "https://www.davemanuel.com/investor-dictionary/collusion/" }
Online College Courses for Credit Human impact on animal behavior Human impact on animal behavior Author: Josue Naranjo 1. At the end of this lesson students will be able to determine the main distinguishing characteristics of a coati. 2. At the end of this lesson students will be able to describe animal behavior using adjectives. 3. At the end of this lesson students will be able to predict the behavior of animals without people. This lesson is meant to support an in-class 40-minute lesson where students will write guidelines for tourists visiting wildlife reserves. In order to do so, they need to understand first the impact of people on wild animals' behavior. A video on coatis is used to elicit the behavioral changes. See More Fast, Free College Credit Developing Effective Teams Let's Ride 29 Sophia partners guarantee credit transfer. Welcome to the "Human impact on animal behavior" tutorial! Hey guys I have prepared a video for you to understand the impact of people on animal behavior. Mr J Coatis at Iguazu National Park A family of coatis from Iguazu National Park, Brazil. Source: Created by Josue Naranjo Video transcript (don't forget to check for new words in your dictionary!) Hey guys, this is Mr Josue with a video I managed to capture in my last adventure. Walking around the Iguazu National Park in Brazil, I had the opportunity to shot an interesting family of coatis. Coatis belong to a group of mammals found only in the Americas; they are very similar to raccoons in terms of curiosity, size and a ringed tail, but with a longer snout (very similar to a pig´s). When young they have a playful and unafraid attitude, despite all the people around them, because this means free food! However, when these younglings grow bigger they need more food and sometimes they will get really close to people, in an abusive and aggressive way. Source: Created by Josue Naranjo Coati characteristics and behavior test Students review the contents, reflect on their answers based on information in the Internet and make some predictions to be used in face-to-face activities. Source: Created by Josue Naranjo	<urn:uuid:ccb4d6a9-bc7c-445d-83d0-bdfd00947057>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.953125, "fasttext_score": 0.01999431848526001, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9189556241035461, "url": "https://www.sophia.org/tutorials/human-impact-on-animal-behavior" }
Echinacea: A Healing Plant By Brenda Williams Echinacea is a member of the botanical family asteraceae commonly known as asters. The genus is echinacea and there are several species but only three are used for medicinal purposes. These are: E. purpurea, E. angustifolia, and E. pallida. The species can be distinguished from one another by the color of their flowers. Echinacea was originally used medicinally by the Native American tribes. The Lakotas referred to E. angustifolia as Icahpe hu. They used it to heal snake bits, sepsis and rabies. The Dakotas used echinacea for eye infections and also as veterinary medication for the horses. The Choctows and Cheyennes used it for coughs and colds while the Comanches treated sore throats with Echinacea and the Blackfoots used it for toothaches. Altogether echinacea is known to have been employed as medication by over 14 Native American tribes. It is possible that they used all of the species. During the 1800's, H.C.F. Meyer made a commercial medicine from E. angustifolia. After learning of this, three physicians, Dr. Lloyd, Dr. John King and Dr. Meyer began to study the healing properties of the plant. The results of their studies led them to recommmend its usage. Ellingwood's 'American Materia Medica' listed it as a treatment for syphilis, typhus, diphtheria, chronic mastitis, and tuberculosis. It became highly popular in the United States and in the early twentieth century was a top selling drug. It remained so until the discovery of antibiotics such as penicillin. Americans discontinued its use when the American Medical Association labeled it worthless in the 1930's. However, people in Europe continued to be enthusiastic about echinacea. This was particularly true in Germany. During the 1930's, a German physician, Dr. Gerhard Madaus, started to do extensive research on echinacea. He visited the United States to purchase seeds from chinacea Angustifolia which was the species used in medicine at that time. Unknowingly, he returned to Germany with seeds from Echinacea purpurea. He continued his studies and research and finally developed a product known as Echinacin. This is manufactured from the flowers, leaves and stems of the plant and is still available today. Echinacea is available as a tea, capsule or extract. It can also be harvested wild in some states. Other states have listed it as an endangered species. Echinacea is easy to cultivate and thrives in sunny, dry environments. Echinacea boosts the immune system, and helps to prevent colds and flu. The recommended dosage is 300 to 500 mg. taken four to five times daily. While its main popularity has been as an immunity booster and cold fighter it is useful in fighting yeast infections. Echinacea is also available as a cream. And when used topically it provides relief for canker and cold sores. Echinacea is a controversial herbal remedy. Many research studies have been performed. Some have concluded that it has no benefit in boosting immunity or relieving cold symptoms. But studies in England and Europe have opposite results. Regardless of what scientists say or don't say echinacea is one of the top selling herbs in the United States so it has a high following amongst the general public.	<urn:uuid:3d824660-2f8f-4dac-9c27-5651781dbbaf>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.07098197937011719, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.961174488067627, "url": "http://thewestisland.ca/pages-added/business-directory.php?business_category_id=34&article_id=58" }
Manipur: Where the Islands Float From space, Loktak Lake, located in Manipur, India, looks, unlike any other lake. It appears like a luscious sapphire-colored fabric with velvety green polka dots of varying sizes. Loktak Lake is one-of-a-kind wetland ecosystem that has been designated a Wetland of International Importance through the Ramsar Treaty. The numerous green areas that cover nearly two-thirds of the lake’s 236 square kilometers are called "phumdi" or floating islands comprised of vegetation, soil, and other organic matter. Unique to Loktak Lake, phumdis change shape according to the season and move around the lake surface, playing a critical role in water cleansing, nutrient absorption, flood control, and carbon sequestration. Phumdis are home to over 400 species of animals, including the endangered “dancing deer;” over 100 species of birds; and over 200 species of aquatic plants. Loktak Lake is home and means of livelihood to more than 700 indigenous families. The lives of over 100,000 people are socio-economically connected to the lake. A hydroelectric dam, various infrastructure projects, regional armed conflict and climate change threaten this unique ecosystem. Loktak Wetland Manipur: Portraits of Resilience Portraits of Resilience takes viewers up close to nine individuals to understand the delicate relationship between the Meiteis and the Loktak Wetland as well as their fight for survival. No results found.	<urn:uuid:b71852df-e604-4240-8174-1b6c4da51a6c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.05950289964675903, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9331287741661072, "url": "http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/manipur-where-islands-float" }
Sunday, March 22, 2015 Storytelling: Who? What? Where? This week we have been focusing on the parts of a story. This includes both storytelling and also investigating the books that we are reading. We have been focusing on the Who? What? and Where? of the story. When we create the story, we start with "where?" and create a scene. This can be as basic as setting out a piece of fabric to stand on. Then we move to who. Who is going to be there? We choose fabric or costumes to show our characters. And then finally, what are they doing there and what props do we need? One of the stories we worked on was our own version of "The Big Turnip." Each child got to choose their character and the costume they needed to represent that character. We also practiced taking turns being in the audience and clapping at the end of the show. Group One A bear planting the seeds in the garden. Bear's friend Chicken watering the seeds. The sun shining on the seeds. Bear pulling on the vine of the giant berry, but it was TOO BIG! Bear, Chicken and another Bear trying to pick the berry. Two chickens, two bears, and a blue monster all working together. And the sun up in the sky. "And the pulled, and they pulled, and they pulled..." Group Two Blue Monster planting seeds in his garden. The sun shining on the seeds. Blue monster, a bear, a duck and a red monster trying to pick the watermelon. Along came a tiny green chicken. They pulled. And they pulled. And they pulled. Until FINALLY! Pop! The children continued the storytelling after I stepped away. A couple of the children took turns being the narrator/director of the play. I can't wait to see if the same story line appears again during free play. This has been just as much of a learning process for me as it is for them and I look forward to taking it further with them.	<urn:uuid:a60e8804-d344-4c5c-8458-7f4502ea3245>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.1053726077079773, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9671126008033752, "url": "http://growinginchbyinch.blogspot.co.uk/2015_03_22_archive.html" }
To stand akimbo is to have one’s hands on one’s hips with the elbows turned outward. The word dates to the fifteenth century, but its origin is unknown. There are, however, a number of competing hypotheses. The word began as a prepositional phrase, on or in kenebowe. The on preposition was subsequently reduced to a. The preposition on can lose its final -n when unstressed, becoming a. That much of the word’s origin is certain. The earliest known use of the term is from the fifteenth century poem The Tale of Beryn, line 1837–38: The hoost made an hidouse cry, in gesolreut be haut, And set his hond in kenebowe ; he lakkid nevir a faute (The host made a hideous cry, a haughty G note, And set his hand akimbo; he never was critical of a fault) That explains the a- prefix, but the -kimbo root is more difficult. There are three explanations that have some degree of plausibility, although all three should be treated with skepticism. The first is that it is a compound of the Anglo-Norman cane (flagon, pitcher) + bow. In other words, when standing akimbo one’s arms resemble a jughandle. The second is that it is from an Old Norse phrase í keng boginn (bent like a bow). Unfortunately, this phrase is unattested and doesn’t actually appear in any extant writing from the period. The third is that it is a compound of the Middle English keen + bow, alluding to the sharply bent elbows. The term started out as on/in kenebowe in the fifteenth century. By the middle of the seventeenth century the on/in had been reduced to a, and the n had shifted to m. The a began to be hyphenated by the early eighteenth century, a-kimbo, and by the early nineteenth, it was simply akimbo. The meaning of the word expanded too. By the nineteenth century akimbo was being used for the legs as well. And beginning at the end of the eighteenth century, the word was being used more generally to mean askew or disorderly. The word’s use as an adjective is in the last sense, so in 2002 Esquire magazine could write: He is still blue, with mitteny hands and startled, akimbo eyebrows. Middle English Dictionary, University of Michigan, 2001–14, s. v. kene-boue (n.) Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, June 2008, s. v. a, prep.1 Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, September 2012, s. v. akimbo, adv. and adj. [Discuss this post] Powered by ExpressionEngine Copyright 1997-2018, by David Wilton	<urn:uuid:d2c7b272-cc95-4da0-bcc3-5d4e462c51de>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.021164000034332275, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9565439820289612, "url": "http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/site/comments/akimbo/" }
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical, Wikipedia. The production of small closed flowers that are self-pollinating and contain numerous seeds. the self-pollination and self-fertilization of plants with usually small, plain, closed (cleistogamous) blossoms. Cleistogamous flowers have little pollen. The pollen either falls onto the stigma in the closed blossom or, more rarely, germinates in the anthers, pierces their walls, and grows into the pistil. Cleistogamy is observed in plants of various families, including Arachis, many violets, impatiens, chickweed, toadflax, wood sorrel, and barley. Under favorable conditions cross-pollination is also sometimes observed in typically cleistogamous plants (for example, in some violets). Mentioned in ? References in periodicals archive ? In addition to the possible reduction in additive genetic variance on the hillside, differential levels of cleistogamy between sites may have an additional effect on phenotypic evolution. Plant density, cleistogamy and self-fertilization in natural populations of Lithospermum caroliniense. the literature, the extent of cleistogamy within angiosperms is still clarify the different types of cleistogamy that exist, (2) quantify how often cleistogamy occurs within angiosperm genera and species, (3) estimate the number of times that cleistogamy has evolved within Cleistogamy is a sexual breeding system in which the necessity of Hence, cleistogamy differs from asexual systems such as apomixis, in which double fertilization is not required documented cleistogamy in four genera of Malpighiaceae in 1908. The subject of apomixis and cleistogamy has recently experienced a In species producing hermaphroditic flowers, the evolution of autogamous selfing is facilitated by the presence of anthers and stigma within the same flower, and highly efficient selfing mechanisms like cleistogamy may evolve. Evolution of reproductive characteristics in Impatiens capensis (Balsaminaceae): the significance of cleistogamy and chasmogamy.	<urn:uuid:951e0567-35b7-4c5b-9b37-6fb0e5943994>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.07078027725219727, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8776729702949524, "url": "https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/cleistogamy" }
How Do Crickets Reproduce? Quick Answer Crickets are insects that reproduce by mating and laying eggs. The female cricket carries and deposits the eggs, but she must mate with a male cricket to have her eggs fertilized before she deposits them. Continue Reading Related Videos Full Answer The process of reproduction for crickets begins with some very cricketlike seduction. The male cricket will "court" the female by creating the classic cricket chirping sounds with his wings. Crickets actually chirp differently at different times, and courtship chirping is a different act than other types of chirping communication. Male crickets typically court a specific female, hoping to entice her to climb on his back to allow the actual mating process to begin. Once the female has climbed on his back, the male will transfer a sperm packet to the female to fertilize the eggs. Once this is done, the female will deposit her eggs in damp sandy soil and leave them to hatch. Learn more about Bugs Related Questions	<urn:uuid:80ee1c28-1d4c-434f-9a54-c97e53a7d502>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.062440454959869385, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9694211483001709, "url": "https://www.reference.com/pets-animals/crickets-reproduce-4e0475c230c20cc" }
Document Type Instructional Material Publication Date This unit is designed to follow several chapters in the “Ecce Romani II” that discuss dinner preparation, dinner, and the dinner party that follows. In those chapters, students will have translated stories and learned vocabulary related to the dinner experience of upper-class ancient Romans. Through examining pros and cons of the dining experiences of ancient Romans and their own dining experiences, students will understand that although dining experiences across cultures are different, none is superior to another. To do this, they will create personal standards for the “best” dining experience. They will use what they know about the ancient Roman dining, as well as examine their own dinner experience, and finally design a dinner experience that includes the best of both worlds, according to the standards they created. Creative Commons License Creative Commons License Included in Education Commons	<urn:uuid:00a85d70-34bb-410b-9eb9-1a829e09f8bf>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.03354692459106445, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9171677231788635, "url": "https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/educ_understandings/194/" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Triglyph centered over the last column in the Roman Doric order of the Theater of Marcellus John Wood's The Circus Bath, Somerset (1754), triglyphs and decorated metopes Triglyph is an architectural term for the vertically channeled tablets of the Doric frieze in classical architecture, so called because of the angular channels in them.The rectangular recessed spaces between the triglyphs on a Doric frieze are called metopes. The raised spaces between the channels themselves (within a triglyph) are called femur in Latin or meros in Greek.[1] In the strict tradition of classical architecture, a set of guttae, the six triangular "pegs" below, always go with a triglyph above (and vice versa), and the pair of features are only found in entablatures of buildings using the Doric order. The absence of the pair effectively converts a building from being in the Doric order to being in the Tuscan order. The triglyph is largely thought to be a tectonic and skeuomorphic representation in stone of the wooden beam ends of the typical primitive hut, as described by Vitruvius and Renaissance writers. The wooden beams were notched in three separate places in order to cast their rough-cut ends mostly in shadow. Greek architecture (and later Roman architecture) preserved this feature, as well as many other features common in original wooden buildings, as a tribute to the origins of architecture and its role in the history and development of man. The channels could also have a function in channeling rainwater. Structure and placing[edit] In terms of structure, a triglyph may be carved from a single block with a metope, or the triglyph block may have slots cut into it to allow a separately cut metope (in stone or wood) to be slid into place, as at the Temple of Aphaea. Of the two groups of 6th-century metopes from Foce del Sele, now in the museum at Paestum, the earlier uses the first method, the later the second. There may be some variation in design within a single structure to allow for corner contraction, an adjustment of the column spacing and arrangement of the Doric frieze in a temple to make the design appear more harmonious. In the evolution of the Doric order, the placing of the triglyphs evolved somewhat, especially at corners. Outside the Doric[edit] In post-Renaissance architecture the strict conventions are sometimes abandoned, and guttae and triglyphs, alone or together, may be used somewhat randomly as ornaments. For example, the Baroque Černín Palace in Prague (1660s) has triglyphs and guttae as ornaments at the top of arches, in a facade using an eclectic Ionic order. See also[edit] 1. ^ Joseph Rykwert (1998). The Dancing Column: On Order in Architecture. MIT Press. p. 187. ISBN 0-262-68101-3. External links[edit] • Media related to Triglyphs at Wikimedia Commons	<urn:uuid:932c4597-de7a-4db0-a711-989974bdd543>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.03594440221786499, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9146432876586914, "url": "https://wikivisually.com/wiki/Triglyph" }
Fractals and Coding This post is for Maths teachers who teach fractals and assumes knowledge of Fractal theory. Fractals and Recursion Recursion is a recurring function that calls or refers to itself. A function is a name given to a series of steps and is used to simplify programming by referring to or "calling" the function. For example the code below is to draw a square. The first part defines "square" as a function and tells the program what "square" means and then uses to the word "square" to draw multiple squares of different sizes and colours without the need to write all the code. square = (size) -> for y in [1..4] fd size rt 90 pen red square 80 jump 15, 15 pen firebrick square 50 Here are some examples of activities that could be used to illustrate fractals using a program called 14. Recursion spiral = (x) -> if x > 0 fd x * 10 rt 90 spiral x - 1 lt 90 bk x * 10 pen red spiral 10 speed 1000 fern = (x) -> if x > 1 fd x rt 95 fern x * .4 lt 190 fern x * .4 rt 100 fern x * .8 lt 5 bk x pen green fern 50 speed Infinity flake = (x) -> if x < 3 then fd x flake x / 3 lt 60 flake x / 3 rt 120 flake x / 3 lt 60 flake x / 3 pen 'path' for s in [1..3] flake 150 rt 120 fill 'azure strokeStyle navy'	<urn:uuid:53ea7c7e-6594-4827-afe5-eb903999fb38>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.15625, "fasttext_score": 0.6492422819137573, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8125352263450623, "url": "http://observelearndo.blogspot.com.au/2018/02/fractals-and-coding.html" }
Traducere // Translate Hunched Over a Microscope, He Sketched the Secrets of How the Brain Works JoAnna Klein Illustrations by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the Spanish neuroscientist, from the book "The Beautiful Brain." From left: A diagram suggesting how the eyes might transmit a unified picture of the world to the brain; a purkinje neuron from the human cerebellum; and a diagram showing the flow of information through the hippocampus in the brain. "He's one of these guys who was really every bit as influential as Pasteur and Darwin in the 19th century," said Larry Swanson, a neurobiologist at the University of Southern California who contributed a biographical section to the new book "The Beautiful Brain: The Drawings of Santiago Ramón y Cajal." "He's harder to explain to the general public, which is probably why he's not as famous." Last month, the Weisman Art Museum in Minneapolis opened a traveling exhibit that is the first dedicated solely to Ramón y Cajal's work. It will make stops in Minneapolis; Vancouver, British Columbia; New York; Cambridge, Mass.; and Chapel Hill, N.C., through April 2019. "It's fairly rare for a scientist to be a really good artist at the same time, and to illustrate all of their own work, brilliantly," Dr. Swanson said. "There seems to be a real resurgence of interest between the interaction between science and art, and I think Cajal will be an icon in that field." The images in "The Beautiful Brain" illustrate what Ramón y Cajal helped discover about the brain and the nervous system, and why his research had such impact in the field of neuroscience. Pyramidal cells stained with the Golgi method by Ramón y Cajal. In 1906 he and Golgi shared a Nobel Prize. And in the time in between, he wrote his neuron doctrine — the theory of how individual brain cells send and receive information, which became the basis of modern neuroscience. Ramón y Cajal's illustrations of two contrasting theories of the brain's composition: the reticular theory, left, and the neuron doctrine that he proposed. The theory's acceptance was made possible by Ramón y Cajal's refinement of the Golgi stain and his persistence in sharing his ideas with others. In 1889, Ramón y Cajal took his slides to a scientific meeting in Germany. "He sets up a microscope and slide, and pulls over the big scientists of the day, and said, 'Look here, look what I can see,'" said Janet Dubinsky, a neuroscientist at the University of Minnesota. "'Now do you believe that what I'm saying about neurons being individual cells is true?'" Albert von Kölliker, an influential German scientist, was amazed and began translating Ramón y Cajal's work, which was mainly in Spanish, into German. From there the neuron doctrine spread, replacing the prevailing reticular theory. But Ramón y Cajal died before anyone proved it. Perhaps one of Ramón y Cajal's most iconic images is this pyramidal neuron in the cerebral cortex, the outside part of the brain that processes our senses, commands motor activity and helps us perform higher brain functions like making decisions. Some of these neurons are so large that you don't need a microscope to see them, unlike most other brain cells. Ramón y Cajal studied Purkinje neurons with fervor, illustrating their treelike structure in great detail, like this one from the cerebellum. Axons, such as the one indicated by an "a" in the picture, can travel long distances in the body, some from the spinal cord all the way down to your little toe, said Dr. Dubinsky, who wrote a chapter in "The Beautiful Brain" about contemporary extensions of his work. Ramón y Cajal traced axons as far as he could, she said. D. Berger, N. Kasthuri and J.W. Lichtman This image is a reconstruction of a dendrite (red) and its axons (multicolored) in the outer part of a mouse's brain. The dendrite has little knobby spines that stick out and receive chemical messages passed from another neuron's axon across the synapse, or gap between them, via the tiny white sacs called vesicles. Today we know that synapses are plastic, meaning they can get stronger or weaker with use or neglect. This enables us to think and learn. This is what Ramón y Cajal described in his neuron doctrine. "People regularly begin seminars with pictures of the drawings that Cajal made because what they've added fits right in with where Cajal thought it should be," Dr. Dubinsky said. "What he did is still relevant today." Niciun comentariu:	<urn:uuid:1cdbecbc-cac8-45bd-850b-eb97e1a5dd0e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.15921002626419067, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9450083374977112, "url": "http://intelart.blogspot.com/2017/02/hunched-over-microscope-he-sketched.html" }
• Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month Extracts from this document... Comparing Crooks and Candy in the novel 'Of Mice and Men' John Steinbeck, in the novel 'Of mice and men', creates the two characters Crooks and Candy, who on the surface appear overtly different. However, Steinbeck establishes throughout the novel that underneath the surface the two characters are very similar. Due to the colour of Crook's skin , and the old age of Candy, both the characters fall prey to discrimination that leads to isolation. As Crooks is a victim to the racism evoked upon him, he is forced to live alone. This is because of the unjust prejudice of that period in time. Steinbeck cleverly conveys Crooks feelings towards his discrimination, by the statement 'glittering with intensity' when describing his eyes. ...read more. As Crooks is firstly described by the racist term 'nigger', and Candy as 'The old swamper', Steinbeck cleverly uses these terms to enlighten us as to how the workers see them. Steinbeck isolates both characters, to demonstrate the lack of morality and injustice of society during that period. In view of the isolation Crooks and Candy are subjected to, both characters have a dread of ending their lives alone. Which is why the characters have a hunger to be involved with George and Lennie's 'dream'. This is because the 'dream' offers the ability to be free from insecurities they suffer due to their lack of power, and the discrimination they face every day. Since Steinbeck cleverly conveys both characters lack of power he shows the reader the inequalities in society for those with no money. ...read more. Whereas Crooks is also a Victim of society because of his colour, however, he is still strong willed. As time has not yet managed to break him down. Also, Crooks has a slight advantage over the other workers, as he is literate due to the books he owns. The adjectives which describe the books such as 'tattered' and 'mauled' show the reader that Crooks must have read them repeatedly. However, as he has a lack of money the power he will always be desperately seeking power. In conclusion, neither Crooks nor Candy serve a specific role in the novel, however Steinbeck cleverly uses them to convey the savage enditement of society. As the two characters show, due to their lack of power, the variety of people in society that are disfranchised . Steinbeck also demonstrates through the characters the inequalities in society for those who have no money. ...read more. The above preview is unformatted text Found what you're looking for? • Start learning 29% faster today • 150,000+ documents available • Just £6.99 a month Here's what a teacher thought of this essay 3 star(s) The points in this essay are apt and relevant; however they are under developed and the whole response is too short for an essay at GCSE level. 3 Stars Marked by teacher Laura Gater 20/05/2013 Not the one? Search for your essay title... • Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month See related essaysSee related essays Related GCSE John Steinbeck essays 1. Marked by a teacher How does Steinbeck present ... 5 star(s) 'He is more permanent than the others' has a big affect on the reader as they wish that he could have options about where he would like to work, and are sad to see that he can't go anywhere as he is crippled and more importantly black. 2. Marked by a teacher Of Mice and Men - Crooks Monologue 4 star(s) in and looked dumbfounded and kind of embarrassed to see Lennie sitting in my "room". Lennie filled with excitement and enjoyment and George said "what are you doing sitting in here" to which Lennie replied "i seen the light on". 1. Marked by a teacher Explore the Character Candy in &quot;Of Mice and Men&quot;. 3 star(s) Steinbeck uses the character Candy to illustrate the significance of friendship in 1930s America. Like many ranch workers in the great depression ,candy had very few possessions. But the one rare thing that candy has is a friendship, with his dog. 2. Marked by a teacher Of Mice &amp; Men : Crooks analysis 3 star(s) being would do, he takes offence, as Crooks is not allowed in the bunk house, he tries to maintain his pride and respect by not allowing anyone into his room. This can be seen when he talks to Lennie. 'You got no right to come in my room. 1. Prejudice Within The Novel Of Mice And Men. mentally disabled, he takes advantage of this situation to "torture" him mentally, to make him feel better and ease the pain of having other reject him: "Crooks' face lighted with pleasure at his torture." He also does this to ease his jealousy towards the friendship Lennie has, but that he, Crooks, will probably never have. 2. Explore Power in Of Mice and Men. George is in a position of power over Lennie despite being weakened by his company at times. Furthermore, Lennie has an obsession for "petting" which in itself is another way of presenting his weaknesses: It could be argued that he might have a deep-rooted emotional need which he himself might not even understand. 1. What do you learn about Steinbeck's view of human nature from reading his novel ... In the novel, John Steinbeck shows how hateful he is to Lennie just because of his size - 'Curley's like a lot a lot of little guys, he hates big guys.' 2. How Does Steinbeck Use The Character Of Crooks To Highlight Certain Issues Which Were ... after the nigger, done pretty good too" he tells of how a white man called smitty decided to beat crooks up just for fun and says "the guys wouldn't let him use his feet" on account of crooks having a crooked back they thought although beating him up for no • Over 160,000 pieces of student written work • Annotated by experienced teachers • Ideas and feedback to improve your own work	<urn:uuid:81639927-0752-4bd3-bdf9-899a9b01a75c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.0333247184753418, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9716804623603821, "url": "http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/english/comparing-crooks-and-candy-in-the-novel-of-mice-and-men.html" }
Ojibwa is a language spoken by perhaps 80,000 people in Canada and the USA. Ojibwa is one of the Algonquian family of Amerind languages alternately called Chippewa and Chipewyan. Once spoken north of Lake Huron and on both sides of Lake Superior and as far as what in now North Dakota, Ojibwa is still spoken from Ontario westwards to North Dakota in scattered Indian reservations. The language of Ottawa is sometimes called Eastern Ojibwa. Ojibwa, Ottawa and Potawatomi (speakers of three related Algonquian languages) together made up an alliance known as the three fires. In writing Ojibwa, a syllabary (based on the Cree syllabary, partly inspired by English shorthand) competes with the Roman alphabet. How to count to ten in Ojibwa, with pronunciation in American pseudo-english and IPA/ASCII : 1. peesheekwan /piSikwan/ 2. naishan /naISan/ 3. nissan /nisan/ 4. naiwan /naIwan/ 5. nainan /neInan/ 6. ninkotwaissan /ninkUtweIsan/ 7. nishwaissan /naISweIsan/ 8. nisshwaissan /niSweIsan/ 9. shankassan /SeInkasan/ 10. mintaissan /minteIsan/	<urn:uuid:3aaaadc8-3b47-474a-a1b5-3a765ea3105f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.6083239912986755, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8866040706634521, "url": "https://everything2.com/title/Ojibwa" }
Maroons : Rebel Slaves in the Americas Table of contents A Brief Description of the Religion of the Maroons of Suriname and French Guinea of the Suriname Maroons Sally Price The daily life of Maroons in the interior of Suriname is unusually rich in artistic activity and aesthetic discussion. The anthropologist Melville Herskovits remarked in 1930 (using a term for the Suriname Maroons that was standard in his day): "Bush Negro art in all its ramifications is, in the final analysis, Bush Negro life." A scene like the following is typical: Three women are sitting in an open-sided shed. Carefully patterned arrangements of scar tissue create sharp accents on their faces and chests, and their wrap-skirts and waist ties make splashes of color against the earthen floor. One of them is baking manioc cakes over a barely smoldering fire. She spreads the flour deftly over the dry griddle, draws her fingers over the surface to form selected decorative patterns, and sifts a thin layer of flour on top. While each cake bakes, she works on a complex, triple-technique hairdo for the second woman, who sits on a handsomely carved wooden stool, an as-yet-uncarved calabash shell on her lap. Well-known in the village for her technical mastery and sense of design in this medium, she is marking out a pattern for the third woman, who will later use pieces of broken glass to finish the bowl carving. For now, however, the third woman is busy crocheting a pair of multi-color calfbands for her husband, working slowly around a bottle to create an evenly circular band. The noted carver rotates the prepared calabash shell, trying to recapture in her mind the details of a particular configuration. She discusses with the woman sitting at her side the design they'd like to reproduce, but when neither one can remember just how its appendages were curved, she settles on a new version which, she later decides, is even better than the original. The woman with the calfbands crochets steadily, enlisting both her friends' advice about the width of the red and yellow stripes that will form its center. As the three of them work, their conversation alternates between village gossip and discussion of their artistry. Gatherings like this bring together the artistic dimensions in different areas of Maroon life, from preparing food and serving meals to furniture, clothes and grooming. Artistry, aesthetic discussion and social interaction are routinely woven together in the fabric of Maroon daily life. Music and dance are equally integrated into village activities. Specialized dances are performed by the mediums of various possession gods, and there are many secular dances, each enjoyed in a particular social context. It is rare to walk through a Maroon village without hearing someone singing. Distinctive song styles contribute to the whole range of Maroon ritual events, from complex funerary rites to the "domestication" of a newly discovered spirit; they are also part of communal labor such as felling trees or hauling logs and are also performed in many casual or even solitary settings. Drums are used singly or in various combinations to accompany different secular dance forms; to announce, supervise and comment on the proceedings of large public council meetings; and to communicate with each kind of possession god, with other deities and spirits, and with the ancestors. And there are other musical instruments as well, bells and wooden trumpets, a stringed instrument made with a gourd, and "finger pianos. " Finally, the verbal arts--folk tales, play languages, proverbs, speeches made by possessed mediums, oratory and prayer--employ a wide range of styles based on everyday languages, and they keep alive a large number of distinctive esoteric languages used only in special ritual settings. In general, Maroons expect all these activities to be practiced and discussed by the entire population, in contrast to many African societies, where only certain individuals are trained to be artists, and where critics may also play a specialized role. The most important cultural division is gender-related; men's and women's arts are distinctive in their tools, media and decorative styles. At least until recently, all Maroon men were adept at carving a wide range of wooden objects as gifts for women--from canoes and house fronts to combs and food stirrers--and all women produced elaborate patchwork and embroidered textiles to be worn by men. Even today, this pattern of general artistic exchange helps shape relations between men and women for most of the Maroon population. When Maroons talk about art, which they do often, they almost invariably refer in some way to its central role in social life--to artfully designed objects presented at a birth ceremony or at a ritual marking adulthood, to beautifully decorative textiles draped on the gabled coffin at a dignitary's funeral rites, to the art objects exchanged to mark the establishment and continuation of a marriage, to the gifts given to help celebrate a man's return from long-term wage labor at the coast, and so forth. People rarely comment on a woodcarving without referring to the maker, to the woman for whom it was made, and to details of their relationship at the moment he presented it to her. Many visitors to Suriname have understood Maroon arts less in the context of their contemporary social setting than in the context of their African roots. The villages of the rainforest have often been seen as a "little Africa in America" and Maroon arts as direct "African survivals." The title of one article in a 1939 issue of Natural History magazine promised a description of "Africa's Lost Tribes in South America" in the form of "an on-the-spot account of blood-chilling African rites of 200 years ago preserved intact in the jungles of South America by a tribe of runaway slaves." More recent visitors have even claimed that Maroons have maintained a society "that is 'more African' than much of Africa is today." Behind this view lies the myth that so called primitive societies exist outside of history, changing only when other, "more advanced" societies impinge on them and erode their "traditional way of life." In fact, non-Western societies differ enormously in their attitudes toward change and in the amount of internal dynamism that characterizes their cultural life. The societies of the Suriname Maroons, like the vast majority of societies in West and Central Africa, have always been highly dynamic. Art historical research in archives, museums and the villages of the Suriname interior has demonstrated conclusively the high value Maroons place on creativity, innovation and artistic development from one generation to the next. Far from being static leftovers from 17th-century Africa, Maroon art has continually developed as its makers played and experimented with their ancestral heritage, adapting it creatively to their changing lives. We know that the original Maroons produced little decorative woodcarving or textiles; their clothing was extremely simple and their houses and furnishings were largely unembellished. It was only over time that the relatively crude woodcarving of the mid-19th century evolved into a beautiful 20th-century art that has struck many outsiders as "African-looking." And the multi-colored Maroon narrow-strip textiles that so closely resemble West African kente cloth were invented only during the present century as a replacement for a very different textile art formerly embroidered by Maroon women in red, white, and black or navy. Paints, introduced in a few conservative colors some 100 years ago, have since come to play a central role among the eastern Maroons. And calabashes, which until the mid-19th century were decorated only on the outside surfaces by men, began to be carved on the insides by women, who used new tools and produced an entirely new decorative style. In light of this history of change, how does one explain the visible resemblances between the arts of the Maroons and those of the peoples of West and Central Africa? If stylistic developments have repeatedly led Maroon arts in new directions, then how has the cultural legacy of Africa been expressed in Maroon art over the centuries? The answer lies more in the continuity of African aesthetic ideas than in the direct transmission of African artistic forms from one generation to the next. The early Maroons were not in a position to continue such African traditions as weaving and ivory carving, but they did succeed in carrying on many of the fundamental ideas that underlie the style and meaning of those arts in Africa; ideas about symmetry, color contrast, and syncopation, and above all, the principal understanding that art has a place in all aspects of daily life. Even under the harshly repressive conditions of slavery and during the century-long period of guerrilla warfare against the Dutch colonists, the Maroons still found opportunities for storytelling, dancing, drumming and singing. They made aesthetic choices about the way they walked, carried their babies and wore their hair. They expressed preferences in the arrangement of their household furnishings, the layout of their gardens, and in the way they mended their clothes, served their meals, and in countless other aspects of daily life. These expressive forms did not require the specific resources of more formally elaborated artistic media, and in this way, aesthetic ideas were passed on and applied inventively to the changing artistic materials available to each generation. Forged in an inhospitable rainforest by people under constant threat of annihilation, the arts of the Suriname Maroons stand as enduring testimony to African-American resilience and creativity. They reflect the remarkable vitality of the Maroon artistic imagination, an especially exuberant expression of the rich and extensive system of African cultural ideas. Further Readings Price, Richard, and Sally Price. Two Evenings in Saramaka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. ____. Afro-American Art of the Suriname Rain Forest. Berkeley: University of California, Press, 1980. Price, Sally. Co-wives and Calabashes. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984. This article was originally published in the 1992 Festival of American Folklife catalogue; reprinted with permission from the Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage of the Smithsonian Institution. Sally Price's books include Co-Wives and Calabashes (1984), winner of the Hamilton Prize in Women's Studies, and Primitive Arts in Civilized Places (1990). With Richard Price, she has written Afro-American Arts of the Suriname Rain Forest (1980), Two Evenings in Saramaka (1991), Stedman's Surinam (1992), and most recently, Equatoria (1994).	<urn:uuid:778f2142-21f5-40d6-a36c-6a7a42c10b20>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.018642544746398926, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9579527378082275, "url": "https://folklife.si.edu/resources/maroon/educational_guide/28.htm" }
Studies involving artifact provenance (or geographic source) are the most common application of trace-element studies in archaeology. The Provenance Principle: Every raw material source has a unique geochemical signature that allows us to identify artifacts made from that source based on their elemental composition. Geochemical signature or fingerprint = Unique combination of trace elements. Success in applying the Provenance Principle depends on: 1. Geographic distribution: point source or regional? 2. Character of raw material source: homogeneous or heterogeneous? 3. Scale of variability: discrete or clinal? Two very different materials - obsidian and ceramics - illustrate the challenges. Oregon State University Archaeometry Lab	<urn:uuid:5b1794df-efbf-4766-aada-6ab5aebec6f4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.807870090007782, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7757954597473145, "url": "http://people.oregonstate.edu/~mincl/Archaeometry_index_files/ProvenanceStudies.htm" }
ground (adj.) "reduced to fine particles by grinding," 1765, past-participle adjective from grind (v.). ground (n.) Old English grund "bottom; foundation; surface of the earth," also "abyss, Hell," and "bottom of the sea" (a sense preserved in run aground), from Proto-Germanic *grundus, which seems to have meant "deep place" (source also of Old Frisian, Old Saxon, Danish, Swedish grund, Dutch grond, Old High German grunt, German Grund "ground, soil, bottom;" Old Norse grunn "a shallow place," grund "field, plain," grunnr "bottom"). No known cognates outside Germanic. Sense of "reason, motive" first attested c. 1200. Meaning "source, origin, cause" is from c. 1400. Electrical sense "connection with the earth" is from 1870 (in telegraphy). Meaning "place where one takes position" is from 1610s; hence stand (one's) ground (1707). To run to ground in fox-hunting is from 1779. Ground rule (1890) originally was a rule designed for a specific playing field (ground or grounds in this sense attested by 1718); by 1953 it had come to mean "a basic rule." ground (v.) mid-13c., "to put on the ground, to strike down to the ground;" late 14c., "lay the foundation of," also, figuratively, "to base" (an argument, sermon, etc.), from ground (n.). Meaning "instruct thoroughly in the basics" is from late 14c. Of ships, "to run into the ground," from mid-15c. (intransitive), transitive sense from 1650s. Of arms, from 1711. Electrical sense from 1881. Meaning "deny privileges" is 1940s, originally a punishment meted out to pilots (in which sense it is attested from 1930). In the sense "establish firmly" Old English had grundweallian, grundstaðelian; also gryndan "descend," gegryndan "to found."	<urn:uuid:57aa3d31-f700-4594-a812-a8baeb0e1365>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.08061432838439941, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9497435688972473, "url": "https://www.etymonline.com/word/ground" }
11. The use of the it-cleft construction in 19th-century English This Chapter is currently unavailable for purchase. This chapter offers a new description of the use of the <i>it</i>-cleft construction in nineteenth-century English. The data for the present study are primarily from historical corpora (a corpus of nineteenth-century English, CONCE, and the Helsinki Corpus of English Texts), but findings from modern corpora and studies of cleft constructions in present-day English (e.g. Collins 1991) are also presented. The results show that <i>it</i>-clefts become more frequent in the 19th century and particularly in speech-related texts, such as trials. This is contrary to both earlier and later periods of English, where <i>it</i>-clefts are more common in written English. The chapter discusses how the structure of the <i>it</i>-cleft and its thematic organisation may have contributed to its increased frequency in 19th-century English. An in-depth analysis of the forms and functions of <i>it</i>-clefts in trials, the genre that most closely represents spoken English of the period, is provided. This is a required field Please enter a valid email address	<urn:uuid:03f0ae0b-1ea3-41a7-a3b2-9d4ca16dbcf5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.02140212059020996, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9225662350654602, "url": "http://www.jbe-platform.com/content/books/9789027290458-15joh" }
How to Draw an Antelope Ground Squirrel In this quick tutorial you'll learn how to draw an Antelope Ground Squirrel in 7 easy steps - great for kids and novice artists. At the bottom you can read some interesting facts about the Antelope Ground Squirrel. How to Draw an Antelope Ground Squirrel - Step-by-Step Tutorial Step 1: Let's draw an Antelope ground squirrel! Draw a humped line for the top of the head, then continue the line down the front creating a snout, mouth and chin. Step 2: Draw a tiny circle at the mouth for the nostril, a small line for the mouth. Draw an oval with a circle in it for the eye. Draw a backwards letter C with the top curled into itself. Step 3: Draw a long line for the back that curls to the front, and a short line down the front. There's the body! Step 4: Draw the hand by tracing two lines wide apart at the top but bring them closer together as you get toward the hand. Make sure the claws are curled in. Step 5: For the other side, draw just the hand, with the curled claws. Step 6: Draw the leg by tracing a very big line that's curled into the body. Here's a hint: the line looks like a question mark backwards! Then, draw the long toes, with pointy claws. Step 7: Draw a tail by tracing a line along the back of the body, making sure to trace two points at the top so that the tail looks furry! There's your Antelope ground squirrel! Interesting Facts about Antelope Ground Squirrels Antelope ground squirrels are also referred to simply as antelope squirrels. They are rodents that inhabit dry scrub areas and deserts in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. There are five species of antelope ground squirrels. Did you know? • The Harris’ antelope squirrel can be found in Arizona, Southwest New Mexico, and Sonora, Mexico. • The white-tailed species lives on the west side of the Colorado River. The Harris’ antelope squirrel lives one the opposite side of the river. • As its name suggests, the San Joaquin antelope squirrel lives in the San Joaquin Valley in California. It is an endangered species. • The Texas antelope squirrel isn’t just found in Texas. This species also lives in New Mexico and Mexico. • The Espiritu Santo antelope squirrel is only found on the island of Espiritu Santo, Mexico, which is located in the Gulf of California. On average, antelope squirrels of all species are 5 to 7 inches long and weigh 4 to 5 ounces. They dig burrows, which are underground tunnels, and that is where they live. Antelope squirrels are often mistaken for chipmunks. Antelope squirrels have white stripes on the side of their face. The stripes on a chipmunk’s face are black and white.	<urn:uuid:9a8996b7-eb8b-4695-86c4-998777be1dbb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.019687891006469727, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.936049222946167, "url": "http://www.wedrawanimals.com/how-to-draw-an-antelope-ground-squirrel/" }
시간 제한 메모리 제한 제출 정답 맞은 사람 정답 비율 1 초 128 MB 0 0 0 0.000% For hundreds of years fire departments all over the world have been using water for their fight against the fire. Unfortunately, one cannot always find enough water right where the fire is burning. Accordingly, the fire departments are equipped with lots of pumps and pipes to transport the water to where it is needed.Setting up the system of pumps and pipes might not be such an easy task, as there are several restrictions one has to take care of. Figure 3: First Scenario in Sample Input Let us assume that only one type of pipes is used for the transportation of water, namely pipes with a diameter of 75 millimeters and a length of 20 meters. Depending on the quantity of water that is pumped through the tubes, there is a loss of pressure per meter according to the following table: flow (f) in liters per minute loss of pressure in millibar per meter 200 1 400 3 600 6 800 10 1000 15 1200 20 The pressure is also affected by the profile of the landscape, more precisely the pressure changes by 1 bar every 10 meters of vertical distance, decreasing for pipes running uphill and increasing for pipes running downhill. Pumps need an input pressure of at least 2 bar and produce a constant output pressure of 8 bar, but they cannot be used to reduce pressure. Pipes do not resist a pressure higher than 12 bar, and for a constant flow a pressure of at least 2 bar is needed at all points. At the end of the line, the pressure must be at least 5 bar and at most 8 bar to permit effective fire fighting. There is always a pump at the beginning of the line of pipes (position 0). Other pumps can be placed wherever two pipes are attached to each other but not at the end. Write a program to find the least number of pumps necessary, and their positions. If several solutions with the least number of pumps exist, prefer the ones where pumps are placed closer to the beginning of the line (carrying these pumps is no fun. . . ). The first line contains the number of scenarios. For each scenario, you are first given an integer f ∈ {200, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200} on a line by itself,indicating the desired flow in liters per minute. The next line contains two integers n and m, separated by a single blank, where 1 <= n <= 20 is the number of pipes to be used, and 1 <= m <= 400 is the number of segments with a constant slope. The followingmlines describe thesemsegments, each containing integers l and s, separated by a single blank, where l > 0 is the length in meters and s is the slope measured in per cent (s = 10 means that pipes of a length of 100 meters ascend by 10 meters, s = -50 means they descend 50 meters; -100 <= s <= 100). It is guaranteed that the m given lengths add up to n times 20 meters. The output for each scenario begins with a line containing "Scenario #i:", where i is the number of the scenario starting at 1. The next line contains the number of pumps in the optimal solution (if it exists),followed by a colon ":" and a single blank, and the positions of the pumps separated by commas "," and no blanks. If no placement of the pumps satisfies the given criteria, print a line containing "no solution" instead. Finish the output of each scenario with an additional blank line. 예제 입력 1 7 3 70 50 30 -25 40 25 8 4 20 0 80 -100 20 10 40 30 예제 출력 1 Scenario #1: 2: 0,2 Scenario #2: no solution	<urn:uuid:2cbb2839-fb43-46c0-b333-749e02141c9c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.7466496229171753, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9045464396476746, "url": "https://www.acmicpc.net/problem/6089" }
Scrapie Genotyping Genetic Information Genetic makeup has been determined to be a significant factor in a sheep’s susceptibility to infection with scrapie. At this time, a correlation between specific genetics and related scrapie susceptibility has not been determined for goats. Current experimental evidence indicates that there are different forms of the sheep sheep prion proteins. Some forms are highly susceptible to the structural transformation to the abnormal form associated with scrapie while others demonstrate resistance to this change. As in all mammals, sheep are diploid organisms, so that all cells contain two copies of each chromosome and thus two copies of the gene that codes for the prion protein. Genes are made up of codons. A codon is a stretch of DNA that determines which particular amino acid will be included at a particular location of a protein (in this case the prion protein). The prion protein is composed of 256 amino acids; therefore there are 256 codons determining these amino acids. In the literature concerning susceptibility to various strains of scrapie three codons are discussed: 171, 154 and 136. In North America (NA), 171 and 136 are given primary importance. The presence of arginine (R) at codon 171 of the prion protein confers resistance to the prion protein undergoing the structural change associated with NA scrapie. The presence of glutamine (Q) or histidine at codon 171 results in the prion protein being susceptible to the structural change associated with NA scrapie. Histidine at site 171 is considered to have the same susceptibility as Q and is therefore represented as Q in all further discussion. The coding for alanine (A) by codon 136 confers resistance to the prion protein undergoing the structural change associated with scrapie. The coding for valine (V) by codon 136 can produce susceptibility to structural change associated with scrapie. V at site 136 is linked with Q at site 171 such that R cannot be found at site 171 in combination with V at site 136. The majority of cases of scrapie, worldwide have been in sheep homozygous for glutamine (QQ) at 171. There have been a small number of cases of scrapie reported in QR (171) sheep. In these cases, the amino acids coded for by codon 136 are examined and coding for valine appears to indicate greater susceptibility among the QR population. There are currently two theories as to when the QR (171) population becomes infected. One is that these sheep are susceptible only to certain strains of scrapie. The other theory is that when the prevalence of infection with the QQ (171) population of a flock builds to very high levels, there is a spillover of infection into the next most susceptible subpopulation within the flock. During 2003, a very small number of cases of scrapie were reported in RR (171) sheep in Europe. The profile of sheep’s prion genotype varies between breeds, between countries and between flocks. Probability of a sheep with that particular genotype being susceptible to scrapie: Genotype (136, 171) Susceptibility to Scrapie AARR Negligible AAQR Very low AVQR Intermediate scrapie canada It is still not known definitively whether animals with less susceptible genotypes do not become infected with the scrapie agent or whether they are merely protected from developing the clinical signs of scrapie. Recent science indicates that the genotype of the fetus influences the migration and accumulation of abnormal prion in the placenta of an infected ewe. A QQ (171) infected ewe carrying a QQ (171) fetus results in the accumulation of large quantities of abnormal prion, which is then shed during birth or abortion. Theoretically, in a fetus with a genotype QR (171) or RR (171), the abnormal prion does not accumulate to a significant degree in the placenta and associated fluids. This means that use of a RR (171) ram can prevent the shed of abnormal prion at lambing even from infected ewes. Heavy promotion of the use of RR (171) rams across Canada might be effective in minimizing the spread of scrapie, but it may result in a significant change in the genotypic profile of sheep in Canada. There might be impacts on secondary characteristics, such as carcass quality, or the unveiling of previously unidentified congenital problems. As in other countries, preliminary investigation of the demographics of the Canadian sheep population have clearly indicated that there is considerable genetic variation in the presence of resistance for scrapie between breeds and flocks. It may be impossible or impractical for certain sheep producers to select and breed for genetic resistance for scrapie. Have a question or comment? Scrapie Canada's Project Partners Canadian Sheep Federation Canadian Sheep Breeder’s Association Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Canadian National Goat Federation Canadian Food Inspection Agency	<urn:uuid:81cd12c2-e537-4945-b196-53a9fc40940a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.020892024040222168, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.926423192024231, "url": "https://scrapiecanada.ca/scrapie-genotyping/" }
TeachersFirst's Middle School Brain Twisters Week of May 25, 2018 1.What natural phenomenon enables there to be palm trees in southern England? (10 points) 2.A traditional, peaked roof has a 5:12 pitch (slope). If it covers a shed that measures 36 feet across, how much higher is the roof peak than the top of the walls? (20 points) 3.The third most populous country in the world follows which others in population? (10 points) 4.Most teenagers would rather be: (10 points) 5.What number comes next in this sequence? 17, 24, 38, 66,... (5 points) 6.This famous strait is at the entrance to a sea and was "explained" in mythology as having being created by the hero Hercules. (20 points) 7.Which pair correctly matches the suffix with its meaning? (10 points) 8.You're learning about money in a strange country. Five boggles equal one biggle. Six biggles equal one frink. How many boggles are there in a frink? (5 points) 9.Which of the following government officials gain their offices in a different way from the rest? (5 points) 10."She sells sea shells down by the sea shore" is an example of: (5 points)	<urn:uuid:3294d730-b877-4f5e-8c7f-5aee7964416f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.9631644487380981, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9492408633232117, "url": "https://www.teachersfirst.com/twister/midquizprint.cfm" }
Photo: Wikimedia Commons • In the Mauryan ‘budget’, the budget and accounts were to be prepared annually, with the year being of 354 days One of the most important events of the annual financial calendar in India is the presentation of the union budget in the Indian parliament, a thoroughly modern attribute of the running of a modern nation state. In actual fact a ‘budget’, leather bag of the 15th century which became a set of fiscal plans in the 18th century, in whatever form or rubric, is essential to the running of any country at any time. And so it was for the period of the Mauryans. The Arthashastra of Kautilya sets down a well-defined structure for the financial ordering of a kingdom. It is a theoretical treatise and cannot be taken as a manual of the financial ordering of the Mauryan state. When studied together with evidence from other sources, Greek, Buddhist, Jain and also the inscriptions of Samrat Ashok, however, it appears that Mauryan budgeting could have approximated to the theoretical structure set up in book two of this ancient compendium on politics and economics. The budget and accounts were to be prepared annually, with the year being of 354 days. Entries were made with reference to the king’s regnal year, ‘rajavarsham’ which was made to coincide with the work year, ending on the full moon day of the month of Ashadha (June/July); what we today recognise as the day of Guru Poornima. Individual date entries were made as per year, month, fortnight and day. The ‘Samaharta’ or the mantri whom we would call the Finance Minister today, was responsible for the preparation of the budget and accounts. He was to fix the amount of revenue to be collected from all the heads of income and then to arrange the income under the aayamukhas or sources. He was enjoined to show an increase in revenue and a reduction in expenditure and to try and address the problem of excess of expenditure over income if this should arise. To explain further: The items of revenue were called the ‘aayasharira’ or the body of income and classified under seven heads, city, country, mines, irrigation works, forests, cattle herds and trade routes. The incomes from the city consisted of customs duties, fines, income from weights and measures department, issue of passports, liquor, yarn, ghee, goldsmiths, prostitutes, gambling, artists, temples etc. Quite a varied collection of income sources, some which would be frowned upon now! From the country came income from agriculture; salt, minerals and precious stones provided income from mines. The irrigation-works head collected income from flowers, fruits vegetable sales, etc. and forests and cattle herds collected what we would now call income from animal husbandry. Given the pivotal importance of trade for the Mauryan empire, trade routes were a separate and important head of their own. The revenue from these heads was further classified into seven ‘aayamukhas’ or sources- price, share, tax, duty, levy, surcharge or penalty. On the expenditure side or the ‘vyayasharira’ there were fifteen heads, including firstly, expenditure for worship of the gods, and charity. The most important heads were those related to the armed forces, the armoury and the palace. Stores, factories, labourers, maintenance of animal wealth were other important heads of expenditure. Majority of the expenditure was on state account and only a few can be construed as part of the king’s privy purse (salaries for all the royals except the king were also fixed at a specific level). Expenditure heads do not detail any items spent on state enterprises such as mining probably because the revenue is net income after deducting expenses. The same principle applies to all items of revenue. Revenue estimate, accrued revenue, outstanding revenue, income, expenditure and balance were the accounting concepts used to try and present an accurate picture of the kingdom’s budgetary situation at the end of the year going forward into the next one. All these are precisely defined in the Arthashastra and it would be an interesting exercise to compare them with accounting standards today. A budget estimate of the revenue was made at the beginning of the year with refernce to different areas of economic activity and administrative units such as the village, district, region, etc. The Samaharta (or his office) fixed these estimates and they had to be strictly adhered to by the officers responsible for rendering this revenue to the state stores. Incomes were classified as current, outstanding and derived from other sources; daily revenue was 'current', that belonging to the preceding year or transferred from another sphere of activity was 'outstanding' and fines, compensation, take-over of property, treasure, increase in prices etc. was 'income from other source's. Expenditure was also classified into four types, day to day, after fixed intervals of time and unforeseen expenditure arising under these two heads classified separately. After the calculation of revenue and the deduction of expenditure from it, what remained was the balance which was received and carried forward. One should also keep in mind that most of the revenue received by the state was in kind and there was a complex establishment of state stores headed by the ‘Sannidhatri’. Another office of great significance concerning the budget was the ‘Akshapataladhyaksha’ or the head of the records-cum-audit office, what we now know as the Comptroller and Auditor General. This establishment was completely separate from the Samaharta and the records maintained by it were to check the accounts kept by the Samaharta’s office. A comparison with heads in the annual financial statement of the union budget for 2017 will be interesting. The receipts into the Consolidated Fund of India are from tax sources, including income tax, corporation tax and indirect taxes, and non-tax sources including fiscal services, interest dividends and profits. Expenditure is on general services, social services and economic services. General services include the expenditure on keeping the state up and running i.e. expenses on the legislature, executive, judiciary apart from tax administration and defence. Economic services heads include areas such as disbursements on animal husbandry, irrigation, mines and minerals, industries, rural development and transport and communication. A quick look shows the parallels- tax resources on the revenue side and similar disbursement heads on the expenditure side. An interesting difference between Kautilyan and modern budgeting, however, is the lack of specific differentiation on capital and revenue account in the former although Kautilya is by no means ignorant of the differences in the impact and implications of the two and we do get hints of the results of different types of spending. The provisions for budgeting and accounting in the Arthashastra and its resonance with modern budgeting has led some scholars to posit economic planning by the Kautilyan or Mauryan state, but this needs further study. For one, modern budgeting has a significant developmental push and economic planning is to that end, which is not so in the Mauryan budget. In the words of R P Kangle, the emphasis in modern planning and budgeting is on development but that in the Arthashastra accounting methods is on control. The complex machinery of accounting and auditing was set up so that the fruits of economic activity accrue without fail, to the State. The modern ‘development’ mantra, for all its failings is the major thrust of budgets today but we do not, of course, hear of it explicitly in the Kautilyan budget. This is in keeping with the Kautilyan focus on getting resources so that the King can spend them on the ‘palana’ or administration of his subjects. Which of the two led to greater prosperity for the people at large is an open question until a comparative economic study of relative prosperity in ancient and modern India is conducted. Get Swarajya in your inbox everyday. Subscribe here.	<urn:uuid:d0ea1de2-70f6-483a-9f98-66a051e6956a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.08682805299758911, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9696704149246216, "url": "https://swarajyamag.com/ideas/extracts-from-the-arthashastra-a-mauryan-budget" }
WWII Visitor Center The Aleutian World War II National Historic Area In 1996, the United States Congress designated the 134 acre Aleutian World War II National Historic Area as an affiliated area of the National Park Service to interpret the history of the Unangax^ (the Aleut people), the defense of the Aleutian Islands and the United States during WWII, and to educate and inspire present and future generations about it. Few Americans have heard of the “Aleutian campaign” or that Native islanders, the Unangax^ (literally the “people of the passes,” and incorrectly called “Aleut”) were removed from their villages and left to languish in squalid relocation camps, bereft of adequate nutrition, medical attention, heat, running water, and toilet facilities. Historians have often referred to the Aleutian campaign as the “Forgotten War.” It was fought on American soil, and American forces incurred heavy losses along the 1500-mile front. The campaign also exacted a heavy toll upon the Unangax^, who have called the islands home for over 9000 years, and who found themselves in the way of both the invading Japanese forces and the American forces. The Unangax^ predate Russian settlement of the region by thousands of years. Living on the riches of the sea in a climate and topography both rugged and unforgiving, they spawned a culture rich in art and oral tradition, including ultra-fine grass basketry, sleek iqyan (skin boats), and beautiful bentwood hats. With Russian contact beginning in the mid-1700’s, the Unangam population began a rapid decline. When the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941, the US military began to speculate on the role of the Aleutians in WWII. In an unprecedented, ill-advised decision shared by many governmental agencies but acknowledged by none, the Unangax^ were removed from their homes in the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands. Although neither accused nor suspected of any infidelity to the US, the Unangax^ were interned in decaying canneries and camps in Southeast Alaska, while their non-Native neighbors were allowed to remain and continue in their day-to-day. Conditions in the camps were deplorable. Nearly ten percent of the internees died at the camps. When allowed to return to their homes after the war, many Unangax^ found their homes and churches pillaged by American military personnel. The quality of their soil and drinking water had been permanently compromised by military contamination. Many did not return to the islands after the War. The government refused to fund repatriation to the villages of Attu, Biorka, Kashega and Makushin Unalaska/Dutch Harbor was bombed by Japanese forces on June 3rd and 4th, 1942. 42 Americans were killed, 64 were injured, and ten US aircraft were lost. Japan occupied Kiska and Attu Islands, taking the entire Unanga{ village of Attu as prisoners of war to Hokkaido, Japan. The battle in May 1943 to reclaim Attu lasted three weeks. 2,351 Japanese soldiers were found dead; only 28 surrendered. 549 out of 15,000 US soldiers were killed; 1,100 were wounded. In August 1943, US troops attacked at Kiska, believing that the enemy was hiding in the hills, only to find that they had secretly been evacuated. The Aleutian World War II National Historic Area tells the story of the men and women who were stationed in the Aleutians, the Unangax^ who were removed from their homes, and the technology and means available to fight WWII. The site is a 134-acre tract of land on Amaknak island in Unalaska, Alaska. It houses the military ruins of Fort Schwatka, the highest coastal battery ever constructed in the US. Looming nearly 1,000 feet above the storm-tossed waters of the Bering Sea, it serves as an impressive monument to the war effort, but wars are made up of both noble and ignoble events. The Aleutian World War II National Historic Area also overlooks ancient Unangam settlements of the area, and provides an ideal venue to interpret the history of “Aleut” removal. Moreover, the Historic Area is wholly owned and managed by the Ounalashka Corporation, which represents Unalaska, Biorka, Kashega and Makushin villages’ internment camp survivors and their descendants. The Congressional designation as a National Historic Area allows the interpretation of the history of the Unangax^ and their removal and internment during the War. To this end, OC and the National Park Service have cooperatively worked to renovate the Naval Air Transport Service Aerology Building, located at the Unalaska Airport. The renovation includes interpretation of military aspects of the war, as well as the internment story. It is an ongoing project with innumerable interpretive and educational opportunities. The Aleutian WWII Visitors Center is located at 2716 Airport Beach Road, Unalaska, Alaska, at the Unalaska Airport. Hours of Operation: Wednesday – Saturday 1:00 – 6:00 p.m. How You Can Help Americans have a unique tradition of supporting national parks. Some parks have been created in their entirety by the generosity of visionary Americans. In other cases, the pennies, nickels, and dimes of school children have purchased entire parks. In this case, the Ounalashka Corporation (OC) and the National Park Service, with OC as the major donor, have worked together to preserve the valuable natural, cultural and historical resources for future generations. To continue our ability to interpret its history and keep the Aleutian World War II National Historic Area accessible to the American public, we need to enhance federal funding with private donations. Your tax-deductible gift to the Fund for the Aleutian WWII National Historic Area ensures that your donation will be used exclusively to support this area’s lands and programs. We pledge to employ the same stewardship values in the use of your generous contribution as we do in protecting this area for future generations. You can make your check payable to: Fund for the Aleutian WW II National Historic Area at the National Park Foundation c/o National Park Foundation 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 1102 Washington DC 20077-6378 The National Park Foundation is the official nonprofit partner of the National Park Service. Created by Congress in 1967, the foundation raises support from corporations, foundations, and individuals to protect and enhance America’s national parks. Gifts to NPF are tax-deductible. Thanks to the generosity of people like you, NPF has been able to direct millions to national parks. By giving through the National Park Foundation, you are assured that your gift will meet unfunded needs and will support the parks. Visit the National Park Service’s site for the Aleutian WWII National Historic Area website. Just click here: National Park Service’s official Aleutian WWII NHA Website	<urn:uuid:0c1b5bb9-a5d3-4202-857e-dc4a06694c1c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.020164906978607178, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9602909684181213, "url": "https://www.ounalashka.com/wwii-center/" }
Importance of the litter clean up highlighted by the school in New Zealand Kristin school had students come up with idea of adopting a tree each within the surrounding reserve area. Each student researched information about their particular tree and looked after it by ensuring that there was no litter in the surrounding area. Students held a clean up event in the local reserve where they picked up litter and learnt about the endemic species living in and around the stream environment. YRE students spoke to the wider school about the importance of ensuring the environment is kept litter free. We believe this is a good example of highlighting how small actions can have huge positive consequences. Each student from year 8 caring for just one tree, (ensuring it was litter free, measuring its height and trunk width, placing fresh mulch on it) meant that the entire surrounding school area was beautified and environmentally improved. New Zealand 1.jpg	<urn:uuid:4151a1c2-8efe-4fc1-80be-ecc27f720832>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.06849801540374756, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9568977355957031, "url": "http://www.yre.global/stories-from-countries-blog/2018/1/31/new-zealand" }
Wednesday, June 24, 2015 When the waves were calm in the land they left, the Lenape lived together there in strong hollow houses with thick roofs. What did “When the waves were calm” mean? .The phrase may have meant "when times were ordinary" or, maybe, when the waters froze. But the LENAPE historian knew that most Lenape in America in the 14th century knew Genesis. In the beginning, God created Heaven and Earth. Genesis ends with the flood story. People on the circular Ark on the flood waters. The LENAPE historians may have deliberately attempted to tie their new history to the Genesis story. They may have been "picking up the thread" after the waves of the flood were calm. Where was, "the land they left?" Which culture "lived ... in strong hollow houses with thick roofs?" Of all the ancient arctic cultures, only the Norse lived in rectangular houses. The Norse used a ridge pole and purloins. Then they laid sod roofs onto their houses. Rectangular sod walls and a sod roof made for warm "strong hollow houses with thick roofs." The LENAPE historian used an enduring bit of knowledge to tell us, who his people were. Modern archaeologist have that knowledge, but, for some reason, they chose not to write about the knowledge in school books so kids can learn. Thomas E. Lee and Patricia Sutherland searched for rectangular stone patterns. Those patterns, which are found from the Atlantic coast to the Rockies and from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, indicate that Norse were living there. But Thomas E. Lee was driven out of the Canadian Archaeologists Patricia Sutherland was fired by the Canadian Government and her collection of artifacts was confiscated. Part of the collection was 30 whetstones. Archaeologists know that a whetstone is one of the most positive artifacts that indicates the Norse were living there. Those 30 whetstones are probably now forgotten in the bottom drawers of museums though out Canada. Kids may never see them. The English Protestant government of Canada does not want us to know Norse Catholics were rowing boats through out the land seven centuries before the English invaded. Not many school textbooks tell kids to look for rectangular patterns under their feet or whetstones with iron cores. Writing about them is a "Kiss of Death" to a professional career, especially in Canada. _____Part B_____ The LANDVERK Cyrptograms Landverk stated that Cryptograms were found from ancient churches in Norway, in Iceland, in Greenland, in Labrador, in New England, and in the Mississippi Valley. Those regions are located along the rowboat route to America. The boat crews rowed from east to west. .One thousand years ago, the Mississippi River Basin was a better place to raise kids than the rocky farm land below the snowy peaks of Norway or Greenland. Landverk may have been seeing the same patterns I was seeing in the LENAPE history words. Karl Hoenke was going to Iceland. I said to Karl, "Look there is a pattern here in these stanzas. These are not poems, but it looks like some kind of pattern. "You are taking a trip to Iceland. Ask Valdimar (Samuelson) when you visit him in Iceland, if there is any knowledge of the pattern in Iceland." Weeks later Valdimar sent the Drottkvaett (Eight Lines) format. The format has many precise rules but the basic pattern is that there must be an alliteration and a rhyme in every six syllables. A few weeks later, I sat in the pew at church. I was pondering why the Drottkvaett format wants an alliteration and a rhyme in every six syllables. Somebody has to think long and hard to make that happen. The preacher, Rev. Bill Nebo, was trying to make the Pentecost story more interesting. He compared the "tongues of flame" to the electric packets of information flying through the air. He explained that those electronic packets are coded with "bits" so our computers know which ones are valid. I did not shout "EUREKA." But I skipped the Sunday afternoon nap. I had deciphered the first stanza of the Maalan Aarum into Old Norse syllables about three years previously. I really wanted to know, as soon as possible, were those syllables in a Drottkvaett format? Well about 80% of them were. The missing syllables indicated where my deciphering was not correct. . . Sound packets with the Drottkvaett format (Cryptogams?) are self-verifying stanzas. Those sounds with alliterations and rhymes is the right places make the stanza valid. I was "hearing: the syllables that a Norse historian spoke thousands of miles away and 7 centuries before. Unlike the nasty English, who wanted to profoundly distort history, the Norse Historian's intent had been to inform-- using a memory stanza--not omit knowledge. From 1940 to 1956 Reider T. Sherwin made LENAPE/OLD NORSE definitions and wrote what they meant in English. We can decipher the sounds of the LENAPE history. ONLY if we use LENAPE sounds. The stanzas of the LENAPE history are self-validating. Do the professional linguists know this? Do their paymasters want to keep kids from knowing the Norse Catholics rowed though out North America seven centuries before the English Protestants invaded? Is that why "Norse" is suppressed in the textbooks, videos get suppressed, and competent archaeologists, who learn too much, get driven out of the profession ____Part C_____ You should have found this page. Sherwin's statement, "…the suffixed possessive pronouns, sin, SITvaara …for any of their possessions--which is correct old Norse grammar." should tell any linguist--or school kid-- that the 15,000 LENAPE words in the following seven volumes are also Old Norse. So why do the linguist professors NOT suggest that the LENAPE language might be Old Norse? Maybe those linguists know that Thomas E. Lee was driven from the archaeological society, Patricia Sutherland was fired and the video VIKING VISITORS to NORTH AMERICA had been suppressed for thirty-one (31) years. The evidence is clear. If a professor mentions "Norse Catholics" were in America before the English invaded," he, or she, has to be willing to give up the professional role they studied so long and hard to earn. Then they may have to find another job--maybe sanitation work. "The past is gone and cannot be changed." "Those, who do not know the past, are bound to repeat it." SUPPRESED by OMITTING what is known profoundly distorts REALITY. The LENAPE History has been suppressed for Four centuries. at the ____________by omission_________ V V 700 ya Today Catholics, Indians spoke spoke Norse Algonquin Culture >500 Nations of the and the >300 BRAVE Reservations On January, 12. 2018, this post has been viewed 273 times. 1 comment: 1. I go back as far as Lenape History on my paternal era, in Delaware. I love it.	<urn:uuid:fb761a6c-6029-4f4f-aa80-218f2d9fb362>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.0786440372467041, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9316002130508423, "url": "http://lenapehistory.blogspot.com/2015/06/answers-to-lenapen.html" }
An opaque bright red pigment of mercury sulphide occurs in a nature as the mineral cinnabar and has been in use from antiquity. The Romans, who loved cinnabar, sourced it from Almaden in Spain, the great- est mercury mine in the classical world. In the 16th century there were two punishments for prisoners: the galleys or Almaden. A lucky man got sent to the prison ships. Vermilion, the synthetic form, was invented around the 8th century. Mercury and sulphur are united through heat to form a red substance. In the Middle Ages its marriage of fundamental substances (sulphur was understood to be base gold) made it of incredible interest to alchemists. “Take one part of mercury and one of sulphur. Put it in a glass bottle, thoroughly clad with clay. Put it on a moderate re and cover the mouth of a bottle with a tile. Close it when you see yellow smoke coming out of the bottle, until you see the red and almost vermilion- coloured smoke. Then take it from the re and the ver- milion will be ready.” This resulting lump was then ground: ‘If you grind it every day for twenty years, the colour would still be- come ner and more handsome.’ The pigment was the principle red in painting up until the discovery of cadmium red in the 19th century.	<urn:uuid:1233474c-46b1-48e7-b36f-eaba0b6fc759>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.21740585565567017, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9554952383041382, "url": "http://chromatopia.org/2017/06/vermillion/" }
Study your flashcards anywhere! Download the official Cram app for free > • Shuffle Toggle On Toggle Off • Alphabetize Toggle On Toggle Off • Front First Toggle On Toggle Off • Both Sides Toggle On Toggle Off • Read Toggle On Toggle Off How to study your flashcards. H key: Show hint (3rd side).h key A key: Read text to speech.a key Play button Play button Click to flip 49 Cards in this Set • Front • Back What are the dates for Greece's Golden Ages? 480-430 B.C. Why is this time called the Golden Age? Great flowering of drama, sculpture, philosophy, and science Who was the leader during that time? How did he come to power? Oratory: reasoned with everyone, elected as one of the 10 generals, reelected year after year How did he strengthen democracy? Paid for public jobs, now even the poorest could hold these jobs How did he build a commercial empire? Used Delian League to enrich Athens, navy safeguarded trade How did he glorify Athens? Used money to rebuild Athens...created the Parthenon What is the Parthenon and why is it so extraordinary? It is a temple in Athens. It is not huge, but it has excellent craftsmanship and design Who was the sculptor who did much of the work on the Parthenon? How did the sculptors of the classical age show human figures? Graceful, strong, perfectly formed, serene, grace of body and motion What is classical art? Order, balance, proportion What were the two purposes for theatrical productions? To express civic pride and tribute to the gods Who were the major writers of these plays during the Age of Pericles? Aeschylus and Sophocles What was perhaps the most famous of all Greek dramas? How was a play performed? Acted, chanted, chorus commented, and the masks had protruding lips like a megaphone Where were the plays performed? What happens to the tragic hero of the plays? He overcomes a great feat and is brought down by his own strength, fatal flaw, pride is punished by gods What is hubris? Too much pride What was the effect of a drama on the audience? Saddened and uplifted What is catharsis? Emotional cleansing in a play How was drama a form of public education? Great issues important to the public discussed: power, justice, mortality, war and peace, duties owed to the gods, family, and city If you were to take a walk through the Athens of that time, what sights, sounds, and smells might you encounter? Smelly- from the animals, noisy- from the vendors selling their items at market, and crowded What was the role and status of women? stay home, cook, take care of children, weave cloth, veiled in public, could not own or inherit land, educated at home, lived in women's quarters, retreated when male guests were entertained What was housing like in Athens? Tiny, plain, thin, mud-bricked walls, few tables and chairs, paintd pottery What was the famous Athenian craft and export item? Red and black pottery When did the tensions between Sparta and Athens explode? 431 B.C. How did the Spartans attempt to defeat the Athenians? Destroy food supply How did the Athenians attack protect themselves and attack Sparta? Long walls, supplied by sea, attacked by sea In the oration by Pericles, how does he define democracy? Government favors the many over the few, equal justice, and advancement open to everyone How does he define a full life for a citizen? Arts, politics, while having own livelihood, a man who does not participate in public life is useless According to Pericles what is the role of Athens, and what evidence does he offer for that role? Leadership, school of Greece, Athenians would die for it Who wrote the history of the war between Athens and Sparta? What is the war between Athens and Sparta called? The Peleponnesian War What two events brought down Athens? Defeat by Sparta and plague What did Athens lose after its defeat? Fleet, empire, wealth, power, confidence What shows a loss of confidence? Series of weak and corrupt leaders How did art and drama change? Art began to show people's joys and emotions, comedies made fun of politics, people, and ideas of the time What is a philosopher? One who loves wisdom What were the two basic arguments of philosophers? Universe and orderly and subject to the same laws Who was Socrates? Greece's greatest philosopher, Athenian soldier, stonecutter, ugly, messy, agile minds How did he teach? Socratic method: questioning everything Why was he considered dangerous? Questioned accepted values, morals, religion, and corrupted the youth How did Socrates defend himself? Teachings were good for Athens because they forced people to think about their values and actions (suggested state give him pension) What effect did Socrates' death have on Plato's thinking about government? Average citizen of a democracy was unable to govern wisely...bitter What was Plato's school and how long did it last? Academy and it lasted 900 years What according to Plato is the best government and why? Three groups: 1: most fit group 1- for farmers and artisans 2: Minds and bodies fine enough to be warriors 3: People with greatest intellect/insight should be chosen philosopher/king What areas of knowledge interested Aristotle? Morals, mathematics, biology, botany, geology, medicine, politics, art, drama, language, geography, education, and law What is a syllogism? Three logically related statements If A is true and B is true and A and B are related, then C is true Aristotle helped to develop what kind of thinking?	<urn:uuid:b8c14679-fd45-4fb7-bad0-20b4e8500143>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.9979614615440369, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9607684016227722, "url": "http://www.cram.com/flashcards/athens-and-sparta-go-to-war-athens-rebuilds-312872" }
‘Half five’, ‘half seven’, ‘half ten’… what does it mean in British English? by Jakub Marian The standard way to tell the time when it’s X:30 is “half past X”. For example, 5:30 is “half past five”, 7:30 is “half past seven”, and so on (or, if precision is required, there’s nothing wrong with saying “five thirty”, “seven thirty”, etc.). Brits, however, sometimes use expressions like “half five” or “half seven”. These can be quite confusing for speakers of Slavic and Germanic languages, who would expect the expression “half X” to mean “half before X”. For instance, halb sieben (literally “half seven”) means “half past six” (6:30) in German. The expression is thought of in a different way in British English. “Half five” is just a colloquial way of saying “half past five”, with the word “past” being implied, i.e. an hour more than speakers of other languages would assume. To make the concept completely clear, take a look at the following examples: half five = half past five = 5:30 half seven = half past seven = 7:30 half ten = half past ten = 10:30 Enter the discussion 0	<urn:uuid:99765c32-0553-4f0d-9a36-4e6bdd9d0dae>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.8856716752052307, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9165462851524353, "url": "https://jakubmarian.com/half-five-half-seven-half-ten-what-does-it-mean-in-british-english/" }
Sermon Illustrations > Deceit > Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus Parade Magazine, March 18, 1984 Christopher Columbus kept two records of the distances traveled on his first voyage to the New World in the Santa Maria. One was true, he thought, but he deliberately faked the other. Ironically, the fake log turned out to be the more accurate of the two. To alleviate his crew's fears that they were getting too far from home on an unknown sea, Columbus gave them a reduced mileage estimate. When, for example, he told them on Sept. 11, 1492, that they had covered 16 leagues, he recorded 20 leagues in his secret log. Though he didn't know it, Columbus' "true" distance records were overestimated by 9% on the average. His faked distances came out closer to the actual distances traveled. When the crew found out about his deception, they threatened to mutiny. Before they did, however, land&md;and a New World&md;appeared.	<urn:uuid:960e595a-febb-4805-8505-7177e0ffe3b1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4, "fasttext_score": 0.028469741344451904, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9736587405204773, "url": "https://www.sermonsearch.com/sermon-illustrations/1456/christopher-columbus/" }
Geometry and logic (2) by Neil Rickert The most basic step in geometry is to draw a line. By drawing that line, we divide the plane (or whatever it is where we draw the line) in two parts corresponding to what is on either side of that line. It is the use of that basic step that I consider to be at the core of geometric method. The idea is humorously illustrated with The Bolzano-Weierstrass method of big game hunting. When we apply the geometric method to reality, as illustrated in that lion hunt, we divide up the world. The various division steps divide reality into parts, so I am tentatively using the word “partition” to describe this activity. The suggestion that we carve nature at its joints seems to go back to Plato. However, we carve more finely than the use of natural “joints” would allow. Let me illustrate the idea, with the example of an explorer looking to see what he can find in a newly discovered land. As he treks through the land, he notices a river, and uses that river as a basis for partitioning. He calls the part of the land east of the river “Territory A”, and the part of the land that is west of the river he dubs “Territory B.” While looking around the land, he notices that there are pine trees in Territory A, and oak trees in Territory B. As a result, he can now say: 1. Territory A is the part of the land that is east of the river; 2. Territory B is the part of the land that is west of the river; 3. There are pine trees in Territory A; 4. There are oak trees in Territory B. If we consider those to be propositions, then the first two are analytic propositions, or propositions which are true by virtue of the meanings of terms. The third and fourth propositions are synthetic, or propositions that are true by virtue of the way that the world is. Here is the importance of the partitioning: without that act of partitioning, we would only be able to say “There are pine trees and oak trees.” By virtue of having partitioned the land, we can make the more precise assertions of propositions 3 and 4. Whether we actually assign names to those partitions, as in propositions 1 and 2, is not as obviously important as is action of partitioning itself. Partitioning is a vitally important part of the epistemic project (the project of being able to have knowledge of our world). That partitioning allows more precise descriptions, as in the example of propositions 3 and 4 above, demonstrate its importance. As for propositions 1 and 2, I believe their role to be mainly a social and cultural one. How we partition reality is not completely fixed by nature, so depends on choices. Naming the parts, as is done in those propositions, helps us spread the way we partition through the cultural group, so that everyone partitions in about the same way. I am inclined to believe that use of geometric methods (i.e. partitioning) is the basis for perception and is the basis for ordinary logic. Moreover, I am inclined to believe that scientific laws mainly arise from the use of geometric methods, rather than from induction. 4 Trackbacks to “Geometry and logic (2)” %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:9d9e9515-b514-467b-85c1-49ec6fe3216d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.5088463425636292, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9420149326324463, "url": "https://nwrickert.wordpress.com/2011/06/23/geometry-and-logic-2/" }
【予習】ASNS2631 Week4 Lecture【Preperation】 Tutorial discussion: 1. “Housing the aristocracy was not just one of Heian-kyō’s functions, it was one of the primary reasons for establishing a permanent capital in the first place” (p. 3). Explain the implications of this sentence and, if possible, how it pertains to Emperor Kanmu’s centralizing policies. -Unambiguous act of rebellion -Tie aristocrats and emperor strongly 2. Identify and describe the status-specific elements of Heian-kyō’s urban plan and architecture. -Enclosed collar-and-sash by mountains and rivers -Adopting the Chinese capital model -Mimic the majestic imperial cityscape of Chang'an and Luoyang -Geometric grid plan 3. What caused the proliferation of shinden-style residences? -Shinden-style palaces began to proliferate from about the late eighth century when members of the aristocracy started mimicking the forms of the Imperial Palace when building their own official urban residences. 【復習】CHNS2601 Week3 Lecture【Review】 1. 饭馆 2. 桌子 3. 饺子 4. 家常 5. 豆腐 6. 酸辣汤 1. 好像 2. 服务 3. 点菜 4. 卖完 5. 上菜 6. 刚卖完 7. 一MW + object + 也/都 + 不/没 8. 一点儿+ object + 也/都 + 不/没 9. 除了，，，以外，还，，， 10. 少/多 + verb 【予習】ASNS2631 Week3 Lecture【Preperation】 Tutorial discussion: 1. What is the relationship between Buddhism and the imperial family? What is the relationship between Buddhism and Shintō? As the seat of the 'imperial state', the capital may have housed as many as 10,000 government officials, and as the central cathedral of a national Buddhism, the landscape was dotted with temples large and small. The function of Buddhism as 'protector of the state'(p.332) In Nara, it was Temmu's great-grandson Obito [1 (Emperor Shomu, r. 724- 749) who built the edifice of state-sponsored Buddhism, centered on the cult of Vairocana and of the emperor, in Todaiji. →Buddhism was national religion for Imperial family. Dokyo affair represented serious conflicts between Shinto legitimating principles and Buddhist principles. →Conflict between Buddhism and Shintoism because emperor gave much more power to Buddhist The revulsion against Dokyo, and the reaction against Nara Buddhist institutions may be part of the reason for the move of the capital. →Because of Buddhism become more powerful and started to involve in politics, emperor Kanmu didn't like to Buddhism involved to politics. Therefore, he have moved capital to Heiankyo平安京. The devoutly Buddhist Shomu, who had declared himself 'the servant of the Three Treasures' of Buddhism, however, found himself trapped by conflicting desires. On the one hand he wished to abdicate and devote himself to the pursuit of religious progress by taking religious vows, but on the other he also wanted to preserve the monarchy in his own line →It is complex that one side he follow Buddhism, but other side he want to control the politics by himself. Not by Buddhism. 2. How was imperial succession arranged in the Nara period? What were the the glory of the Nara period dominated by the Temmu line. →The achievement of Tenmu is equally the achievement of Nara period. the desire of the imperial house (Kammu) and the bureaucracy (nobility) to escape the baneful influence of the Nara-centered Buddhist church →moved capital 3. What is the difference between a “court” and a “capital city”? to phrase the question in different terms, was Heijo the 'first permanent capital', or merely the penultimate 'court'? →These conclusions must be regarded as tentative, but however much the founding of Heijo in 710 may have been based on the expectation that it was to be a permanent capital What would be the founding of Heijo? • population? • Enormous building? • Emperor? • Middle of politics? • End of silkroad? 4. What motivated the construction of a capital city? The reasons may have varied over time so consider each capital separately. Emperor wanted to be far way from Asuka飛鳥 because there were old aristocrats who are Yamato clans. Emperor wanted to hold his own power to control the country. →Source in Japanese.平城京に遷都されたのは、なぜか？　平城京から遷都されたのは、なぜか？ First, Heijo was somewhat less an 'immutable' capital than we are accustomed to think, but still retained some characteristics of a court site that had to compete with other candidates in the capital district. A second, corollary point is that the emperor and the court were not confined to a single capital city, as they would become in the Heian period. ' ... the monks' immense　political success more than anything else contributed to the declining prestige of Buddhism and forced the Nara bureaucrats to transfer the capital site. Kammu himself in 788, that the new capital district was 'convenient by water and by land' an important consideration in both the prosecution of the frontier wars in the northeast, and the pursuit of communications with the southwest and with the continent. The revulsion against Dokyo, and the reaction against Nara Buddhist institutions may be part of the reason for the move of the capital. But surely there are other reasons to explain the uprooting of an urban complex approximating 200,000 souls in population-about 3% to 4% of the total population at the time and to justify the vast expense of replacing the hundreds of official buildings and thousands of official domiciles that were to be abandoned. 【復習】ASNS2631 Week2 Lecture【Review】 Before starting the review for this subject I'd like to mention about tutorial discussion for tomorrow. These are the question for tomorrow. Tutorial discussion: 1. What is the relationship between Shintō and the imperial family? 2. What are the historical and cultural significance of Kojiki and Nihonshoki? What function did these texts serve? 3. What impact did continental civilization (from China and Korea) have on the formation of a centralized Japanese polity? Give specific examples. 4. Reading Shōtoku’s “constitution” carefully, attempt to distill its essential message. What appears to have been his primary objective? Is the word “constitution” appropriate? These question are related to what we have done today in lecture. However, today's topic was Establishment of Early Polity (Making Japan) -Lecture on the early state, the emperor system and religion From archipelago to nation. 19th century Hokkaido and Okinawa unified to Japan. Until the Japan unified as Japan there were many competing clans(氏uji) and king. In the early stage of Japan Uji is genealogically in the same line, same group, and the group is called 氏族shizoku. Each of the house used Uji as unit and they combined as a local political group. After all when the Yamato Kingdom had established Uji become the supporting group of Yamato. The Uji is the unit of the governing classes. Yamato clan traditions • Sun is the worship of primitive religion • Yamato's family shrine at Ise（伊勢神宮） 6th century - Adaptation of continental things -> Writing -> Transformation of information -> tool to unify Japan Kojiki and Nihonshoki Kojiki and Nihonshoki are the one of earliest historical textual in Japan. Kojiki was written in 712. Nihonshoki was written in 720. Textualisation = proliferation By using these books Yamato clans spread their morality to conquer Japan. Origin of Shitonism神道 Shitoism set emperor as highest. Shintoism was not a codified define religion until 19th century There are shrine at Ise as a family shrine for emperor Each 20 years Ise shrine rebuild and it's called 式年遷宮shikinen sengu。 The reason for the shikinen senguu is to keep the shrine new and remind people the importance of Shitoism The difference between western and eastern religion Western is orthodoxy which is important to believe the god. Eastern is orthopraxy which is important to do some actions for god. The introduction of Buddhism Paikche(552) introduced Buddhism to Japan As you know Buddhism is created in India. From India to Japan there have been many things(local philosophy, architecture, ect, ) The path way where Buddhism came from Early Buddhism and the state Buddhism had spread from aristocrats to people. They held ceremony of Buddhism. 大化の改新taika no kaishin These two was used as centralization of Japan. Public Authority(公的認可) is the key word for entire semester. The opposite word is private power. Get bit lazy in the last part but however I've included everything I've learned today 【復習】CHNS2601 Week1 Turorial【Review】 First we've learned comparative sentence with 比 today. There are 3 patterns using 比. 1. A + 比 + B + Adj 2. A + 比 + B + Adj + 一点儿/得多/多了 3. A + 比 + B + 更/还 + Adj I am taller than my girlfriend. Today is much hotter than yesterday. Today was hot. Tomorrow is even hotter than yesterday. When 了 occurs at the ends of a sentence, it usually indicates a change of status or the realization of the new situation. It is snowing now. My girlfriend is not angry anymore. 会 indicates an anticipated event or action. It is modal verb. It could rain tomorrow. (Uncertain) It going to be rain tomorrow. (Certain) It is must not going to be rain tomorrow. (Certain) I am able to use chopsticks now. Adj + 一点儿 The expression (一)点儿 can be placed after an adjective to indicate slight qualification. a bit cold a bit quick a bit tall 一点儿 does not precede the adjective. The following phrases are incorrect. In the class we also learned 好一点儿。好 < 好一点儿 < 更好 < 最好 Good < little bit better < better < best 好一点儿 goes between 好 and 更好。 Not only,,,but also,,, My girlfriend not only able to speak English but also be able to speak Chinese. I usually not only review vocabulary and grammar but also sometimes prepare for vocab and grammar. 【復習】ASNS2632 Week1 Lecture【Review】 Writing from university so there's no Japanese. The first lesson of ASNS2632(The Pre modern social history of Japan) has started. Major topics start off from 16th century which is pre modern era lead by Tokugawa. In other word, it was called pre Tokugawa Japan. During 16th century, it was the first time that West(Portuguese) came to Japan with gun and cross. Most of them are missionaries, traders, and soldiers. Not only the gun and cross, but also they have taught modern technologies such as castle building, western products, etc. They were significant factor for Japanese that they reconsolidate Japan as Tenka. Following the history there were three conquerors in Japan. Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu. Oda Nobunaga Oda Nobunaga had made the basic Tenka which means he almost conquer Japan but he betrayed by his subordinate Akechi Mituhide. However, he have done • Military unification • Buddhist suppression • Military technology(Ex. Used gun in battle of Nagashino) The reasons why he could done those stuffs are • Authorized by emperor • Strong military • Controlled economy Toyotomi Hedeyoshi Hedeyoshi has become lord of Japan after Nobunaga died because he eliminated Akechi Mitsuhide speedy and take over Nobunaga's son who was just 5 years old. However after he taken the real power he have done and tried, • Military unifier • Social reform • Become world conquer There are many things that he have done for social reform Social reform • wide range of economic reform • survey land • Sword hunt • Centralized Daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu He might be the longest conquer of Japan in the history. After Hedeyoshi have died Hedeyoshi asked him to become next conquer. There was a conflict between Ishida mitsunari and Tokugawa Ieyasu that who become the next lord but Ishida was not popular because he did not join the Korean war. However, he have done • Tax and currency reform • Support Christian • Become Shogun(authorized by emperor) Not only because of above but there was long peace which is created by Tokugawa. This is called Tokugawa pax. Tokugawa pax(1603-1868) One of the feature which support this pax was Shinokosho(士農工商) As you can see from this figure Warrior is the top ranked people. They are only 6% of the population in Japan at that time. Also they are privileged class. The reason why they were privileged is that I guess they had power to protect their land for others and instead of that other class pay the tax to them. However, still need further more research for this. The second top ranked in the figure. 84% of the population in Japan. As the professor said, it's might not accurate to call them peasantry. Because, it's hard to jumble together that some of peasant doesn't have any power and just rent the land from land owner and some of peasant lend the land. The peasant who lend the land and had massive power at surrounded land called Gounou（豪農）. However, during the era, producer have much more power than others. The reason why they are ranked in second of the class is that farm produce is much more reliable than any other things even the money. Especially rice crop is very important for Japanese and it's still cropping in Japan. Artisan is people who makes something which was necessary for people's life. They are producer like same as peasantry so they ranked in third. One of feature of artisan is most of artisan wanted to become Oyakata（親方） and they first become discipline of Oyakata. The detail is written here in Japanese. Merchant think as exploiters because they didn't produce anything but they become rich by trading. Instead of that they were poor in society. 2.5％ of the population. They are untouchables because of their occupation. Untouchables usually do the job which people don't want to do such as funeral, cleaning, killing, washing dead body. Because of these jobs most of people didn't want to communicate with them. As I think they are discriminated. One of the interesting point is they are outcast in the society at that time but might still outcast these days. There are also difference between Japan and Australia that how to treat about untouchable. In this figure untouchables written in tiny word but when I had a class yesterday professor wrote untouchables in part of class. It might be going far away but I think that Japanese don't want to write about untouchables so much. In fact, talking about untouchables is still taboo in Japan. Baku-Han system Baku-han system is the system to conquer Daimyo by Bakufu or Shogun. There are several type of daimyo at this time. • Fudai or hereditary house • Shinpan or collateral • Tozama or outer-lords This system was quite successful to keep the peace in Japan but also because of this system Bakufu might fall down. In the end of edo period the warrior was unnecessary and especially outer lords was in low status. They had discontent of their treatment. Later on they start anti-Bakufu movement but this will be another story. However, this is it for yesterday class.It's quite a lot so I'm afraid about this subject but also it's quite interesting to do this. well, see you next time 【復習】CHNS2601 Week1 Lecture【Review】 Review for Chinese. Intermediate level. Are you in this class? I cannot read and write ,,,,This was it for today. We also done speaking exercise but cannot write here so this is it 【復習】ASNS2631 Week1 Lecture【Review】 Reviewing Asian studies in Sydney university for sharing information with class mates. The main theme of ASNS2631 is exploring Origin of Japanese traditions. During the class, lecturer following up from 5th century to 18th century. Below are the list of each themes of ASNS2631. • The emperor and political legitimacy • Shinto myth • Political power of Buddhism • Women as literary pioneer • Samurai and warrior rule • Zen and medieval religion • 'Japanese style' aesthetics • Creation of 'tradition' in the modern era The lecturer's method to research about Japan is based on material. Furthermore, material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make, or have made. As he said Kyoto is primary resources which is useful for material culture. Prehistory 50K BCE-550 Early civilization Ancient period(600-794) Dawn of civilisation China and Korea made it possible Japan to become Japan. Ex.Growth of literacy, building, culture, etc. Heian period(794-1150) Medieval period(1150-1600) Culture developed enormously Ex.Zen,Tea,Zen art, Literacy, ect. Edo period(1600-1868) Tokugawa hegemony Early modern period（1868-1945） Reverse emperor and he moved Tokyo（東京） which is meant east（東） of imperial capital（京） Contemporary Japan（1945-today） From Bust to Boost economy This is it for today class. Hopefully I can get better grade.	<urn:uuid:53cef3a0-d625-46dd-ae7c-d62003289f3c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.4354204535484314, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9048609733581543, "url": "http://aus-ryuugaku.blogspot.com/2015/03/" }
Explaining Metamaterials January 9, 2014 A study by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, The University of Texas at Austin and University of Sannio in Italy, shows that metamaterials can be designed to do “photonic calculus” by acting like an analog computer. A light wave, when described in terms of space and time, has a profile that can be thought of as a curve on a Cartesian plane. The researchers’ theoretical material can perform a specific mathematical operation on that wave’s profile, such as finding its first or second derivative, as the light wave passes through the material. Here, Penn researcher Nader Engheta explains what metamaterials are, how they’re construction, and how they can manipulate electromagnetic waves like nothing found in nature. Available on YouTube at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lK4RQr7RICY. Credit: Kurtis Sensenig, University of Pennsylvania comments powered by Disqus	<urn:uuid:3daa3b92-86cb-4c71-9288-0e15e929dd14>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.028921186923980713, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9171222448348999, "url": "http://www.redorbit.com/news/video/science_2/1113043217/explaining-metamaterials-0109201/" }
White Falcon. Elliott Arnold Alfred A. Knopf, 1958; Awarded 1958. Synopsis: John Tanner is a young boy when he is kidnapped from his Kentucky home by Ottawa Indians. He is still a boy when he is chosen by Chief Netnokwa to accompany her back to the Chippewa village of her childhood so she can die. After an arduous journey John still has many obstacles to overcome to become before he is fully accepted as a member of the tribe. Themes: Overcoming hardships; Positive Values; Historical fiction Discussion questions: Standard 3, Benchmark 3 1. John is adopted in both the Ottawa and Chippewa tribes and his adoptive parents treat him as a son. What other tribal members do not accept him? Who are his rivals in each tribe? Why do they hate John? How would you compare John's acceptance as a person of a different race to present-day situations? 2. What is the significance of John's name change to White Falcon? When does the ceremony occur? Why is he given the name White Falcon? 3. John develops a code of conduct for himself as he grows up that he follows all his life. What are these qualities? What are his feelings when he steals a pony from the Cree to replace his own stolen horse? How are these values reflected in his encounter with the Sioux on one of his trapping excursions? Activity suggestions: 1. On a map, mark the journeys in John's life from Kentucky to the Ottawa village on Lake Huron and from the Ottawa village to the Chippewa village on the Red River. What are the present day states he went through? Are any of the place names the same? Standard 1, Benchmark 5 2. Research the Hudson's Bay Company. When was it first established and when did it close? Where was it established? What European countries were involved in the fur trade? What animal pelts were traded? Standard 2, Benchmark 4 3. Set up a display to show how the Ottawa and the Chippewa tribes were alike and different in their clothes, houses, weapons, food and other things in from each life style. Standard 3, Benchmark 1	<urn:uuid:89758884-1af9-4c5d-9dfd-38f7ac8cbfa3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.9920191764831543, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9695133566856384, "url": "http://www.emporia.edu/libsv/wawbookaward/winners/winner57-58.html" }
Fear and tension pervade “The Sniper.” O’Flaherty, making full use of his tight unity of place, builds tension steadily and systematically in several ways. The reader is told that one can hear the thunder of ammunition exploding in the distance. In the immediate milieu that the author creates, bullets whiz by and every simple act, such as lighting a cigarette, must be weighed carefully for its potential danger. The sniper is essentially a schoolboy caught up in a situation over which he must gain control. If he fails, he dies. O’Flaherty creates a feeling of tension by his skillful use of short, clipped sentences and simple, direct vocabulary. As the tension is built, each sentence reveals only one bare fact:The turret opened. A man’s head and shoulders appeared, looking towards the sniper. The sniper raised his rifle and fired. The head fell heavily on the turret wall. The woman darted toward the side street. The sniper fired again. The woman whirled around and fell with a shriek into the gutter. The beat of these sentences is like the beating of one’s heart. To read a paragraph so tightly controlled and structured as this one is to have one’s breath taken away. O’Flaherty, because he has to emphasize how totally on his own the young sniper is, cannot have dialogue in this story. The sniper must be on the roof alone. The omniscient observer must tell everything that happens without being intrusive. O’Flaherty... (The entire section is 271 words.) Want to Read More? Historical Context The English in Ireland In the twelfth century, the English monarch, backed by a large army, declared himself overlord of Ireland. For the next several centuries, English rule was generally confined to the area around Dublin. The English monarchy, however, continued efforts to subdue the entire island, resulting in ongoing Irish rebellion. In the early 1600s, the monarchy overthrew the native Irish political system, bringing the entire country under its control. For the next hundred years, the English created colonies in Ireland. As part of this effort, they drove many Irish from their land and gave estates to English landowners. Religious problems arose as well, since most Irish were Roman Catholics while the new English settlers, who mainly lived in the north, followed the Protestant faith. Laws continually favored Protestants over Catholics. By the late 1700s, Irish rebels were making repeated efforts to gain some kind of independence. Their efforts were to little avail, and in 1801 the Act of Union formally united Great Britain and Ireland. This law abolished the Irish Parliament; instead, Ireland voted for representatives who served in the British Parliament. Beginning in the 1870s, a Home Rule movement was on the rise among Irish nationalists, most of whom were Catholics. Supporters demanded some form of self government. They were opposed by Irish Protestants, who were called unionists because they wanted to preserve... (The entire section is 972 words.) Literary Style The setting of “The Sniper” is integral to the narrative, for it draws its action from the Irish civil war. The story takes place in Dublin, Ireland, in June 1922. At this time, the Irish civil war has been going on for several months. The Republicans hold the Four Courts judicial building, but the Free Staters are attacking them with heavy arms. “The Sniper” also takes place between the hours of dusk and dawn. Beginning as “twilight faded into night,” the action of the story instantly becomes more dangerous. The sniper must conduct his battle in the dark. He has only “the dim light of the moon that shone through fleecy clouds” to see by. This lack of clarity has a realistic impact in making his task—difficult even in the light of day— even more challenging. The sniper has to aim at his enemy, about fifty yards away, and get off one fatal shot with a revolver. The lack of light also has symbolic significance: it underscores the murky, ambiguous situation that a civil war poses. The civil war pits friends, neighbors, and even family members against one another. As is borne out by the story’s ending, people cannot see very clearly during such a conflict. Point of View The narrative takes a limited, third-person point of view. The action is entirely funneled through the protagonist. The reader sees only through his eyes, hears sounds through his ears, and processes events through his... (The entire section is 910 words.) Compare and Contrast 1920s: Ireland is part of the United Kingdom. Many Irish have long been unhappy with this situation. In the late 1910s, Irish forces rebel and begin fighting with British forces. They seek independence from British rule. Today: Four-fifths of the island of Ireland makes up the independent Republic of Ireland, or Eire in the Irish language. Northern Ireland makes up the rest of the island, and it is part of the United Kingdom. 1920s: Republicans and Free Staters engage in a deadly and destructive civil war. Republicans refuse to accept the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which makes southern Ireland a dominion within the United Kingdom, known as the Irish Free State. The Republicans want all of the island of Ireland to have independence. Free Staters, however, support this treaty. The civil war carries on from 1921 until 1923, when a cease-fire is declared, with the Free Staters victorious. Today: After decades of fighting between Protestants in Northern Ireland and the Irish Republican Army—the paramilitary arm of Sinn Féin, the two sides agree to a cease-fire in 1998. Troubles, however, still brew in Ireland over the division of the island. In 2004, Protestant and Catholic political parties struggle over ways to share power, and allegations of kidnapping and violence on the part of the IRA still take place. 1920s: Irish political leaders are all men, such as Michael Collins, Eamon de Valera, and Arthur... (The entire section is 262 words.) Topics for Further Study Research the Irish civil war. After you have conducted your research, write a paper analyzing ‘‘The Sniper’’ from a historical point of view. Imagine that you are directing a movie version of ‘‘The Sniper.’’ How would you direct the final scene? What kind of emotions would you ask your actor to convey? Write an essay describing how you think the sniper feels at learning he has killed his brother and what he does next. Does this event keep him from further participation in the Irish civil war? Investigate another civil war or conflict that has divided families, friends, and communities. Use what you have learned to write your own short story exploring the way that such conflict affects members of society. The events surrounding the Irish civil war brought to the forefront many important political leaders. Research one of these leaders, either a Republican or a Free Stater, and find out about his influence on Irish history. Find out more about the role that religion has played in Ireland’s history from the late 1800s through the present day. (The entire section is 179 words.) O’Flaherty’s novel The Informer, first published in 1925, is set in the aftermath of the Irish civil war. It tells about an outlaw who is the object of a Dublin manhunt. The Informer is one of O’Flaherty’s most well-known pieces of fiction. Like ‘‘The Sniper,’’ O’Flaherty’s short story ‘‘Civil War,’’ included in the 1925 collection of the same name, explores the experience of the war through two Republican soldiers—one an idealist and one a realist—who are trapped on a rooftop, waiting for death. Liam O’Flaherty’s Ireland (2001), by Peter Costello, features biographical information about O’Flaherty, excerpts from his fiction, and photographs from his time period. The Letters of Liam O’Flaherty (1996), edited by A. A. Kelly, can provide additional information on this writer. O’Henry’s ‘‘The Gift of the Magi’’ (1905), Guy de Maupassant’s ‘‘The Necklace’’ (1884), and Saki’s ‘‘The Open Window’’ (1914) all provide variations—both humorous and tragic—on the same type of surprise ending employed by O’Flaherty. James Joyce’s Dubliners (1914), a collection of short stories about the lives of people in Dublin, includes the masterpiece ‘‘The Dead.’’ Sean O’Casey’s play Juno and the Paycock, perhaps his most popular, was originally staged in 1924 and set during the Irish civil... (The entire section is 247 words.) Bibliography and Further Reading Calahan, James M., “Politics,” in Liam O’Flaherty, A Study of the Short Fiction, Twayne Publishers, 1991, pp. 30–40. Doyle, Paul A., “Liam O’Flaherty,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 162, British Short Fiction Writers, 1915–1945, edited by John H. Rogers, Gale Research, 1996, pp. 282–92. Kelly, A. A., “Urban and War Themes,” in Liam O’Flaherty: The Storytellers, Harper & Row Publishers, 1976, pp. 23–36. O’Brien, James H., “The Short Stories,” in Liam O’Flaherty, Associated University Presses, 1973, pp. 92–117. Troy, William, “The Position of Liam O’Flaherty,” in Bookman, Vol. LXIX, March 29, 1929, pp. 7–11. Further Reading Bates, H. E., “The Irish School” in The Modern Short Story: A Critical Survey, The Writer, 1972, pp. 148–62. Bates, himself a writer of numerous novels and short stories, places O’Flaherty’s work within the context of other important twentieth-century Irish writers. Brewer, Paul, ed., Ireland: History, Culture, People, Courage Books, 2002. This volume provides an illustrated introduction to Ireland, focusing on its history through the early 2000s, its people, and its culture. Doyle, Paul A., Liam O’Flaherty, Twayne Publishers, 1971. Doyle’s work provides a good overview of O’Flaherty’s entire body of... (The entire section is 290 words.)	<urn:uuid:b97a39a5-051a-4702-842e-6cf734ea1525>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.018499016761779785, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9534905552864075, "url": "http://www.enotes.com/topics/sniper/in-depth" }
↑ Return to Sharks & Manta Print this Page Manta & Mobula Ray Facts Manta and mobula rays span the tropics of the world and are among the most captivating and charismatic of marine species. However, their survival is severely threatened by growing fisheries pressure driven by demand for the gill rakers that the animals use to filter feed. Ray Biology Source: Shark Savers The group of cartilaginous fish in the family Mobulidae (Mobulid rays) consists of two genera, Manta and Mobula, with two and nine species respectively1,2. All mobulid rays have diamond shaped bodies, wing-like pectoral fins used for propulsion, and five pairs of gill slits. They usually inhabit pelagic zones3,4. Mobulids are often called “devil rays” because of the cephalic fins on the front of their heads that resemble “horns”. The cephalic fins unfurl and help guide water into their mouths, and modified gill features filter zooplankton and small fish, their primary food sources5-7. Manta rays The genus Manta includes the larger Manta birostris (oceanic manta), the smaller Manta alfredi (reef manta), and a possible third species, Manta. cf birostris1 Both M. birostris and M. alfredi are circumglobal in overall range, and overlap in some locations8. M. cf birostris, is likely limited to the Gulf of Mexico and Western Caribbean1. Manta birostris has a maximum wingspan (disk width, or DW) of seven to nine meters1,3. Manta alfredi has a maximum 4 to 5 meter disk width9, and usually occupies tropical areas. Mobula Rays The nine Mobula species range in size from the largest, Mobula mobular, which can reach 5.2 meters DW, to the smallest, Mobula eregoodootenkee, which averages only 1.1 meters DW10. Mobulas can be found in temperate and tropical waters worldwide. Some Mobula species are range restricted, such as Mobula kuhlii and Mobula eregoodootenkee, found only in the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans respectively. Other species, such as Mobula tarapacana and Mobula thurstoni, are thought to be circumglobal2,11. Since information on the distribution of this genus is based on sparse records and misidentification is common, the estimated ranges of individual species, and even some species classifications, will likely change in the coming years. Manta birostris Oceanic Manta Ray Vulnerable Circumglobal, tropical and subtropical 680 cm Decreasing Targeted, Bycatch Manta alfredi Reef Manta Ray Vulnerable Circumglobal, tropical and subtropical 450 cm Decreasing Targeted, Bycatch Mobula eregoodootenkee Long-horned Pygmy Devilray Near Threatened Wide, Tropical Indo- West Pacific 100 cm Unknown Targeted, Bycatch Mobula hypostoma Atlantic Devilray Data Deficient Western Atlantic 120 cm Unknown Bycatch Mobula japanica Spine Tail Devilray Near Threatened, Vulnerable in S.E. Asia Circumglobal 310 cm Unknown Targeted, Bycatch Mobula kuhlii Shortfin Pygmy Devilray Data Deficient Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific 119 cm Decreasing Targeted, Bycatch Mobula mobular Giant Devilray Endangered Mediterranean and possibly North Atlantic 520 cm Decreasing Bycatch Mobula munkiana Pygmy Devilray Near Threatened Eastern Pacific 110 cm Unknown Targeted, Bycatch Mobula rochebrunei Lesser Guinean Devilray Vulnerable Eastern and Southwestern Atlantic 133 cm Unknown Targeted, Bycatch Mobula tarapacana Sicklefin Devil Ray Data Deficient Probably circumglobal, Indian, Pacific, Atlantic Oceans 370 cm Unknown Targeted, Bycatch Mobula thurstoni Bentfin Devilray Near Threatened, Vulnerable in S.E. Asia Circumglobal, temperate and tropical 180 cm Unknown Targeted, Bycatch Ray Reproduction All mobulids are aplacental, viviparous species, meaning that they give birth to fully developed live young4,7,12, and typically bear only a single pup with each pregnancy12,13. While the lifespan and age at sexual maturity are not yet known for many mobulid species, long-term studies of M. alfredi populations in various locations indicate a life history incompatible with targeted commercial fishing. For example, female M. alfredi are believed to reach maturity at 8-10 years9, however female M. alfredi in an extensively studied population in the Maldives showed no mating scars and did not become pregnant for a number of years after reaching mature size. These observations indicate that female M. alfredi in some subpopulations may not mate until an age of 15 years or more14. M. alfredi near a Mozambique study site and in Maui had a biennial reproductive period with some females pupping in consecutive years13, while in the Maldives, the reproductive cycle appears to be significantly slower, with female M. alfredi giving birth on average to only one pup every five years14. M. alfredi have been confirmed to live at least 30 years17 and both manta species are believed to live 40 years and possibly longer9,15. Brain Size and Intelligence Recent research has revealed that manta and mobula rays have the highest brain mass to body mass ratio of all elasmobranchs, comparable to some birds and mammals. They exhibit high maneuverability, and increased social and cognitive abilities16. Divers cite numerous examples of manta rays cooperating and accepting help when entangled in lines, and many report that injured manta rays even seem to seek assistance. Click the link to participate in the Manta Ray of Hope by joining Shark Savers Permanent link to this article: http://banyubiru.org/sharks-manta/manta-mobula-ray-facts/	<urn:uuid:2f0ff939-a81e-4a1d-a8ed-cff0759cf931>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.02949345111846924, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8691864013671875, "url": "http://banyubiru.org/sharks-manta/manta-mobula-ray-facts/" }

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