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Ideas for teaching the post-1066 thematic unit at Key Stage 2
Whatever you choose to study for your post-1066 thematic unit here are some pointers to help.
1. Try to make as much use as you can of your existing Tudor, Victorian and Life in Britain since the 30s as you can.
What’s to stop you re-working one of your favourite topics, after all the examples come from Victorians and WW2. Could you do the Tudors here? A new unit for Y6 has been written by Keystage history called Beyond Face Value. It is being trialled in schools at the moment and we have already developed a detailed draft scheme of work, most of the lessons and a large number of the resources. These are available to subscribers on request. In a nutshell, it is a skills-based enquiry looking at the way powerful people have manipulated evidence for their own ends and have tried to persuade others of their version of the past. The case studies we have based this on are:
a. Portraits of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I
b. Factory owners and factory workers’ contrasting versions of what factory life was like
c. Evacuation: whose version should we believe?
d. The Blitz; would you be taken in by the
KSH footer silhouette
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Effects of Ant- Fruit Interactions Deforestation
by Maithili Joshi
Biodiversity within an ecosystem has mutualistic and symbiotic relationships within that environment. The results of deforestation can be dramatic to these relationships, especially in cases with frugivores. The relationships between frugivores and fallen fruit are what help disperse seeds across the forest floor, which also helps the process of germination. In this study, Bieber et al. (2014) analyzed the mutualistic interactions between ants and fallen fruit in São Paulo State, SE Brazil. The scientists were examining the difference in interactions between disturbed and undisturbed forests. They compared the richness of ants at each fruit, species density per station, frequency of specific ant groups, frequency of fruit and pulp removal, and distance of fruit removal. The study was conducted using four disturbed forests, and four undisturbed forest areas. In these areas, there were thirty sampling stations with synthetic fruit placed 10 m apart from each other to ensure independent discoveries. The fruit were placed on a white sheet of paper within a wire cage to ensure that vertebrates did not access the fruit at each sampling station. Continue reading
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Botanical name:
"Slippery elm," Ulmus fulva, is a middle-sized tree found abundantly in the natural woodlands of the Central and Eastern United States, from Canada to the South. The Indians and settlers of North America valued the inner bark of this tree as a poultice; in certain skin diseases they used it as an external application, and as a soothing drink in fevers. In bowel affections they employed a cold decoction. Schopf (582), 1787, refers to it as "salve bark." An infusion made by digesting the shredded inner bark of slippery elm in cold water, has (after the teaching of the Indians) ever maintained a high reputation in domestic North American medication in fevers, and especially in diarrheas connected therewith. The mucilaginous qualities render the powdered bark peculiarly adapted to the making of poultices, in which direction it was known to all the early settlers of America and was by them introduced to the medical profession.
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An extreme example of ornamentation as a fioritura from Chopin's Nocturne in D major (About this soundPlay )
Fioritura (/fiˌɔːrɪˈtjʊərə/ fee-OR-i-TEWR, Italian: [fjoriˈtuːra], meaning "flourish" or "flowering"; plural fioriture) is the florid embellishment of melodic lines, either notated by a composer or improvised during a performance. It usually involves lengthy, complex embellishments, as opposed to standardized local ornamental figures such as trills, mordents, or appoggiaturas, and its use is documented as early as the thirteenth century (Da Costa 2002; Jander 2001). The alternative term coloratura is less accurate (Steane 1992). It is closely related to the sixteenth-century practice of diminution or division (Randel 2003).
External links
This page was last updated at 2019-11-12 05:57, update this pageView original page
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SEE REPORT ? Exercise 3 - Simple Past
Write the simple past form of the irregular verb in parentheses ( ).
1. Jill (drive) her son to elementary school everyday.
2. The class (understand) the lecture after completing the assignment.
3. I (write) a letter a week before she past away.
4. Our children (fight) all the time.
5. Blake (tear out) the all the pages in the book I was reading.
6. A rock (strike) the window at 120 mph.
7. The candidate (withdraw) from the race.
8. We all (weep) when we heard the terrible news.
9. He (wear) his finest suit to the party.
10. They (throw) us a wonderful farewell party before we left.
11. I (stand) outside her office for over an hour.
12. A bee (sting) her on her eyelid.
13. The last contestant (sing) her heart out.
14. Who (take) the last piece cake?
15. They (teach) us about the Aztec civilization.
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Chapter 5: Arcs
5-2: Constraints
5-2-1: Rigid and Fixed-Angle Arcs
The first constraint in Electric is the rigid constraint. When an arc is made rigid, it cannot change length. If a node on either end is moved, the other node and the arc move by the same amount. Besides keeping a constant length, rigid arcs attach in a fixed way to their nodes. This means that if the node rotates or mirrors, the arc spins about so that the overall configuration does not change. Without this rigidity constraint, arcs simply stretch and rotate to keep their connectivity.
The second constraint, which is used only if an arc is not rigid, is the fixed-angle constraint. This constraint forces a wire to remain at a constant angle (usually used to keep horizontal and vertical wires in their Manhattan orientations). For example, if a vertical fixed-angle arc connects two nodes, and the bottom node moves left, then the arc and the top node also move left by the same amount. If that bottom node moves down, the arc simply stretches without affecting the other node. If the bottom node moves down and to the left, the arc both moves and stretches. Rotation of nodes causes no change to fixed-angle arcs unless the arc is connected to an off-center port, in which case a slight translation and stretch may occur.
Figure 5.1
Most IC layout is done with Manhattan geometry. If you suspect that some of your wires have become skewed, use the Show Nonmanhattan command (in menu Edit / Cleanup Cell).
Prev Previous Contents Table of Contents Next Next
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PROBLEMS OF PERSPECTIVE - The Third Reich in Power
Modern history
Alongside the ‘new objectivity’ (Neue Sachlichkeit), Expressionism was in many ways the dominant movement not only in German literature but also in German art during the Weimar Republic.114 Its most widely acceptable face was represented by the sculptor Ernst Barlach, whose work was heavily influenced by the primitive peasant art he encountered on a visit to Russia before the First World War. Barlach produced solid, stumpy, stylized, self-consciously folksy sculptures of human figures, first of all carved in wood, later in other media such as stucco and bronze. The figures were usually given a monumental, immobile quality by being depicted draped in stylized robes or cloaks. They were popular, and he received numerous commissions after 1918 for war memorials in many parts of Germany. Elected to the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1919, he had become an establishment figure by the mid-1920s, and was known for his hostility to abstraction, his critical distance from the rest of the Expressionist movement itself, and his steadfast refusal to engage in party politics. His art might have been expected to appeal to the Nazis, and indeed Joseph Goebbels recorded his admiration for one of Barlach’s sculptures in a diary entry in the mid-1920s and was said later to have displayed two small figures by Barlach in his house.115 The Propaganda Minister invited Barlach, along with some other Expressionist artists including Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, to the opening ceremony of the Reich Chamber of Culture, and his inclination to support them was backed by a campaign launched by members of the Nazi Students’ League in Berlin for a new kind of Nordic modernism, based on an Expressionism purged of Jewish artists and abstract images.116
But these efforts foundered on the hostility of Alfred Rosenberg on the one hand, and the refusal of Barlach himself to compromise with the regime on the other. Rosenberg denounced Barlach and the Expressionists in the pages of the Racial Observer and branded the Berlin students as outmoded revolutionaries along the lines of the disgraced Nazi leftist Otto Strasser. For his part, Barlach refused the invitation to the opening of the Reich Chamber of Culture. He had come to feel the hostility of the regime at a local level, and commissions for war memorials, plans for exhibitions and publications of his writings started to be cancelled soon after the appointment of Hitler as Reich Chancellor in January 1933. His monuments to the war dead had already run into criticism in the early 1930s from right-wing veterans’ associations such as the Steel Helmets for their refusal to portray German soldiers of the First World war as heroic figures dying in a noble cause. Germanic racists accused Barlach of showing German soldiers with the features of Slavic sub-humans. Living in the strongly National Socialist province of Mecklenburg, Barlach began to be exposed to anonymous letters and insults posted on the front door of his house. He felt obliged to withdraw his acceptance of a commission for a new war memorial in Stralsund under this pressure.117 Barlach had stayed in Germany partly because he hoped that the Third Reich would respect the creative freedom of the artist, partly because, given the kind of work he did, it would not have been easy for him to make a living elsewhere.118 By the beginning of May 1933 he was already disillusioned. ‘The fawning cowardice of this magnificent era’, he wrote bitterly to his brother, ‘makes one go red up to the ears and beyond to think that one is German.’119
Barlach’s unacceptability to the regime became clearer in 1933-4. The most controversial of his war memorials was a large wooden sculpture located in Magdeburg Cathedral. It showed three figures - a helmeted skeleton, a veiled woman pressing her fists together in agony and a bare-headed man with a gas mask between his arms, closing his eyes and clutching his head in despair - rising from the ground in front of the stylized forms of three soldiers, draped in greatcoats and standing side by side. The soldier in the middle has a bandage on his head and rests his hands on a large cross with the dates of the war on it, thus forming the centrepiece of the whole ensemble. Soon after Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor, the press began to carry petitions for its removal, encouraged by Alfred Rosenberg, who described its figures as ‘little half-idiotic, morose-looking bastard variations of indefinable human types with Soviet helmets’ in the Racial Observer in July 1933.120 While negotiations dragged on between the Propaganda Ministry, the Church and the Party about its removal, the press campaign against Barlach escalated. Allegations that he was Jewish prompted Barlach to respond that he did not want to issue a public rebuttal since he did not feel insulted by the claim. His friends researched his ancestry and published evidence that he was not Jewish. It filled his heart with sadness, he wrote, to think that such a thing was necessary.121 The memorial was eventually taken down towards the end of 1934 and placed in storage.122 Barlach defended himself from widespread attacks on his art as ‘un-German’ by pointing to the fact that its roots lay among the North German peasantry amongst whom he lived. Now in his mid-sixties, he found it difficult to understand how his sculptures could arouse such venomous hostility. In an attempt to deflect it, he signed a declaration in support of Hitler’s assumption of the headship of state after the death of Hindenburg in August 1934. But this did nothing to assuage the Nazi Party leadership in Mecklenburg, and the regional government began to remove his works from the state museum.
Many of Barlach’s admirers, including enthusiastic supporters of the Nazi movement, found such treatment difficult to accept. The Nazi girls’ organization official Melita Maschmann, for example, admired his work and could not understand why he had been branded by the Nazis as ‘degenerate’.123 In the end, however, Barlach fell foul of the regime because his work went against the Nazi glorification of war, because he refused to compromise his art, because he responded assertively to criticism and because he made no secret of his dislike of Nazi Germany’s cultural policies. In 1936, the Bavarian police seized all the copies of a new book of his drawings from the publisher’s warehouse in Munich. They were acting on the orders of Goebbels: ‘Have banned a crazy book by Barlach,’ he wrote in his diary: ‘It isn’t art. It is destructive, incompetent nonsense. Disgusting! This poison must not enter our people.’124 The Gestapo added insult to injury by describing the drawings as ‘art-bolshevik expressions of a destructive concept of art not appropriate to our age’. The book was placed on the index of forbidden literature. Despite his continued protests at the injustices to which he was being subjected, Barlach became progressively more isolated. He was forced to resign from the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1937. ‘When day after day one has to expect the threatened, deadly blow, work stops by itself,’ he wrote. ‘I resemble someone driven into a corner, the pack at his heels.’125 His health underwent a serious decline, and he died in hospital of a heart attack on 24 October 1938.126
The kind of sculptor for whom the Nazis could feel a genuine enthusiasm was Arno Breker. Born in 1900, Breker belonged to a younger generation than Barlach. During his student days he had produced a number of sculptures that clearly showed the older man’s influence. A lengthy stay in Paris, from 1927 to 1932, put him firmly under the aegis of Aristide Maillol, whose figurative style now shaped his own. During a sojourn in Rome early in 1933, when he was working on the restoration of a damaged sculpture by Michelangelo, he met Goebbels, who recognized his talent and encouraged him to return to Germany. After winding up his affairs in Paris, Breker duly obliged. Previously unpolitical, indeed as an expatriate not very well informed about German politics at all, he quickly fell under the spell of the Nazis. Breker’s style was framed mainly by non-German influences - Classical Greek sculpture, Michelangelo, Maillol. Some of his busts, like one of the Impressionist painter Max Liebermann, completed in 1934, were penetrating, subtle and full of illuminating detail. But soon he was smoothing over the rough edges of his work, rendering it more impersonal, and giving it a more monumental, less intimate quality, projecting toughness, hardness and aggression in his figures rather than the softer human qualities with which he had endowed them in the 1920s. By the mid-1930s, Breker was producing massive, musclebound, superdimensional male nudes, Aryan supermen in stone.127
This soon paid dividends. Prizewinning entries in a competition mounted in 1936 on the theme of sporting achievement won him an increasing number of official commissions. In 1937 he joined the Nazi Party to smooth the way for further official patronage. Breker became personally acquainted with Hitler, who put his bust of Wagner in his private quarters in Berchtesgaden. He was nominated ‘Official State Sculptor’ on Hitler’s birthday in 1937 and given a huge studio with forty-three employees to help him with his work. He became an influential figure, lionized by Goring and other leading Nazis and protected by them from any criticism. In 1937 his work was given a prominent place in the German pavilion at the Paris World Exposition. In 1938 he designed two massive male nudes to be placed at the entrance to the newly built Reich Chancellery - Torch Bearer and Sword Bearer. Others followed, notably Readiness, in 1939, a muscly male figure frowning in hatred at an unseen enemy, his right hand about to draw a sword from its scabbard to begin the fight. Breker became a wealthy man, enjoying a huge variety of favours and decorations, including several houses, massive subsidies and of course large fees for his public work. Lifeless, inhuman, striking contrived poses of unbridled menace, and embodying the empty, declamatory assertion of an imagined collective will, Breker’s sculptures became the hallmark of the public artistic taste of the Third Reich. Their almost machine-like quality placed them unmistakeably in the twentieth century; they looked forward to the new type of human being whose creation was one of the primary aims of Nazi cultural policy, unthinkingly physical, aggressive, ready for war.128
By the time Breker came to public prominence, the cultural managers of the Third Reich had effectively disposed of abstract, modernist art of the kind they were accustomed to describe as ‘degenerate’. Hitler’s own tastes played a role here greater perhaps than in any other area of cultural policy apart from architecture. He himself had once attempted to make a career as an artist, but from the very beginning he had rejected modernism in all its varieties.129 Once in power, he turned his prejudices into policy. On 1 September 1933 Hitler told the Nuremberg Party Rally that it was time for a new, German art. The coming of the Third Reich, he said, ‘leads ineluctably to a new orientation in almost every area of the people’s life’. The effects ‘of this spiritual revolution’ must be felt in art too. Art must reflect the racial soul of the people. The idea that art was international must be rejected as decadent, and Jewish. He condemned what he saw as its expression ‘in the cubist-dadaist cult of primitivism’ and in cultural Bolshevism and announced in its stead ‘a new artistic Renaissance of the Aryan human being’. And he warned that modernist artists would not be forgiven their past sins:
In the cultural sphere, too, the National Socialist movement and leadership of the state must not tolerate mountebanks or incompetents suddenly changing their colours and thus, as if nothing had happened, taking a place in the new state so that they can talk big about art and cultural policy . . . Either the monstrous products of their production at that time reflected a genuine inner experience, in which case they are a danger to the healthy sense of our people and belong in medical care, or they were just done to make money, in which case they are guilty of fraud and belong in the care of another appropriate institution. In no way do we want the cultural expression of our Reich to be distorted by these elements; for this is not their state, but ours.130
Nineteen thirty-three had seen, accordingly, a massive purge of Jewish artists, abstract artists, semi-abstract artists, left-wing artists and indeed almost all the artists in Germany at the time who had any kind of international reputation. Declarations of support for the new regime, even Nazi Party membership since the earliest days, as in the case of the primitivist painter and sculptor Emil Nolde, failed to save those of whose earlier work Hitler disapproved. The few artists of distinction who remained in the hope of better times to come, like Ernst Barlach, were quickly disillusioned.131
In 1933, Jewish, Social Democratic, liberal and leftist art museum directors had been summarily removed from their posts and replaced with people deemed by the Nazis to be more reliable. The Folkwang Museum in Essen was even put into the hands of an SS officer, Klaus Graf Baudissin, who had the museum’s famous murals by Oskar Schlemmer, an artist closely associated with the Bauhaus, painted over. Yet art museum directors continued to show works of which the more extreme wing of the Nazi Party disapproved. Even Baudissin, a trained art historian, kept works by Oskar Kokoschka, Franz Marc and Emil Nolde on show well into 1935. The Director of the Bavarian State Painting Collections, Ernst Buchner, a Nazi Party member since 1 May 1933, fought for the right to exhibit the work of a Jewish-German artist such as the Impressionist Max Liebermann and in 1935 successfully resisted attempts by the Reich Education and Religion Minister Bernhard Rust to force him to sell off works by Van Gogh and the French Impressionists, to whom the Nazis objected not least because they were not German. When Hitler personally removed the long-term and pro-modernist Director of the National Gallery, Ludwig Justi, from his post in 1933, his successor, Alois Schardt, organized a spectacular new exhibition of German art that included works by Nolde and a variety of Expressionists. Visiting the gallery for a preview, Education Minister Bernhard Rust was outraged. He immediately fired the new director and ordered the exhibition to be dismantled; Schardt emigrated to the United States after presiding at a small Berlin gallery over an exhibition of work by Franz Marc that was closed down by the Gestapo the day it opened in May 1936. Schardt’s successor Eberhard Hanfstaengl, previously a gallery director in Munich, fared no better; he fell foul of Hitler when the Leader paid a surprise visit and saw some Expressionist works on the walls. On 30 October 1936 the new wing of the National Gallery was closed after it had housed an exhibition that included paintings by Paul Klee.132 Similar closures now followed elsewhere. Over the period since the middle of 1933, gallery and museum directors, including those appointed by the Nazis themselves, had fought a cultural guerrilla war against the demands of local Nazi bosses to remove paintings of one kind or another from exhibition. A few, like Hanfstaengl, had continued to purchase modern art, though he discreetly left it out of the museum’s published catalogue. But the time for such compromises and evasions was now over.133
From the very beginning, some of the most fanatical of the Nazi art gallery and museum directors organized shows of the modernist works they had withdrawn from exhibition, under titles such as ‘Chamber of Art Horrors’, ‘Images of Cultural Bolshevism’, ‘Mirrors of Decadence in Art’ or ‘The Spirit of November: Art in the Service of Decay’. Those exhibited included Max Beckmann, Otto Dix and George Grosz, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Franz Marc, August Macke, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff and Emil Nolde. German-based foreign artists such as Alexei Jawlensky and Vassily Kandinsky also featured, alongside the inevitable Cubists and avant-garde artists from other countries.134 The inclusion of Macke and Marc caused particular controversy because they had both been killed on the front in the First World War, and veterans’ associations objected to the insult their proscription did to their memory.135 Some of the earliest of these exhibitions, held already in 1933, had aroused strong protests on the part of art-loving visitors, leading in some cases to their arrest. But within a very short space of time, such opposition became impossible. By the mid-1930s exhibitions of this kind had been mounted in sixteen different cities. Hitler visited the most important of them, in Dresden, in August 1935. Close inspection of the offending works prompted him to deliver another lengthy diatribe against them at the Nuremberg Party Rally shortly afterwards, the third time he had used this occasion to lecture his followers on the subject. Clearly, Goebbels needed to fall into line if he was to prevent Rosenberg, Rust and the other anti-modernists from taking over the lead in cultural policy. So, in June 1936, he acted. ‘Horrible examples of art Bolshevism’, he wrote in his diary, ‘have been brought to my attention’, as if he had not seen them before; ‘I want to arrange an exhibit in Berlin of art from the period of degeneracy. So that people can see and learn to recognize it.’ By the end of the month he had obtained Hitler’s permission to requisition ‘German degenerate art since 1910’ (the date of the first abstract painting, by the Munich-based Russian artist Vassily Kandinsky) from public collections for the show. Many in the Propaganda Ministry were reluctant to go along with the project. Its political opportunism was cynical even by Goebbels’s standards. He knew that Hitler’s hatred of artistic modernism was unquenchable, and so he decided to gain favour by pandering to it, even though he did not share it himself.136
The exhibition’s organization was entrusted to Adolf Ziegler, President of the Reich Chamber for the Visual Arts, and a painter of classical nudes whose pedantic realism earned him the popular nickname of the ‘Reich Master of Pubic Hair’.137 Armed with commissions from Goebbels and Hitler, Ziegler and his entourage toured German galleries and museums and picked out works to be taken to the new exhibition. Museum directors, including Buchner and Hanfstaengl, were furious, refused to co-operate, and pleaded with Hitler to obtain compensation if the confiscated works were sold abroad. Such resistance was not tolerated, and Hanfstaengl lost his job at the Berlin National Gallery as a result. One hundred and eight works were seized from the Munich collections, and comparable numbers from museums elsewhere.138 When the Degenerate Art show opened in Munich, long recognized as Germany’s art capital, on 19 July, 1937, visitors found that the 650 or so works it contained were deliberately badly displayed, hung at odd angles, poorly lit, and jammed up together on the walls, higgledy-piggledy, under general titles such as ‘Farmers Seen by Jews’, ‘Insult to German Womanhood’ and ‘Mockery of God’.139 Ironically, the diagonal lines and the graffitoid slogans on the walls owed something to the design techniques of the Dada movement, one of the exhibition’s prime targets. Here, however, they were intended to express a congruity between the art produced by mental asylum inmates, a major point of discussion amongst liberal psychiatrists under the Weimar Republic, and the distorted perspectives adopted by the Cubists and their ilk, a point made explicit in much of the propaganda surrounding the assault on degenerate art as the product of degenerate human beings.140
Never has the human race been closer in appearance and temperament to Antiquity than today. Sporting, competitive and combative games are steeling millions of youthful bodies and they are increasingly taking on a form and constitution that have not perhaps been seen for a thousand years, indeed have scarcely been dreamed of . . . This type of human being, my art-stutterer gentlemen, is the type of the new age. And what do you knock together? Malformed cripples and cretins, women who can only arouse repulsion. Men who are nearer to animals than to humans, children who, if they lived so, would virtually have to be regarded as curses of God!141
In fact, the most important criteria for the selection of works to be displayed in the exhibition were not aesthetic, but racial and political. Of the nine sections into which it was divided, only the first and the last were based on aesthetic criteria. The others pilloried the subjects chosen rather than the manner in which they were depicted. The first section covered ‘barbarism of representation’, ‘garish-coloured blobs of paint’ and ‘deliberate contempt for all the basic skills of the visual arts’. The second showed work deemed to be blasphemous, and the third political art advocating anarchism and the class struggle. A fourth section displayed paintings showing soldiers as murderers or, alternatively, as war cripples. According to the catalogue, in these pictures ‘the deeply ingrained respect for every soldierly virtue, for courage, bravery and readiness for action is to be driven out of the people’s consciousness’. A fifth section was devoted to immoral and pornographic art (most too disgusting to be shown, it was claimed). A sixth part of the exhibition showed the ‘destruction of the last remains of racial consciousness’ in pictures supposedly presenting negroes, prostitutes and the like as racial ideals. In a similar way, a seventh section was devoted to paintings and graphic works in which ‘the idiot, the cretin und the paraplegic’ were depicted in a positive light. Section eight was given over to the work of Jewish artists. The last and biggest section covered the ‘ “isms”, that Flechtheim, Wollheim and their Cohnsorts [sic] have hatched up, pushed and sold at knockdown prices over the years’, from Dadaism to Cubism and beyond. All of this, declared the catalogue, would show the public that modern art was not just a fad: Jews and cultural bolshevists were mounting a ‘planned attack on the existence and continuation of art altogether’. Five out of the brochure’s ten illustrated recto pages carried antisemitic messages just to underline the point.143 Modernist art, as many Nazi polemics of the time claimed, was above all the product of international, foreign influences. Art had to return to the German soul. As for modernism, one writer concluded with the fervent wish: ‘May the degenerate suffocate in its own filth, without anybody sympathizing with its fate.’144
The exhibition was enormously popular and attracted over two million visitors by the end of November 1937. Entry was free, and massive press publicity drew people’s attention to the horrors it contained.145 The exhibits were, the papers proclaimed, ‘shoddy products of a melancholy age’, ‘ghosts of the past’, from the era when ‘bolshevism and dilettantism celebrated their triumphs’. Lurid descriptions and illustrations showed readers what they could expect to see when they went to the exhibition.146 In its first few weeks, at least, it was visited mainly by people from the Munich lower middle classes, many of whom had never been to an art exhibition before, and by the Party faithful, eager to imbibe a new form of antisemitic hatred. The stipulation that children and young persons were not to be allowed in because the exhibits were too shocking added an element of titillation to entice the eager public. Despite this, some young people did attend, among them the seventeen-year-old Peter Guenther, who went in July. The son of a liberal art journalist who had been expelled from the Reich Chamber of Literature in 1935, Guenther knew a fair amount about paintings. He found the atmosphere at the exhibition frightening and intimidating. The visitors, he reported later, commented loudly on how incompetently executed the works displayed were, and how there had been a conspiracy of art critics, dealers and museum directors to fool the public, a sentiment encouraged by the fact that a number of the exhibits had price tags attached to them indicating how much they had cost (‘paid from the pennies paid in tax by the German working people’). One painting by Erich Heckel came with a price-tag of a million Marks; the exhibitors did not say that this had been paid in 1923, towards the height of the hyperinflation, and was in fact worth very little in real terms. Some Party groups who visited the exhibition telegrammed the Propaganda Ministry with messages such as: ‘The artists should be tied up next to their pictures so that every German can spit in their faces.’ Carola Roth, a friend of the artist Max Beckmann, noted how while older visitors went round the exhibition shaking their heads, younger Party activists and brownshirts laughed and jeered at the exhibits. The atmosphere of hatred and loudmouthed ridicule allowed no dissent; indeed it was an essential part of the exhibition itself, turning it into yet another mass propaganda exercise for the regime. Later on, however, when young Peter Guenther paid a second visit, the atmosphere was, he reported, much quieter, with some visitors lingering in front of artworks they clearly enjoyed and which they had come to see for what they suspected might be the last time. Yet overall, the exhibition was clearly a success. Like much else in Nazi culture, it allowed ordinary conservative citizens the opportunity to voice out loud prejudices that they had long held but previously been hesitant to reveal. 147
Many of the artists whose work was on display were either foreigners, like Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, or Oskar Kokoschka, or had emigrated, like Paul Klee or Vassily Kandinsky. But some of the artists who featured in the exhibition had stayed on in Germany, in the hope that the tide would turn and they would be rehabilitated. Max Beckmann, whose last solo exhibition had been as recently as 1936, in Hamburg, left for exile in Amsterdam the day after the opening of the Degenerate Art exhibition. Though far from well off, Beckmann was still painting. He was supported by sympathetic dealers and foreign admirers in the following, difficult years.148 Others were not so fortunate. 149 The Expressionist artist Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, who at this time, like Beckmann, was in his fifties, had already been living for most of the time in Switzerland since the 1920s, but he depended far more than Beckmann did on the German art market for his livelihood. Until 1937 he did not give up hope. But in July 1937 he was finally expelled from the Prussian Academy of Arts, and many of his works were confiscated from German collections by the Ziegler commission, which exhibited no fewer than thirty-two of them in the Degenerate Art show. Kirchner was already ill, and for some years he had lost his way as an artist, never really recapturing the greatness of his period in Berlin from 1910 to the mid- 1920s. For him this was the last straw. ‘I had always hoped that Hitler was for all Germans,’ he wrote bitterly, ‘and now he has defamed so many and really serious, good artists of German blood. This is very sad for those affected, because they - the serious ones among them - all wished to, and did, work for Germany’s fame and honour.’ A fresh round of confiscations of his work only deepened his despair. On 15 June 1938 he destroyed many of the works he kept in his rural retreat in Switzerland, stepped outside the house, and shot himself in the heart.150
Meanwhile, the regime, in a way that was characteristic of its decision-making in other areas too, took the opportunity of the exhibition to pass legislation generalizing the policy it represented. Hitler declared the day before the exhibition opened that the time for tolerance was at an end:
From now on we shall wage a remorseless war of cleansing against the last elements of the subversion of our culture . . . But now - I will assure you here - all those cliques of chatterers, dilettantes and art-frauds who puff each other up and so keep each other going, will be caught and removed. As far as we’re concerned, these prehistorical, antediluvian cultural stone-agers and art-stutterers can go back to their ancestral caves to carry on their international scrawlings there.151
The ‘chatterers’ indeed had already been silenced by an order issued by Goebbels on 27 November 1936 banning art criticism, which, he said, had been ‘elevated into a court of judgment over art in the era of foreign, Jewish domination of art’. In its place came ‘art reporting’, which was to limit itself to simple description. In an art world where everything exhibited in public museums and galleries was there with the approval of the Propaganda Ministry and the Reich Chamber of the Plastic Arts, art criticism could seem too much like criticism of the regime.152 To ensure that modernist works could no longer to be put on public display, Ziegler declared in his opening address that the country’s galleries would soon be stripped of such excrescences altogether.153 Goebbels told the Reich Culture Chamber shortly afterwards that the ‘frightening and horrifying forms of the “Exhibition of Degenerate Art” in Munich’ showed ‘botched art works’, the ‘monstrous, degenerate creations’ of men of ‘yesterday’, ‘senile representatives . . . of a period that we have intellectually and politically overcome’. On 31 May 1938 a Law for the Confiscation of the Products of Degenerate Art was promulgated. It retrospectively legalized the seizure of degenerate artworks not only from galleries and museums but also from private collections, without compensation save in exceptional cases ‘to avoid hardship’.154 The confiscation programme was centralized in the hands of a commission headed by Adolf Ziegler and including the art dealer Karl Haberstock and Hitler’s photographer Heinrich Hoffmann.155
The commission increased the number of artworks seized to around 5,000 paintings and 12,000 graphic works, drawings, woodcuts and watercolours from a total of 101 art galleries and museums all over Germany.156 Some non-German works were returned to foreign institutions and individuals who had loaned them to German museums, some forty were eventually given back, and some were exchanged. In addition, Hermann Göring reserved fourteen of the most valuable pieces for himself: four paintings by Vincent Van Gogh, four by Edvard Munch, three by Franz Marc and one each by Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin and Paul Signac. He sold them off to raise money to buy tapestries to adorn Carinhall, the palatial hunting lodge he had built in memory of his first wife; an illegal piece of profiteering which hinted strongly at how he would behave when the art of other European countries was at his disposal.157 Moreover, as artists in exile and their supporters abroad quickly organized counter-exhibitions of ‘Twentieth-Century German Art’, most notably in London, Paris and Boston, they drew attention to the reputation many of the banned artists enjoyed abroad. The Nazi regime simply could not ignore the demand for modernist German art in other countries in its search for badly needed hard currency. Goebbels began negotiations with Wildenstein and other dealers outside Germany and remodelled Ziegler’s commission into a body more closely under his control. Set up within the Propaganda Ministry in May 1938, it included three art dealers and was charged with the disposal of the confiscated works. Over the next few years, up to 1942, over a million Reichsmarks from the sale of up to 3,000 confiscated artworks were deposited in a special account in the Reichsbank. The most public transaction was a sale of 125 works by Ernst Barlach, Marc Chagall, Otto Dix, Paul Gauguin, Vincent Van Gogh, George Grosz, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Paul Klee, Max Liebermann, Henri Matisse, Amadeo Modigliani, Pablo Picasso, Maurice Vlaminck and others at the Galerie Fischer in Lucerne on 30 June 1939. All but thirty-one of them found a buyer. Some of the proceeds went to the museums and galleries from which the works had been seized, but most of them were put into a London account to enable Hitler to buy paintings for his personal collection. In this way, a good number of the confiscated artworks survived.158
The great majority, however, did not. The total sum realized from the Lucerne auction, just over half a million Swiss francs, was disappointing even by the standards of the day. The knowledge that the regime was confiscating and offloading large quantities of modern art caused prices to plummet in behind-the-scenes sales as well. One painting by Max Beckmann, Southern Coast, went for only $20. It seemed that big profits were not to be made from them after all. A million Reichsmarks was little enough in the end. Although two further auctions were planned, another small sale was held in Zurich in August 1939, and private transactions took place all the way up to 1942, the looming threat of war made the transport of large quantities of artworks abroad increasingly inadvisable.159 Their disposal was made more difficult by the fact that Hitler had personally inspected the collection of 12,167 remaining pieces in a warehouse in Berlin and forbidden their return to the collections from which they had been removed. There seemed little alternative but to destroy those that had not been sold. After all, in the eyes of Ziegler and his commission they were artistically worthless anyway. On 20 March 1939, therefore, some 1,004 oil paintings and 3,825 watercolours, drawings and graphic works were piled up in the courtyard of the central fire station in Berlin and set alight. The bonfire was not attended by the public or accompanied by any formal ceremony or public announcement. None the less, it bore strong reminiscences of the earlier book-burnings of 10 May 1933 that had consumed the works of Jewish, left-wing and modernist writers on the public squares of Germany’s university cities.160
Map 5. ‘Degenerate Art’Exhibitions
Modernist art in Germany had finally been destroyed in the most physical possible way. Modernist works had now been removed from German collections and thrown onto a bonfire. The only ones to be seen were displayed in the Degenerate Art exhibition, which now went on tour in a reduced form, and attracted substantial numbers of visitors in other cities such as Berlin, Düsseldorf and Frankfurt in the following two years.161 Modernist artists had been forced into exile or prevented from selling or exhibiting their work in public. Yet they had not disappeared altogether. On the contrary, as the Security Service of the SS reported in 1938, ‘cultural bolshevist’ and ‘Expressionist’ works were still being exhibited at private galleries and shows, especially in Berlin. In a competition held in Berlin in 1938, the SS complained, ‘the exhibition of young artists offered for the most part a picture of degeneracy and incompetence, so that this part of the artistic younger generation has opposed itself to the National Socialist conception of art’.162 It seemed, then, that Nazi views of art had not triumphed after all, except by the brutal physical suppression of the alternatives. Nor was this all. The SS also complained in 1938 that ‘opposition to the National Socialist view of art was present amongst wide sections of the German artistic community itself . . . insofar as they are not to be regarded as markedly National Socialist by inclination’. Particularly unpopular was the Reich Chamber for the Visual Arts, which, according to the SS report, almost all German artists disliked. 163 It exercised extensive powers over its 42,000 members, who included architects, garden designers, interior decorators, copyists, antiques dealers, potters, and indeed almost anyone who had any connection with the visual arts. To qualify for membership it was necessary to fill in an elaborate questionnaire listing the applicant’s previous political affiliations and giving the racial background of family members.164 Anyone who did not qualify could not practice. Unable to make a living any more from selling their work, some turned to humiliatingly menial alternatives. By 1939, for instance, Oskar Schlemmer was painting camouflage on military buildings.165
In the meantime, ‘German’ artists like Arno Breker prospered as never before. They were encouraged by the Propaganda Ministry, which instituted a whole series of prizes, awards and titles for artists whose work conformed to the Nazi ideal.166 Art exhibitions all over Germany now carried titles such as ‘Blood and Soil’ or ‘Basic Forces of the German Will to Form’, and devoted themselves to subjects such as portraits of National Socialist leaders, above all, of course, Hitler himself.167 Moreover, the Degenerate Art Exhibition was not mounted in isolation, but was in fact the pendant to a ‘Great German Art Exhibition’ opened in Munich the day before.168 The huge show, which was renewed annually thereafter and preceded by a massive pageant of German culture in the streets of Munich, contained landscapes, still life paintings, portraits, allegorical statues and much more besides. Its themes included animals and nature, motherhood, industry, sport, and peasant life and rural trades, though not, perhaps surprisingly, soldiers or warfare. Massive, impersonal nudes provided prominent, untouchable, superhuman images of permanence and timelessness to contrast with the human dimension of the art now branded as degenerate. 169 Hitler himself inspected the exhibits in advance and personally threw out one in ten from the list of works chosen for display. Dissatisfied with the lack of rigour shown by Ziegler’s commission, he appointed his photographer Heinrich Hoffmann to make the final selection.170 The relatively low attendance at the exhibition - little over 400,000 compared to almost three million who attended the Degenerate Art exhibition in Munich and on tour - was probably due mainly to the fact that visitors had to pay.171 But it too was a success. According to Peter Guenther, visitors praised the craftsmanship and the realistic, lifelike quality of the statues and paintings (even those intended as allegories) and were generally impressed by the exhibits. Once more, many visitors, in the view of young Guenther, had not been to an art exhibition before.172 Nazi art policy, above all, was for people such as these.173
The Great German Art exhibition was housed in a purpose-built museum, designed in the style of an antique temple by the architect Paul Ludwig Troost. Its heavy, squared-off columns marching in front of a solid rectangular block of a building were a long way away from the delicate and subtle neo-Classical architecture that Troost sought to imitate. Like other Nazi buildings, it was first and foremost a statement of power.174 The House of German Art was only one of a large number of prestigious projects Hitler had begun as soon as he took power in 1933. Indeed, he had been thinking about them since the early 1920s. Hitler imagined himself an architect even more than he thought of himself as a painter, and paid more attention to architecture than to any other of the arts. ‘Every great era finds the concluding expression of its values in its buildings,’ he declared in 1938: ‘When peoples inwardly experience great times, they also give these times external expression. Their word is then more convincing than when it is spoken: it is the word in stone!’175
The new public buildings of the Third Reich were all conceived in this massive, pseudo-Classical, monumental style. Like the public buildings Hitler had observed and drawn on Vienna’s Ringstrasse in his younger days, they were intended to project permanence and durability. All of them were influenced by Hitler’s own personal architectural and design plans. Hitler spent hours working with architects on refining their ideas, poring over models and discussing the finer points of style and decoration. Already in 1931-2 he had collaborated with Troost on redesigning the Königsplatz in Munich, and when he came to power, these plans were put into effect. The old Party headquarters at the Brown House were replaced by a gigantic Leader Building and a huge Administration Building, housing vast reception halls and decorated with swastikas and eagles on the façade. There was a balcony on each one from which Hitler could speak to the crowds who were expected to gather below. Despite their appearance, the new buildings incorporated advanced technology in their construction and equipment, including air-conditioning. Adjoining were two characteristic expressions of the Nazi cult of the dead: temples of honour dedicated to the Nazis who had been killed in the 1923 beer-hall putsch. In each of them, an atmosphere of reverent sacrality prevailed, with the bodies of the recently exhumed martyrs displayed in sarcophagi mounted on a dais, open to the elements, and flanked by twenty limestone pillars lit by flaming braziers. The huge grass arena of the Königsplatz itself was paved over with 24,000 square feet of granite slabs. ‘Something new has been created here,’ remarked a commentator, ‘the deepest meaning of which is a political one.’ Here the organized and disciplined masses would gather to swear allegiance to the new order. The whole ensemble was, he concluded, ‘ideology become stone’.176
As in other fields, Nazi cultural managers took some time to impose their views. The Reich Chamber of Architects soon expelled Jewish practitioners from the profession, but despite Nazi hostility to ultramodern architecture, it was slower to move against the modernists, some of whom, such as Mies van der Rohe, remained in Germany for a while, though finding it increasingly difficult to practise. By 1935, however, the more experimental types of modernism had been effectively routed; Mies soon emigrated to New York.177 By the mid-1930s, constructions of the Weimar era such as modernist apartment blocks were no longer in fashion. Instead, the Nazi ideal of domestic architecture favoured a vernacular, pseudo-peasant style such as that practised by the leading proponent of racial theories of modern art, Paul Schultze-Naumburg. These were only showcases for the suburbs; necessity meant that blocks of flats still had to be constructed in the inner cities, where pitched roofs, however, were now preferred over flat roofs because they were believed to be more German.178 But it was into public buildings that Hitler put his real passion. In Munich, the foundations were laid for a gigantic new central railway station that was designed to be the largest steel-frame structure in the world, with a dome higher than the twin towers of Munich’s signature landmark, the Frauenkirche. Not only Munich, but other cities too were to be transformed into massive stone statements of the power and permanence of the Third Reich. Hamburg was to be graced with a new skyscraper for the Nazi Party’s regional headquarters higher than the Empire State Building in New York, crowned by an enormous neon swastika to act as a beacon for incoming ships. Down-river, the suburb of Othmarschen was to be demolished to make way for the ramps and piles of a gargantuan suspension bridge across the Elbe. The bridge was to be the largest in the world, larger by far than the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, on which it was modelled.179
In Berlin, a huge new airport terminal was built at Tempelhof, with over 2,000 rooms. A grandiose new Ministry of Aviation incorporated lavish, marble-floored halls, swastikas and memorials to famous German aviators. A vast Olympic Stadium, costing 77 million Reichsmarks, held 100,000 spectators, attending not only sporting events, but also major Nazi rallies. Here too, in adjoining towers, there were memorials for the fallen, in this case German soldiers of the First World War. By 1938 Hitler had also commissioned a new Reich Chancellery, since he now found the existing one too modest. It was even bigger and more imposing than the Munich buildings. The main gallery was nearly 500 feet long; twice as long, as Hitler noted, as the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.180 Inaugurated in 1939, the new Reich Chancellery, one commentator recorded, advertised ‘the eminence and richness of a Reich which has become a super-power’.181 In fact, the gigantism of all these projects, planned for completion by the early 1950s - a remarkably short space of time - was intended to signify Germany’s arrival by that date not just as a super-power but as the dominant power in the world.182
The new Reich Chancellery was designed not by Hitler’s favourite architect, Paul Troost, who had died in January 1934, but by a newcomer who was to play a central role in the Third Reich’s later years, Troost’s young collaborator Albert Speer. Born in Mannheim in 1905, Speer belonged to a generation of professionals whose ambitions were framed by the bitter and chaotic experiences of the First World War, the Revolution and the hyperinflation. The son of an architect, and thus a member of Germany’s educated upper middle class, Speer trained with the architect Heinrich Tessenow in Berlin, and formed close friendships with a number of Tessenow’s other pupils. Their teacher imbued them with an open approach to architecture, espousing neither modernism nor its antithesis, but emphasizing simplicity of form and the importance of rooting their style in the experience of the German people. As in every university in the mid-to-late 1920s, the atmosphere among the students was strongly right-wing, and despite his liberal background, Speer succumbed. In 1931, Hitler addressed Berlin’s students at a beer-hall meeting. Speer, in the audience, was, he later confessed, ‘carried away on the wave of the enthusiasm which, one could almost feel this physically, bore the speaker along from sentence to sentence. It swept away any scepticism, any reservations.’183
Overwhelmed, Speer joined the Nazi Party and threw himself into its work, volunteering for the National Socialist Drivers’ Corps and exploring, though not taking up, the possibility of joining the SS. By 1932 he was practising architecture independently, and began to use his Party contacts to get commissions. Goebbels asked him to help with the conversion and refurbishment of the Propaganda Ministry, a building by the great nineteenth-century architect Friedrich von Schinkel which Goebbels had vandalized with the help of a gang of brownshirts on moving in. Not surprisingly, Goebbels scorned Speer’s attempt to preserve what was left of Schinkel’s Classical interiors, and had the work redone in a more grandiose style a few months after Speer had completed his task. The young architect’s next project was more successful, however. Seeing the plans developed in the Propaganda Ministry for the celebration of the Day of National Labour on the Tempelhof Field in Berlin on 1 May 1933, Speer complained about their unimaginative quality and was commissioned to improve them. His successful innovations, including massive banners, swastikas and searchlights, led Goebbels to commission him to design the surround for the Nuremberg Rally later that year. It was Speer who, in 1934, created the ‘cathedral of light’ effect produced by upward-beamed searchlights that so impressed foreign visitors. Soon he was refurbishing Nazi Party offices and remodelling the interior of Goebbels’s new house on the Wannsee, just outside Berlin. Speer felt himself energized by the purposeful atmosphere surrounding the Nazi leaders. He worked extremely hard and got things done quickly. In no time at all, still only in his late twenties, he had made a name for himself amongst the Nazi leadership.184
The death of Troost, whom Hitler had revered, catapulted Speer into the Leader’s personal entourage, as Hitler co-opted the young man as his personal architectural adviser, someone to whom he could talk about his favourite hobby without the deference he had felt was owed to Troost. Speer was overwhelmed by this attention, and moved his family and home to be near to Hitler’s Bavarian retreat above Berchtesgaden. A frequent guest at Hitler’s mountain lodge, Speer was carried along by the Leader’s desire to construct huge, monumental buildings in a style ultimately derived from Classical antiquity. Soon he was being entrusted with schemes of rapidly increasing ambition, many of them based on sketches Hitler had himself made in the early-to-mid 1920s. Speer was commissioned to rebuild and extend the Nuremberg Party Rally grounds in a series of imposing new buildings constructed at vast expense from the late 1930s, including a stadium that would hold 405,000 people, a Congress Hall seating 60,000 and two huge parade-grounds, the Zeppelin Field and the Mars Field, flanked by rows of columns and providing standing room for 250,000 and 500,000 people respectively.185 Meanwhile he designed and built the German Pavilion at the 1937 World Exposition in Paris, another huge, bombastic structure, the largest in the entire exhibition. It was dominated by a massive pseudo-Classical tower of ten fluted piers joined by a cornice at the top, towering over all the nearby structures, including the Soviet pavilion, and outdone only by the Eiffel Tower, which stood at the end of the avenue on which the pavilions were located. Red swastikas glowed at night from the spaces between the piers. Next to the tower, the long, rectangular, windowless main hall projected a monolithic sense of unity to the outside world. Its interior was compared by an exiled German art critic, Paul Westheim, in a macabre, prophetic image, to a crematorium, with the tower taking the place of the chimney.186
Speer’s success as the architect of propaganda constructions such as these led to his appointment by Hitler on 30 January 1938 as the General Building Inspector for the National Capital, charged with putting into effect the Leader’s megalomaniac plans for the transformation of Berlin into a world capital, Germania, by 1950. A huge axis of wide boulevards designed for military parades was to be cut through Berlin. In the middle would stand a triumphal arch 400 feet high, more than twice as big as its counterpart in Paris, the Arc de Triomphe. The main avenue would lead up to a Great Hall, whose dome was to be 825 feet in diameter, the largest in the world. At the end of each of the four boulevards there would be an airport. Hitler himself had drawn up the plans many years before and discussed them with Speer many times since they had first met. Now, he decided, was the time to begin to put them into effect.187 They would last for all eternity, a monument to the Third Reich when Hitler had long since departed the scene. Evictions and the bulldozing of houses and apartment blocks levelled the ground for the new boulevards, and part of the scheme was eventually opened to traffic. Meanwhile, fresh buildings were added, including the new Reich Chancellery, and soon Speer had built a scale model which Hitler spent many hours in the following years poring over in his company, making adjustments, and bemoaning the fact that he himself had never become an architect.188
By the mid-1930s, Speer was heading a large firm of architects and gaining managerial experience that would stand him in good stead when he was suddenly catapulted into a much larger and more important role during the war. Many of his most striking designs were not purely his own but were worked out in a team whose members, notably Hans Peter Klinke, a fellow student of Tessenow’s, played a role at least as creative as his own. Moreover, the firm’s designs were far from original or even particularly Nazi in style: the civic architecture of the era drew on Classical models in other countries too, and the idea of remodelling cities along geometrical lines, with broad boulevards and great public buildings, was hardly new either; in many ways, for instance, Speer’s plans for Berlin bore a striking resemblance to the centre of the Federal capital of the United States in Washington, D.C., with its wide central mall surrounded by large colonnaded neo-Classical structures all in gleaming white stone. What distinguished Nazi civic architecture and city planning was not the Classical derivation of its style but the maniacal gigantism of its scale. Everything might not be very different from civic structures elsewhere, but it certainly was going to be vastly bigger than anything the world had so far seen. This was already apparent in the models of Berlin that Speer spent so much time inspecting with his master. On one occasion, he showed them in a private session to his 75-year-old father, himself a retired architect. ‘You’ve all gone completely crazy,’ the old man said.189
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The expansion and city centre formation of Amsterdam, in two map series
• Esther Gramsbergen TU Delft, Architecture and the Built Environment
• Otto Diesfeldt TU Delft, Architecture and the Built Environment
• Iskandar Pané TU Delft, Architecture and the Built Environment
Around 1850, Amsterdam was surrounded by water, on a tongue of land between the River IJ to the north, the Zuiderzee (then still an inlet of the North Sea) to the east and the Haarlemmermeer lake to the south-west. The Singelgracht canal, dug in the seventeenth century, still marked the boundary between the city and the countryside. Although the fortifications no longer served any military purpose, landward access to the city was still controlled via the city gates, so that municipal excise taxes could be levied. The western and eastern port islands were also protected by docks, and the River Amstel could be sealed off near the Damrak canal. Besides the port and work areas located inside the city boundaries (marked in grey) there was a large unbroken work area to the west of the city between the Singelgracht and Kostverloren Vaart canals, with large numbers of industrial mills.
In the previous decades major infrastructural works were commissioned by the government in order to strengthen Amsterdam’s position as a trading centre. The construction of the Rijksentrepotdok (‘National Warehouse Dock’) on the edge of the eastern port area in 1827 gave the city a tax-free transhipment centre. The north-south water route was enhanced by the construction of the North Holland Canal in 1824 and improvements to the navigability of the River Amstel in 1825. The advent of the railways ended the centuries-long domination of water transport. The first line, between Amsterdam and Haarlem, opened in 1839, to be followed in 1843 by the Amsterdam-Utrecht line. Both lines ended at terminus stations just outside the Singelgracht canal.
The main public institutions were mostly located in the mediaeval part of the city. A new exchange building, the Zocher Exchange, had recently been built. In 1808 the city hall on the Dam square was turned into a palace by King Louis Bonaparte, and the exchange bank, the courthouse and the city council had to move to new premises. The city council was housed in Prinsenhof, in the former monastery and convent district, and in 1836 the Amsterdam courthouse moved from there to the Palace of Justice on the Prinsengracht canal.
The main social welfare institutions, such as the Burgerweeshuis orphanage and the Binnengasthuis hospital, had been built back in the seventeenth century on the former sites of monasteries and convents in the south of the mediaeval part of the city.
The only large green area, the Plantage, was located on the eastern side of the city, inside the Singelgracht. This contained the botanical gardens (created in 1683) and the zoo (1835), in between allotment gardens, timber yards, tea gardens and open-air theatres. Permanent construction was not yet officially allowed there. Large institutions such as the Orange-Nassau barracks and the prison with cells were built here and there on the former sites of bastions.
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Listen to Our Kiwi
Why monitor kiwi
We know so little about our national bird. Like, for example, did you know there are five different kinds of kiwi?
We study the roroa (great spotted kiwi). We don’t know how long roroa live, whether they mate for life or if they like cheese (see our questions page!). We do know that they are an endangered species, which means they are dying out on the planet, and we want to help them live and thrive.
How we monitor the kiwi
We want to learn about roroa without handling them, so we put up cameras and recorders around the sanctuary and in other locations around the Paparoa Ranges. Every few weeks, we take the data from these devices to see what we can learn from it by listening. By listening we hope to be able to create a long-term way to individually identify the roroa, their locations, and which other birds they are interacting with. This kind of listening is called passive acoustic monitoring.
Male or Female?
One thing that is useful for passive acoustic monitoring of roroa is identifying the difference between male and female calls. Have a look at these spectrograms and see if you can see what we mean –
This is a male roroa. Male roroa calls have high-pitched, whistle-y notes that usually go from lower to higher pitches.
This is a female roroa. They make relatively low-pitched notes that usually go from lower to higher pitches, and have a growly, gritty sound.
Fun fact – unless you DNA test them, often you can’t tell whether a roroa (or any other kiwi species) is male or female until they are maybe three years old.
Kiwi, Weka or Ruru?
Sometimes the software we use makes a mistake and thinks that ruru or weka is a roroa. It’s an easy mistake to make – if you look and listen to these, you may be able to see the difference.
This is a weka. Weka notes are usually shorter and with less space between them than roroa notes. They also tend to have more complicated shapes, with the pitch going up and down a few times during each note.
This is a ruru. Ruru make lots of different kinds of call. This one is called a cree call. Cree calls notes tend to be slightly rainbowshaped, unlike female roroa notes, and they have a ‘noisier’ quality. Also, the timing of their notes tends to be a little uneven. They will also not usually make lots of cree calls in a row.
Thanks to Marcelo Araya-Salas, who created the code for the rolling spectrograms.
Have it mastered?
So you think you could identify a bird from listening to and looking at one of these rolling spectrograms? Why not take our quiz and find out?!
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15 Fascinating Kaliningrad Facts
Fascinating Facts About Kaliningrad
Kaliningrad is the administrative centre of Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea.
1. Kaliningrad was formally known as Königsberg (1254 to 1945) and was the capital city of the German province of East Prussia.
2. The Population of Kaliningrad is mostly Russian. 87.4% Russian, 3.8% Belarusian and 4% Ukrainian, 0.7% Armenian and 0.5% Tatar.
3. Kaliningrad is a seaport city and Russian exclave situated between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea.
4. The most famous person to be born in Königsberg was a German Philosopher Immanuel Kant. When Königsberg became Russian for the first time in the 18th century, Kant took an oath to the Russian Empress.
5. Kaliningrad has about 185 rainy days a year.
6. Russia had two Kaliningrad’s from 1946 til 1996, the other Kaliningrad was near Moscow and was later renamed to Korolyov.
7. Kaliningrad region is famous for its production of amber. possesses over 90% of the world’s amber.
8. Kaliningrad got its name in 1946 in honour of famous Soviet communistic activist Mikhail Kalinin. The Second part of name “grad” means “city”.
9. Most of Königsberg was destroyed during World War II and was rebuilt in the style of a traditional Soviet city, however, some of the German architecture remains.
10. Kaliningrad is headquarters of the Russian Baltic Fleet.
11. Kaliningrad is split into 3 districts: Leningradsky (Ленинградский), Moskovsky (Московский) and Tsentralny (Центральный).
12. Kaliningrad is closer to Berlin (527km) and Prague (659km) than it is to Moscow (1289km) and St. Petersburg (797km).
13. The Kaliningrad region covers an area of 15,000 square kilometres.
14. The first ever book printed in Lithuanian language, the Catechism, It was printed on 8 January 1547 by Hans Weinreich in Königsberg. only 200 copies were printed and only two copies survived. one is stored in the Nicolaus Copernicus University Library in Toruń, Poland, and the other is in the Vilnius University Library in Lithuania.
15. Kaliningrad’s Curonian Spit is a UNESCO World Heritage Site: inscription since 2000.
Kaliningrad Facts
Kaliningrad Facts
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Art Deco Movements
Three Movements of Art Deco Style
decozigzagThe Zig Zag style of the 1920s included traditional masonry walls accentuated by strong vertical lines. This was a prosperous, optimistic time in America. The vertical lines reflected this attitude of soaring ambitions and emphasized the height of buildings that were climbing higher into the sky than ever before, thanks to new construction techniques. The Zig Zag style often made use of terra cotta as a sheathing material to produce colorful and ornamental designs.
decopwaThe PWA (Public Works Administration) and WPA (Works Progress Administration)
style includes massive stone institutional buildings constructed with local labor and materials. It reflects an abstract, puritanical approach to classical-oriented buildings.
decostreamlineThe Streamline style, popular during the Great Depression and into the early 40s, made use of horizontal aerodynamic forms with curved facades and glass bricks. It utilized smooth surfaces of newly adapted materials. Whereas the Zig Zag style emphasized height through vertical lines, the Streamline style emphasized speed and movement through horizontal lines.
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Curtain Theatre 2
Discoveries Unveiled at the Curtain Theatre
05/17/16 |
BBC Online
A 'bird whistle' thought to have been used for sound effects in 16th century performances of Romeo and Juliet has been discovered.
Archaeologists found the whistle at the site of the Curtain Theatre, one of Shakespeare's least-historically documented playhouses.
Historians said the theatre in Shoreditch, east London, would have been rectangular rather than curved.
The dig will last another month before the site becomes a visitor centre.
The remains of the Curtain, which opened in 1577, were found behind a pub as part of regeneration works in 2011.
Bird whistles were children's toys, but may have been used for sound effects in theatrical performances.
In Romeo and Juliet, staged at the Curtain Theatre, there are numerous references to bird song such as "That birds would sing and think it were not night".
Heather Knight, the senior archaeologist leading the dig on behalf of the Museum of London Archaeology, said: "Theatre producers at that time were always trying to find new ways to animate their productions and delight audiences.
"Archaeologists and theatre historians have long pondered what the Curtain Theatre looked like - this long-awaited excavation is now starting to give up the secrets of this historic site."
Findings from the excavation suggest the structure reused the walls of earlier buildings, with the back section of the playhouse being a new addition.
Archaeologists also found personal items, including an animal bone comb.
The Curtain's foundations will be put on permanent display as part of a major redevelopment which will include homes, shops and restaurants called The Stage.
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color hydrosphere icon
Just one moment,
loading Hydrosphere...
Featured Mini Lesson
Grade Level: 6-8 , 9-12
Students will use coloring sheets to create a color coded model of El Niño. If the Data Literacy Map Cube is used with this, students should color their models first.
Students will investigate the differences in sea surface height during an El Niño event by creating a model with gelatin, sherbet and whipped creme.
Learn how the JASON-2 satellite measures ocean heights for a variety of purposes including monitoring of El Niño.
Grade Level: 6-8 , 9-12
This is the first of a four-part series on the water cycle, which follows the journey of water from the ocean to the atmosphere, to the land, and back again to the ocean. Students review the video and answer questions.
Grade Level: 6-8 , 9-12
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"url": "https://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/phenomenon/el-nino-southern-oscillation"
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Thursday, August 18, 2011
Choia is an extinct sponge that lived from the Cambrian to the early Ordovician. Choia was about one inch in diameter and it looked like a cone flattened from the top, with spines radiating out the sides.
My drawing of a group of Choia on the sea floor.
At first scientists thought that Choia's spines radiated out in all directions, like a sea urchin. But now they believe that Choia's spines radiated out the side. Choia lived flat against the sea floor and was probably convex so that it would not be turned over by waves and currents because it was not attached to the sea floor like most sponges. Choia lived in groups and was similar to Choiaella, which looked like a spineless Choia.
Scientists have found 127 specimens of Choia in the Phyllopod bed of the Burgess Shale. It has also been found in the Wheeler Shale in Utah, and in China, Morocco, and Greenland.
I believe that Choia's spines may have kept the sponge from sinking into the soft sediment. But that is just my hypothesis.
1. You ought to include your own illustrations more often.
2. I agree with FlavorDav-- you should post more of your illustrations!
Also, last night I watched a cool PBS documentary about sponges and the origins of complex animals. It's called "The Shape of Life: Origins" and you can watch it online (if you haven't seen it already):
3. I'm glad people like it when I post my own drawings!
I just watched that video. It's really, really cool!!!!!!!!!! Thank you very much for telling me about it!!!!!!!!!!
4. I'm glad you liked the video so much! It's the first part of a series:
Each one features a particular phylum, as listed here:
PS: Thanks for linking my blog in the sidebar!
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River always lured Twain
Lisa Newman
"Life on the Mississippi" by Mark Twain. Boston: James R. Osgood & Company, 1883.
Samuel Clemens, at the age of 10, left his hometown of Hannibal, Missouri, on his first riverboat voyage in 1853. He found work as a printer in St. Louis and confidently moved on for other work in New York City, Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. Several years later he landed his dream job as an apprentice to a veteran steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River. Clemens' career came to an abrupt halt when traffic on the river became impossible during the Civil War. By 1863 he was working as a reporter and first signed his pen name "Mark Twain." Throughout his writing life, Twain returned to the river, and none more so than in "Life on the Mississippi."
Twain published a seven-part series of essays,"Old Times on the Mississippi," based on his travels on the Mississippi River in the Atlantic Monthly in 1875. Seven years later Twain made a trip on the Mississippi with his publisher, James Osgood, and stenographer Roswell Phelps to gather more material to make a book suitable in length for the subscription book market.
The first edition of "Life on the Mississippi" was lavishly illustrated. The spine and cover featured gold stamped scenes of riverboat life on the Mississippi by the principal artist, John Harley. While Harley focused on many of the river folk sketches, Edmund Henry Garrett was employed to capture many of the landscape and shoreline scenes. To meet the publishing deadline, illustrator A.B. Shute was added to the team to complete the final chapters. The illustrations also identify a first edition, first printing: a Mark Twain in flames above a cremation urn was removed from subsequent printings due to objections from his wife.
In 19th century America, illustrated books were the main way visual images entered the home, influencing how Americans learned about history and far away places. Altogether the illustrations in "Life on the Mississippi" were, and still are, vital compliments to the text of "Life on the Mississippi."
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March 31, 2019
So You Want to Build a Battleship - Construction Part 2
Once a battleship's hull had been assembled, the builder was faced with the task of getting it into the water. Launch was the most difficult and involved part of building a ship, as tens of thousands of tons of steel had to be slid down into the water without damage to itself or to the surroundings.1
Iowa slides down the ways
This was harder than it sounds. A careful balance had to be struck between making sure that the hull didn't hang up on the launching ways, the concrete tracks that it was built on, and making sure that it didn't go into the water so fast that it got damaged or ran into the opposite bank, a particular problem for yards on narrow rivers. Possibly the most fraught part of the process was when the ship left the ways, which didn't extend very far below the surface of the water. If the stern of the ship wasn't buoyant enough when the center of gravity passed the end of the ways, the bow would tip up, which was unlikely to end well. If things went well, the loads would instead be concentrated on the bow as the stern started to float, which meant that the launching cradle, the ways, and the bow itself all had to be specially reinforced.
New Jersey just before launching, showing the fore poppet and some of the main cradle
Weeks before the ship was launched, crews set to work building the cradle. First, the ways were covered with grease and wax, to ensure that the ship would slide freely. On top of this were laid timber sliders, which the rest of the cradle was built on. Most of the cradle was made of wood, which was relatively cheap, floated so it was easy to recover after launch, and was the weakest element in the system, making sure that the hull and ways weren't damaged during the launch. The central section of hull was supported by the so-called solid packing, blocks of wood built up to the turn of the bilge. At the top were specially-shaped blocks to match the curve of the hull. At the ends were the fore and aft poppets, specially designed to support narrow, heavy sections of the hull and using steel in addition to wood.
Iowa's aft poppet
After the cradle had been assembled and the ship made ready for launch,2 the process of transferring the ship's weight to the cradle began. Wedges were driven in to lift the cradle, which would then support the ship's weight. Then the side shores that the ship had previously rested on were removed, followed by the keel blocks. This was all done in the few hours before launch, and things had to move quickly to avoid the ship's weight squeezing the grease out from under the cradle. Before any of this was done, the tide was double- and triple-checked to make sure that there would be enough water to launch the ship safely, but that tidal currents wouldn't carry it somewhere dangerous.
Iowa shortly before launch. Note the chains, carried to slow the ship after she entered the water, and the forward poppet.
Then it was time for launch. Some launches were conducted with great ceremony, while others were fairly low-key. Traditionally, there were speeches by representatives from the Navy, the shipyard, and probably from the ship's sponsor, a woman3 who would christen the ship with champagne.4 The size and spectacle of the ceremony varied with the importance of the ship, and sometimes the guests. In Britain, the Admiralty in around 1910 allowed up to £120 for entertainment if a member of the Royal Family was attending the launch, but only £40 otherwise.
Iowa is christened by Mrs. Ilo Wallace
At last, it was time for the ship to enter the water. The sponsor would swing the bottle and name the ship, traditionally followed by "May God bless her and all who sail in her." A crew nearby would throw a trigger, releasing the ship, which would hopefully begin to slide down the ways. This occasionally didn't happen, the most famous incident probably being the launch of the frigate Oliver Hazard Perry, when the ship refused to move for several minutes due to grit in the grease, and finally began to go just as John Wayne, who was at the launch, appeared to give the ship a push.
Massachusetts enters the water for the first time
Once the ship was moving, it was really hard to stop, and disaster potentially followed if it did. Anything which had not been cleared out of the way would be destroyed, possibly damaging the ship in the process. Cradle failure could strand the ship on the ways, a position that was almost impossible to recover from. Once the stern began to lift, the bow poppet would have to absorb about 20% of the weight of the ship, and it was usually designed to crush to deal with this weight. However, should it crush too much, the bow might have hit the ground between the ways, something the naval architects were careful to make sure didn't happen. Worse, stability at this point was very marginal, as much of the weight was still supported from low down. But eventually, the bow ran off the ways and the ship was fully afloat. Because of how quickly the ways stopped, this was often before the bow was deep enough in the water to be fully buoyant, and it could drop several feet. If the ship wasn't moving fast enough, the plunging bow could hit the ways, damaging the ship.5
Iowa under the control of the tugs
Then it was the job of the tugs standing by in the channel to bring the ship under control and pull the cradle, held on by several hundred tons of buoyancy, clear.6 Many shipyards were on narrow rivers and this could be tricky. At Bath Iron Works, for instance, high winds acting on lightly-loaded ships threatened to trap them against nearby bridges. After it was secured, the newly-launched hull was maneuvered to a nearby dock and tied up, ready to be fitted out and turned into a warship, a process we will discuss next time.
1 Not every battleship was launched as described, although the vast majority were. Yamato was built in a drydock, and the American Montanas would also have been drydock-built if they hadn't been cancelled. The French used a similar system for Jean Bart, although it wasn't technically a drydock. Drydock launches are considerably less exciting, consisting simply of filling the dock and removing the cassion. Since WWII, the practice has become standard for large warships.
2 This included testing for watertightness by filling each compartment with water and seeing if any leaked out.
3 Warships have been universally sponsored by women since the late 19th century, although the practice seems to have originated in the middle of that century, and before that, men sponsored most ships. The woman is usually someone who has a connection to the vessel or its namesake, such as Margaret Truman, who sponsored Missouri.
4 Other liquids were sometimes used, including brandy and whisky. During Prohibition, some American warships were christened with water, others with various beverages.
5 There are other things that can go wrong at this stage. One of the weirdest is the case of the pre-dreadnought Albion. A wave created when she entered the water destroyed a stand with approximately 200 spectators in it, ultimately killing 34, mostly women and children.
6 Some shipyards use the ship's own motion to do this, securing the cradle to shore and just holding it as the ship moves on.
1. April 01, 2019cassander said...
I'm curious how they did the watertight testing. How did they fill every compartment? I'm envisioning a hose with a hatch/nozzle combination.
2. April 01, 2019bean said...
I'm not sure offhand, although I can look when I get home. I believe there were fittings in the bulkheads for such testing, which also let you do things like dewater a compartment without opening the door, or at least check that said compartment isn't full of water before you go in.
3. April 01, 2019bean said...
Looks like it was a special hatch cover with a couple of hoses in it, one to fill the compartment, another leading up to a bucket to ensure there's enough pressure head (usually 10' above the deep waterline.)
4. April 02, 2021echo said...
I guess drydocks were expensive enough before then that it wasn't really practical to build all your battleships in them?
I was wondering why they didn't build the ship in a pit below water level, and block it off with a single-face cofferdam. Sort of like a cheaper, slower-cycling drydock.
5. April 02, 2021bean said...
That was a lot of it, yeah. The traditional way of building ships doesn't require a lot of capital, which was seen as important at the time. These days, with lower construction rates and more sophisticated ships, the rules are different.
6. April 03, 2021Anonymous said...
Wouldn't lower construction rates argue in favor of a way of building that doesn't require a lot of capital while the higher construction rates of old would be better suited to more capital intensive production.
7. April 03, 2021bean said...
Not necessarily. It's probably better to say that the capital-intensive building style works better when you have a reasonably consistent production run to amortize over, which was very much not the case pre-1945. You'd see huge swings in build rate for a given ship type, most notably going from small numbers in the 20s and early 30s to huge volumes in the 40s and then much smaller volumes postwar. Slipways work well for this because the capital invested in each is pretty small, and so capacity is cheap to expand and you don't have to feel bad about mothballing it if you only use each a few times. Today's industry is built around a reasonably predictable build rate, which we can't scale as quickly, but we'll get cheaper ships.
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Difference Between Borough,Burro and BurrowBorough refers to a village or a political division of a city or an incorporated town or municipality, that is smaller than a city which may be perceived as part of a larger metropolitan area: “In the metropolis of Mumbai, Bandra is a borough where many people live.”
Burro is a small donkey often used as a pack animal: “Burro’s are used to carry equipment over the mountains.”
Last but not the least, burrow refers to a small hole made in the ground as by a rabbit for habitation and refuge. It also refers to make a tunnel by digging either by hand or with machinery: “The engineers used a large bore to burrow through the hillside while building the railroad.”
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kids encyclopedia robot
Arctic woolly bear moth facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Arctic woolly bear moth
Scientific classification
• Dasychira groenlandica Wocke ex. Homeyer, 1874
• Dicallomera kusnezovi Lukhtanov et Khruliova, 1989
Gynaephora groenlandica, the Arctic woolly bear moth, is an erebid moth native to the High Arctic in the Canadian archipelago, Greenland and Wrangel Island in Russia. It is known for its slow rate of development, as its full caterpillar life cycle may extend up to 7 years, with moulting occurring each spring. This species remains in a larval state for the vast majority of its life. Rare among Lepidoptera, it undergoes an annual period of diapause that lasts for much of the calendar year, as G. groenlandica is subject to some of the longest, most extreme winters on Earth. In this dormant state, it can withstand temperatures as low as −70 °C. The Arctic woolly bear moth also exhibits basking behavior, which aids in temperature regulation and digestion and affects both metabolism and oxygen consumption. Females generally do not fly, while males usually do.
This species has an alpine subspecies which is notable for its geographic distribution south of the High Arctic.
This moth was likely first discovered on 16 June 1832 on the beach of Fury Bay, Somerset Island in northern Nunavut, Canada, by the crew of the Arctic expedition led by John Ross searching for the Northwest Passage. John Curtis, who studied the entomological specimens returned from the voyage, described the species Gynaephora rossii from the specimens obtained here, but in 1897 Harrison G. Dyar showed that when compared to the caterpillars of G. rossii he had collected from the heights of Mount Washington in New Hampshire, in fact caterpillars of G. groenlandica had been collected in 1832, and Curtis had based his description of the larvae on the wrong species.
Before that, however, specimens were recovered in 1870 in northern Greenland by Gottlieb August Wilhelm Herrich-Schäffer on board the Germania on the Second German North Polar Expedition led by captain Karl Koldewey, and subsequently scientifically studied and described by Alexander von Homeyer in 1874 under the name Dasychira groenlandica, which Maximilian Ferdinand Wocke, who had also examined the specimens, had chosen for them earlier, and detailed in a letter to Homeyer. Herrich was able to collect a number of specimens and described the caterpillars as being like those of the Arctia moths, but the adults being extremely similar to Dasychira fascelina (now Dicallomera fascelina) but having such crippled wings as to be nearly incapable of flight. Both Wocke and Homeyer noted it was certainly a new species, but that it was closely related to the species Dasychira rossii (now Gynaephora rossii) known at that time from the geographic vicinity in Labrador.
G. groenlandica was first believed to be endemic to the High Arctic, until a 2013 article reported the discovery of two populations of G. groenlandica neighbouring each other in alpine environments in southwest Yukon, 900 km south of their previously known distribution. The distinct habitat, disjunct distribution, DNA haplotype and wing pattern of these two populations, were found distinctive enough to classify them as a new subspecies: G. groenlandica beringiana. In 1980s moth specimens were collected on Wrangel Island, Russia. These were initially described in 1989 as a new species in the Dicallomera genus as D. kusnezovi, but further examination showed these moths were G. groenlandica, and in 2015 this taxon was subsumed as a new subspecies: G. groenlandica kusnezovi.
As such, the subspecies are:
• G. groenlandica groenlandica
• G. groenlandica beringiana Schmidt et Cannings, 2013
• G. groenlandica kusnezovi (Lukhtanov et Khruliova, 1989) Lukhtanovet Khruleva 2015
It has been placed in the subfamily Lymantriinae (the tussock moths) and the tribe Orgyiini.
While G. groenlandica is a close relative of G. rossii, the two species are reproductively isolated and no hybridization occurs. The two species are sympatric in many areas of Arctic parts of northern Canada and Wrangel Island in Russia.
In general, G. groenlandica larvae are large (~300 mg) and densely coated in soft hair. While they are usually a distinctive tan-brown cast, their color may vary. They are characterized by a distinct hair tuft on their eighth abdominal segment, which has been described as a "rudimentary hair pencil". Later larval instars are notable for the color pattern of this dorsal hair tuft. They can also be identified by the spinulose form of their hairs, which are spineless, in contrast to the finer, feather-like (plumose) hairs of their close relative, G. rossii. They may also be distinguished from G. rossii in terms of wing pattern: G. groenlandica lack the broad, dark band along the edge of their hind wings that is characteristic of G. rossii. In general, G. rossii also have more wing patterning than G. groenlandica.
The eggs are around 1.6mm.
The cocoons of this species are double-layered, with a distinct pocket of air between the two layers, as opposed to the single-layered cocoons of G. rossii.
The nominate subspecies of Arctic woolly bear moth is native to the High Arctic of Greenland and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago including Ellesmere Island, or above approximately 70°N latitude. It is one of the most northern members of the Lepidopteran order in the Northern hemisphere. It occurs as far north as Ward Hunt Island in Canada and northernmost Greenland. A new subspecies G. groenlandica beringiana was described in 2013 south of the Arctic Circle in the alpine environment of the Ruby Range in southwest Yukon, 900km south of the previously known range. A further subspecies G. groenlandica kusnezovi has as of 2015 only been found on Wrangel Island, Russia.
G. groenlandica is well-adapted to living in conditions of extreme cold in the High Arctic.
At two distinct field sites on Ellesmere Island, it was discovered that G. groenlandica, when in a diapausal state, tend to exist in specific microhabitats rather than in a random geographic distribution. Hibernacula are frequently found secured to the base of rocks, as opposed to being attached to vegetation. At one investigation site, hibernacula were observed primarily on the leeward (on the side sheltered from the wind) side of rocks, suggesting that wind direction plays a role in the selection of hibernation sites.
In captivity, G. groenlandica have also been observed anchoring themselves to leaf litter of Salix arctica during the diapausal period.
The G. groenlandica caterpillar moves up to several meters per day, primarily in order to acquire the necessary resources. In comparing a group of caterpillars physically transferred between different Salix arctica (Arctic willow) plants and a second group in which each individual was restricted to a single willow for the duration of the larval active period, it was observed that transferred larvae demonstrated higher herbivory and growth rates compared to the stationary group. This implies that the acquisition of high quality resources is a primary reason for the movement of G. groenlandica larvae between host plants.
Food resources
Salix arctica 1997-08-05
Salix arctica, the Arctic willow, is the larva's primary host plant.
G. groenlandica spends much of its life in a larval state, and food resources are necessary for development of the larvae. Salix arctica, the Arctic willow, is the primary host plant and food source for this species. The larvae may also feed on plants of other families, such as the flowers of Saxifraga oppositifolia and the senescent leaves of Dryas integrifolia. In the nominate High Arctic subspecies, less than 3% of larvae, however, were found to choose these alternatives. The lower latitude Canadian populations of G. g. beringiana of the alpine environments of southwest Yukon have larvae eating a broader spectrum of plants and proportionately less S. arctica.
While larvae rarely eat the catkins (petal-less flower clusters) of S. arctica, they readily consume the plant's leaves. 97% of larvae which actively eat at the onset of their feeding season are consuming the new leaf buds of this plant. Comparing the nutrient concentrations of plant leaves to those of larval frass, has shown that larvae remove nitrogen and potassium from the plant. Larvae appear to only feed in June, which is when the leaves of S. arctica reach their peak concentrations of nutrients and carbohydrates such as starches and sugars. The caterpillars decrease their food intake towards the end of the month and into the summer. At this time, the levels of carbohydrates and nutrients in S. arctica leaves tend to decrease, and the leaves become less palatable as concentrations of phenols and tannins increase. The decrease in nutrients and carbohydrates, combined with an increase in secondary metabolites, may account for this decline in consumption.
It appears to be adapted to a narrow thermal range. It is able to eat the most at temperatures intermediate to its range.
Life history
The life history traits of G. groenlandica are dictated by the short, cold nature of summers in the High Arctic. Due to its restricted seasonal growth period, G. groenlandica has a life cycle of approximately 7 years. In contrast, its lifespan is much shorter (2–3 years) in warmer, alpine environments. Arctic woolly bear moths remain larvae for the vast majority of their lives, with the exception of up to 3–4 weeks of a single summer. This extended developmental period is not only attributed to low environmental temperatures, but also to the nutrition provided by its host plants . While they remain in their extended larval stage, G. groenlandica experience annual winter diapauses that commence in late June or early July. Larval mortality in an experimental caged environment on the tundra was found to be 10%.
Life cycle
On Ellesmere Island the females typically lay their eggs in a mass on or in their cocoon, although they sometimes lay their eggs on the ground or on vegetation around the cocoon.
This species spends the vast majority of its life as a late larval instar; its early larval and adult stages represent only 6% of its full life cycle. It is the later instars which experience multiple annual periods of diapause. During this dominant stage of their lives (from the third to sixth instar phases), G. greenlandica moult annually.
Larval activity is confined to a short period following snowmelt. The High Arctic presents a short growing season of 45–70 days, and the G. groenlandica cease foraging at the end of June, prior to mid-summer. Larvae tend to spend 95% of their time either basking in the sun, feeding, or moving, and only 5% of their time fully immobile. More specifically, about 60% of their time as larvae is spent basking, 20% is spent feeding, and 15% is spent moving.
In late June or early July, the larvae prepare to overwinter by weaving silken hibernacula and entering diapause until the subsequent snowmelt. This typically occurs when daytime temperatures are at a maximum of 5-10 °C. In their diapausal state, G. groenlandica can withstand temperatures as low as -70 °C, and winter mortality is limited to, on average, a maximum of 13% of the population.
The developmental stages of pupation, emergence, mating, egg laying, eclosion, and molting to the second instar stage are all confined to a period of 3–4 weeks during a single summer. Emergence and reproduction may occur within a single a 24-hour period.
Due to the brief lifespan of fully mature adult individuals, adult moths of this species are difficult to find in the wild.
Species interactions
The presence of the caterpillars eating plants in a particular area appears to have a positive correlation with herbivory of the collared pika (Ochotona collaris) in southwest Yukon.
G. groenlandica has a distinct defence reaction to bat signals. The Arctic moth Psychophora sabini has some of its defensive reactions to bats, presumably due to the population being isolated from this predator. G. groenlandica and G. rossii, however, continue to possess this defensive behavior. When Arctic woolly bear moths are exposed to bat-like ultrasound (26 kHz and 110 dB sound pressure level root mean square at 1 m), males respond by reversing their flight course. Responses to the sound have been observed from up to 15-25 m away. Females, however, have a degenerated bat-sensing system. There are two presumed reasons for this. Firstly, females tend to be flightless and thus do not require this adaptation. Secondly, an auditory system would compete for space with the ovaries, and the cost of this defence mechanism may outweigh the benefit of having fully functional reproductive organs.
In the High Arctic these moths are preyed upon by birds. The eggs are also eaten by small foraging birds; on Ellesmere Island such birds may tear open the cocoons to feed on the egg mass usually laid inside.
Many G. groenlandica caterpillars perish during development due to parasitoids, namely the tachinid fly Exorista thula and the ichneumonid wasp Hyposoter diechmanni. Exorista thula was described from Ellesmere Island in 2012 and is a solitary parasitoid; on the island it killed roughly 20% of the third and fourth instars of its host. Despite occurring together with the closely related Gynaephora rossii here, Exorista thula is only known to attack G. groenlandica, whereas Chetogena gelida is host specific to G. rossii. In general, more than two thirds of Gynaephora are killed by parasitoids, and parasitism in G. groenlandica causes more than 50% mortality. The probability of parasitism increases towards the end of the species' active period, which coincides with declining rates of feeding.
The hibernaculum, in which larvae spend a dominant portion of their lives, acts as a defensive barrier to parasitism.
While females of this species have fully developed wings and may take flight for a short time, they usually do not fly. It is worth noting, however, that while Arctic-inhabiting females tend to remain flightless, females of the more southern alpine subspecies are often more mobile.
In contrast, males tend to fly high, fast, and erratically during the day.
The period of maximal activity for G. groenlandica is in June, during the annual period of maximal solar radiation (24 hours of sunlight) in the High Arctic; however, temperatures at this time continue to be extremely low. Ground temperatures in June, for instance, are usually less than 10 °C. At this time, the body temperatures of feeding larvae tend to be similar to those of molting and spinning larvae, while those of “basking” larvae tend to be higher. G. groenlandica larvae spend approximately 60% of their time basking, including during periods of pupation. The behavior of basking is characterized as the action of a caterpillar orienting its body so as to maximize sun exposure and avoid wind. Larvae tend to follow the direct angle of the sun's rays in order to maintain maximal absorption of sunlight. They do this by orienting perpendicularly to the sun's angle of insolation. Through the act of basking, G. groenlandica larvae may raise their body temperature by up to 20 °C. Generally, maximal body temperature is approximately 30 °C. This peak temperature is generally only reached when larvae lie in midday sun, surrounded by snow, on a day with minimal wind.
Solar radiation promotes larval growth, and thus basking may increase developmental rates. When comparing larval growth rates at 5, 10, and 30 °C, respectively, growth and metabolic rates were found to be lowest at 5 °C and maximized at 30 °C. This trend exhibits a specific relationship: as body temperature increases due to basking, metabolic rates increase exponentially. This was found to hold true even when larvae were starved or seemingly inactive.
In general, feeding larvae tend to have lower body temperatures than basking larvae. Therefore, larvae tend to feed when temperatures are highest, and they bask when they cannot reach the higher temperatures (more than 5 -10 °C) needed for activity. It has been suggested that without the help of basking in 24-hour sunlight during High Arctic summers, larvae would rarely exceed their developmental threshold of ~5 °C. This may account for the unique tendency of the Arctic woolly bear moth to have short feeding periods during times of peak insolation, followed by lengthier periods of basking and digestion.
In early to mid-June, larval metabolism tends to be greatly impacted by food intake and rising temperature. Later in the active season, they become much more metabolically insensitive to temperature, and energy obtained via food consumption is conserved.
Changes in metabolic state and body temperature also affect oxygen consumption. Oxygen consumption was found to be much lower when larval body temperatures were below 10 °C. Low oxygen consumption was also observed in inactive larvae. In contrast, it was found to be higher for caterpillars that were moving or starved, higher still for digesting larvae, and highest for feeding larvae.
Larvae frequently bask in the sunlight for roughly five hours after feeding before moving to a new site. The consequent increase in body temperature stimulates gut enzyme activity, which enables a higher digestion rate. G. groenlandica can convert ingested food at a rate of efficiency which is higher than the average value rate of efficiency of Lepidopteran species in general.
G. groenlandica experiences a period of winter diapause during which it remains dormant within a hibernaculum. In this state, it can withstand temperatures as low as -70 °C. Encasing itself within a hibernaculum during diapause serves several functions: protection from parasitoids, avoidance of diminished nutrient concentration in their primary food source, Salix arctica, degradation of mitochondria linked to decreased metabolism (hypometabolism) and antifreeze production, and general conservation of energy reserves.
These cocoons are made of silk and consist of two layers, into which larval hairs are incorporated. In a 1995 study of experimentally caged larvae in the High Arctic of the Canadian Archipelago, 81% of larvae spun hibernacula.
During the active season, larvae orient towards solar radiation, and each spins its respective hibernaculum over a 24-hour period. They generally pupate with their head facing south, in a north–south orientation. This cocoon helps the larvae to accumulate heat more effectively.
G. groenlandica often anchor their hibernacula to the base of rocks. In captivity, G. groenlandica have also been observed to attach themselves to Salix arctica leaf litter during the diapausal period. In the 1995 study mentioned above, in which larvae were kept in a cage-controlled environment on the High Arctic tundra, more hibernacula were actually observed on the predominant plant cover of Dryas integrifolia (mountain avens) and Cassiope tetragona (Arctic white heather) as opposed to on their principal host plant, S. arctica. Almost half of the larvae which spun hibernacula did so in conjunction with other larvae, forming joint cocoons. Upwards of three caterpillars were occasionally observed sharing a common hibernaculum, but the most common case was that of two individuals sharing a joint cocoon. Higher rates of communal hibernacula occurred at lower population densities per cage.
As temperatures decrease in the late Arctic summer, larvae begin synthesizing cryoprotective compounds, such as glycerol and betaine. Accumulation of these "antifreezes" (which protect cells from cold conditions) is aided by the bottlenecking of oxidative phosphorylation through mitochondrial degradation. While the larvae continue to produce energy from stored glycogen in their frozen state, this mitochondrial degradation causes their metabolism to drop so low as to almost stop entirely, inducing dormancy. Mitochondrial functioning may be fully restored in the spring after mere hours of resumed larval activity.
At warmer temperatures, arctic moth larvae generally tend to have higher respiration rates and lower growth rates. They also tend to shift their diets to more nutrient-rich foods in this type of environment. For instance, the herbivory rate of the main food source for G. groenlandica, S. arctica, is altered at elevated temperatures. This implies environmentally dependent host plant plasticity in G. groenlandica. It also suggests that an increase in temperature due to global warming may have significant effects on the behavior of northern herbivore invertebrates such as G. groenlandica, as well as effects on the herbivory rates of their food sources. Thus, G. groenlandica may represent a potential indicator species for future studies on climate change.
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Arctic woolly bear moth Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Thursday, July 29, 2021 English
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The Western Middle Iranian languages include Parthian (Parthian Pahlavi) and Middle Persian (Pahlavi or Sassanid Pahlavi).
i. Parthian: Parthian was the mother tongue of the Parthian tribe which originated from “Pahlah” or “Pahlao” (Parthia), that included the north of the present-day Khorāsān as well as parts of recent-day Turkmenistan. One of the leaders of this tribe called “Ashk” or “Arshak” overcame Antiochus II, the third Seleucid king (ruled 261-246 BC), around the year 247 BC and by gaining control over the Pahlao province founded the Parthian Dynasty.
The Parthians were initially so deeply under the influence of the Greek culture and language that they even inscribed the names and titles on their coins in the Greek language and script. However, following the reign of Balāsh I, the Parthian language came to be written in a script that was derived from Aramaic. The Parthian script ran from right to left and none of the letters were joined together (Fig. 3). Like some other Middle Iranian scripts, the most important feature of this script was the presence of writing elements known as the “hozvāresh”. The “hozvāresh” were words that were Aramaic in origin and were written in the Middle Iranian scripts (e.g. Parthian) but while reading, their equivalents in the desired language (e.g. Parthian) would be read out (for instance, the word “MLK” which meant “malikā” or “king” in Aramaic would be written as “MLK” but would be read out as “shāh”).
The Parthian language survived even after the downfall of the Parthian Dynasty (224 AD) until the 4th Century AD and, thereafter, withered away gradually. The last available effects of the Parthian language are the Manichean texts belonging to a period prior to the 3rd Century AH/9 Century AD that have been discovered in Vaheh Torfān (the Turfan Depression) in present-day Xinjiang, China. Moreover, these works were written at a time when the Parthian language had already died away. The script used for these works were the Manichaen scripts that according to some sources had been invented by Mani (216-276 AD) himself, on the basis of the Syriac script which was itself derived from the Aramaic script. The Manichean script ran from right to left and its most important characteristic was that it did not contain any “hozvāresh”, thereby making it very simple to read. Moreover, unlike the Parthian script in which each letter could indicate a number of different phonetic values, in the Manichean script each letter had only one phonetic value (Fig. 4). Some Manichean Parthian works have also been found in the Uygur Turkish, the Sogdhian, and even the Chinese scripts.
ii. Middle Persian: Middle Persian – the official language of the Sassanian Empire (224-651 AD) – was in fact a modified version of the Old Persian which was spoken in south-west Iran (the present-day Fārs province). The inscriptions of the Sassanian kings were generally written in three languages and scripts (Middle Persian, Parthian, and Greek) until the 3rd Century AD. However, after a period of time these inscriptions became bilingual (Middle Persian and Parthian) and finally ended up being written only in Middle Persian. The Middle Persian language was spoken by the Zoroastrians and the Manichaens even after the downfall of the Sassanids through to the 3rd Century AH/9th Century AD.
The scripts in which the Middle Persian was written included the Middle Persian script for inscriptions, the Middle Persian script for texts, the Christian Middle Persian script (all these three were derived from Aramaic and contained “hozvāresh”), and the Manichean script that was also used for writing the Manichean texts in the Parthian language. The Christian Middle Persian script is also referred to as the “Zaburi Pahlavi” script since the only surviving work in that script is the Middle Persian translation of a part of the Zabur of Prophet Dāvud or the Psalms of David (Fig. 3).
The alphabets of the Middle Persian script that were used for writing books and texts alter their forms to such an extent when used in combination that it becomes difficult to read the words, and in some cases, a single word can also be read out in different ways. Since it was very tedious to read the Middle Persian script, and especially the “Zand” texts (the translation and exegeses of the Avestā in the Middle Persian language), some of the Zoroastrian Middle Persian texts came to be re-written in the Avestan script – considering that it was easy to read – in the early centuries following the advent of Islam. This modified version is called the “Pāzand”. The trend of Pāzand-writing continued until 8th Century AH/14th Century AD.
According to some Islamic sources like the “Al-Fehrest” of Ibn al-Nadim and the “Al-Tanbih alā Hudus al-Tashif” of Hamzah Esfahāni, seven scripts were in use during the Sassanid period, of which only two have been mentioned in the Middle Persian texts. These scripts included: a) Din-Debirih (the religious or Avestan script); b) Vesp-Debirih (the common script); c) Gashtag-Debirih (the modified script); d) Nim-Gashtag Debirih (the semi-modified script); e) Rāz-Debirih (the script used for confidential documents); f) Nāmag-Debirih/Frawardag-Debirih (the script used for correspondence/scroll-writing); g) Hām-Debirih/Ram-Debirih (the general script used by the general masses).
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Discuss the art of characterization of Melville in Bartleby the Scrivener
How does Melville depict his characters? Discuss with reference to Bartleby the Scrivener.
What ideas of Melville’s art of characterization do you gather from a study of Bartleby the Scrivener?
BartlebyAnswer: Characterization means the method by which an author creates the appearance and personality of imaginary persons and reveals their character. There are three basic methods of characterization: i) direct description of physical appearance and explanation of character traits and attributes he tells, ii) presentation of character in action without interpretive comment by the author he shows, iii) representation of the character’s inner-self. Essentially the author describes the thoughts and emotions triggered in the character by external events.
Melville’s art of characterization in Bartleby the Scrivener is mainly that of description or telling. He describes the physical appearances of the characters, and explains their traits. But some elements of showing are also involved in the drawing of the character of Bartleby. In case of Bartleby, both showing and telling are involved. The author describes (tells) some aspects of Bartleby’s character, and Bartleby himself gives out (shows) some of his characteristics through his actions. Bartleby has been drawn vividly with a perfect economy of words. The author, as a first person narrator, tells us about Bartleby the Scrivener. As he required one more Scrivener, in addition to the existing ones, he made an advertisement. In answer to his advertisement “a motionless young man one morning stood upon my office threshold, the door being open, for it was summer. I can see that figure how pallidly neat, pitiably respectable, incurably forlorn! It was Bartleby.”
Here, the total aspects of the man stand out prominent within a sentence or two. His inward nature as well as his physical appearance is crystallized. His picture is consistent with the theme of the story, which is Bartleby’s interest in affairs of life, till he died in absolute renunciation of life. The author also describes the strange traits of Bartleby’s character when Bartleby utters the words “I would prefer not to”. When Bartleby disobeys the author for the first time, saying— “I would prefer not to”, the author observes something unusual in Bartleby which he describes with great fidelity:
“Not a wrinkle of agitation rippled him. Had there been the least uneasiness, anger, impatience or impertinence in his manner; in other words, had there been anything ordinarily human about him, doubtless I should have violently dismissed him from the premises.”
The author has portrayed Bartleby as a tragic anti-hero. He is a tragic figure in a different way. He does not possess heroic qualities like the traditional tragic heroes. Shortly after joining the author’s service, and two days of satisfactory work as a scrivener, he began to behave strangely. To all calls for duty he responded, “I would prefer not to”. Ultimately he even gave up eating, the only means of sustaining life, and spent days before his death without eating or drinking. He became virtually a figure of death-in-life, having lost all interest in all things or values, whether good or bad. The author found him dead in the prison. His reply—
“Lives without dining” and “with kings and counsellors” to the grub man’s questions expresses a profound philosophy. Bartleby lived without dining means that he was totally averse to life. His sleeping with counsellors and kings points to this philosophy of life that life is absolutely meaningless because whatever we achieve in life is totally engulfed by death which reduces anything to nothingness. The author gives a hint about the background of his renunciation of life; he had worked in a dead letter office in Washington. possibly the word “dead” being repeated through these letters, affected him profoundly, and he behaved as a dead man even when he was alive. “Dead letters” sound like dead men, and a man by nature and misfortune prone to a pallid hopelessness might be profoundly affected by his dealings with dead letters. These letters were sent on errands of life, but actually they did speed to death.
The author has given description of the three other characters—Nippers, Turkey and Ginger Nut. He characterizes Turkey with the use of an effective simile—
“Turkey was a short, pursy Englishman, of about my age. In the morning one might say, his face was of a fine florid hue, but after 12 o’clock, meridian-his dinner hour—it blazed like a grate full of Christmas coals; and continued blazing but, as it were, with a gradual wane—till six o’clock or thereabouts.”
Turkey’s personality traits are thus revealed within a sentence. Nippers, the second scrivener, was a victim of two evils—ambition and indigestion. His ambition was expressed in his impatience of the duties of a mere copyist, and his indigestion appeared in an occasional nervous testiness and grinning irritability which caused his teeth to audibly grind together over mistakes in copying.
“Though of a very ingenious mechanical turn, Nippers could never get” his table to suit him… In short, the truth of the matter was, Nippers knew not what he wanted.”
Ginger Nut’s character is a sort of compromise between the characters of Turkey and Nippers. Whereas they both had paroxysms of irritability and nervousness—Turkey after 12 o’clock in the noon and Nippers before noon, Ginger had no such abnormal fits. He was playful as much as a boy of twelve might be. He made intelligent remarks about Bartleby.
So, Melville undoubtedly possesses great artistic power regarding the art of characterization. With great fidelity and accuracy he describes the strange things in Bartleby, restless nature of Nippers, contradiction of Turkey and playful disposition of Ginger Nut. His powerful figures of speech like smile and use of diction have revealed the traits of characters very effectively. His use of first person narrator or point of view has enabled him to give a lively and credible touch to his characters. He is indeed a great artist of characters.
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Thursday 21st January
Just So Stories - How the Camel got his Hump
Rudyard Kipling story which explains how the camel got his hump. The story is set in Arabia, when the world was new and camels did not have humps. Humph! is a noise someone makes when they are not interested in what another person tells them.
TASK 1: As you watch/read the story can you find examples of the following things in the text?
• Kindness
• Fairness
• Laziness
• Hard Work
How The Camel Got His Hump.
TASK 2: Rudyard's Poetry
At the end of the story, Rudyard Kipling often writes a poem to summarise the moral of the story. Have a look at the Camel's poem below.
THE Camel's hump is an ugly lump
Which well you may see at the Zoo;
But uglier yet is the hump we get
From having too little to do.
Kiddies and grown-ups too-oo-oo,
If we haven't enough to do-oo-oo,
We get the hump--
Cameelious hump--
The hump that is black and blue!
We climb out of bed with a frouzly head
And a snarly-yarly voice.
We shiver and scowl and we grunt and we growl
At our bath and our boots and our toys
Can you read this poem out loud with rhythm and make it rhyme?
Why do you think Rudyard Kipling put poems at the end of his stories?
TASK 3Can you write a paragraph poem to go with one of the following titles:
• How the giraffe got his long neck
• How the snail got its shell
• How the flamingo turned pink
Don't forget to use rhyming, similes and imagery to bring your poetry to life! What is a simile?
Once you have written and edited your poem, why not record yourself reading it or publish it as a Shape Poem, like the examples below.
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The discovery included armored doors, a staircase to Hitler’s personal barracks, and a barrier made to withstand a chemical attack.
Underground Passion/YouTubeSeveral new artifacts were uncovered at Hitler’s notorious “Wolf’s Lair,” his military HQ on the Eastern Front during World War II.
When the Nazis first prepared to invade the Soviet Union under Operation Barbarossa in 1941, they built a covert military headquarters deep inside Poland’s Masurian woods. They nicknamed it Wolfsschanze or “Wolf’s Lair.”
Since its discovery after the war, the Polish government has made plans to restructure the lair as an elaborate historical exhibit. However, recent work at the military complex has uncovered a trove of hidden Nazi artifacts.
According to Heritage Daily, Polish officials found a number of significant items, among them the stairs to Adolf Hitler’s barracks, two bunker doors — one of which is believed to be part of the dictator’s personal bunker — and several armored doors as well. These discoveries will help researchers to map out where significant events took place in the lair, like a 1944 assassination attempt that was made on Hitler.
“We were convinced that for decades the area had been extensively dug and thought that there would be no more discoveries left to find,” said Zenon Piotrowicz, the forest inspector of the Srokowo forest division.
Excavators have also recovered water fittings for the bunker’s boiler, pipes, and sinks. These explorations have been carried out by the Laterba Foundation from Gdańsk in collaboration with State Forests and the Provincial Conservator of Monuments in Olsztyn.
Wikimedia CommonsAn assassination attempt was made on Hitler here in 1944.
Among the most notable finds of late is an engraved stone emblazoned with Hitler’s special protection battalion and a painted flag.
According to officials, these new items will likely be kept for exhibition at Wolf’s Lair, which is already a tourist site that draws revenue for the Masurian Lake District.
“The discovery allows us to determine what barracks they lived in and how the unit was marked,” added Piotrowicz. “It is also necessary to find a context for displaying the find so that it can be presented as a historical fact, without promoting a criminal ideology.”
Indeed, the proposed historical exhibit at Wolf’s Lair has drawn criticism from skeptics who believe that it will be challenging to display the ugly history of this site in a meaningful and appropriate manner. Those who oppose the creation of an exhibit at Wolf’s Lair are concerned that the location could possibly become a pilgrimage site for neo-Nazis.
Last year, the Wolf’s Lair was visited by 330,000 tourists.
Wikimedia CommonsHitler visits Nazi officers at Wolf’s Lair just days before a coup tried to kill him there.
The Wolf’s Lair was an important site for Hitler and his Nazi henchmen during the Second World War. Not only was it the first significant military base the Nazis established on the Eastern Front, but it also provided their fascist leader with high-level security.
Hitler was so confident that his hideaway in the Masurian woods was impenetrable that he even stayed at the complex for 850 days during the war. It wasn’t until the Nazi defeat appeared imminent that he moved back to his bunker in Berlin. The complex was subsequently destroyed by fleeing Nazis.
But the Wolf’s Lair is also a notable historical site due to a failed assassination plot that took place there in July 1944. On July 20, 1944, a group of German leaders tried to kill Hitler during a meeting at the Wolf’s Lair. The plot, known as Operation Valkyrie, was led in part by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg, a high-ranking militiaman descended from German nobility.
Getty ImagesHitler is said to have spent 850 days hidden away in the Wolf’s Lair.
The plan was to detonate a bomb hidden away in a briefcase placed near Hitler during a meeting held at the lair. Four men were killed but Hitler miraculously survived. All the men involved in the assassination plot were executed.
As for the future of Wolf’s Lair, there is hope that the new exhibition there will be done in a way that pays tribute to the victims of the Nazis and that will ultimately inform future generations about these grave mistakes of the past.
Next, view the skeletal remains of 18 Nazi soldiers found in a mass grave in Poland. Then, read about this chest of stolen Nazi silver that was found buried at a 14th-century Polish castle.
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Why is red cheese ‘red’?
Well the colour is not from milk; it is quite definitely added in.
But it is natural in so far as the colour comes from a harmless vegetable colourant – Annatto. Annatto comes from the seeds of the Achiote tree (Bixa orellana), which is native to South America and the Caribbean. Standing tall in rows of hairy heart-shaped pods, the seeds have a characteristic brick-red colour, and have been used for colouring and dyeing everything from textiles to cosmetics and even Aztec paintings. But now, however, they’re mainly used to colour food: in particular, cheese and butter.
For cheese use, the colour is extracted from the seeds by drying them before soaking them in an alkaline solution. This leaches the colour out into a solution, which is then added into the milk right at the beginning of cheese making. This colours the curds and gives the orange and red cheeses their hue.
So how did a South American plant come to be colouring traditional British territorial cheeses like Leicester and Cheshire, as well as French classics like Mimolette?
Well it isn’t a recent thing, that’s for sure: there’s evidence of it occurring in England as early as the 16th century. It is thought to have begun in southwest England – particularly Gloucestershire, with the practice spreading to the surrounding areas of Warwickshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Cheshire and Leicestershire. There’s evidence of colouring cheeses found in all these counties dating as far back as the 16th and 17th centuries. These counties traditionally used all sorts of colouring agents to add colour to their cheese: carrot juice, turmeric, marigold petals and even homegrown saffron (which was grown in the UK in those days, Saffron Walden being the major English centre for the production of the saffron crocus in the Middle Ages.)
In the 18th century, Britain began to import more coffee, spices and all types of produce from the Americas. Consequently the locally-sourced colourants became superseded by the imported annatto – because it produced a better result in terms of colour with less effect on texture and flavour. For over 200 years Annatto has therefore been the colourant of choice to colour cheese ‘red’.
But this doesn’t answer the question of why would a cheese-maker want to colour their cheese red?
The answer is simple – aesthetics. It was all about the looks. Annatto became a colouring for some traditional British territorial cheeses as well as French classics like Mimolette primarily because of good annattoseedold-fashioned ‘marketing’.
In the ‘olden days’ colour was taken as an indication of quality. People knew that when the best cows were out at pasture in the spring and summer the fat in their milk would pick up a pigment from the grass called beta-carotene (which is abundant in fresh pasture, but not so much in winter feed such as silage and hay). The beta-carotene gives full-fat pasture-fed cows’ milk a yellow tinge*. And not only does this mean full-fat pasture-fed milk is the best, most flavoursome milk, but it also gives the best flavours to many cheeses. And with it, goes the yellow colour. Hence the best cheeses were considered to be richer yellow in colour, and this was something the discerning cheese buyers were looking for. It was said, “White Leicester was not to be accepted by London customers.”
So when farmers’ milk maybe wasn’t as good quality as they’d like to get this deeper orange or yellow ‘hue’, the enterprising ones among them would add cheat the system and a bit of colour to make the milk less pale. This also helped produce a consistent year-round tinge. Indeed, many of the cheese-making manuals of those days instruct makers to bring up the colour of their winter milk by adding a touch of annatto.
What’s notable is that all the cheeses known to be coloured (such as Gloucester, Red Leicester and Warwickshire) were often made with skimmed milk (unlike cheeses like Cheddar). In those cheeses the cream of the milk was taken off to make Stilton, cream cheese or butter. Hence these cheeses would have naturally been paler, so it is no wonder colour was added.
adding red colour cheese annattoOther coloured cheeses like Cheshire have high acid curds (crumbly and fresh), which result in pale bright-white cheese (high acid curds retain their dense protein bonding structures and so continue to appear white). So another reason to add the colouring would be to mask its true stark-white paste. The colouring of Cheshire is, however, thought to have started more recently than the others, as a result of cheaper Welsh variants of Cheshire being coloured with annatto to distinguish them from ‘true’ Cheshire. Those redder versions soon became more sought-after (they were considered better, thanks to the colour!) and so the majority of Cheshire cheese makers eventually adopted the colouring.
In many cheeses, sooner or later more and more colour was added until actually a deep red hue was achieved. Although this is obviously not the same as the yellow hue from pasture fed animals, this red tinge helped them stand out from the crowd. It also distinguished them from their other territorial counterparts. And so it became that certain cheeses became synonymous with this colour, resulting in a demand for ‘red’ cheeses. (It is still happening now, with creation of new ‘red’ cheeses that use annatto colour to help them stand out in shops and on cheese-boards – Shropshire Blue, Blacksticks Blue, Harrogate Blue, etc.)
Nowadays, however, a red colour doesn’t mean the cheese is of a poorer quality; in fact making a cheese with an even colouring and no mottling is no mean feat! (Beware, though, because orange Cheddar – especially in the United States – can often denote a mass-produced, generic version.)
For many of these ‘red’ cheeses, their colour has become part of their identity and history – many devotees are in love with their deeply-coloured Leicester and wouldn’t have it any other way.
But does adding annatto make a difference to the flavour of the cheese?
That’s the big question. And it remains unanswered. If the flavour is affected, the effects are probably minimal. There are so many other minutiae things that IFaffect cheese flavour from batch-to-batch that doing an accurate comparison of non-annatto and annatto cheese is almost impossible – the difference, if any, is so slight that it cannot be detected above these normal batch-to-batch variances. Most (including cheese-making greats like Liz Thorpe and Steve Jenkins) would say that dyeing cheese doesn’t affect the taste/cheese-make, but there are still a good few that believe it does (including the eminent Patrick Rance and the brilliant Colston Bassett producer Billy Kevan who believes it causes more moisture to be held in the curd).
Just as an aside, annatto wasn’t used in any cheese production during the war rationing years 1939-53 because it wasn’t imported, so all of the traditional ‘red’ cheeses switched back to being ‘white’!
*(NB the same thing doesn’t happen to sheep’s and goats’ milk).
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kids encyclopedia robot
Gyrwas facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Fenland pasture - - 599587
Fenlands, home to the Gyrwas
Gyrwas (also called Gyrwe) was the name of an early Anglo-Saxon people. They lived mainly on the western edge of the grassy wetlands called the Fens in eastern England. They were divided into two tribal groups; the northern Gyrwas and the southern Gyrwas. This is how they were recorded in the Tribal Hidage.
The name Gyrwe means 'fen-dweller'. The territory of the Gyrwas included Lindisfarne, Hatfield, Nottinghamshire, Northern Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and as far south as Peterborough in Northamptonshire. The area around Jarrow was in their territory as well. The Fens supplied the Gyrwas with fish and gamebirds but they lived on the drier lands and islands nearby.
The Gyrwas had their own leaders as late as the first half of the 7th century. Bede records a Tondbert, priceps of the South Gyrwas. He asked for the hand in marriage of Etheldreda, the daughter of King Anna of East Anglia. Tondbert died shortly after the wedding and Ethelreda was then given in marriage to Ecgfrith of Northumbria. Underkings and leaders of tribes like the Gyrwas probably did not claim descent from ancient Germanic gods, as many kings of the heptarchy did. But they were of high enough status to marry Anglo-Saxon royalty.
For a time the territory of the Gyrwas formed a buffer state between the Mercians and the East Anglians. The Gyrwas were later absorbed into Middle Anglia.
kids search engine
Gyrwas Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Brazil Communication Kids Project
Brazil Communication Kids Project
1. Develop augmentative and alternative communication systems for individual children with Congenital Zika Syndrome near Salvador, Brazil.
2. Develop a communication resource kit that includes a resource guide, kids augmentative and alternative communication book, storybooks, song boards, and toys.
3. Increase family members’ knowledge and skill in using communication supports for their children with Congenital Zika Syndrome..
4. Coach student speech therapy interns to provide direct communication intervention to children with complex communication needs..
5. Determine the feasibility and acceptability of a distance based collaboration.
Intervention sessions, video conference case collaborations, data analysis and reporting.
Develop a communication resource kit in collaboration with community partners in Brazil that includes:
-Communication intervention guide
-Materials resource guide
-Communication boards
-Song boards
-Intervention storybook set
In 2015, Zika virus spread throughout South America, with Brazil at the center with the most cases of Zika. Within a few months doctors in Brazil began seeing a connection between Zika virus and a birth defect called microcephaly, a condition that is characterized by smaller head size, which can lead to many deficits in motor and intellectual abilities of the child. In 2016, much was publicized about the virus and microcephaly as the Olympics began in Brazil, but nothing was said about how to help the children. Today, in 2017, much has been forgotten about the children in Brazil, with many of the children with microcephaly nearing 12 months of age, not much hope has been given to their families for future independence. These children have many medical needs, but they also have communication needs.
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Sunday, January 03, 2016
Stone Age Barbecue
In the summer of 2015 archaeologists from the University of Edinburgh attempted to recreate a style of Stone Age cooking based on their discovery of a 9,000 year old barbecue pit.
Over the last three years excavations have been ongoing at Prastio Mesorotsos situated in the Diarizos Valley outside of Paphos on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus. The site, which has been almost continuously occupied from the Neolithic era to the present, offers a wealth of insights in to the practices of our ancestors but it is on ancient culinary techniques that we will focus.
A stone-lined, ash-covered pit measuring about 2.5 metres (8 feet) across and 1 metre (3 feet) deep was discovered, but it was only this summer that the archaeologists could say with some certainty they were looking at an ancient oven. Its sheer size, however, was troubling. For an oven of this type the newly discovered pit was thought to be at the theoretical maximum since to keep such an oven hot enough would require a significant amount of energy.
With no one sure whether cooking would have been even feasible, but in the spirit of the Stone Age (and experimental archaeology), it was decided to recreate a prehistoric pit feast. The aim was to feed 200 people with pig and goat, slow-roasted underground and thus test the culinary methods of Neolithic cooks.
A replica pit was duly dug, although modern tools were used as it was felt that getting to grips with stone tools would have taken too long. Searching for the other necessary elements to cook the meal stuck to ancient methods, however. The archaeologists scoured local riverbeds for big igneous stones that would retain and radiate heat, and they hauled their choice rocks uphill in sacks or with a yoke made from a stick and baskets - a time-consuming and painstaking task.
Local clay was collected in buckets to hold the 400 stones in place around the outside of the oven. The team made its own charcoals out of lemon and carob wood. They also tanned 10 goat skins that would be used as parcels for the meat and crafted meat hooks out of sapling wood.
Bones found at the site provided compelling evidence that the prehistoric inhabitants ate pigs, goats and deer. Thus it was decided to source a 70 kg (150 lbs) pig (skin on, head detached) and a 38 kg (80 lbs) goat from a local butcher. Deer, now extinct in Cyprus, was left off the menu.
Days before the feast, the team let a fire burn in the stone-lined pit for 24 hours so that the ground, possibly still cold and damp from a wet winter, would not suck the heat out of their oven. The charcoal was lit the day before the feast and were covered with another layer of stones to prevent the meat directly touching the heat source. When the oven was ready, the pig, stuffed with bulgur wheat, wild fennel stems, anise and bay leaves before getting sewn up tightly with hemp twine and packed into a blanket, was placed on th
e hot stones. Similarly the goat meat, which had been chopped, spiced with herbs like wild oregano and divided between two parcels, was placed in the pit.
More herbs were packed on top of the meat, before the oven was sealed with stones and a clay-and-mud mixture. Another fire was then lit on top of the closed pit so that heat would not escape overnight. Slow roasting ensured that the meat was tender and infused with the tastes of lemon wood, carob and bay leaf.
Much was learned through the experiment. Firstly it was proved that a pit of the size found could indeed cook sufficient food to satisfy 200 guests and still have leftovers that could have sustained them for even longer. It is thought that fat rendered from the pig may have been used to preserve leftover meat. While the fat will turn rancid, the meat will not and can be stored for up to a year by this method.
While preparing the pit roast, the team also inadvertently recreated some of the more elusive, sensory elements of such a prehistoric feast. The spectacle of the three-day-long fire required to heat the oven would not have been a regular experience and thus may well have had a special significance for the local community. The light and heat generated throughout the night was probably as much an important part of the feast as the gathering of people to enjoy the result. It is hard not to imagine storytelling, dancing and laughter round the communal fire - much as many of us often enjoy today.
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Science: Touchy flowers work on elastic
9 July 1993
Many garden flowers curtsy at the slightest touch. For instance, cornflowers
and many of their thistle relatives shorten their ring of stamens when
touched by an insect, squeezing out pollen and revealing the female style
inside the ring. The insect flies off the fresh pollen, and the stamens
return to their original positions. Now Thomas Pesacreta, Victoria Sullivan
and Karl Hasenstein of the University of Southwestern Louisiana have
discovered clues as to how plants do this.
Rapid movements in plants are unusual, partly because their cells have
cellulose walls which hold plants rigid when the cells are full of water.
But in contracting plants, the American researchers found, the cell walls
and the cuticle covering the outside of the stamens are very elastic. When
the stamens are touched, the cells lose water rapidly. And the drop in water
pressure causes the cells to collapse (Planta, vol 190, p 58 and American
Journal of Botany, vol 80, p 411).
Pesacreta and his colleagues do not know what makes the cell walls and
cuticle so elastic. Neither are they certain how the water inside the cells
is lost. But the tactile stamens behave like the touch-sensitive leaves of
Mimosa pudica. When their motor cells suddenly lose salts, water is drawn
out by osmosis. The causes the motor cells to collapse and the leaf bends.
The Mimosa’s movement may provide clues as how the stamens ‘feel’ the touch
of an insect. Touching Mimosa leaves triggers nerve-like electrical signals
that cause the motor cells to move. These signals can be mimicked by a mild
electric shock. Botanists have noted the same phenomenon in the
touch-sensitive and flexible stamens of the common garden shrubs Mahonia and
Experiments carried out in the past century demonstrated that cornflower
stamens shorten instantly when they are given a mild electric shock.
Pesacreta and his colleagues speculate that when cornflower stamens shorten,
it may be in response to electric signals triggered by the touch.
More than 100 species of flower use such movements, although cornflowers and
thistles are unique in contracting their stamens – shortening them by as
much as a third just two seconds after they are touched.
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Explore the trails on the right to find out how in Leonardo's view of the world, all things are interconnected - the motion of water and the curling of hair, the human body and the mechanisms of machines, the geometrical rules that govern man, animals and all of nature.
Alternatively, the interactive timeline at the top of the page provides a visual representation of the trails by linking related images. Click on a coloured dot to start a trail.
Leonardo is often presented as a scientist, artist or engineer. But for him, all natural phenomena are the product of the same natural forces and governed by the same natural law.
Both the engineer and artist must learn how nature designed its forms according to their function and obey the same laws. Science, art and engineering are all achieved by direct observation and scientific investigation of the natural world. As such, they are all part of the same creative vision, through which man can create a “second nature” in the world.
The Body of Earth
Leonardo saw the planet earth as a living entity, with all of its elements in a constant state of flux….
start >
The Body of Man
According to Leonardo, man was nature’s most perfect creation, "the measure of all things"...
start >
Imagination and Invention
By combining scientific observation with imagination and invention, the painter had the power to create “fictions that signified great things”…
start >
Remaking Nature
For Leonardo, the artist’s task was to remake nature in his art, rather than slavishly copy natural forms…
start >
Forces of Nature
For Leonardo, flowing water, curling hair and the growth patterns of plants were all manifestations of the same natural force…
start >
The Natural World
Leonardo studied man, animals, plants and all natural phenomena intensely in his quest to understand all natural things…
start >
Light and Vision
Leonardo believed that sight was the most important of all the senses, the eye being the “window of the soul”…
start >
Rule of Mathematics
All things in nature are governed by mathematics – “Let no-one who is not a mathematician read my principles”…
start >
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How Poultry Nipples Work
Poultry nipples, sometimes called chicken nipples, are one-way valves that allows water to flow out, but don't allow air or other materials to flow in. As a result, the chickens water supply can't be contaminated by dirt and droppings.
Poultry nipples operate as follows:
1. When a chicken pecks at a stem on the bottom of the poultry nipple, it rises up and causes a gap to form between an interior wall of the nipple and the stem.
2. This allows water to flow around the stem and out through the bottom of the valve.
3. When a chicken withdraws it's beak, the stem falls, closes the gap between the side wall of the poultry nipple and the stem, and shuts off the flow of water.
Although there are differences between various poultry nipple models, they all operate on this same basic principles. The below drawing is taken from a 1967 patent application and is typical of the type of poultry nipples that are produced to this day. The stem of the valve is labeled #27 in the drawing. The stem rests against a ball bearing #19 that sits in a rounded channel #18. When seated in the channel as shown on the left side of the diagram, the ball bearing creates a water tight seal. Above the ball bearing is a second stem #20 with a channel running down the interior #23. In the closed position the hole is covered so water from the pipe #10 can't enter into the valve.
Drawing from 1967 Poultry Nipple Patent Application by Kenneth Wilmot
Now compare the left hand diagram with that on the right that shows what happens when a chicken pecks at the lower stem to drink. The lower stem rises, pushing up the ball bearing and also the top stem. Water rushes down through channel #23 into the chamber and out through gap #17. The water is then dispensed directly into the chickens mouth.
When the chicken withdraws its beak, the mechanism goes into reverse; the lower stem falls, and the ball bearing and top stem also fall. This cuts off the flow of water.
Leghorn Drinking from Poultry Nipples on the BriteTap Chicken Waterer
Commercial Poultry Watering Systems & The Backyard Poultry Keeper
Poultry nipples are used extensively in the watering systems used by commercial poultry operations. However, these commercial watering systems were designed for owners with thousands, or tens of thousands of chickens. Commercial systems incorporate water pressure regulators, high pressure flushing valves, electrical anti-roosting devices and other components that are suitable for large scale poultry keeping, but too complicated, too expensive, and too large for backyard poultry keepers.
The BriteTap™ poultry nipple chicken waterer is designed for small-scale chicken keepers, but incorporates many of the benefits of large-scale commercial poultry watering systems. However, the BriteTap waterer does so at a fraction of the cost. The BriteTap waterer features the following:
• A closed-system design that includes poultry nipples. This design shields the chicken's water from dirt and droppings so it stays sanitary and owners don't need to clean the waterer on a daily basis.
• Clean-Out plugs on the ends of the waterer allow owners to clean the interior with a bottle brush. These clean out plugs are an inexpensive replacement for the high pressure flushing mechanisms used by commercial poultry watering equipment.
• Clear plastic construction so owners can see the interior of the waterer when cleaning it rather than relying on high-pressure flushing equipment required in large-scale systems.
• Anti-roosting is achieved by designing the BriteTap waterer so that the BriteTap waterer sits very close to the wall of the water supply tank. Chickens don't have space to roost on the BriteTap waterer so they can't soil it with their droppings. The design eliminates the need for mechanical or electrical anti-roosting devices.
• Easy set up and maintenance - The BriteTap can be mounted to any food-grade plastic container or to a standard water cooler. Set up takes just a few minutes and does not require special tools or rigging as is the case with commercial poultry watering systems.
For more information about the BriteTap waterer, visit
BriteTap Poultry Waterer Key Components
BriteTap Waterer Mounted to A Rubbermaid Water Cooler. Just unscrew the coolers spigot and replace with the BriteTap waterer
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2.Reaching or comprehending only what is obvious or apparent; not deep or profound; shallow; - said especially in respect to study, learning, and the like; as, a superficial scholar; superficial knowledge.
This superficial tale
Is but a preface of her worthy praise.
- Shak.
He is a presumptuous and superficial writer.
- Burke.
That superficial judgment, which happens to be right without deserving to be so.
- J. H. Newman.
Adj.1.superficial - being or affecting or concerned with a surface; not deep or penetrating emotionally or intellectually; "superficial similarities"; "a superficial mind"; "his thinking was superficial and fuzzy"; "superficial knowledge"; "the superficial report didn't give the true picture"; "only superficial differences"
2.superficial - relating to a surface; "superficial measurements"; "the superficial area of the wall"
3.superficial - of little substance or significance; "a few superficial editorial changes"; "only trivial objections"
Synonyms: trivial
4.superficial - involving a surface only; "her beauty is only skin-deep"; "superficial bruising"; "a surface wound"
Synonyms: skin-deep, surface
3-D, airy, amateur, amateurish, ankle-deep, apparent, appearing, arid, asinine, barren, birdbrained, birdwitted, blah, blank, bloodless, catchpenny, characterless, cold, colorless, conventionalized, cortical, cosmetic, critical, cubic, dabbling, dead, depthless, dilettante, dilettantish, dimensional, dismal, draggy, drearisome, dreary, dry, dryasdust, dull, dusty, effete, elephantine, empty, epidermal, epidermic, etiolated, exomorphic, expeditious, exterior, external, extrinsic, fade, fatuous, featherbrained, festinate, feverish, few, flat, flighty, fluffy, flying, foolish, footling, formal, formalist, formalistic, formulary, fourth-dimensional, fribble, fribbling, fringe, frivolous, frothy, furious, futile, general, half-assed, half-baked, half-cocked, hasty, heavy, ho-hum, hollow, hurried, idle, immature, immediate, impersonal, inane, inconsequential, inconsiderable, inexcitable, insignificant, insipid, instant, insubstantial, jejune, knee-deep, last-minute, leaden, legalistic, lifeless, light, little, low, low-spirited, meager, meaningless, miniature, negligible, no great shakes, nominal, not deep, nugacious, nugatory, on the spot, on the surface, open, ostensible, otiose, out, outer, outermost, outlying, outmost, outside, outstanding, outward, outward-facing, pale, pallid, passing, pedantic, pedestrian, perfunctory, peripheral, petty, picayune, picayunish, plodding, pointless, poky, ponderous, prompt, proportional, public, quick, roundabout, sciolistic, seeming, shallow-headed, shallow-minded, shallow-pated, shallow-rooted, shallow-witted, shoal, short, silly, sketchy, skin-deep, slap-bang, slapdash, slender, slow, small, smattering, snap, solemn, sophomoric, space, space-time, spatial, spatiotemporal, speedy, spherical, spiritless, stereoscopic, sterile, stiff, stodgy, stuffy, stylized, surface, swift, tasteless, tedious, thin, three-dimensional, tiny, trifling, trite, trivial, two-dimensional, uncritical, unimportant, unlively, unprofound, urgent, vacuous, vain, vapid, visible, volatile, volumetric, windy, wooden
Translate Superficial to Spanish, Translate Superficial to German, Translate Superficial to French
superfamily Hominoidea
superfamily Lamellicornia
superfamily Muroidea
superfamily Muscoidea
superfamily Platyrrhini
superfamily Sphecoidea
superfamily Tineoidea
superfamily Tyrannidae
-- Superficial --
superficial epigastric vein
superficial middle cerebral vein
superficial temporal vein
Superflua non nocent
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"url": "https://www.webster-dictionary.org/definition/superficial"
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The Pirate Queen
Dubbed the “pirate queen” by the Vatican and Spain’s Philip II, Elizabeth I was feared and admired by her enemies. Extravagant, whimsical, and hot-tempered, Elizabeth was the epitome of power. Her visionary accomplishments were made possible by her daring merchants, gifted rapscallion adventurers, astronomer philosophers, and her stalwart Privy Council, including Sir William Cecil, Sir Francis Walsingham, and Sir Nicholas Bacon. All these men contributed their vast genius, power, greed, and expertise to the advancement of England.
In The Pirate Queen, historian Susan Ronald offers a fresh look at Elizabeth I, focusing on her uncanny instinct for financial survival and the superior intellect that propelled and sustained her rise. The foundation of Elizabeth’s empire was built on a carefully choreographed strategy whereby piracy transformed England from an impoverished state on the fringes of Europe into the first building block of an empire that covered two-fifths of the world.
Based on a wealth of historical sources and thousands of personal letters between Elizabeth and her merchant adventurers, advisers, and royal “cousins,” The Pirate Queen tells the thrilling story of Elizabeth and the swashbuckling mariners who terrorised the seas, planted the seedlings of an empire, and amassed great wealth for themselves and the Crown.
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"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.47596675157546997,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9455036520957947,
"url": "https://susanronald.com/books-panel/the-pirate-queen/"
}
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weigh one's words, to
weigh (one's) words
1. To choose what one says carefully. Weigh your words when you talk to the boss—this is a situation you need to finesse.
2. To think about what one else has said. I've been weighing his words all day, trying to figure out what he meant.
See also: weigh, word
weigh someone's words
1. Fig. to consider carefully what someone says. I listened to what he said, and I weighed his words very carefully. Everyone was weighing his words. None of us knew exactly what he meant.
2. Fig. to consider one's own words carefully when speaking. I always weigh my words when I speak in public. John was weighing his words carefully because he didn't want to be misunderstood.
See also: weigh, word
weigh one's words
Speak or write with deliberation or considerable care, as in The doctor weighed his words as he explained her illness. This term was first recorded in 1340.
See also: weigh, word
weigh one's words, to
To speak or write thoughtfully and prudently. Weigh here is used in the sense of measuring the weight, or impact, of one’s words. This metaphor dates from ancient times and was already in print in the early fourteenth century. Dan Michel wrote, “[he] ne wegth his wordes ine the waye of discrecion” (Ayenbite of Inwyt, 1340).
See also: to, weigh
See also:
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9718754291534424,
"url": "https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/weigh+one%27s+words%2C+to"
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kids encyclopedia robot
Atriplex truncata facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Atriplex truncata
Scientific classification
Atriplex truncata is a species of saltbush known by the common names wedgeleaf saltbush, wedgescale, and wedge orach, native to western North America from British Columbia to California and to New Mexico. It grows in montane to desert habitats with saline soils, such as dry lake beds.
Atriplex truncata is an annual herb producing erect, angled stems which can be higher than 70 centimeters. Leaves are 1 to 4 centimeters long and wedge-shaped. The stems and herbage are generally very scaly and scurfy. Male and female flowers are produced in small clusters in the leaf axils.
kids search engine
Atriplex truncata Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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"url": "https://kids.kiddle.co/Atriplex_truncata"
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The Room Temperature Needed for Sun Conures
Cuteness may earn compensation through affiliate links in this story.
Sun conures are parrots that have long tails similar to that of Macaws.
Sun conures are parrots that grows to reach 11 to 12 inches in height, which includes their long tail feathers. Like many parrots, sun conures are native to the warmer temperatures of South America. Conures can regulate their body temperature, but they are not capable of withstanding extreme temperatures or shifts in temperature. Providing the right environment for your parrot promotes healthy behaviors and reduces the risk of sickness and injury.
Cage Temperatures
The ideal room temperature for sun conures is between 62 and 74 degrees Fahrenheit. Conures should not be near drafts or heat/AC vents because the fluctuation in temperature can cause illness. If you keep cooler temperatures in your home, you should provide a sleeping huts for your parrot at all times, and use a cage cover at night to prevent drafts. Extreme temperatures such those that occur in homes or buildings without a consistent heat heat source and cool air can be dangerous to birds causing hypothermia or heat stroke.
Cage Lighting
Ideal lighting conditions provide all the rays of the sun without the heat, which can be accomplished in two ways. Because glass window panes block the rays that birds need most, placing the bird near an open window or outdoor aviary will provide the rays needed to convert food to vitamin D. Another option is to purchase a full-spectrum light bulb that provides all the rays a parrot needs to be healthy.
Cage Space
Because of their length, sun conures require more space than the smaller bird breeds. Flight cages are always preferred over economy cages, and the larger the cage the better. Conures are curious and active birds that will use all the space they are given. A single sun conure needs a cage that is is at least two feett wide, two feet long and 2 1/2 feet tall. You should nearly double that for two birds. Without adequate space for their wings to stretch, these birds will fail to thrive.
Cage Location
Birds are social creatures that require a human or bird flock to be mentally and physically healthy, but they don't need to be in the busiest intersection in the house. A quiet place near window, but within view of the family gatherings such as meal times is optimal. When placing the sun conure's cage, keep in mind that if the cage is placed near a television, radio, or bright light source during sleeping times, birds develop screaming and behavior problems because of lack of rest.
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suicide-mission volunteers in the Japanese armed forces during World War II. The concept of forming teishintai detachments was based on bushido—the medieval moral and religious code of the samurai warrior—which demanded unquestioning obedience and contempt for death. Those volunteers who perished gained the status of holy protectors of Japan. The general rule of the teishintai was self-sacrifice for the purpose of destroying superior enemy forces.
There were several different types of teishintai. Kamikaze pilots in the navy flew suicide missions against ships; those in the air force were to destroy heavy bombers, tanks, railroad bridges, and other important targets. Suicide parachutists were dispatched to destroy airplanes and fuel supplies at enemy air bases by means of explosives and flamethrowers. Teishintai ground forces were directed against enemy tanks, artillery, and officers; there was particularly widespread training of such forces in the Kwantung Army, which in 1945 had suicide battalions in each division as well as a special suicide brigade. Some naval teishintai (the shinyo, who operated in the Philippines) used high-speed cutters carrying explosives to blow up enemy transport vessels. Others operating in the Hawaiian Islands and elsewhere were sent in miniature submarines (kairyu and koryu) and torpedoes (kaichen, or laichen) to destroy enemy warships.
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"language": "en",
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"url": "https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Teishintai"
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Thorkell the Tall
Viking chief
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Thorkell the Tall, (born late 950s, southern Sweden—died after 1023), Viking warrior and chieftain who gained renown during his lifetime for his fighting prowess and who played a notable role in English history in the 11th century.
Little is known of Thorkell’s early life. He was born into a prominent family and was said to be a member of the legendary Jomsviking warrior order. He reputedly took part in the Battle of Hjörungavágr, a naval engagement in 986 in which the Jomsvikings attacked and were defeated by the forces of Haakon Sigurdsson of Norway. Thorkell was later said to have become the leader of the Jomsvikings.
In 1009 Thorkell the Tall led a Viking invasion of England, landing in Kent and ravaging the south. The following year he attacked Ipswich, East Anglia, defeated defending forces, and continued on until being paid a large sum of Danegeld, after which he withdrew. However, he later led an attack on Canterbury, where in September 1011 the invaders seized Aelfheah, archbishop of Canturbury, hoping to gain a large ransom for him. Aelfheah refused to allow the poor of England to be further burdened by paying for his release, and eventually the Vikings killed him. Thorkell was said to have attempted to prevent Aelfheah’s murder, and he and his loyalists subsequently entered the service of the English king Ethelred the Unready.
Thorkell and his men helped resist the invasion led by Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark in 1013, but Sweyn eventually overcame the resistance and became king of England. Ethelred, meanwhile, fled to Normandy. After Sweyn died in 1014, Ethelred returned to power, and Thorkell renewed his service to the English king. However, at some point (sources differ as to when), Thorkell allied himself with Sweyn’s son Canute, who led a new invasion of England in 1015. After Canute became king of England in 1017, he rewarded Thorkell with the earldom of East Anglia. In 1021, under unclear circumstances, Thorkell was obliged to flee to Denmark, where Canute later made him earl. Thorkell the Tall disappeared from the historical record after 1023.
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F1 score formula
What does f1 score measure?
The F – score , also called the F1 – score , is a measure of a model’s accuracy on a dataset. The F – score is a way of combining the precision and recall of the model, and it is defined as the harmonic mean of the model’s precision and recall.
What is a good f1 score classification?
A binary classification task. Clearly, the higher the F1 score the better, with 0 being the worst possible and 1 being the best .
What is f1 score in confusion matrix?
F1 Score becomes 1 only when precision and recall are both 1. F1 score becomes high only when both precision and recall are high. F1 score is the harmonic mean of precision and recall and is a better measure than accuracy. In the pregnancy example, F1 Score = 2* ( 0.857 * 0.75)/(0.857 + 0.75) = 0.799.
Why is f1 score better than accuracy?
Accuracy is used when the True Positives and True negatives are more important while F1 – score is used when the False Negatives and False Positives are crucial. In most real-life classification problems, imbalanced class distribution exists and thus F1 – score is a better metric to evaluate our model on.
Is f1 score a percentage?
Similar to arithmetic mean, the F1 – score will always be somewhere in between precision and recall. But it behaves differently: the F1 – score gives a larger weight to lower numbers. For example, when Precision is 100% and Recall is 0%, the F1 – score will be 0%, not 50%.
Is Lower f1 score better?
Symptoms. An F1 score reaches its best value at 1 and worst value at 0. A low F1 score is an indication of both poor precision and poor recall.
You might be interested: What is f1
Why harmonic mean is used in f1 score?
Precision and recall both have true positives in the numerator, and different denominators. To average them it really only makes sense to average their reciprocals, thus the harmonic mean . Because it punishes extreme values more. In other words, to have a high F1 , you need to both have a high precision and recall.
How can I improve my f1 score?
2 Answers Use better features, sometimes a domain expert (specific to the problem you’re trying to solve) can give relevant pointers that can result in significant improvements. Use a better classification algorithm and better hyper-parameters.
What is f1 precision recall?
Precision – Precision is the ratio of correctly predicted positive observations to the total predicted positive observations. F1 score – F1 Score is the weighted average of Precision and Recall . Therefore, this score takes both false positives and false negatives into account.
How do you solve accuracy and precision?
Find the difference (subtract) between the accepted value and the experimental value, then divide by the accepted value. To determine if a value is precise find the average of your data, then subtract each measurement from it. This gives you a table of deviations. Then average the deviations.
How do you calculate accuracy?
How to Calculate the Accuracy of Measurements Collect as Many Measurements of the Thing You Are Measuring as Possible. Call this number N. Find the Average Value of Your Measurements. Find the Absolute Value of the Difference of Each Individual Measurement from the Average. Find the Average of All the Deviations by Adding Them Up and Dividing by N.
You might be interested: F1 brazil 2018
Why is accuracy a bad metric?
Classification accuracy is the number of correct predictions divided by the total number of predictions. Accuracy can be misleading. For example, in a problem where there is a large class imbalance, a model can predict the value of the majority class for all predictions and achieve a high classification accuracy .
What is a good prediction accuracy?
If you are working on a classification problem, the best score is 100% accuracy . If you are working on a regression problem, the best score is 0.0 error. These scores are an impossible to achieve upper/lower bound. All predictive modeling problems have prediction error.
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"url": "https://www.f1-fans.co.uk/all-about-f1/f1-score-formula.html"
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Hospitality for Pilgrims in Rome
Author: Anna Foa
Hospitality for Pilgrims in Rome
Anna Foa
The Jubilee from the Middle Ages to modern times
The first Jubilee in Christian history was in 1300, proclaimed by Pope Boniface VIII. An enormous influx of pilgrims arrived in Rome, so many that the city, lacking accommodation, lodgings and inns, was unable to house them all. The crowds were such that as recalled in Canto XVIII of Dante’s Inferno, a system of alternating traffic was introduced in order for them to cross the Sant’Angelo Bridge. In the centuries that followed the situation would grow even worse and pilgrims belonging to the different confraternities would fight, weapons in hand, for the right of way on the bridge.
On the occasion of the Jubilee of 1300, Romans created provisional inns by transforming their homes into lodgings, a practice that would continue for centuries, until today. During the first and in subsequent Jubilees, women played a fundamental role in the work of providing hospitality. Given the risks and difficulties of long journeys on foot through unknown places fraught with danger not only to their baggage but also to their chastity, there were fewer women than men who participated as pilgrims. Instead, women in Rome became innkeepers, hostesses and nurses, alleviating the pilgrims’ weariness with food, drink, warm rooms and comfortable beds. Often, although perhaps not always true, municipal authorities feared that prostitutes might hide in the ranks of these innkeepers, and thus inns without signs were mistrusted and thus authorities sought in vain to control and discourage them.
Until well after the 16th century the Jubilee was a business opportunity for innkeepers, since pilgrims paid for their board and lodging and had to stay for at least a fortnight in Rome in order to make the repeated visits to the basilicas necessary to gain the Plenary Indulgence. During these 14 days they also had to sleep and eat. However, from the mid-16th century, in an atmosphere of increasing religious discipline, the mercenary aspect of accommodation during the Jubilee sharply declined since the network of more or less improvised hostels and inns was replaced by the network of hospitals and confraternities which played the role of providing assistance free of charge as a religious obligation.
Pilgrimages increasingly acquired a group character, the number of individual pilgrims dwindled and the part played by secular confraternities developed. Here too the role of women was very important, particularly that of those belonging to the upper classes, aristocrats and upper-middle-class women, who spared no effort in offering the services of hospitality. They washed the pilgrims’ feet and waited on them at table. It was they who were responsible for welcoming the pilgrims and for collecting funds, and they who financed the hospices and hospitals.
However, let us attempt to trace this process a little more closely. As the Jubilee of 1300 was marked by the flourishing of inns and hostels, somewhat similar to today’s bed and breakfasts, in subsequent Jubilees too the problem of how to lodge, feed and help such a large, number of pilgrims remained open. This was particularly true during the important Jubilee of 1450, which seemed to mark the end of Rome’s decadence after the period of the exile of the popes in Avignon and the great Schism. Just as it was ushering in the great season of city planning which was to change its aspect, Rome attracted an incredible number of pilgrims, so many that 1,022 official lodging houses were listed in the city, that is, those equipped with the standard sign, as well as many other non-official ones, namely, homes transformed into hostels. Offering hospitality to pilgrims was one of the most nagging problems which characterized that Holy Year: many people slept outside and, despite the increase in their number, the lodging houses and hostels proved insufficient to meet the need.
In the Jubilee of 1500 an important role in organizing accommodation was played by Vannozza Caetani. She was the lover of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, who acceded to the papal throne in 1492, and was the mother of his four children. When she ceased to be Alexander VI’s favourite, Vannozza became an able businesswoman and, among other things, an innkeeper, making the most of the circumstance of the Jubilee to take on the management of at least five inns. These included one called della Vacca, one of the best in the city, where it seems that in addition to board and lodging pilgrims were also offered courtesans and prostitutes. In this case they might have thought that the Plenary Indulgence to be gained in the following days would cancel their every sin. The former favorite of the Pope followed the example of the Roman people, but she operated at a higher level. Vannozza invested, earned and expanded her business affairs with the Holy Year, also making the most of the favourable attitude which the authorities could not fail to take towards the woman who was the mother of the Pontiffs children. Indeed she was not exempt from the suspicion of usury and, as we have seen, of pandering.
Towards the mid-16th century in the atmosphere of renewed devotional fervour, hospitality for pilgrims also and above all became a superior form of religious devotion. The steadily increasing confraternities equipped themselves to offer pilgrims accommodation free of charge. In 1548 St Philip Neri founded the Archconfraternity of Santissima Trinità dei Pellegrini. In the Santissima Trinità boarding house, as in the hostels of the confraternities, men and women were given separate quarters. The number of women pilgrims, perhaps not as low at the outset as people usually think, increased, since records show a considerable female presence.
However, it was through the assistance women provided that they became truly dominant. The iconography of the Roman Pietà came into being, depicting a provocative woman suckling an old man, which we see in so many paintings of the time, from Caravaggio to Rubens, wholly Baroque in symbolism. The female role is explained, especially at the level of the upper classes of society, by the involvement of women of the nobility in the works of the confraternities and in assistance. Sumptuously dressed, these Roman noble-women would serve the pilgrims at table and wash their feet, dusty after their long journey. It also happened that grand courtesans would sometimes infiltrate among these women, also to carry out the gratifying and honourable task of tending to and comforting the pilgrims.
In the Jubilee of 1675 Queen Christina of Sweden, having converted to Catholicism and moved to Rome, took part in a sort of purification ceremony in which the most unbridled luxury was juxtaposed with poverty, coloured silk fabrics against the worn and sober clothing of the pilgrims. A quite unusual figure, Christina claimed a central role not only in assistance but even in the management of the Jubilee. She was the Queen of Rome, or at least was seen as such by the Romans. At the opening of the Holy Door, contrary to all etiquette, she raised her somewhat raucous mannish voice to tell off the English Protestant gentlemen who had failed to kneel. Everyone heard her, including the Pope, but pretended they had heard nothing. Thus, with her but also with other female figures of the time, the charity of hospitality was transformed into a Baroque theatricality for the apparent purpose of serving as an example. Yet it was also a none too well concealed means for them to outshine others, and especially other women.
The era of the women hoteliers and that of the charitable ladies who spared no effort in offering hospitality ended with modern times, the crisis of the Church in the 18th century and the end of the temporal power of the Popes. Men and wo- men carried out beside each other the religious task of the Holy Year pilgrimage. The network of parishes, confraternities and religious institutions replaced — although not entirely — the medieval network of houses turned into hostels. Prostitutes, confined to brothels until fairly recent times, no longer infiltrated in their garish clothes among the noblewomen intent on practising Christian charity. It was now hard to confuse them.
The pilgrimage, once a risky moment of crossing a threshold, became a journey, no longer on foot as in the centuries of the Middle Ages and in the early modem era, but on trains or buses equipped with certain comforts. Are women still innkeepers? Yes, perhaps, but as hotel owners or employed by real estate agencies, and without mixing religious devotion with the desire for profit and worldliness.
L'Osservatore Romano
Weekly Edition in English
11 December 2015, page 12
For subscriptions to the English edition, contact:
Our Sunday Visitor: L'Osservatore Romano
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How Gold Sluices Work
From the earliest gold rushes to the present day, the sluice box has remained a staple tool for prospectors and placer miners. Despite advancements in engineering over the years, gold sluices have changed very little since they first became popular – after all, “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it!” This is due in part to the solid design philosophy that gold sluices are based on.
While early prospectors were panning for alluvial gold, they soon noticed that the best places to search were the inside bends of rivers and creeks; in natural hollows and rock crevices; and at the base of escarpments, waterfalls, or other minor impediments to the water’s flow. What all these areas have in common is that they accumulate gold by “catching” it as it flows past while dirt and gravel are pushed further on by the current. This happens because the gold is heavier and harder for the current to push. In the lab, this process is called “gravity separation.”
Sluice boxes are designed to mimic this naturally occurring gravity separation. As water carries gold-laden sediment through the box, small obstructions called riffles block the free flow of material. These tiny flow restrictions form low pressure pockets where the gold collects.
Sluices are an effective tool for collecting gold, but they don’t work without water. They can also miss gold if the water flow through the box is not carefully regulated. If you want to learn more about how sluice boxes are used to find gold, check out our infographic below.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9595776796340942,
"url": "https://www.mgsrefining.com/blog/2017/06/07/how-gold-sluices-work/"
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Primary links
Historical Timeline
Prepared by Timothy P. McCleary of Little Big Horn College, with the assistance of Dale D. Old Horn and Joseph Medicine Crow, March 7, 2000.
1400. The ancestral tribe of the Apsáalooke and the Hidatsa were living the "Land of Forests and many lakes" (the present upper Great Lakes of Canada and the United States).
1450. Two leaders of this group, No Intestines and Red Scout, fasted at Holy lake (present day Devils Lake, North Dakota). Red Scout received a vision indicating that his people would survive through the spiritual graces of Sacred Tobacco. Red Scout and his people settled on the Missouri and learned horticulture from the Mandan, eventually becoming the contemporary Hidatsas. No Intestines and his followers traveled on an extensive migration in search of the Sacred Tobacco. The trek eventually led them to their historic homeland, present-day southeastern Montana and northern Wyoming. This group became known as the Ashalahó/Many Lodges or the historic Mountain Crow.
1490. The Apsáalooke are firmly established in their homeland, displacing the Shoshones and allying themselves with the resident Kiowas.
1500. During or shortly after the migration of the Apsáalooke, a band formed called the Bilápiiuutche/Beaver Dries Its Fur. No one knows for certain what became of this group, but many Apsáalooke and Kiowas believe that they went to the Southern Plains with the Kiowa in the 1500s and eventually became assimilated into that tribe.
1600. The next band of the Apsáalooke developed out of a separation from the Hidatsa. Sometime after No Intestines group had become established on the Plains and argument arose between two factions in the Hidatsa villages on the Missouri River. The quarrel was over the distribution of a drowned buffalo, the wife of the leader Bad Heart Bear felt that she had not received enough of the tripe. The ensuing dispute led to a permanent separation when the followers of Bad Heart Bear joined the Ashalahó Apsáalooke on the Plains. This group became known as the Binnéassiippeele/Those Who Live Amongst The River Banks, or the historic River Crow.
1700. The Apsáalooke acquired their first horses from a Shoshone camp near the Great Salt Lake.
1743. A group of Apsáalooke camped at the confluence of the Bighorn and Little Bighorn Rivers meet with the La Vérendrye Brothers, French-Canadian traders. Most likely the first encounter between the Apsáalooke and the Europeans.
1805. Lewis and Clark Expedition travels across Apsáalooke territory. On their return trip in 1806, the remuda of horses meant for Clark, being held by his sergeant, Nathaniel Pryor, are taken by Apsáalooke warriors near present-day Huntley, Montana.
1825. The first treaty between the Apsáalooke and the United States is signed by Apsáalooke leader Long Hair and Major O’Fallon of the United States. The other prominent Apsáalooke leader Sore Belly refuses to sign.
1840. The Apsáalooke are afflicted with the first of three severe smallpox epidemics that reduced the tribe from an estimated 10,000 in the 1830s to approximately 2,000 by 1850.
1851. The Apsáalooke participated in the first Ft. Laramie Treaty. The treaty stated that the Apsáalooke controlled over 33 million acres of land in present-day Montana and Wyoming.
1864. The outnumbered Apsáalooke successfully defended themselves against the combined forces of the Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho on East Pryor Creek north of present-day Pryor, Montana. The largest and most dramatic battle to protect eastern Apsáalooke lands from the Lakota invasion of the 1860s.
1865. The Apsáalooke assisted the United States military in protecting travelers on the Bozeman Trail. To this end, three forts were established in Apsáalooke territory.
1868. The Apsáalooke participated in the second Ft. Laramie Treaty, and their land holdings were reduced to 8 million acres in present-day Montana.
1869. The first government agency is established for the Apsáalooke on Hide Scraper Creek (present-day Mission Creek, Montana). This is the first exposure of the Apsáalooke to the reservation policies of the United States.
1872. Apsáalooke land holdings are reduced again and the government agency is moved to present-day Absarokee, Montana.
1876. The Apsáalooke continued to support the United States military by supplying the scouts to the columns of the Centennial Campaign. If it were not for the assistance of the Apsáalooke to General Crooks Wyoming Column on June17 at Rosebud Creek, he and his men would have met the same fate as General Custer’s command did eight years later.
1877. The Apsáalooke maintain constant attacks against the invading Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho, with and without the assistance of the United States military. Even pursuing the fleeing Lakotas into Canada.
1881. Sitting Bull and his followers surrender at Ft. Buford, North Dakota after being in Canada for four years. Sitting Bull stated that one of the reasons for his surrender was to seek protection from the almost constant harassment of the Apsáalooke warriors.
1882. The Apsáalooke agreed to another land cession and the government agency is moved to its present site at Crow Agency, Montana.
1887. An Apsáalooke war leader named Wraps His Tail lead an unsuccessful insurgency against the United States government because of newly imposed laws restricting the Apsáalooke to their reservation and preventing them from engaging in inter-tribal warfare. Wraps His Tail was killed and a number of his followers imprisoned. One cavalryman was killed in the skirmish and is interred in the Custer National Cemetery at Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
1888. Against possible imprisonment and/or death, the Apsáalooke leader Two Leggings leads a counter attack against a Lakota raiding party from the Ft. Peck Reservation. He and his group overtook the Lakota horse raiders, killing one of them and reclaimed their horses. Historians believe this to be the last inter-tribal conflict to occur on the Northern Plains.
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Classroom Plays for Social Studies, American History
* Written by L.E. McCullough, Ph.D.
* ISBN: 1-56472-241-4
* Retail List Price: $17.00 (check online retailers for other prices)
Re-enact events that forged a developing country!
Plays of Early America are interactive learning aids designed to make history and cultural study come alive for your students. These plays are foundations and stepping-off points for further research and learning by your students. Though each play script is self-contained and based on actual curriculum material, the format allows for additional information teachers might wish to insert.
1. Pocahontas and John Smith: Saving the Virginia Colony. In 1607, the Powhatan girl Pocahontas saves the struggling Jamestown colony by convincing her father to spare the life of Captain John Smith.
2. Daily Life in Colonial America. Explore the life of a typical New England farm family in 1704, highlighting the need for self-sufficiency and inter-dependence with discussion of the significant role children played in the household economy.
3. July 4, 1776: America’s First Birthday. On July 4, 1776, Philadelphia citizens discuss the pros and cons of breaking away from England as the Declaration of Independence is signed inside Independence Hall.
4. Valley Forge: Turning Point of the Revolution. The Colonial Army survives the terrible winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge to emerge stronger than ever.
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Definition of Bandwagon
Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and a type of propaganda through which a writer persuades his readers, so that the majority could agree with the argument of the writer. He does this by suggesting that, since the majority agrees, the reader should too. For instance, “Everyone is voting for David, so definitely he is the best presidential candidate,” is intended to convince others. The term bandwagon means, to “jump on the bandwagon,” to follow what others are doing, or to conform.
While listening to a politician, or reading a book, it is often observed that the speaker or the writer tries to encourage the audience to think or act in a particular way because others are doing that, despite having ideas and beliefs of their own.
Examples of Bandwagon in Literature
Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell)
In the novel Animal Farm, George Orwell uses bandwagon technique effectively. At the very beginning, a song “Beasts of England” seems to be very appealing and catchy, because everyone picks it up so swiftly as if they like the idea. Again, we see this technique when Boxer, a powerful and loyal animal on the farm, promotes bandwagon propaganda inadvertently with his work ethics, as he always tries to work hard. He maintains the view that, “If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right.” This shows he wishes to follow Comrade Napoleon and his ideas.
Bandwagon technique continues to exist as the animals only accept the ideals and changing commandments because other animals are doing the same. Another bandwagon technique comes out when Mollie is curious to know whether she will be able to wear precious ribbons and have sugar after Rebellion. However, Snowball informs her that they symbolize slavery and Mollie accepts this without any resistance, although she never believes it.
Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)
In William Shakespeare’s play, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony delivers his famous speech at the funeral of Caesar, which is a brilliant example of bandwagon. Mark Antony has delivered this magnificent speech to win over the favor of the audience. He negates excuses that Brutus had made, though he had calmed down the public and persuaded them that Caesar had to die for their good.
Antony comes forward and tells them that he hopes the crowd would not riot, and convinces them that Cassius and Brutus were murderers and responsible for ripping apart the town. Speaking on a personal level, Antony grabs public attention as he leaves his position and, being a commoner saying, “Friends, Romans, Countrymen.
Example #3: The Crucible (By Arthur Miller)
Betty: “I saw George Jacobs with the Devil! I saw Goody Howe with the Devil!…I saw Martha Bellow with the Devil!”
Abigail: “I saw Goody Sibber with the Devil!”
Putnam: “The marshal, I’ll call the marshal!”
Betty: “I saw Alice Barrow with the Devil!”
Hale: “Let the marshal bring irons!”
In this excerpt, Abigail Williams claims that she has seen many women with the devil. While she proposes this idea, suddenly all of the girls jump on the bandwagon, and start following Abigail by accusing those women whom they dislike.
Example #4: 1984 (By George Orwell)
George Orwell uses bandwagon technique in his novel, 1984. In this novel, the leading party uses fear techniques to manipulate people to follow the majority. The bandwagon technique plays effectively on their feelings of isolation and loneliness. The party ensures that nobody is trustworthy. They even turn the children against their parents. No one can have relationships without their permission.
Its best example is “Two Minute Hate” – a particular time in which everyone shouts at Goldstein, the enemy of the party. Everyone participates in this bandwagon and consequently intense hatred overwhelms Winston, who also takes part and produce feelings of achievement in his heart.
Function of Bandwagon
The purpose of this technique is to make the audience think and act in a way that the majority follows. This tendency of following the beliefs and actions of others occurs when an audience sees others are also conforming. We see its usage in literature, politics, and advertisements. Bandwagon is in fact a good approach for persuasive writing that successfully works on human minds and psychology. Conversely, writers often use it as a pressure tactic by creating a sense of fear among the readers if they do not agree with their beliefs.
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A Gravity Dam
A gravity dam can resist a maximum lateral force of Fm = 78, 000 lb. (a) What is the maximum height of the dam if there is no downstream (right side of dam)? (b) What if the water depth downstream is 10 ft? (c) Would it be a good idea to design the dam for the condition of part (b)?
The Resultant Forces Act
Perpendicular to the Dam
The Lateral Force Component on only
One Side of Dam Ap
(a) The resultant force (FR) due to water pressure is perpendicular to the dam surface. Here, only concerned with lateral (horizontal) component, so you can use the projected vertical dimension of the dam.
The lateral force (FH) due to fluid pressure (hydrostatic conditions) acting on the projected area Ap can be determined for a unit width as
Fh = γ hc Ap = γ (h/2) Ap
where h is the total water depth.
To find the maximum h, set Fh to the allowable force, Fm, to give
Fh = Fm
(62.4 lb/ft3) (h/2) [h (1 ft)] = 78,000 lb
h = [78,000 / 31.2]0.5 = 50 ft
Lateral Force Components
Acting on the Dam
(b) If the water depth downstream is 10 ft, then a resultant force will act on that side of the dam, and will counteract the upstream force.
Fh1 - Fh2 = Fm
γ hc1 Ap1- γ hc2 Ap2 = 78,000 lb
62.4 (h/2) [(h)(1)] - 62.4 (5) [(10)(1)] = 78,000
31.2 h2 = 81,120
h = 51.0 ft
(c) Since the 10 ft of water downstream may not exist in times of draught, the dam should be limited to 50 ft of water.
Practice Homework and Test problems now available in the 'Eng Fluids' mobile app
Includes over 250 problems with complete detailed solutions.
Available now at the Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
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Lesson: Theodore Roosevelt and the Panama Canal
21 Favorites
Lesson Objective
By the end of the lesson, SWBAT explain how American expanded its role in the world during the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt.
Lesson Plan
· Theodore Roosevelt expanded America’s influence in the hemisphere by encouraging and brokering the construction of the Panama Canal.
· Theodore Roosevelt flexed U.S. muscle by building and sailing the “White Fleet” in the Asian waters.
· Theodore Roosevelt knew that America needed to show its strength to keep peace.
· Theodore Roosevelt used the army to end a counter-insurgency in the Philippines.
· Theodore Roosevelt showed the world that America is a super power.
· Essential Question: “How did Theodore Roosevelt make America a powerful country in the world?”
· Vocabulary: Theodore Roosevelt, Panama Canal, Philippines, White Fleet.
T will informally assess their knowledge by asking different questions during the Power Point.
T will assess the students’ work on the map activity.
T will assess the students’ stories about the Panama Canal.
SS5H3 The student will describe how life changed in America at the turn of the
c. Explain how William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt expanded America’s
role in the world; include the Spanish-American War and the building of the
Panama Canal.
1. OPENING ( 10 min.) (Engage/Explore)
· At the start of the lesson, T will put up a political cartoon of Roosevelt digging the Panama Canal. T will put the following sponge on the board: “Look at the following political cartoon, discuss with your tablemates what you think this cartoon is trying to say?”
· T will have the Ss share their responses with tablemates.
· T will ask the Ss to share out their starter answers.
· T will explain the objective for the day: By the end of the lesson, SWBAT explain how American expanded its role in the world during the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt.
· Ss will share their starter with group mates.
· Ss will share their ideas with the class.
· T will begin the lesson by showing a Power Point about the growth of American power around the world thanks to Theodore Roosevelt (Technology).
· T will stress that the construction of the Panama Canal was pivotal in the development of trade between Asian countries, and the East coast of the U.S. with the West coast.
· T will also stress that Theodore Roosevelt also flexed the power of America by sailing the Great White Fleet into Asian waters, and by fighting back the insurgency in the Philippines.
· Ss will fill out the graphic organizer on Theodore Roosevelt and the expansion of U.S. power.
· Ss will ask questions when they arise.
3. GUIDED PRACTICE (15 min.) (Extend)
· T will put up the following writing prompt: “How did the creation of the Panama Canal increase America’s power and the amount of trade that was there?”
· T will tell the Ss that they are going to use the information from the Power Point and the graphic organizer to come up with a well-constructed essay as a class.
· T will use guided questions to ensure that students talk about increase in trade, more power in the hemisphere, and a savings in time trying to get goods from one place to another.
· T will go sentence by sentence using the Ss thoughts.
· T will encourage the Ss to think critically about subjects and not just write surface answers – go deeper.
· Ss will offer thoughts on the writing prompt.
· Ss will learn how to correctly approach a writing prompt.
· Ss will provide information that can be put into the writing.
4. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (40 min.) (Evaluate)
· T will the Ss to use a map of the Western Hemisphere to draw a trade route pre-Panama Canal
· T will ask the Ss to draw a trade route after the Panama Canal was created.
· T will ask the students to compare and contrast the maps and answer discussion questions such as: “How did the Panama Canal help trade in America?” T will also ask the Ss to write down the facts on the sheet in their graphic organizer packet.
· T will ask the Ss to complete a map key that explains the different routes. Ie: dashes = the route taken by ships prior to the Panama Canal, and dots = the route taken by ships after the Panama Canal was built.
· T will then have the Ss complete a story either from the point of view of a sailor who was the captain of a ship when the Panama Canal existed or when it did not exist.
· T will insist that the stories contain information that they learned in the lesson – such as: the Panama Canal made shipping easier, the Panama Canal helped businesses make more money, without the Panama Canal ships sometimes got stuck in the ice off the Southern coast of South America.
· T will ask the higher-level learners/early finishers to try to calculate the difference in distance between the trade route pre-Panama Canal, and post-Panama Canal by using the key provided on the map.
· Ss will complete the map exercise.
· Ss will work with the teacher if they need remedial work.
· Ss will create their own stories.
· Ss will calculate distances for enrichment.
5. CLOSING (5 min.)
· As a closing, T will have some students share out their maps and/or stories.
· T will review the key points.
· T will present the homework: If you have access to a computer, research five more facts about President Roosevelt or the Panama Canal that you did not learn in class.
· Students will answer questions.
· Students will ask any last minute questions.
Teacher's Reflection:
I found that when I taught this lesson, it really helped to repeat America's desire to increase their sphere of influence and improve life for its citizens. This theme helped students understand why Roosevelt wanted to build the Panama Canal and the Great White Fleet.
In addition, I made sure to be very careful not to glorify the building of the Panama Canal and America's extension of America's sphere of influence.
Finally, when it came to writing the group writing activity in the Guided Practice, I noticed that the students did a great job coming up with ideas, but it was a great way to incorporate a writing lesson because students definitely needed practice taking their ideas and incorporating them into writing in a clear and organized fashion.
Lesson Resources
Turn of the Century in America - Lesson 6 - Teddy Roosevelt and Panama Canal - PowerPoint Smart Board
Turn of the Century in America - Lesson 6 - Teddy Roosevelt and Panama Canal - Map Activity Activity
Turn of the Century in America - Lesson 6 - Teddy Roosevelt and Panama Canal - Key Note (Mac) Smart Board
Turn of the Century in America - Lesson 6 - Teddy Roosevelt and Panama Canal - Graphic Organizer and Narrative Activity Activity
America at the Turn of the Century Unit - Lesson 6 - Teddy Roosevelt and Panama Canal - Lesson Plan Lesson Plan
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Nothing to upload
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1 Climate change could shift the ranges of 130 North American tree species northward by hundreds of kilometers and shrink the ranges of some by as much as 58 percent.
2 Israeli researchers figured out how venom from jewel wasps turns cockroaches into zombies. After stinging, wasps lead the victim by the antennae to their burrow. There the roach is consumed by wasp larva from the inside out.
3 A new system called V2G allows batteries of electric and hybrid cars to store or supply grid electricity. Such a system could help smooth peaks in energy demand: 100 of the vehicles could provide 1 megawatt of storage.
4 For the first time, biodiesel alone fueled an airplane. BioJet 1—a Czechoslovakian-made L-29 jet that runs on vegetable oil refined into biodiesel—climbed to 17,000 feet and flew for more than 37 minutes in Nevada.
5 As if rising global temperatures and shrinking sea ice weren’t enough of a threat to polar bears—the practice of selectively hunting males could eventually leave females without mates.
6 Researchers proposed a novel way to mitigate global warming: Enhance the ocean’s ability to absorb CO2 by building water treatment plants that remove hydrochloric acid from seawater and neutralize it. One hundred such plants could reduce 15 percent of global CO2 emissions; 700 could offset all of them.
This article originally appeared in Plenty in August 2008.
Copyright Environ Press 2008.
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Alpine System:
The overall seriousness of the complete route based on all factors of the final approach, ascent and descent including length, altitude, danger, commitment, and technical difficulty. This system originated with UIAA Roman numerals; it is now generally seen with French letters and is increasingly being used worldwide.
F: Facile/easy. Rock scrambling or easy snow slopes; some glacier travel; often climbed ropeless except on glaciers.
PD: Peu Difficile/a little difficult. Some technical climbing and complicated glaciers.
AD: Assez Difficile/fairly hard. Steep climbing or long snow/ice slopes above 50 degrees; for experienced alpine climbers only.
D: Difficile/difficult. Sustained hard rock and/or ice or snow; fairly serious stuff.
TD: Tres Difficile/very difficult. Long, serious, remote, and highly technical.
ED: Extremement Difficile/extremely difficult. The most serious climbs with the most continuous difficulties. Increasing levels of difficuly indicated by ED1, ED2, etc.
1. scramble is essentially an exposed walking route, and very popular examples include the north ridge of Tryfan and Crib Goch in Snowdonia.
2. scrambles will usually include sections where a nervous scrambler would want a rope to protect them, and the person in front (the leader) must feel confident moving over exposed yet relatively easy climbing terrain.
3. scrambles often appear in climbing guides as ‘Moderately’ graded climbing routes (the easiest climbing grade), and should only be tackled by the confident.
Trail Running:
• V Difficult terrain, glaciers, rock scrambling, up to class III climbing grade. High mountain knowledge required. Risk for serious injury or death. Need for autonomy in difficult mountain conditions and complete self-reliance in all conditions.
• IV difficult, steep terrain, rocky, hard snow, some scrambling and use of ropes. High mountain knowledge required. Risk for serious injury or death. Need for autonomy in difficult mountain conditions.
• III difficult terrain (rocky, potential snow, off-trail) Some easy scrambling required. Good knowledge of risks in middle to high mountain environments. High risk of injury. Need for autonomy in difficult mountain conditions.
• II easy terrain, no scrambling required. Some rocky or mountainous sections. Some hiking (“randonée”) or low mountain knowledge required. Risk of more serious injuries and need for self-reliance in a low mountain environment (knowledge of evacuation protocols in case of an accident, navigational skills in case of bad weather, knowledge of how to prepare for and deal with bad weather conditions)
• I easy terrain, no scrambling required. Smooth trails, in the valley (outdoors) or low mountain. low risk or risk of minor injuries.
Rock climbing:
Mixed Grade:
M4: Slabby to vertical with some technical dry tooling.
M5: Some sustained vertical dry tooling.
M6: Vertical to overhanging with difficult dry tooling.
Ice and Alpine Ice Grades:
Ice climbing ratings are highly variable by region and are still evolving. The following descriptions approximate the average systems. The WI acronym implies seasonal ice; AI is often substituted for year-around Alpine Ice and may be easier than a WI grade with the same number. Canadians often drop the WI symbol and hyphenate the technical grade after the Canadian commitment grade’s Roman numeral (example: II-5).
WI1: Low angle ice; no tools required.
WI3: Sustained 70 degree with possible long bulges of 80-90 degrees; reasonable rests and good stances for placing screws.
WI4: Continuous 80 degree ice fairly long sections of 90 degree ice broken up by occasional rests.
WI5: Long and strenuous, with a ropelength of 85-90 degrees ice offering few good rests; or a shorter pitch of thin or bad ice with protection that’s difficult to place.
WI6: A full ropelength of near-90 degree ice with no rests, or a shorter pitch even more tenuous than WI 5.Highly technical.
WI7: As above, but on thin poorly bonded ice or long, overhanging poorly adhered columns. Protection is impossible or very difficult to place and of dubious quality.
WI8: Under discussion.
Alaska Grade:
An overall grade reflecting the remote, cold, stormy nature of Alaskan climbing. Rarely applied outside Alaska.
1: Easy glacier route.
2: Not technical, but exposed to knife-edged ridges, weather, and altitude.
3:Moderate to hard, including some technical climbing.
4: Hard to difficult.
5: Difficult, with sustained climbing, high commitment, and few bivouac sites.
6: Sustained hard climbing over thousands of vertical feet; high commitment.
Russian Grade:
The overall grade factors in UIAA technical ratings (the Roman numerals).
1B: Some easy roped climbing.
2A: Several pitches of easy roped climbing.
2B: Some II+ and III climbing on a multipitch route.
3A: Contains 1-1.5 pitches of III climbing on a multi-pitch route.
3B: One or two pitches of III+/IV climbing on a full-day route.
4A: A full day route with IV+ climbing.
4B: Several pitches of IV+ or some V+ climbing.
5A: Contains several pitches of V climbing on a 1- to 3-day route.
5B: Two-plus days with some VI+ climbing.
6A and 6B: Multi-day routes with considerable VI or harder climbing.
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Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
OMR( Optical Mark Recognition) is the technique used to scan a marked paper to detect the presence or absence of the mark in a predetermined position. The OMR reader illuminates a beam of strong light onto the paper for recognizing the marks. The contrasting reflectivity at the predetermined positions is then utilized to detect the marked positions on the paper. The marked areas reflect less light compared to the blank or unmarked areas.
The most important use of OMR is the detection of pencil marked bubbles in optical answer sheets used in Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) examinations. The personal information of the candidate is marked in the data part of the OMR by darkening the appropriate circles. Similarly the answers are also marked by bubbling the suitable circles in the preprinted answer sheet. The OMR reader scans the answer sheet to recover the data and answers. The answer sheets are then graded automatically by the OMR reader.
The OMR technique was the transition between the old punched card system and the modern bar coding system. Besides the use of examination works and data collection, the OMR is used by commercial agencies and health care agencies to streamline the data input process .In the past, OMR required special kind of paper to mark the data but now the progress in technology allows the users to create their own format to read in the OMR reader.
OMR Sheet
OMR technology is widely used in applications like Institutional research, community surveys, consumer surveys, examinations, data compilation, product evaluation etc. But there are some disadvantages in OMR system. If the user wants to record large quantity of data, then OMR complicates the process of data collection. Moreover, missing of data, error reading in marks which are not properly marked, etc also occurs during OMR reading.OMR device is thus useful to collect minimum data in a short period of time.
OMR reader
OMR Software
It is the computer software that helps to process datas obtained from surveys, examinations etc. using a computer and an image scanner. By using the OMR software, it is easy to design the OMR format and print the OMR sheets in laser printers. Some of the open source OMR software includes queXF, Udai OMR, Shared Questionnaire Quiz OMR etc.
See article in word format
Optical Mark Recognition
Comments are closed.
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Egyptian, Dynasty XXVII – Early Ptolemaic (525-300 BCE)
Height: 1.4 inches (3.5 cm)
Depth: 2.85 inches (7.25 cm)
Provenance: Ex. O.L. collection, Brussels, prior to 1983
Published: Catalogue Harmakhis 25 Years, 2013)
Restoration: None
This limestone sculpture depicts a male lion, mane flowing over its neck, mauling the head of an Asiatic captive. The Ancient Egyptians were ethnocentric and regarded their own culture an island of order and truth amidst a world steeped in chaos, untouched by their beloved gods. The most commonly mentioned foreigners were the Nubians to the south, and the peoples to the north and east of them. These included the Assyrians, Hittites, and Hyksos. However, they were usually referred to by the all-encompassing term “Asiatic” and were not distinguished from one another in Ancient Egyptian art and records. Ancient civilizations around the world, including the Ancient Egyptians, took prisoners of war from amongst their defeated enemies. This particular captive was obviously not lucky enough to become a servant, and was instead beheaded and fed to a hungry lion.
The level of detail in the lion’s face is extraordinary. The nostrils flare wide to make up for air not being taken in by the mouth, and muscles on the skin of the bridge of the nose and beneath the eyes are wrinkled in a perpetual snarl. Stippled beneath the nose are the pores from which whiskers would bristle on the live animal. The brows are masterfully worked above eyes that gaze purposefully ahead even as the large ears point aggressively back. Opened wide to engulf the man’s head from behind, the lion’s jaws bite down with pointed teeth and grip with powerful incisors; the lips are pulled back so far that the lion’s gums are visible. This position allows the viewer to see the highly detailed planes of the captive’s bearded face. High cheekbones, a strong nose, and pursed lips make the face unique while furrowed brows give the impression of mild concern for the situation in which the decapitated head currently finds itself. There is such attention paid to the particulars of the head that it is even possible to see where the captive’s ears had been pierced.
In addition to the incredible work in carving this sculpture, the etched details were then rubbed with pigment thus creating a deliberate staining effect that brings out delicate details that would otherwise be easily missed. The pigment outlines the captive’s eyes, adds coloration to his beard, and brings out the details carved into the lion’s face and mane.
A similarly carved Egyptian blue from the XVIII Dynasty is part of the 1974 Norbert Schimmel collection, the lion’s jaws holding a Nubian rather than an Asiatic head.
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The Ax, to a Viking, is more than just a weapon
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The ax is probably the most characteristic weapon of the Vikings.
One cannot think of the Vikings without thinking about their vicious axes.
AxmanThe Norse people evolved into an ax culture during their Stone Age period. A period of time known as the Nordic Stone Age.
The Viking Age is neither the beginning of the Norse people nor the start of their culture. The roots of the Norse go all the way back to the Megalithic and Neolithic Eras of the Stone Age.
The Stone Age for the Norse was much different than what we were taught about the Stone Age in regards to other cultures. Other cultures such as the Mediterranean Cultures are where we gathered most of our information about the stone ages, the bronze age, and the iron ages of humankind in general. But the Norse people experienced the World much differently than other cultures and thus their culture evolved differently.
During the Nordic Stone Age the people of the north developed a Battleaxe Culture, also known as the Boat-Ax Culture or more accurately, the Corded Ware Culture at approximately 2800 BC.
The name ‘boat-ax’ comes from the fact that there have been over 3000 stone battle axes found scattered throughout the Nordic areas of Scandinavia; These battle axes were made from ground stone and were shaped similar to that of boats.
Boat-shaped battle axes typical of the Battle Ax Culture.
Among the most remarkable finds in these communal sites were double edged battle axes, which appear to have played an important role in their culture as far as being symbols of status.
This period of time of ax wielding stone age Norsemen has also been nicknamed the Age of Crushed Skulls by Swedish writer Herman Lindqvist. due to evidence of skull damage in grave sites caused by axes.
This is also highly suggestive as to why the style of spangenhelm helmets worn by the Norse may have evolved to the distinctive conical shape as a means to protect the head from such overhead blows.
It was also during the time of the Nordic Stone Age that a prevalence of a gene that allowed adults of Northern European descent to digest lactose (milk) originated and spread to other cultures to become virtually universal. This was a genetic variant that was either rare or completely absent in early farmers from Central Europe.
The Norse Ax Culture continued well past the Stone Age, through the Iron Age and into the Late Middle Ages.
Over such a long period of time, the Norse had perfected the ax’s design. The typical head of an ax was generally formed from wrought iron with its sharpened edge made from steel. It took less skill to forge an ax, so even the poorest of the Norse could afford one.
The typical Norseman wore a small ax at their belt. Carrying an ax was as common to a Norseman as it was for anyone else in the world carrying a knife at the time. It was part of their culture and a quality ax was a often a symbol of status. The ax was a simple and universal tool that could be used for defense or battle if the need ever arose.
Axes specifically meant for battle were designed and made differently than those of farm and woodsman axes.
A Viking “bearded axe” blade circa 1000 (top), and a German horseman’s axe blade circa 1100 (bottom).
Battle axes were designed to cut and smash through a man. Even designed to bash apart shields and split through a helmet. Some battle axes evolved into long handled, two-handed axes that could smash through shield and armor.
Contrary to the fictional stereotype and as cool looking as they are, double headed battle axes were not made by the Norse. Almost all axes forged by the Norse were single bladed.
One of the more popular battle axes was the Dane Ax (Danish Ax). It was an ax that consisted of a wide, thin blade that was ‘pronounced’ at both the toe and heel of the bit with the toe swept inward for better shearing power.
viking ax
Replica Danish axe head, Petersen Type L or Type M, based on original from Tower of London. Forged by Bronze Lion.
The cutting surface of the battle ax varied between 20 centimeters to 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) and the average weight was around one kilogram to two kilograms (two to four pounds). It was lightweight and resembled more of a meat cleaver than a wood ax that had devastating cutting ability.
The half (handle) of the ax ranged from 0.9 meters to 1.2 meters (3 to 4 feet) long. This enabled a powerful and controlled swing with the edge of the blade just right to cut through whatever it hits. The Norse had fine tuned the ax to perfection of its use.
A Dane axe on the Bayeux Tapestry.
The Bayeux Tapestry shows us exactly the size of a two handed Danish Ax in comparison to the size of the wielder. The battle axes were shoulder level in length with slightly curved handles giving the blade edge a better cutting angle.
The ax had been part of Norse culture since the Stone Age and was well perfected for their needs, but the Norse had perfected all their tools of warfare. By time the Age of Viking Expansion began, the World never had a chance against them.
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Does a Change in Temperature Affect the Rate of Movement in Woodlice
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The affect of temperature on the rate of movement of woodlice
Aim: The aim of this experiment is to establish whether a change in temperature affects the rate in which woodlouse move. I measured the rate by timing the woodlouse to move a set distance of 20cm, and altered the surrounding temperature by submerging a clear tube in water with different temperatures controlled by a water bath.
Research: It is to be believed there over 3000 different species of woodlice, a total of 42 species have been recorded living in the United Kingdom, although not all of them are native (1). Woodlouse is a crustacean, which fit into the class of arthropods, crustaceans are primarily aquatic animals. It is for this reason that woodlice become dehydrated in dry conditions, and their outer shells aren’t waterproof (1). Therefore damp environments are preferable for woodlouse to survive.
The structure of woodlice are similar to all arthropods, the body is split up into segments, with an exoskeleton and jointed limbs. Firstly, the head and next the pereon (thorax), the third is the pleon (abdomen). Also, woodlice are often described to have a structure shown in figure 1. Porcellio scaber contain two pairs of antennae although second pair is extremely small in size and well hidden, and two compound eyes (consist of thousands of individual photoreceptor units or ommatidia) (2).
Male woodlice have genital projections whereas females just have a pouch which contains eggs, positioned at the bottom of the abdomen. Figure 2 shows an example of the ventral (lower) structure of a male Porcellio scaber. As you can see the lungs are situated in the first pleopod, gases are able to diffuse in and out from the lungs through miniscule pores (2). These pores are unable to close, therefore it is common for woodlice to become desiccated.
Woodlice show kinesis behaviour, in which their movement is in response to a stimulus. The movement they show is non-directional and either move at a faster or slower rate. Movement of woodlouse is achieved by the movement of its seven pairs of jointed limbs. Muscle contraction needed for the movement of legs requires Adenine Triphosphate (ATP) which provides energy for the contraction. ATP is the most important energy transfer molecule within cells and is created via the reactions of cellular respiration where biochemical energy from nutrients such as carbohydrates and fats are converted to produce the ATP molecule. These reactions occur in four main stages, glycolysis, the links reaction, the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Many of the reactions that occur in respiration are controlled by enzymes which are used throughout the process and allow the reactions to occur at body temperature.
Woodlice feed on decaying vegetation, and play a vital role in the decomposition of deciduous woods and compost heaps by digesting decaying matter and releasing them as faecal pellets which decompose rapidly. Often fungal spores are contained in the faecal pellets of woodlouse, when these pellets decompose in deep moist leaf litter it stimulates further decomposition in woodlands. Thus, the feeding activities of woodlice speed up the decomposition process and help to return essential nutrients to the soil, making the activeness of woodlice in a woodland environment important.
Hypothesis: The overall increase in temperature will cause the rate of woodlouse movement to increase.
Null hypothesis: The change in temperature will not affect the rate of movement of woodlouse, movement will stay at a regular rate, and therefore there will be no correlation.
Preliminary Work:
The aim of my preliminary experiments was to investigate which method would be most accurate and reliable to measure the movement of the woodlice. During these experiments I could gather information about woodlouse behaviour and also be able to observe variables which I will need to control in my final experiment.
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Study finds ancient Babylonians employed complex geometry
“No one expected this,” said Mathieu Ossendrijver, a professor of history of ancient science at Humboldt University in Berlin, noting that the methods delineated in the tablets were so advanced that they foreshadowed the development of calculus.
“This kind of understanding of the connection between velocity, time and distance was thought to have emerged only around 1350 A.D.,” Ossendrijver added.
The methods were similar to those employed by 14th century scholars at University of Oxford’s Merton College, he said.
“They provided positions needed for making horoscopes ordered by clients, and they also held the view that everything on Earth — from river levels to market prices, for example grain, and weather — is connected to the motion of the planets. So by predicting the latter they hoped to be able to predict things on Earth,” Ossendrijver said.
The tablets contain geometrical calculations based on a trapezoid’s area, and its long and short sides. It had been thought that Babylonian astronomers relied only on arithmetical concepts, not geometric ones.
The research was published in the journal Science.
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What Are Fish Spawning Aggregations?
A fish spawning aggregation is a grouping of a single species of fish that has gathered together in greater densities than normal with the specific purpose of reproducing.
Typically such aggregations form at the same place at approximately the same times each year.
There are two classes of spawning aggregation, "Resident" and "Transient". Both occur at predictable and regular sites and times.
Resident aggregations are formed by fish that only travel short distances to the aggregation sites, and assemble on a regular basis, sometimes almost daily and for extended periods. Such species are generally small in size.
Transient aggregations are formed by larger species physically able to travel greater distances. Transient aggregations usually form for just a few months each year, often for a week or two at a time. As a general rule, transient aggregations are larger, of shorter duration and less common than resident aggregations.
The best-known examples are species of grouper and snapper, but many surgeonfish, rabbitfish, parrotfish, wrasse also aggregate to spawn. There is a great deal of variability among different species in the dynamics of aggregation formation. For instance, spawning aggregations of some small wrasses may consist of just ten individuals spawning close to their normal home range, while those of some large groupers consist of tens of thousands of fish that may travel over one hundred kilometres to an aggregation site on a particular reef.
SCRFA recently produced a two-minute film is about the importance of spawning aggregations and the need to manage them.
The film is also available on DVD in a unique fold out cover with photos and facts about fish aggregations.
If you would like copies, please contact us
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If administrators find out that students cheated on a test, the school might invalidate their class grades. To invalidate means to cancel something or make it void, as if it never happened.
• Pronunciation: /ɪn'vælɪdet/
• English description: make invalid for use
• Synonyms: cancel
• Chinese Translation: 使无效(shi3 wu2 xiao4)
• Spanish Translation: invalidar
• ORIGIN: In invalidate you see the word valid which means true or correct. When you invalidate something you are making it less true, less official, or less correct. If you buy something that doesn't work properly and then try to fix it yourself, you invalidate the warranty. If you have a wacky theory that cars grow from trees, your teacher might invalidate your theory by taking you on a tour of an auto factory.
• A recent state Supreme Court decision invalidated the $1.4 billion project’s permit to build on conservation land, which could delay construction by several years.
• The language would invalidate recent court rulings regarding Caesars’ debt restructuring that Caesars disagrees with.
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Tuesday, April 10, 2007
Spelling Rules - H
As most of us know, Spanish spelling is pretty straightforward because it is nearly perfect phonetically. This makes it easy to write words if you know how to pronounce them, or for that matter to pronounce them if you read them first.
However there are some spelling (or “orthographic”) rules for certain tricky letters such as H (which is mute) or B and V, as well as for the use of accent marks.
Some rules are as easy-to-remember as "M goes before P and B", however that's not usually the case. So, we'll take a look at the rules of one letter at a time for you to digest them better.
Let's start with letter H.
Rules for the use of H
1. Write with H all the inflections of verbs whose infinitive starts with H.
For example: haber -> he, hube, había, etc.
2. Write with H words that start with hia-, hie-, hue- and hui-.
For example: hiato, hierba, hiel, huésped, huevo, huír.
3. Write with H words that start with hidr-, hiper- and hipo-.
For example: hidrofobia, hipertensión, hipoteca, hipopótamo.
4. Write with H words that start with homo-, heter-, hexa-, hect-, hepta- and hum-, except for éter, eterno, umbral, umbilical, and umbrío (or derivates of these words).
For examples:homófono, heterosexual, hexágono, hectárea, hectagonal, humo.
5. Write with H words that start with hos-, holg-, herb-, hist-, host- and hor-, except for orear, orla, oro, órgano, orgullo, orar, orden, oriente, ortodoxo, origen, orificio, ornar, orca (whale),ornamentar, ormesí, ornitología, ostentar, ostra, ostirio, istmeño (or derivates of these words).
For example: hospital, holgazán, holgado, hospitalidad, histórico, hortelano, horca(gallows).
6. Write with H the following interjections: ¡ah!, ¡bah!, ¡eh!, ¡hala!, ¡hola!, ¡hurra!, ¡huy!, ¡oh!
7. Most derivates of words whose root start with H are also spelled with an H at the beginning of the word. However, there are somo exceptions: orfandad and orfanato (from huérfano); ovíparo, ovalo, ovoide and ovario (from huevo); osamenta, óseo, osificar and osario (from hueso).
Words that need an H, without rules
1. Words that need an intermediate H: ahí, ahinco, ahora, ahorcar, alcohol, alhaja, dehesa, almohada, anhelar, coherente, cohete, cohibir, moho, zanahoria, exhortar, adhesivo, inhalación, exhalación, vehemencia, exhibir, rehusar, ahogador, prohibir.
2. Some derivatives of words that use h, but a prefix has been added: deshonesto (des+honesto), inhumano (in+humano), clorhídrico (clor+hídrico), rehabilitar (re+habilitar).
3. Words that need to start with an H: herencia, herida, hermano, hermenéutica, hermético, hernia, héroe, herpe, hígado, hincapié, hincar, hinchar, hacienda, hacha, hache, hada, Haití, halagar, halar, halcón, hálito, halo, hallar, hamaca, haragán, hindú, hinojo.
Homophones with and without H
1. huno (hun) and uno (one)
2. hola (hello) and ola (wave)
3. hartes (conjugation for hartar) and artes (arts)
4. deshecho (destroyed) and desecho (waste)
5. hojear (to pass pages) and ojear (to look)
6. errar (to miss or to fail, to wander) and herrar (to trim with iron)
7. halaba (conjugation for halar) and alaba (conjugation for alabar)
8. abría (conjugation for abrir) and habría (conjugation for haber)
9. hablando (conjugation for hablar) and ablando (conjugation for ablandar)
10. hinca (conjugation for hincar) and inca (South American indian)
11. hasta (until) and asta (flagpole)
1 comment:
spanish courses in Tenerife said...
Very useful post, i'm gonna try this out and hopefully my spanish will be better in some months, thanks for sharing
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The first complete fossil of Oviraptor was discovered in Mongolia just a few feet from a nest of fossilized Protoceratops eggs. It is very likely that the Oviraptor was about to make a meal of the eggs when an angry adult Protoceratops caught it in the act and killed it. For that reason Oviraptor got its name, which means "egg thief."
Oviraptor was an unusual dinosaur. Measuring five to six feet long, it had a short head and a massive pair of toothless jaws shaped like a beak. With strong muscles in its mouth, Oviraptor must have had a powerful bite that was useful for breaking through hard surfaces, such as the eggs of other dinosaurs. Another interesting feature was a unique crest above Oviraptor's snout that was full of air passages and openings for its nose.
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The Origin of Modern Money
Money. When we think of money, we Americans and many around the world think of a special piece of paper, usually with a politicians face printed on it and covered with a number telling the owner of that bill what value it would represent did we still have a commodity backed currency. However, how did we end up using money, or, indirect exchange, in the economy?
downloadFirst, lets use the American Indians as an example. Lets say that a tribe has just crossed the frigid expanse of the Bering Strait separating Asia from the North American continent, and are now preparing to move to a suitable location. Once in that new location, they begin to settle down. Lets assume that they had not yet developed the idea of the division of labor and had not immediately settled down and formed villages and towns. Assuming that, lets remember that these Indians are each able to fend for themselves; make their own shoes, tools, and grow and hunt their own food. However, all of these occupations take up much of these Indians time, and eventually it becomes harder and harder for a family to make a living off the land and protect themselves from bandits and wild animals, and so many of these related isolated families get together into a group, and form a town, and help each other out through the division of labor. Some guard the village, others grow the crops, others make the shoes, and yet still more make tools and implements of war. Unfortunately, difficulties arise.
Lets say that you want to buy a pair of shoes, and so you go over to your neighbors wigwam and wish to exchange something in your possession for shoes. Supposing you’re a weapon maker, you can offer in barter, or direct exchange, a hatchet for a pair of shoes. But, the shoemaker already has a hatchet, and doesn’t need another, and so the exchange is unsatisfactory to him. You could offer him many hatchets in exchange for the shoes if you’re really desperate, but that would take a lot of precious time, and you have other things you could exchange them for besides shoes. So, you ask the shoemaker what he would take for the shoes, and he offers one sack of grain for a pair of shoes. Of course, since you aren’t a farmer, you don’t have any extra grain lying around, so you go to another wigwam, and speak to the farmer who lives there. You offer him a hatchet for the small sack of grain, and the farmer agrees. You go back with your grain and get your shoes from the shoemaker.
wampum10But, lets say that you get tired of trying to exchange either your labor or something you own for the goods you need. Eventually you find out that wampum, tiny purple or white shell beads were very rare, and in high demand, not only for their commodity value for use in jewelry, but also, since they had cost due to their rarity and not easily destroyed, and so you decide to instead use wampum and use them to make transactions. Now that you’re using wampum as a medium of exchange, you no longer have to go barter for your shoes and end up having to waste a bunch of time to get exactly what the person wants; you can just walk up to them, and hand them the wampum. You charge wampum for your goods and services, and exchange them for the goods and services of others.
Gold-Coins-and-Gold-BarsNow these Indians are using indirect exchange. Now, lets skip centuries into the future, into the early history of the United States. Gold and silver are the primary commodities used in exchange, as well as other metals such as copper. Just as people got tired of bartering, they also got tired of lugging around heavy bags full of gold, and so banks began issuing notes to their customers. The notes represented gold in the bank. A $20 bank note was worth $20 in gold, and the note could be taken to the bank and gold be given to the former holder of the note. Just as people knew what a pound of gold could buy, they also knew what the note that represented that pound of gold could buy, and thus transactions were comfortably carried out using the bank notes.
download (1)Finally, we come to the present day. After seizing all the people’s gold, the U.S. government created what is known as a fiat currency in 1934, with the Gold Reserve Act. Fiat currency is essentially paper money that is not backed by anything except the governments word and is forced upon the people as their main method of exchange. The only reason why this works is because of the process described in this post; people barter, then the switch to a more convenient method of exchange, and then they use paper that represents the commodity being used for exchange in the economy, and then they take away the commodity that backed the currency. People still continue to use the paper as if it were still backed by a commodity.
And so, we have now traveled through time and explored the evolution of money into what we now use today; first barter, or direct exchange, then indirect exchange through some commodity, and then indirect exchange with no commodity, propped up by the state alone.
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Knock! Knock! Sleepy Head!
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Knock! Knock! Sleepy Head!
Meme Times | 7-14 yrs | Reading Pod, Animation
What is Knocker Up?
A knocker up was a profession started during the industrial revolution in Britain and Ireland during the late 1920’s.
The knocker upper would go to each worker’s door and window and bang with a large pole or stick called the ‘snuffer outer’. It had a wire or a knob at the other end that would help in reaching high windows to knock loudly. They would keep banging and would not leave until the person wakes up from sleep. The houses of people would have a slate outside their homes on which the wake up time would be written.
Who Woke Up the Knocker Up?
This job would be carried out by elderly people mostly or the young who were unfit to work in factories. Sometimes police constables would volunteer for this job to earn some extra bucks. Large factories and mills would employ their own knocker up’s to ensure their workers came to work on time.
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The Necklace
The Necklace Literary Realism
Literary Realism was a 19th-century literary movement that began in France and spread to Russia, Western Europe, and the United States. Literary Realism was part of a larger realist art movement that, in contrast to Idealism and Romanticism, attempted to represent the familiar and common lives of people. Works of Realism generally depict everyday activities and characters such as business men, spinsters, and people of the lower class. Some of the most famous Realist authors include Honoré de Balzac, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Gustave Flaubert, Ivan Turgenev, Guy de Maupassant, Anton Chekhov, José Maria de Eça de Queiroz.
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Directions: Go the website that is listed above:
Make sure you have clicked on the Introduction:
1. Approximately how much of earth’s surface does water cover?
2. How much of Earth’s water is salt water?
3. How much of Earth’s water is considered fresh?
4. Can we drink all of this fresh water the way it is? Why or why not???
Click on Scientific Concepts:
Define the following terms:
5. Evaporation:
6. Condensation:
7. Precipitation:
8. Surface Runoff:
9. Infiltration:
10. Transpiration:
Click on the Cycle:
11. Draw a diagram of the water cycle like they have shown you
12. What determines the water’s state of matter? _
Click on Cloud Formation:
13. Name 4 types of precipitation:
14. Based upon reading those 4 paragraphs and what you have previously read, write a couple sentences to describe how clouds form?
Read underneath where it asks you the question…why clouds have such unusual names?
What do each of these prefixes mean?
15. Cirro:
_ 18. Alto: _
16. Cirrus: _ 19. Stratus: _
17. Cumulus: _ 20. Nimbus: _
Please describe what each of these clouds would look and act like based upon the meanings of the terms above:
21. Cumulonimbus:
22. Nimbostratus:
23. Cirrocumulus: _
24. Altostratus:
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Culture and Recreation
What innovations are credited to Virgil?
Scholars acclaim Virgil (70–19 B.C.) for transforming the Greek literary traditions, which had long provided Roman writers with material, themes, and styles. Virgil populated his pastoral settings (always idealized by other writers) with contemporary figures; he combined observation with inquiry; employed a more complex syntax than had been in use previously; and developed realistic characters. These technical innovations informed all subsequent literature.
However, writing was not supposed to have been Virgil’s occupation: In his youth, he studied rhetoric and philosophy, and he planned to practice law, but proved too shy for public speaking. So he returned to the small family farm his mother and father operated, where he studied and wrote poetry.
In addition to the Aeneid, Virgil wrote Eclogues (or Bucolica), a set of 10 pastoral poems written (from 42–37 B.C.) as a response to the confiscation of his family’s lands; and Georgics, a four-volume work (written from 36–29 B.C.) glorifying the Italian countryside. Within 50 years of his death in 19 B.c., Virgil’s poems became part of the standard curriculum in Roman schools, ensuring the production of numerous copies. Virgil’s works have remained accessible to scholars and students ever since.
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The Gibeonites had to pretend that they were from far lands in order to make peace with Joshua. When the Jews realized that they had been fooled, Joshua pressed the Gibeonites into servitude.
Nevertheless, Joshua 11:19-20 states that no town sought peace with the Jews because G-d hardened their hearts.
The case of the Gibeonites supports the general principle that Jews must not leave any aborigines in the land they conquer. Presumably, the aborigines belonged to the six or seven tribes specifically proscribed, but in any case none of the previous inhabitants could remain in the land. The peace, therefore, could only be one of exile: the natives could leave our land peacefully or be killed.
G-d, however, did not want the peaceful option. He hardened their hearts so that the Jews would exterminate them.
How do we know that the aborigines must have sought peace before the start of hostilities? In Joshua 13:13, and elsewhere, it says that several native clans remained in the land. The Jews, the author laments, did not drive them out. He does not entertain the possibility of peace with them because by that time the option of peace has already closed, since the Jews had started their conquest.
The option to expel rather than exterminate exists only for towns beyond the Land of Israel proper. We can expel natives in expansionist wars, but must exterminate them inside our own borders, says the Tanakh.
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Monogenetic fields
Monogenetic fields don't look like "volcanoes", rather they are collections of sometimes hundreds to thousands of separate vents and flows. Monogenetic fields are the result of very low supply rates of magma. In fact, the supply rate is so spread out both temporally and spatially that no preferred "plumbing" ever gets established; the next batch of magma doesn't have a pre-existing pathway to the surface and it makes its own. A monogenetic field is kind of like taking a single volcano and spreading all its separate eruptions over a large area. There are numerous monogenetic fields in the American southwest and in México, including Michoacan-Guanajuato, San Martín Tuxtla, Pinacate, and the San Francisco volcanic field.
Image of the San Francisco volcanic field credit:
Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research
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In animation, the phrase anticipation is used to describe the over-exaggerated moment of anticipatory motion that precedes an action. For example, if a character were about to throw a ball, the long wind-up and throw sequence of events, which precede the ball leaving the hand, would be considered the 'anticipation.'
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How virtual worlds can recreate the geographic history of life
Robert K. Colwell, Distinguished Research Professor, University of Connecticut and Thiago F. Rangel, Professor of Ecology, Universidade Federal de Goias
·7 min read
<span class="caption">Forest near Sarayaku, Ecuador.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="link rapid-noclick-resp" href="" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:skifatenum">skifatenum</a>, <a class="link rapid-noclick-resp" href="" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:CC BY">CC BY</a></span>
Forest near Sarayaku, Ecuador. skifatenum, CC BY
The Amazon and the adjacent Andean slopes in South America host an astonishing richness of plants and animals. These species have been sources of food, shelter and medicine since the arrival of humans and a target of scientific curiosity since the days of the earliest European naturalist explorers.
What processes produce such hot spots of species richness, and why does biodiversity gradually decline towards higher latitudes and drier climates? Scientists have proposed many competing explanations, but there is no easy way to test them. As biogeographers, those of us who study the geography of life on the planet, we do not have the option of carrying out real-world experiments. It would be both impractical and unethical to undertake massive introductions or exterminations of species and then wait centuries or millennia for results.
Instead, as reported in our 2018 study published in the journal Science, we brought together an interdisciplinary team of biogeographers and climate modelers to create a virtual world – a place to do virtual experiments. The world we recreated was a time-lapse simulation of life on the continent of South America, from 800,000 years ago up to the present, through the whipsaw climates of the last eight glacial cycles. If patterns of biodiversity produced in this simulated world produced reasonably realistic patterns of diversity, then we could be confident that the ecological and evolutionary processes built into the simulation were right.
What we found was a surprise beyond our fondest expectations. The maps of South American species diversity that emerged from our simulations looked remarkably similar to maps of living birds, mammals and plants. What’s more, the simulations confirmed intermittent migration corridors between the Andes and the Atlantic Rainforest in southeastern Brazil. These regions are currently isolated from each other by drier climates, but scientists have long suspected that connections existed, based on the presence of closely related living species in both regions.
Virtual life in a virtual world
Each simulation began with a single imaginary species, seeded somewhere on a detailed topographic map of South America. In time steps of 500 years, totaling 1,600 steps in all, the climate was updated with a state-of-the-art paleo-climate model created by our colleagues Neil Edwards and Phil Holden at The Open University in the U.K.
In all we ran more than a thousand simulations, each with a different combination of settings for just four variables:
– How long a population must be isolated to become a new species
– How fast species can evolve to survive, in response to climate change
– How far a species can move across unsuitable habitat
– How strongly closely related species compete with each other.
Why was the strong correspondence between our simulated maps of species richness and the real-world maps for birds, mammals and plants so surprising? Because our simulations covered only a tiny slice of time in the long history of South America. Eight hundred thousand years may seem like deep time, but South America separated from Africa 130 million years ago, and the Andes began their rise 25 million years ago. A growing list of South American plant and animal groups are now known to have diversified over the Late Quaternary Period – roughly the past 800,000 years – but most species on the continent are much older.
We also were surprised that our simulated maps resembled actual species richness patterns so closely, because our maps were not guided by any particular target pattern of diversity. They were built strictly on fundamental processes, as understood from basic research in ecology and evolutionary biology. For example, we modeled evolutionary adaptation to climate extremes using principles and equations from population genetics.
From cradle to museum to grave
Species alive today are survivors. They are the upper tips of evolutionary trees with many dead branches below, which represent extinctions in the past. Evolutionary biologists are now able to infer, in many cases, where the ancestors of living species may have lived. Regions where species proliferated in the past have come to be called “cradles” of speciation. For example, the Andean slopes have long been considered a hot spot of speciation.
Regions where species have persisted for especially long periods are called “museums.” Any region, such as the Amazon, where many ancient species persist can be considered a biogeographical museum. In contrast, reckoning where the dead branches in the evolutionary tree should be placed on the map – the “graves” – is virtually impossible by studying the geography of living survivors.
Through our simulations, we followed and mapped the entire “lifetime trajectory” of each virtual species, from cradle to grave, in space and in time.
As the climate changes from step to step in a simulation, the geographical range of a species (its location on the map) may be fragmented by unsuitable climate. If a fragment persists in isolation long enough, it is declared a new species. The time of fragmentation and the location of such a fragment during this period of isolation defines the “cradle segment” of its lifetime trajectory.
When and if a virtual species goes extinct, we record the time and plot on the map the location of the decline towards extinction, which represents the “grave segment” of the species’ lifetime trajectory. The time and place that each species persists between the cradle stage and grave stage defines the “museum segment” of its lifetime trajectory.
Our simulations produced maps of cradles, museums, and for the first time, graves. The maps confirmed that the eastern slopes of the Andes and the western Amazon are cradles of speciation. Graves of extinction coincided with cradles in some regions, such as the Amazon, and were displaced from cradles in others, such as the Andes. The eastern slope of the tropical Andes proved to be not only a cradle, but also a rich museum of biodiversity.
We also kept track of when speciation and extinction peaked and declined over the course of the simulations, and found that glacial cycles drove both processes. Peaks of extinction tended to follow peaks of speciation in periods of rapid warming at the end of cold glacial periods.
Climate dynamics and topography drive the patterns
Our study leads us to believe that patterns of richness for living species, regardless of a species’ age, have their origins in the same underlying processes that we modeled in the simulation. The interaction between the turbulent climates of the past 800,000 years and the dramatic landscapes of South America drove speciation in some younger groups of plants and animals, but shuffled the location of both young and ancient species in concert, indiscriminately.
Human activities are forcing changes in the global climate at an unprecedented rate, much faster than the climate dynamics in our model. We know that species are already on the move, their ranges shifting at alarming rates on land and in the seas, with profound effects on human life and livelihoods.
Although our simulations were not designed to predict the future, they vividly reveal the dynamic power of climate change to shape life on Earth.
Read more:
Robert K. Colwell has received funding from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), Brazil, for this project.
Thiago F. Rangel was supported by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), Brazil. This project is also supported by INCT in Ecology, Evolution and Biodiversity Conservation, funded by MCTIC/CNPq and FAPEG.
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Gerald Warner (Gerhardt Wachsner) Ruth Greenaway
Gerald spent his youth in Berlin until 1938, when aged 14 it became clear to his family that he, his older brother and sister and his parents, would need to separate if they were all to survive.
Gerald’s grandparents on both sides descended from Poland (Prussia); but his parents Alfred Wachsner and Paula (Gumpert) were both raised in Berlin, Germany. His parents had always been patriotic and saw their future in Germany. Alfred Wachsner had been a soldier in the German Army and fought in trenches during World War I for four years. He was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd class and was a brilliant linguist speaking several languages. After the First World War Alfred ran his own button factory, but business was hard during the Depression.
Gerald’s family did follow some Jewish traditions, though Gerald’s never felt very religious growing up. He had his Bar Mitzvah. “My parents were what you might call ‘three day Jews’, in other words went (to Shule) two days a year at Rosh Hashanah and on day a year at Yom Kippur.” His sister was part of the Zionist youth movement and Gerald had attended Hacshara in Gut Winkel, Berlin in preparation for going to Israel, but this was not to eventuate.
With the rise of anti-Semitism Gerald recognised that he and his friends and all Jewish people were losing their right to freedom of speech, for fear of being spied upon and betrayed. With the growth of the Hitler youth movement Gerald experienced constant harassment, and bullying, often being chased by boys who hounded him in packs. At the Grosse Hamburger Strasse Schule, a state school where Gerald attended, it was a requirement to stand in the school grounds each day and sing Nazi national anthems. Those who didn’t join in were singled out and each one knew that the other most likely came from a Jewish family. “Every day people were taken away to camps, every day another desk in my class was empty.”
By 1933, all Jewish children were made to leave Christian and State schools, and had to attend a school for Jewish children only. Under the passing of the Nuremburg Law, Jews also had restricted movement within in the city.
The family’s final push to leave Germany came with the destruction and violence on the “Night of Broken Glass” (Kristallancht). Gerald witnessed first-hand the fires from two hundred Synagogues and the looting and destruction of Jewish businesses. Alfred escaped to the forests for a period of time, only returning home in the middle of the night for food and water.
Gerald’s parents then made preparations for him to be leave on the Kinder Transport. Children could leave Germany by the sanctioned Kinder Transport up to the age of 15 years, after that they were on their own. Gerald just made it, leaving on the second to last Kind Transport train the 1st August, 1939, just before he turned 15. He didn’t know that from that moment, he wouldn’t see his parents ever again. Gerald’s older brother and sister then also made their own plans to leave Germany. It would be another 7 years before each of these siblings made renewed contact with one another.
Gerald went on to live in a hostel with other refugee children in Glasgow, Scotland. When he was 16 (1940), he was declared a “Friendly Alien”. Gerald took an apprenticeship as a piano tuner for a couple of years, and by 18 he enlisted in the British Army. He returned to Europe to fight from 1943-45.
After the war Gerald learnt what happened to his parents when he met a woman who had survived the Holocaust but had been in the same concentration camp with Gerald’s parents in Riga, Latvia. Alfred Wachsner had been shot by the Nazis in 1942, whilst Paula died of an unknown cause, the same day his unit had landed in Normandy, in 1944. Gerald then went to work as a translator at some Nazi war crimes trials.
Gerald arrived in Wellington, NZ on the 25th October, 1948. His brother Günter was already here, while his sister Anneliese was living in Palestine (later the state of Israel), but passed away in 1946. Gerald went onto study languages and education at Victoria University and Wellington Teachers College. By 1962 he had settled in Auckland. Gerald, worked as a school teacher, married three times and raised four children. Gerald re-visited Berlin six times in his later life, including a class reunion in 1990 of some of his school mates, some who had survived the concentration camps and others like himself who had left Germany. On his last trip to Europe he visited the site of the Riga concentration camp leaving behind a plaque dedicated to his parents.
“The Germans were the most law-abiding people. They would never want to break the law knowingly. So what the Nazis did, they passed a law to then make the killing legal. “Thou shalt not kill” they just legally omitted the not”; and that is the tragedy of our generation.”
Gerald was interviewed in 1999 as part of the Holocaust Survivor’s project by the Jewish Oral History Group. An excerpt from his interview is used as a podcast to accompany this story.
Image Header (above:) Gerald Warner. Reproduced with permission by the Warner family © JoM
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Juche (주체/主體, “self-reliance“) is the official ideology of North Korea, described by the government as “Kim Il-sung‘s original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought”. It postulates that “man is the master of his destiny”, that the Korean masses are to act as the “masters of the revolution and construction” and that by becoming self-reliant and strong, a nation can achieve true socialism.
Kim Il-sung (1912–1994) developed the ideology, which was originally viewed as a variant of Marxism–Leninism until it became distinctly Korean in character while it incorporated the historical materialist ideas of Marxism–Leninism and strongly emphasized the individual, the nation state and its sovereignty. Consequently, the North Korean government adopted Juche into a set of principles and it has used these principles to justify its policy decisions from the 1950s onwards. Such principles include moving the nation towards claimed jaju (“independence”), through the construction of a jarip (“national economy”) and an emphasis upon jawi (“self-defence”) in order to establish socialism.
The ideology has been described as a version of Korean ethnic ultranationalism which eventually developed after losing its original Marxist–Leninist elements.
Juche comes from the Sino-Japanese word 主體 (modern spelling: 主体), whose Japanese reading is shutai. The word was coined in 1887 to translate the concept of Subjekt in German philosophy (subject, meaning “the entity perceiving or acting upon an object or environment”) into Japanese. The word migrated to the Korean language at around the turn of the century and retained this meaning. Shutai went on to appear in Japanese translations of Karl Marx‘s writings. North Korean editions of Marx used the word Juche even before the word was attributed to Kim Il-sung in its supposedly novel meaning in 1955.
In today’s political discourse on North Korea, Juche has a connotation of “self-reliance”, “autonomy” and “independence”. It is often defined in opposition to the Korean concept of Sadae, or reliance on the great powers. South Koreans use the word without reference to the North Korean ideology.
Torch symbolizing the Juche ideology at the top of the Juche Tower in Pyongyang
Official statements by the North Korean government attribute the origin of Juche to Kim Il-sung’s experiences in the Anti-Imperialist Youth League in 1930 in his liberation struggle against Japan. The first documented reference to Juche as an ideology appeared in 1955 in a speech given by Kim Il-sung entitled “On Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism and Establishing Juche in Ideological Work”. The speech had been delivered to promote a political purge similar to the earlier Yan’an Rectification Movement in China.
Hwang Jang-yop, Kim’s top adviser on ideology, discovered Kim’s 1955 speech in the late 1950s when Kim, having established a cult of personality, sought to develop his own version of Marxism–Leninism into a North Korean ideology.
In the 1965 speech “On Socialist Construction in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and the South Korean Revolution” given on 14 April 1965, Kim Il-sung outlined the three fundamental principles of Juche:
1. Political independence (Korean: 자주; RR: jaju; MR: chaju)
2. Economic self-sustenance (Korean: 자립; RR: jarip; MR: charip)
3. Self-reliance in defence (Korean: 자위; RR: jawi; MR: chawi)
On the Juche Idea, the main work on Juche, was published in North Korea in Kim Jong-il’s name in 1982. In North Korea it functions as “the authoritative and comprehensive explanation of Juche“. According to the treatise, the Workers’ Party of Korea (WPK) is responsible for educating the masses in the ways of Juche thinking. According to the treatise, Juche is inexorably linked with Kim Il-sung and it “represents the guiding idea of the Korean Revolution […] we are confronted with the honorable task of modeling the whole society on the Juche idea”. Kim Jong-il states in the work that Juche is not a creative application of Marxism–Leninism, but rather “a new era in the development of human history” while criticizing the “communists and nationalists” of the 1920s for their elitist posture, claiming that they were “divorced from the masses”. The WPK’s break with basic premises of Marxism–Leninism emerges more clearly in the article “Let Us March Under the Banner of Marxism–Leninism and the Juche Idea”.
In August 1997, the Central People’s Committee of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea promulgated regulations regarding use of the Juche Era calendar. Gregorian calendar dates are used for years before 1912 while years from 1912 (the year of Kim Il-sung’s birth) are described as “Juche years”. The Gregorian year 2020, for example, is “Juche 109″ as 2020-1911=109. When used, “Juche years” are often accompanied by the Gregorian equivalent, i.e. “Juche 109, 2020″ or “Juche 109 (2020)”.
International outreach
Kim believed that Juche’s principles could be applied around the world, not just in Korea. Since 1976 North Korea has organized international seminars on Juche. The International Scientific Seminar on the Juche Idea took place in Antananarivo from 28 September to 30 September 1976 under the sponsorship of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar. Many prominent party and government officials, public figures, representatives of revolutionary and progressive organizations, scientists and journalists from more than fifty countries attended. Malagasy President Didier Ratsiraka expressed strong sympathies and support for North Korea. An excerpt from the opening speech says:
Regardless of the opposition forces, the determination of the people and their strength and conviction are not measured by territorial dimensions, possession of advanced technology, still less, opulence or riches. For those who wish to forget the lesson of history so easily and so quickly, Algeria, Viet Nam(sic), Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola – and closer to us – Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Azania are excellent examples which make them deeply reflect on. What we want is not the perfection of political independence alone. The evil forces craftily manipulate the economic levers in order to perpetuate their supremacy and reduce us to vassals and eternal mendicants.
The International Institute of the Juche Idea was established in Tokyo in 1978 to supervise international Juche research-groups. The Juche Tower in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, incorporated commemorative plaques from supporters and Juche Study Groups from around the world. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Black Panther Party of the United States expressed sympathy for the Juche ideology. In 2016, the Nepal Workers and Peasants Party identified Juche as the guiding idea in its governance of the city of Bhaktapur.
Kim Jong-il first mentioned Kimilsungism in the 1970s and it was introduced alongside the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System. Not long after the term’s introduction into the North Korean lexicon, Kim Jong-il allegedly launched a “Kimilsungism-isation [sic] of the Whole Society” campaign. Campaigns were introduced so as to strengthen Kim Jong-il’s position within the Workers’ Party of Korea. According to political analyst Lim Jae-cheon, “Kimilsungism refers to the thoughts of Kim Il-sung. It is interchangeable with the juche [sic] idea”. However, in his 1976 speech “On Correctly Understanding the Originality of Kimilsungism”, Kim Jong-il said that Kimilsungism comprises the “Juche idea and a far-reaching revolutionary theory and leadership method evolved from this idea”. Previously the official media had described Kim Il-sung’s thoughts as “contemporary Marxism–Leninism” – by calling them “Kimilsungism”, Kim Jong-il was trying to elevate the ideas to the same level as Maoism, Hoxhaism and Stalinism. The younger Kim further argued that Kim Il-sung’s thoughts had evolved and they therefore deserved their own distinct name. He further added that “Kimilsungism is an original idea that cannot be explained within the frameworks of Marxism–Leninism. The idea of Juche, which constitutes the quintessence of Kimilsungism, is an idea newly discovered in the history of mankind”. Kim Jong-il went further, stating that Marxism–Leninism had become obsolete and must be replaced by Kimilsungism:
According to analyst Shin Gi-wook, the ideas of Juche and Kimilsungism were in essence the “expressions of North Korean particularism over supposedly more universalistic Marxism–Leninism”. In many ways, the new terminology signaled a move from socialism to nationalism. This became very clear in a Kim Jong-il speech in 1982, when North Korea celebrated Kim Il-sung’s 70th birthday in which love for the nation came before love for socialism. This particularism gave birth to such concepts as “A Theory of the Korean Nation as Number One and Socialism of Our Style”.
Following the death of Kim Jong-il in December 2011, Kimilsungism became Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism at the 4th Conference of the Workers’ Party of Korea [ko] in April 2012. As well as stating that the WPK was “the party of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il”, the conference proclaimed Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism as “the only guiding idea of the party”. In the 4th Conference’s aftermath, the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA) stated that “the Korean people have long called the revolutionary policies ideas of the President [Kim Il-sung] and Kim Jong-il as Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism and recognized it as the guiding of the nation”. Kim Jong-un, the WPK First Secretary, said:
Socialism of Our Style
Socialism of Our Style, also referred to as Korean-style socialism and our-style socialism within North Korea, is an ideological concept Kim Jong-il introduced on 27 December 1990 in the speech “Socialism of Our Country is a Socialism of Our Style as Embodied by the Juche idea”. Speaking after the Revolutions of 1989 that brought down the Eastern Bloc regimes, Kim Jong-il explicitly stated that North Korea needed—and survived because of—Socialism of Our Style. He argued that socialism in Eastern Europe failed because they “imitated the Soviet experience in a mechanical manner”. According to Kim, they failed to understand that the Soviet experience was based on specific historical and social circumstances and could not be used by other countries aside from the Soviet Union itself. He added that “if experience is considered absolute and accepted dogmatically it is impossible to build Socialism properly, as the times change and the specific situation of each country is different from another”. Kim Jong-il went on to criticize “dogmatic application” of Marxism–Leninism, stating:
Marxism–Leninism presented a series of opinions on building of Socialism and Communism, but it confined itself to presupposition and hypothesis owing to the limitations of the conditions of their ages and practical experiences […] But many countries applied the principles of Marxist–Leninist materialistic conception of history dogmatically, failing to advance revolution continually after the establishment of the socialist system.
North Korea would not encounter such difficulties because of the conceiving of Juche. In his words, North Korea was “a backward, colonial semifeudal society” when the Communists took over, but since the North Korean Communists did not accept Marxism because it was based on European capitalist experiences, or Leninism, which was based on Russia’s experience, they conceived of Juche. Additionally, he believed the situation in North Korea was also more complex because of the American presence in South Korea. Thanks to Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il argued, the revolution had “put forward original lines and policies suited to our people’s aspirations and the specific situation of our country”. “The Juche idea is a revolutionary theory which occupies the highest stage of development of the revolutionary ideology of the working class”, Kim Jong-il said, further stating that the originality and superiority of the Juche idea defined and strengthened Korean socialism. He then conceded by stating that Socialism of Our Style was “a man-centered Socialism”, explicitly making a break with basic Marxist–Leninist thought, which argues that material forces are the driving force of historical progress, not people. Socialism of Our Style was presented as an organic sociopolitical theory, using the language of Marxism–Leninism, saying:
“Great Leader” theory
Unlike Marxism–Leninism, which considers improvements in the material conditions of production and exchange as the driving force of historical progress (known as historical materialism), Juche considers human beings in general the driving force in history. It is summarized as “the popular masses are placed in the center of everything, and the leader is the center of the masses”. Juche, North Korea maintains, is a “man-centered ideology” in which the “man is the master of everything and decides everything”. In contrast to Marxist–Leninist thought in which people’s decisions are inextricably linked to their relations to the means of production (a concept referred to as “relations of production”), in Juche thought man is independent and decides everything. Just like Marxist–Leninist thought, Juche believes history is law-governed, but that it is only man who drives progress, stating that “the popular masses are the drivers of history”. However, for the masses to be successful, they need a “Great Leader”. Marxism–Leninism argues that the popular masses will lead (on the basis of their relation to production), but in North Korea the role of a Great Leader should be essential for leadership. This theory allegedly helped Kim Il-sung establish a unitary, one-man rule over North Korea.
The theory turns the Great Leader into an absolutist, supreme leader. The working class is not to think for themselves, but instead to think through the Great Leader. The Great Leader is the “top brain” (i.e. “mastermind”) of the working class, meaning that he is the only legitimate representative of the working class. Class struggle can be realized only through the Great Leader and difficult tasks in general and revolutionary changes in particular can be introduced only through and by the Great Leader. In historical development, it is the Great Leader who is the leading force of the working class. The Great Leader is also a flawless and incorruptible human being who never commits mistakes, who is always benevolent and who always rules for the masses. For the Great Leader system to function, a unitary ideological system must be in place. In North Korea, that unitary ideological system is known as the Ten Principles for a Monolithic Ideological System.
The “masses”
Unlike the Joseon dynasty, where there was a huge gap between the upper and lower classes, North Korea had adopted the concept of a gathered-together “people”. Instead of a strict social hierarchy, North Korea had in theory divided the nation into three classes, namely peasant, worker and samuwon (intellectuals and professionals), where each was just as important as the other. The samuwon class consisted of clerks, small traders, bureaucrats, professors and writers. This was a unique class that was created to increase education and literacy of North Korea’s population.
Normally, Communist nations would value only the farmers or laborers, thus in the Soviet Union the intelligentsia was not defined as an independent class of its own, but rather as a “social stratum” that recruited itself from members of almost all classes: proletariat, petite bourgeoisie and bourgeoisie. However, a “peasant intelligentsia” was never mentioned. Correspondingly, the “proletarian intelligentsia” was exalted for bringing forth progressive scientists and Marxist theoreticians whereas the “bourgeois intelligentsia” was condemned for producing “bourgeois ideology”, which were all non-Marxist worldviews. Language reforms followed revolutions more than once, such as the New Korean Orthography in North Korea (which failed due to Korean ethnic nationalist fears of precluding Korean unification), or the simplification of Chinese characters under Mao Zedong (a consequence of the divergent orthographic choices of Taiwan and the People’s Republic of China), or the simplification of the Russian language after the 1917 revolution in Russia and consequent struggle against illiteracy, known in Soviet Russia as Likbez (Likvidaciya Bezgramotnosti, liquidation of illiteracy).
They believed in rapid industrialization through labor and in subjecting nature to human will. By restructuring social classes into a mass of people who are theoretically all equal, the North Korean government claimed it would be able to attain self-reliance or Juche in upcoming years. This is questionable, because the country suffers massive food shortages annually and is heavily dependent on foreign aid.
Songun (literally “military-first policy”) was first mentioned on 7 April 1997 in Rodong Sinmun under the headline “There Is a Victory for Socialism in the Guns and Bombs of the People’s Army”. It defined the military-centered thinking of the time by stating; “the revolutionary philosophy to safeguard our own style of socialism under any circumstances”. The concept was credited to “Respected General Kim Jong-il”. In a joint editorial on 16 June 1998 entitled “Our Party’s Military-First Politics Will Inevitably Achieve Victory and Will Never Be Defeated” by Kulloja (the WPK theoretical magazine) and Rodong Sinmun, it was stated that Songun meant “the leadership method under the principle of giving priority to the military and resolving the problems that may occur in the course of revolution and construction as well as establishing the military as the main body of the revolution in the course of achieving the total tasks of socialism”. While the article clearly referred to “our Party”, this was not a reference to the WPK but rather to the personal leadership of Kim Jong-il. On 5 September 1998, the North Korean Constitution was revised and it made clear that the National Defence Commission, the highest military body, was the supreme body of the state. This date is considered the beginning of the Songun era.
Juche in practice
In the view of some observers, Juche is not mere rhetoric, but rather an ideal of self-reliance that North Korea has attempted to put into practice.
Based on On the Juche Idea, Kim Jong-il argued: “Independence is not in conflict with internationalism but is the basis of its strengthening”.He stated that North Korea co-operated with “socialist countries”, the “international communist movement” and “newly-emerging nations” on the basis of non-interference, equality and mutual benefit.
North Korea emerged from Soviet occupation and fought alongside the Chinese Communists in the Chinese Civil War and the Korean War. However, it soon asserted its independence from both the Soviet Union and China. Though it rejected de-Stalinization, it avoided taking sides in the Sino-Soviet split. As the Communist bloc split, introduced market reforms and collapsed, North Korea increasingly emphasized Juche in both theory and practice.
North Korea was admitted to the Non-Aligned Movement in 1975 and began to present itself as a leader of the Third World. It fostered diplomatic relations with developing countries and promoted Juche as a model for others to follow.
National survival has been seen as a guiding principle of North Korea’s diplomatic strategy. Even in the midst of economic and political crises, North Korea continues to emphasize its independence on the world stage.
In On the Juche Idea, Kim Jong-il stated: “In order to implement the principle of economic self-sufficiency, one must build an independent national economy”. More specifically, he stated, “Heavy industry with the machine-building industry as its backbone is the pillar of an independent national economy”. He also emphasized the importance of technological independence and self-sufficiency in resources. However, he stated that this did not rule out international economic co-operation.
In 1956, Kim Il-sung declared Juche to be the guiding principle of the North Korean economy. After the devastation of the Korean War, North Korea began to rebuild its economy with a base in heavy industry, with the aim of becoming as self-sufficient as possible.As a result, North Korea developed what has been called the “most autarkic industrial economy in the world”. North Korea received a lot of economic aid and technical assistance from the Soviet Union and China, but it did not join Comecon, the Communist common market. In the 1990s, it had one of the world’s lowest rates for dependence on petroleum, using hydroelectric power and coal instead of imported oil. Its textile industry uses vinylon, known as the “Juche fiber”, which was invented by a Korean and which is made from locally available coal and limestone. The history of the development of vinylon often featured in propaganda that preached the virtues of technological self-reliance. North Korea had 10,000 CNC machines in 2010. The first domestic homemade CNC machine was introduced in 1995 and in 2017 it has around 15,000 machines.
Commentators have often pointed out the discrepancy between the principle of self-sufficiency and North Korea’s dependence on foreign aid, especially during its economic crisis in the 1990s. The pursuit of economic autarky has been blamed for contributing to the crisis. On this view, attempts at self-sufficiency led to inefficiency and to the neglect of export opportunities in industries where there was a comparative advantage.
In On the Juche Idea, Kim Jong-il stated: “Self-reliance in defense is a fundamental principle of an independent sovereign state”. He stated that it was possible to get aid from friends and allies, but that this would be effective only if the state was militarily strong in its own right. He advocated a state where “all the people are under arms and the whole country becomes a fortress”. He also advocated the development of a local defense industry to avoid dependence on foreign arms suppliers.
North Korea has attempted to put this into practice. The Korean People’s Army is one of the largest on earth. It has developed its own nuclear missile. Domestic production of UDMH fuel for liquid fueled missiles and Tumansky RD-9 Turbojet engine which powers Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 and Shenyang J-6. CNC machines are used for production of missiles and centrifuges. North Korea’s propaganda since the Korean War has contrasted its military autonomy with the presence of American forces in the South
Religious features of Juche
Some South Korean scholars categorize Juche as a national religion or they compare its facets to those of some religions. For instance, Juche has been compared to pre-existing religions in Korea (notably neo-Confucianism and Korean shamanism) due to their shared familiar principles. While the influence of traditional East Asian religions on Juche is widely disputed, the ideology has been thought of by several academic studies as having aspects of a national and indigenous religious movement in addition to being a political philosophy due to the following features: the presence of a sacred leader, rituals and familism. Despite the religious features of Juche, it is a highly atheistic ideology that discourages the practice of mainstream religions. This draws from Juches Marxist−Leninist origins. North Korea is officially an atheist state (although the native religion Cheondoism is tolerated and even maintains a political party), but some argue that it maintains a cult of personality identical to a religion.
Presence of a Sacred Leader
Although the ideology appears to emphasize the central role of the human individual, Juche can be fulfilled only through the masses’ subordination to a single leader and accordingly, his successor. The ideology teaches that the role of a Great Leader is essential for the popular masses to succeed in their revolutionary movement because without leadership they are unable to survive. This is the foundation of the personality cult directed at Kim Il-sung. The personality cult explains how the Juche ideology has been able to endure until today, even during the North Korean government’s undeniable dependence on foreign assistance during its famine in the 1990s. The concept of the “Sacred leader” in Juche as well as the cult around the Kim family has been compared to the State Shinto ideology of Imperial Japan in which the Emperor was seen as a divine being.
Through the fundamental belief in the essential role of the Great Leader, the former North Korean leader Kim Il-sung has become the “supreme deity for the people” and the Juche doctrine is reinforced in North Korea’s constitution as the country’s guiding principle. The parallel relationship structure between Kim Il-sung and his people to religious founders or leaders and their followers has led many scholars to consider Juche a religious movement as much as a political ideology. However, those familiar with cults would again posit that Juche bypasses the tenets of religion completely and instead meets the criteria of a totalitarian cult.
Juche’s emphasis on the political and sacred role of the leader and the ensuing worshipping by the popular masses has been critiqued by various intellectual Marxists. They argue that the North Korean working class or the proletariat has been stripped of their honor and therefore call the cult of personality non-Marxist and non-democratic.
The religious behavior of Juche can also be seen in the perspectives of the North Korean people through refugee interviews from former participants in North Korea’s ritual occasions. One pertinent example is the Arirang Festival, which is a gymnastics and artistic festival held in the Rungnado May Day Stadium in Pyongyang. All components of the festival, from the selection of performers, mobilization of resources, recruitment of the audience and publicity for the show have been compared to facets of a national religious event.
The Arirang Festival has been described to demonstrate the power of the North Korean government to arrange a form of religious gathering. It has done so by “appropriating a mass of bodies for calisthenic and performative arts representing the leader as the Father and his faithful followers”. The Festival’s effectiveness in transforming its participants into loyal disciples of Juche seems to originate from the collectivist principle of “one for all and all for one” and the ensuing emotional bond and loyalty to the leader. According to the accounts of refugees who have been recruited to mass gymnastics, the collectivist principle has been nurtured through physical punishment such as beatings and more importantly the organization of recruits into small units, whose performances were held accountable by larger units. The Festival’s ritualistic components of collectivism serve to reinforce a “certain structure of sociality and affect”, establishing Kim Il Sung as the “Father” in both the body and psyche of the performers.
Charles K. Armstrong argues that familism has transformed itself into a kind of political religion in the form of Juche. With the emergence of Juche as North Korea’s guiding political principle since the 1960s, the familial relationship within the micro-family unit has been translated into a national, macro-unit with Kim Il-sung representing the father figure and the North Korean people representing his children. Juche is thus based on the language of family relationships with its East Asian or neo-Confucian “resonances of filial piety and maternal love”.
North Korea claims that the Juche idea has a wide international following which displays tributes from other socialist movements towards the idea in the entrance hall of the Juche Tower
Armstrong also notes that North Korea has actually transferred the “filial piety of nationalism in the family of the leader himself” by positioning Kim Il-sung as the universal patriarch. He argues that while the official pursuit of the Juche ideology in the 1960s signaled North Korea’s desire to separate from the “fraternity of international socialism”, the ideology also replaced Stalin as the father figure with Kim Il-sung. In effect, North Korea’s familial nationalism has supplanted the “rather abstract, class-oriented language of socialism with a more easily understandable and identifiable language of familial connections, love and obligations”.
The cult of personality surrounding Kim expanded into a family cult when Kim Jong Il became the heir apparent after assuming important posts in the WPK and military in the early 1980s. Armstrong calls this a “family romance”, which is a term Freud had used to describe “the neurotic replacement of a child’s real parents with fantasy substitutes”. Through the establishment of the North Korean family romance with the language, symbols and rituals related to familism, Kim Il Sung has been consecrated even further posthumously as the Great Father.
Throughout the 1990s, the North Korean regime became increasingly nationalistic—at least, in its official pronouncements—leading Kim Jong-Un to state that “Socialism of our Style” was really “Socialism without Socialism”. Speeches and official announcements made references to socialism, but neither to Marxist–Leninist thought nor to any basic communist concepts. Shin Gi-wook argues that “there is no trace of Marxist–Leninism or the Stalinist notion of nationhood [in North Korea]. Instead, Kim stresses the importance of the Korean people’s blood, soul and national traits, echoing earlier Korean nationalists such as Sin Chaeho, Yi Kwangsu and Choe Namson. He no longer has any interest in applying Marxism–Leninism to the North Korean situation; indeed it is no longer useful for the country”.
Charles K. Armstrong says that “North Korean Communism would not only be quite distinctive from the Soviet model, it would in some respects turn Marxism–Leninism upside-down”. The key differences are that the North Koreans place the primacy of ideology over materialism, retaining the vocabulary of family lineage and nationalism and giving it primacy over class struggle and supporting social distinction and hierarchy over classless society and egalitarianism. He concluded that North Korea may look “Stalinist in form”, but that it was “nationalist in content”.
Brian Reynolds Myers dismisses the idea that Juche is North Korea’s leading ideology, regarding its public exaltation as designed to deceive foreigners. He argues that it exists to be praised and not actually read. Based on his own experiences living in North Korea, Felix Abt describes Myers’ arguments as “shaky” and “questionable”. Having seen the extent to which North Korean university students actually believe in Juche, Abt says it is “rather absurd” to describe the ideology as “window-dressing” for foreigners. He also questions how only three decades of Japanese occupation could simply upend the impact of “thousands of years” of history in Korea.
Dae-Sook Suh has stated that Kim-Il Sung had failed to explain the difference between socialist patriotism and nationalism which Kim stated he opposed. Suh also criticised Kim for allegedly failing to explain how Marxism–Leninism has been applied to Korean conditions.
In both China and Vietnam, where Marxism—Leninism is promoted by the state, Juche has been widely criticized and ridiculed, which is even stronger in the former due to China’s contribution to the Korean War was reportedly to be ignored by the North Korean leadership.
Adapted from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Lesson Plan August 17, 2020
A Global Pandemic: Comparing, Contrasting, and Connecting to International Responses to COVID-19
Warm-up: How have efforts to stop the spread of COVID-19 impacted your life?
Introducing the Resources: Introduction to “Into Their Own Hands: Kibera, Kenya’s Largest Slum, Tames COVID-19” and “Hong Kong Residents Challenge Government Over Laws, but Fight Virus Together”
Comprehension Questions: Analyzing how both places have combatted the spread of COVID-19
Discussion Questions: Compare and contrast successful methods for stopping the pandemic's spread, and evaluate how different journalistic mediums communicate under-reported stories
Extension Activities:
1. Explore Pulitzer Center-supported reporting about how other communities around the world, from Argentina to Nigeria to the Philippines, respond to COVID-19.
2. Students undertake an original reporting project to tell the story of how their own communities have addressed the pandemic
Will you use this lesson plan in a class you teach?
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Resource Overview History
Dye is one of the 31 rare resources. It appears as rows of dye plants with red, yellow and blue blossoms and some bowls standing on the ground nearby.
Like all rare resources on land, Dye can be gathered by sending a Merchant from the Market to the resource location. Dye provides the following benefits:
The gather rate of rare resources can be increased in various ways, as described in the main article. Note that Knowledge Knowledge is not gathered before the Classical Age Classical Age, but the Greeks may gather Knowledge Knowledge from the beginning, making an early exploitation of Dye more useful.
Dye is one of five rare resources that reduce research cost, with the other four being Furs, Papyrus, Silk and Silver. The cost reduction is quite significant, so if Dye happens to be available nearby, a Merchant should be sent to collect it as soon as possible.
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"url": "http://riseofnations.wikia.com/wiki/Dye"
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Battle of Pelennor Fields (Lord of the Rings)
This page is going to talk about land battles and all the essential information that is needed when going to discuss them.
Describe how big the battle field would be on land, what kind of terrain does the battle field have? is it rocky? flat? is it a desert? forest? arctic? what is the weather? season? Is it day, night? This is a common choice of battles so describe what kind of battle it is, ambush? if a settlement, is it a siege? an attrition battle?
how far apart will both armies be when they begin to fight? what will the their size be? what are their powers, skills, armaments, strategies and tactics be? who will lead them?
Describe how you think the battle will go, use any information that is both credible and reliable. such as what the in verse strategies that militaries tend to use.
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A Warm Welcome to the Hill
On the James J. Hill Center Historic Library tours, we always like to stop for a moment under the chandelier in the lobby to give a warm welcome. Why there? Granted, it’s right inside the main entrance—but also because of what you see when you look up.
Historic architecture and décor from the Victorian era and Gilded Age in Western Europe are filled with symbols. Various animals, flora, and crests were common. There is one such symbol in our entryway that welcomes our visitors: a pineapple.
Why does a pineapple symbolize welcome and hospitality? There are a few variations on the history, but all tie into the complex narrative of colonization. When European explorers traveled to the Americas, they “discovered” many things that were new to them, including types of fresh fruit.
Some sources state that native peoples would place pineapples at the entrance of their homes or villages to indicate that the Europeans were welcome, and this tradition was taken back to Europe in the form of carving pineapples into entryways.
Another legend tells of how sailors would bring pineapples back from their journeys and place them on a fencepost outside their house to indicate that they made it home safe. When their friends and family saw the pineapple, they knew they could go in and welcome their loved one home and hear of their travels.
All sources acknowledge the influence of the wealthy. Christopher Columbus generally gets the credit for introducing pineapples to Europe, bringing them from the Caribbean to Spain in the 15th century.
The delicious pineapple was, naturally, very desirable by Europeans and Euro-Americans—but expensive and difficult to obtain in Europe and the North American colonies. They couldn’t be cultivated in Europe’s climate, and would often spoil during the long journey across the ocean, making this mainstay of Caribbean and South American indigenous cultures a status symbol abroad. Some European and Euro-American families would even rent a pineapple to display at their parties.
Eventually this transformed from being a sign of wealth and power to a sign of hospitality. The thought was, if your host had a pineapple at their party, that meant they spared no expense at the benefit of their guests. From there, they begun to get incorporated into architecture and décor, often stylized the same way as the Hill’s pineapple, which often gets mistaken for an acorn, artichoke, or even a hop!
Let us (and our pineapple) welcome you to the Hill Center sometime soon. To learn more about our historic building and furnishings, join us on one of our public tours.
Blog and More!
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Apply it! Exercises
Facial Expressions of Blind Athletes
Jeanna Bryner
From an evolutionary standpoint, what would have been the adaptive advantages of facial expressions of happiness, anger, sadness, and pride?
In what ways does Tracy & Matsumoto’s research with Olympic athletes address the critiques of Ekman’s research discussed in the textbook?
Culture and Smiley Faces? :-) versus ^_^
The Situationist Staff
3. Use the concept of focal emotions to explain why American emoticons for happy faces illustrate broad smiles such as :-), while Japanese emoticons illustrate more modest smiles such as ^_^.
4. How would Jeanne Tsai’s research on ideal emotions and the concept of display rules explain the different emoticons used by each culture?
Submit to Gradebook:
First Name:
Last Name:
Your Email Address:
Your Professor's Email Address:
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"url": "http://wwnorton.com/college/psych/social-psych3/ch/06/exercises.aspx"
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Make your own free website on
Was Slavery really that bad?
1. Make sure each group has Student handout of assigned character.
Have students read and answer the questions about their character.
2. Have students decide which role they want and have them prepare for the role-playing:
Actor: Plays the part of the historical figure being interviewed by the press corps during the class presentation. Takes time to learn the viewpoint of the historical figure. Thinks of appropriate props and costumes to help bring the figure to life.
Friendly Reporter: Responsible for ensuring that all group members understand the ideas and beliefs of the historical figure. Asks "friendly" questions to the group's Actor during the press conference so that the Actor can look good. Finds other resources for information on the historical figure for the group.
Investigative Reporter: Responsible for preparing Actor for hostile questions that he/she will ask. Question should expose weaknesses in the historical figures viewpoint. May also ask hostile questions of other actors/actresses.
Public Relations Agent: Introduces historical figure at the start of the press conference. Assists Actor in answering any difficult questions during the press conference. Designs name plate for historical figure with name and appropriate symbol of the person.
3. Teacher can act as host or moderator of the press conference.
Have actors and actresses seated with public relations agents standing behind. The friendly reporter should ask questions first, then the unfriendly reporter for each character.
4. During the presentations have the students fill out the form "Slavery...How bad is it, really?". After all the presentations have students answer the final two questions on the sheet for discussion.
Resource: TCI model
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Wednesday, April 2, 2008
11 Month Old Baby
- Can say one recognizable word. Example: Papa, Mama
- Walks when supported with one hand.
- Likes to play clapping games. Example: Pat-a-cake, Pok-amai-amai
- Curious about things around the house.
- Like to put things into and taking them out of the containers.
- Imitates simple actions such as waving: “bye bye”
Suggested activities:
- Teach him to drink from feeding cup.
- While holding on to a mobile steady object (Example: Push cart), encourage him to stand and walk.
- Teach him to imitate simple actions, for example: “Touch you nose”, “Reach for the sky”, “Clap your hands”, etc.
- Demonstrate cause and effect. Example: Stack a column of blocks and knock them down saying “All fall down”
- Encourage him to stack big or small cubes of plastic containers.
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Raw Recruits
Six nervous young recruits stand in a single line for their first drill session. They face the gruff drill sergeant, who barks out their first order—"Left Face"—and in one second they do this:
Initial Configuration of recruits
Oops! Not all of them got it right. But what now? All of the recruits are nervous. When two soldiers see that they are face to face, they both assume they are wrong and (in exactly one second!) turn the other way. After one second, the soldiers look like this:
recruits' initial reaction
Each second, they react the same way. The sergeant rolls his eyes and decides to wait for them to settle down before giving another order. How long will it take before that next order can be given? What if a different recruit—say one at the end of the line—turns right instead of left? How long could it take? What initial setups take the longest to settle down? What if more than one recruit turns the wrong way? Is it possible to predict the final configuration just by looking at the starting position? What if there are 10 recruits? Or just 3? How would your answers to the previous questions change, depending on the number of recruits?
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Translations of mathematical formulas for web display were created by tex4ht.
© Copyright 2003 Education Development Center, Inc. (EDC)
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Ticktock Banneker’s clock
by Shana Keller and David Gardner
"Benjamin Banneker is known and admired for his work in science, mathematics, and astronomy. He was born free at a time in America, 1731, when most African Americans were slaves. At the age of 22 he built a strike clock based on his own drawings and using a pocket-knife" --|cProvided by the Publisher
The Great Migration
by Eloise Greenfield and Jan Spivey Gilchrist
Beautiful Life Oppression Race/Culture Concepts
The Case for Loving
by Selina Alko and Sean Qualls
Imagine not being able to marry the person you loved, just because they were of a race different from your own. This is the story of one brave family: Mildred Loving, Richard Perry Loving, and their three children. It is the story of how Mildred and Richard fell in love, and got married in Washington D.C. When they moved back to their hometown in Virginia, they were arrested for violating that state's law against interracial marriage. The Lovings refused to allow their children to get the message that their parents' love was wrong and so they fought the unfair law, taking their case all the way to the Supreme Court
Cross Group Oppression
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"url": "https://diversebookfinder.org/books/?dbf-search=1&fq%5B%5D=race-culture%3A%22Black%2FAfrican%2FAfrican+American%22&q=%2A&fq%5B%5D=setting%3A%22Maryland%22"
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Vegetative state
Vegetative state is one of the variants of emerging from coma, when patients have no signs of consciousness and understanding what is going on around them. The causes of coma or vegetative state can be damages of various parts of the human brain.
Unfortunately, there are no clear prognoses on time of waking up from vegetative state and recovery of consciousness. Identification of new mechanisms of diagnosis should contribute to improvement of methods of vegetative state treatment.
According to statistical data, a certain part of patients does emerges from vegetative state. Some additional methods of examination are needed to increase the number of such patients.
It is very important to study the vegetative state, to understand the fundamental problems, associated with integrative and cognitive function of the brain, providing the recovery of consciousness after a severe brain injury.
There are many social-economic and legal aspects, associated with treatment of patients in a vegetative state. The solution to many of them can be quite difficult even for countries with developed rehabilitation infrastructure and social welfare.
Therefore, the development of methods to forecast the emergence from the vegetative state is still a very important task these days. Based on these methods, it is easy to detect patients for targeted treatment and patients to for common treatment.
Vegetative state definition
There is more than one definition of vegetative state, which can differ more or less in various countries of the world. In addition, legal consequences may vary and there is no legal clarity in some countries.
Vegetative state is different from coma and is characterized as both a severe dysfunction of the brain cortex and the lack of mental and cognitive activity.
Many people compare the vegetative state vs coma. But there are fundamental differences between them. In case of vegetative state, the sleep-wake cycles, function of the gastrointestinal tract, the heart rate and the blood pressure remain normal.
Persistent vegetative state - is a diagnosis, made in patients after 4 weeks of traumatic or non-traumatic brain injury. This term is also used to determine a state resulting the unsuccessful surgery.
Permanent vegetative state means that a person has been unconscious for several months since the moment of non-traumatic and about a year since traumatic brain injury.
There are some other definitions of the vegetative state in different countries of the world. The criteria for testing the diagnosis of the persistent and permanent vegetative state may differ significantly (for instance in the USA and UK).
The Australian specialists in the field of neurology offered to replace the term "persistent" and "permanent" vegetative state to the synonym - post-coma unresponsiveness. They believe that the new term describes these uncontrolled conditions better than the old ones.
Vegetative state may occur after a traumatic and non-traumatic brain injury. It is believed that car accidents (developed countries) are the most common causes of traumatic brain injury.
There are other common causes of the vegetative state of non-traumatic genesis, such as: cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, cerebrovascular damage, heart attack, tumors, hemorrhage and bacterial infections in the brain. Clinical studies demonstrate that the vegetative state arises approximately in 5 minutes after a global cerebral ischemia.
Sometimes, the vegetative state occurs in degenerative and metabolic diseases, including the inherited ones. In fact, the vegetative state can be caused by Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. In this case, the brain damage can develop for months or even years.
There are several systems allowing doctors to diagnose the symptoms of vegetative state more or less effectively. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is one of the most effective and frequently used system. GCS is an objective and reliable way to estimate the state of the central nervous system.
GCS takes into account together or separately the motor response, the reaction of eyes and the ability to make sounds or to communicate. The interpretation of combination of these elements allows to assess the function of the cerebrovascular nerves and to determine which ones were damaged.
Other criteria of diagnosis of the vegetative state are:
• Presence of the chaotic alternation of sleep and wakefulness
• Absence of reaction to pain stimuli
• Swallowing or respiratory disorder
The vegetative state is to be diagnosed after a few comprehensive neurological examinations. The doctor, who supposed to diagnose this state, must be skilled enough and competent in assessment of the brain function.
There are different methods of treatment, used in patients with the vegetative state. Unfortunately, the vegetative state treatment does not provide full recovery in each individual case, although it does provides a positive effect on the CNS.
First of all, it is necessary to stabilize a patient after the traumatic or non-traumatic brain injury. The rehabilitation therapy helps to restore or maintain the main functions of the body.
In case of severe trauma of the brain, a patient might need some extra surgery. The brain should get enough blood and oxygen.
Today, about 15 to 35 thousands of patients are diagnosed the vegetative state in the USA. Hospitals specialized on this kind of disease, are using stimulating, surgical, physiotherapeutic and pharmacological methods. There is hope that the new methods of treatment will reduce the number of people with vegetative state.
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From Conservapedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A paraconformity is a type of unconformity (gap in the geologic system) in which there is no evidence of a gap in time, because the planes above and below the gap are parallel and there is no evidence of erosion.
According to Ariel R. Roth a paraconformity occurs "when a part of the geological column is missing in the [sedimentary] layers." [1]
The arrows point to paraconformities at the Grand Canyon.
William R.Corliss, a cataloger and writer on scientific anomalies, wrote the following regarding paraconformities:
Ariel R. Roth wrote regarding paraconformities the following:
Paraconformities challenge the geologic timescale. The lack of evidence of time at the surface of the underlying layers of a paraconformity, especially the lack of erosion, suggest that the long ages never occurred.[3]
Young earth creationists cite various pieces of evidence and arguments why they believe that paraconformities challenge to the old earth uniformitarian geology paradigm.[4][5]
External links
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Reading Power: The Power To Visualize
posted Nov 12, 2013, 5:44 PM by Patrick Johnson
Today I introduced the second reading power to help with comprehension: The Power to Visualize. Students practiced visualizing different objects in their head such as rainbows, dogs and ice cream cones. We called these picture words since they were a lot easier to picture then say a word like at.
Afterwards I read them the following story:
I want you to visualize a lollipop. This lollipop is on a white stick and it has a
wrapper on it. Visualize yourself holding this lollipop. I want you to notice the
color and shape and size of this lollipop. Some lollipops are big, and some are
small, some are round and some are flat —what does yours look like? Now I want
you to visualize yourself taking off the wrapper. Listen to the sound as you take
the wrapper off. Put the wrapper in the garbage. Now I would like you to visualize
yourself taking a lick of the lollipop. What flavor is your lollipop? Take another
lick. Now put the lollipop, if it’s not too big, in your mouth. Suck on it for a while.
Listen to the sound it makes when it hits your teeth. Now take a bite. Listen to the
sound the bite makes. Now crunch your lollipop and really get the flavor in your
mouth. Some of the candy sticks in your teeth. Now visualize yourself as you take
the lollipop out of your mouth. Look at what is left on your stick. Open your eyes.
Students then discussed the following questions about their lollipop with a partner:
1. What colour was your lollipop?
2. What size?
3. What shape?
4. What flavour?
5. After you took a bite, what did
your lollipop look like?
We concluded the lesson by discussing that people's lollipops are all different because they have different experiences.
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Midsummer nights fream
In A Midsummer Nights Dream, Shakespeare uses the green world and its inhabitants as a symbol of imagination. The characters flee from reality to escape the laws that govern everyday life in Athens. The importance of imagination reveals itself when the constraints of everyday life are lost in this realm. The fact that actors fall asleep multiple times reinforces Shakespeares allusion to an escape from reality. Fairies playfully create a magical scene creating a suspension of disbelief for the actors as well as the audience. The problems that these characters face are remedied because of the ability of the mind to create this mythical world. Harmony is restored to the characters lives because of their ability to bring fantasy into reality. Shakespeare portrays the power of the imagination as humanitys most divine quality because it allows one to embrace a realm outside of this world and allows one envision fantasy.
In Athens, laws of the society threaten the characters freedom. The sharp Athenian law pursues these characters and causes them to escape into the forest. Lysander states, From Athens her house remote seven leagues;/ And she respects me as her only son. /There, gentle Hermia, may I marry thee, /And to that place the sharp Athenian law/ Cannot pursue us. (I.i.156) Here, Lysander suggests to Hermia that the two of them retreat from society to escape from the law that binds them.Shakespeare uses the forest to represent the human imagination, which is manifested in the ability to dream. He focuses upon the abilities of the human mind to temporarily escape the harsh rules of society. The rules of society do not govern their actions as long as they are in the forest.
Helena and Demetrius retreat into the woods, yet these characters are not led into the realm of imagination to escape the persecution of society. Unlike Hermia and Lysander, Demetrius and Helena retreat into the forest because of their infatuation with others. Helena is infatuated with Demetrius, who is infatuated with Hermia. Helena lures Demetrius into the forest by telling him about Hermia and Lysanders plans. Helena states, I will go tell him of Hermias flight. /Then to the wood will he tomorrow night /Pursue her(I.i 246) Both characters flee into imagination because their love is not returned to themselves. They flee into the forest into the realm of chaos and dreams where everything is possible. The elements created within the forest bring the characters into harmony with each other.
The fairies rule in the realm of imagination. They are mythical, elusive figures of the forest, responsible for creating illusion and fooling the humans. Oberon, the king of the fairies, is referred to as the king of shadows. This reference shows the elusive nature of the fairies, and their being. They are only a shadow of reality again the forest and fairies are seen elements of imagination. Puck is a character referred to as a hobgoblin responsible for fooling humans to jest for Oberon. These characters enjoy the trickery done unto the humans, which can be used as a metaphor for imagination. Ones imagination is sometimes responsible for fooling ones self. The fairies are used to represent this aspect of imagination. A fellow fairy recognizes Puck and describes him as he /That frights maidens of the villagery, and sometimes labor in the quern, /And bootless make the breathless huswife churn, /And sometimes make the drink to bear no barm, /Mislead night wanderers, laughing at their harm.(II.i.32) Puck is responsible for misleading humans and plays on their minds. The actions Puck is conducting are referred to as figments of imagination for which the fairies are said to be responsible. The fairies here bring magic to the humans in the forest when lovers become crossed in their paths. In the minds of the characters, the fairies in all of these cases have brought life to what is fantasy. The fairies, like dreams, have been able to create an alternate harmonious state for the characters by bringing life to the ordinary and mundane.
Though fairies exist in a world within the forest while the humans live in Athens on the outside of imagination, the lines between reality and imagination become blurred towards the end of the play. The fairies brought into the Athenian world to show its importance. Towards the close of the play, Thesius states,
Such shaping fantasies, that apprehend
The lunatic, the lover, and the poet
One sees more devils than hell can hold;
That is the madman. The lover, all as frantic,
Sees Helens beauty in a brow of Egypt.
The poets eye, in a fine frenzy rolling,
Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven;
The forms of things unknown, the poets pen
Turns then to shapes and gives airy nothing
A local habitation and a name. (V.i.6)
Here Shakespeare shows the importance of imagination with in society. Intense states of mentality possessed by people allow the outside world to be seen differently. Monotonous every day occurrences or appearances are shifted to become radical. Imagination is responsible for love, poetry, and madness, all of which create an essence of a different realm in society.
Imagination in A Midsummer Nights Dream allows an escape from society into fantasies. Dreams are what allow people to escape into heaven or hell, and therefore are ones most divine quality. Shakespeare portrays this to his audience by allowing the forest to represent the human ability to escape from the coldness of the world into the warmth and majesty of dreams. The ability of imagination is responsible for tricking people and leading one into tricking ones self. When imagination is recognized, monotony is lost and ones mind is brought to life.
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Malala – an incredible life
On 12 July, 2013, just 9 months after being shot by the Taliban, Malala Yousafzai turned 16 years old. To make the day even more special, the extraordinary teenager also spoke in front of the United Nations General Assembly. Her speech embodied her absolute belief in the emancipating role of education in children’s lives and how every child should be able to access education.
The United Nations representatives were so captivated by Malala’s passion and activism for girl’s education that the UN announced the creation of ‘World Malala Day’ that would be held on the 12th July every year – a day that would raise awareness on the right to education, particularly of girls.
While education may seem more like a basic part of growing up in more developed regions, it is not necessarily viewed in the same way in many parts of the world. Malala’s childhood in Swat Valley, Pakistan represents this reality. However, there are many more girls around the world like Malala who have experienced the same restrictions on basic human rights. That is why Malala Day is such an important date to celebrate! It is not simply a day to celebrate the life of Malala, but a day that helps to make more people aware of this inequality. Malala Day places significant value on education and every child’s right to access it.
To understand Malala’s brave and inspiring journey so far, read this Tell History timeline below:
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Chapter 6 - The Mass Media
Define or Explain:
yellow journalism (pg.179)
muckrakers (pg.180)
newsworthiness (pg.184)
infotainment (pg.185)
"happy talk" (pg.185)
photo opportunities (pg. 191)
horse race journalism (pg.192)
media event (pg.194)
1. What is the main "business" of the mass media in the United States ? (pg.177)
2. Describe the five specific ways the mass media serves the political system: (pg.177)
3. What are the four most prominent branches of the mass media ? (pg.178-183)
4. Describe how television revolutionized American politics. (pg.182-183)
Explain why the broadcast and print media devote so little time to political news or documentaries ? (pgs.184-186)
6.Explain how cross-ownership can limit Americans' access to the truth ? (Feature 6.1 on pg.187)
7. Explain the function of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ? (pg.188)
8. Explain the role of the Office of the Press Secretary ? (pg. 190-191)
9. What happens to journalists who reveal the source of background information given by "senior officials" ? (pgs.191-192)
10. Who are the gatekeepers and what types of stories do they normally let through the "gate" ? (pg.192)
11. Where do Americans get most of their news ?
12. Explain the role of the media with regard to; (pgs.198-202)
a) influencing public opinion
b) setting the political agenda
c) "socializing" the next generation
13. What is the most pronounced bias among journalists regarding presidential candidates ? (pg.206)
14. Take a stand on the following question is based upon the reading on page 208.
Was the media correct when it suppressed stories dealing with the womanizing and extra-marital affairs of John Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. ? Explain
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patterned ground
Patterned ground is a geologist’s term of art for the conspicuously symmetrical distribution of stones on the surface of areas subject to intensive frost. The patterns formed can take the shape of circles, polygons, or stripes. Circles and polygons form on relatively flat ground, stripes on sloping ground. The term was coined by A. L. Washburn, a geologist at the University of Washington at Seattle. Several processes of freezing and thawing, saturation and drying out, produce the patterns, and there is a considerable literature on the subject. They are frequent in periglacial regions, that is, areas where a cold climate has contributed to the morphology of the landscape.
Robert Hass
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Phantom Spring is home to two rare and exceptional desert ecosystems. Outside the cave resides a temporally intermittent lake, known regionally as a ciénega, the Spanish term for a spring. Travelers and natives that depended on this source of water named it Phantom Spring Lake because it would appear and disappear with the changing of the seasons. Since this area, much like the rest of Texas, is experiencing the worst drought on record, diminished recharge coupled with increased irrigation has significantly lowered the water level inside the cave. As a result, the ciénega pool outside the cave is now at an elevation 1 meter above the current water level in the cave. This desert oasis would have dried up had it not been habitat restoration performed by the Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service involving pumping of water out of the cave and into the ciénega to maintain it at pre-drought water levels.
Why preserve this already at-risk oasis in the desert? Two endangered species of small fish inhabit the ciénega, the Comanche Springs pupfish Cyprinodon elegans and the Pecos gambusia Gambusia nobilis. Comanche Springs located within the city limits of Fort Stockton, Texas first went dry in 1995 resulting in the loss of the pupfish from this locality. It is now only know from a group of springs around Balmorhea including Phantom Springs. Likewise, the Pecos gambusia was once more widely distributed, but today is only found in springs surrounding Balmorhea.
A rare amphipod, Gammarus hyalelloides, flourishes in the pristine waters of the cienega and is the smallest known amphipod in North America. This amphipod makes up more than 70% if the diet of the Pecos gambusia in Phantom Lake Spring. Due to its limited distribution, Gammarus hyalelloides is listed as a threatened species. Most importantly these organisms are early indicator species of pollution, a “canary in the coal mine” of sorts, in an area where groundwater is often the only source of freshwater.
The second desert ecosystem of Phantom Spring lies within the entrance of the spring. Here underwater cave passage provides a window for cave diving scientists to enter this desert aquifer. High flow and warm waters in the cave indicate that artesian waters deep beneath the desert feed the system. Cave adapted, aquatic invertebrates also known as stygobites, have evolved to survive in this lightless, energy deficient habitat. Due to the fact that no photosynthesis can take place in this cave, stygobitic invertebrates depend on either outside energy sources carried into the cave or microbial communities that create energy from biologically unavailable sources within the cave. One stygobite in particular, the isopod Lirceolus cocytus, thrives just beneath the water level on roots that have penetrated the overlying rock. L. cocytus resembles an underwater termite lacking eyes and pigment, as all truly cave-adapted species do. Commonly known as the Phantom Cave isopod, L. cocytus was named for the river Cocytus, one of the 5 rivers phantoms had to pass over to enter the Greek underworld of Hades. It is unclear whether these isopods feed directly upon the roots or upon a microbial film on the roots. In addition to Phantom Spring Cave, Lirceolus cocytus is also known from Sótano de Amezcua cave in Coahuila, Mexico. The only other stygobitic species known from Phantom Springs is a second isopod, Cirolandes texensis, resembling a rolly-polly without pigment. The diet of C. texensis is also unknown. Interestingly, the genera Cirolandes and Lirceolus have also been reported from other springs in Texas and northern Mexico.
Herein lays the focus of our investigation. Can stygobitic species be used as a genetic tracer to determine the hydrologic connectivity of Texas and Mexico’s aquifers? Currently aquifers on both sides of the border are managed and therefore rationed as separate systems. Imagine two straws protruding from a single glass of water, in the desert. What implications arise if one person (or country) extracts more water from the shared glass? What if wells on both sides of the Rio Grande were in fact drawing from a single aquifer?
In addition to groundwater extraction from municipalities and irrigation, these desert ecosystems are faced with the threat of hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking. Serving as the primary method to extract petroleum and natural gas from deep shale formations, fracking activity is increasing at a rapid rate in Texas. More than 10 natural gas wells have been reported between Phantom Springs and the nearby town of Pecos. Over a well’s lifetime, it can require up to several million gallons of water. In addition to requiring large quantities of water, fracking fluid is composed of chemical additives including known carcinogens such as benzene, lead, and boric acid. Disposal of fracking fluid often consists of injecting this polluted brine into disposal wells around the area. Migration of fracking fluid poses one of the most common forms of groundwater contamination in areas with high natural gas activity.
The primary objective of this study is to determine the genetic relationship between similar stygobitic species from springs on both sides of the border. These relationships will then be used to create a biogeographic map with the hydrologic connectivity of the areas’ aquifers/aquifer. This investigation is a joint effort between Dr. Tom Iliffe of Texas A&M University at Galveston and Dr. Fernando Alvarez of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) in Mexico City. Research funding is provided by a collaborative research grant program between Texas A&M and the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT). Genetic analysis will be conducted on stygobitic species collected from cave passages and spring openings on both sides of the Texas/Mexico border. To date over 100 stygobitic species have been collected for this study from 10 springs in Texas and 2 springs in Mexico.
Figure 1. Distribution of Lirceolus species throughout Texas and Mexico (Lewis, 2001).
Lewis, Julian J. 2001. Three new species of subterranean asellids from western North America, with synopsis of the region (Crustacea: Isopoda: Asellidae). Texas Memorial Museum, Speleological Monographs, 5:1-15.
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Classical Childrens Books
Wizard of Oz Lesson Plans
Enliven your Wizard of Oz Lessons with the FREE download of our Unit Study Worksheets. Fun activities, maps, and questions for students in 3rd to 6th grade.
The worksheets from our Wizard of Oz unit include activities for each of the 24 chapters.
You will find:
• Maps
• Discussion Questions
• Multiple Choice Questions
• Writing Activities
• Drawing
• More
You can print free copies of the 24 page unit study for each student. Teacher's guide is also available for no charge on this site.
The map of the Land of Oz is a separate print out.
wizard of oz emerald castle
Wizard of Oz Lesson Plans
Wizard of Oz worksheets
Chapter One Activities
Adjective Box
Write some adjectives to describe the scenery in Kansas. How does the author portray the land? You may use the words in the book or your own words to describe the setting.
Compare the setting in the book to the words from Home on the Range, the state song of Kansas.
How do the two descriptions of the Kansas prairie compare? Who liked the prairie better, Mr. Baum or the author of the song?
Chapter Two Lesson Plans
Map Making
Following along on a map can help you understand details of a story. On the map you list the people who live in the Land of the East, the Land of the South, and the Land of the West. (You will get to meet them later on.)
1. Add the names of these people to your map in the location they live where it says "Land of"
• Munchkins
• Winkies
• Quadlings
2. Put a smiley face on the North and South where they are ruled by a good witch. Put a frowning face on the East and West where they are ruled by a bad witch.
3. Add N, S, E, W to the compass rose at the bottom right of the map.
4. Color the road that leads from the East to the Emerald City. What color is the road?
5. What color do the Munchkins like? Circle their town way in the east and color it that color.
Wizard of Oz Shoes
silver shoe from wizard of oz What color were the witch's shoes that Dorothy took off her feet? Some details are changed when movies are made. If you have seen one of the movies, watch for other changes.
Color this shoe the same color used in the book.
Wizard of Oz Ideas
The witch did not tell us the name of the people who live in the North. You get to name these people yourself. What would you call them?
Write your name for the people of the north in the "My Idea Box."
Chapter Three Activities
Writing Idea
Before going on her journey, Dorothy went into her house and gathered some things to take. Think a minute. What would you take if you were going into your home for the last time?
Wizard of Oz Scarecrow
make your own scarecrow
The Munchkins dressed their scarecrow in their clothes (of course.) What would a scarecrow look like if you put your clothes on it?
Students can draw decide what clothes they would put on their scarecrow and complete the diagram.
Of course, don't expect any complaints if you decide to make a real scarecrow from straw. A life-size scarecrow is fun to make and fun to dress.
Why is the scarecrow afraid of a lighted match?
Chapter 4 Lesson Plans
Wizard of Oz Quote
When Scarecrow told Dorothy his story, he said this:
Brains are the only things worth having in this world, whether one is a crow or a man.
Do you agree or disagree with his statement?
Dorothy and Scarecrow enter a wood on their journey on the yellow brick road. Draw some trees to represent woods on your map.
Scarecrow's List
For not being very smart, Scarecrow is pretty helpful. You might even wonder if he gives himself credit for his talents. Make a list of some of the things he does that are helpful.
Students should continue to add to this list as other chapters are read. They will discover that Scarecrow really was quite smart and resourceful.
Wizard of Oz Chapter 5
Wizard of Oz Ideas Box
The Tin Woodman was made out of tin. What would you make a man out of? If Scarecrow wanted brains, and the Tin Woodman wanted a heart, what would your man want? Write it in your "Idea Box."
Take a vote. What is more important:
• Brains
• Heart
Ask ten people and see which answer is most popular.
Chapter 6 Lesson Plans
Wizard of Oz Quotes
Read this quote:
"Have you brains?" asked the Scarecrow.
"I suppose so. I've never looked to see," replied the lion.
What is humorous about this quote?
"You will be very welcome," answered Dorothy, "for you will help to keep away the other wild beasts. It seems to me they must be more cowardly then you are if they allow you to scare them so easily."
"They really are," said the lion, "but that doesn't make me feel any braver, and as long as I know myself to be a coward I shall be unhappy."
From this quote, do you think bullies are brave? Discuss your answer.
Here's The List
Dorothy and her companions are getting quite a list of things they are going to ask the wizard for. Make a list of their requests.
Mar - to spoil or ruin
Write your own sentence with the word "mar" in it.
Tin Man and the Beetle - Multiple Choice Questions
What did Tin Man do when he stepped on the beetle?
a. He laughed.
b. He cried.
c. He blamed the others.
What does that tell you about the Tin Man?
a. He hated bugs.
b. He worried a lot.
c. He cared about living things.
The Scarecrow oiled Tin Man because:
a. He was the only one who knew how to help Tin Man.
b. He wanted to punish Tin Man for stepping on the beetle.
c. He was wasting the oil.
Students should be starting to realize the difference between what Scarecrow and Tin Man believe about themselves and the strengths they really do possess.
Wizard of Oz Chapter 7
The company has to pass two creeks and a long river to continue on their journey on the yellow brick road. The river is drawn for you on your map. Color it blue. You may want to add two thin creeks before the river.
Team Work
It’s a good thing Dorothy has these traveling companions because each one helps the group in some way. Mark in the blank of the task:
• SC for Scarecrow
• TM for the Tin Woodman
• L for the Lion
1. Gathered nuts
2. Offered to hunt for meat
3. Jumped across the ditch
4. Came up with the idea to make a bridge
5. Faced the Kalidahs and kept them from the others
6. Cut down trees for the bridge
7. Dumps the end of the tree in the ditch so the Kalidahs can’t cross
8. Came up with the idea of building a raft
9. Gathered fruit for Dorothy and Toto
Wizard of Oz Ideas
If you were one of the travelers, how could you help your companions? Think of a dilemma (or problem) and a way you would solve it. Write your ideas in the "My Idea Box."
Chapter 8 Lesson Plans
Draw some poppies on your map between the woods and the city. Or you could color it with yellow, white, blue and purple flowers. (Those were the colors mentioned in the book.)
The Mighty Sleeping Lion
Do you have any ideas on how you might rescue a sleeping lion?
Students might enjoy listening to the song "The Lion Sleeps Tonight." Kids associate this song with the movie Lion King, though it actually predates it by many decades.
Chapter 9 Activities
Alike and Different
In this chapter field mice rescue the lion. Have you ever heard other stories of mice saving a lion? Think of how the stories are the same and how they are different.
You might like to read the story "The Lion and the Mouse" outloud from Aesops fables. You might also show a short video or 3 minutes YouTube clip of this story.
Indignant - annoyed or angry
Timid - quiet shy
Harnessed - place ropes or straps over shoulders in order to pull something
Can you write a super sentence with all three words? (Okay, if you want you can stop with only two words.)
Chapter 10 of Wizard of Oz
Map Activities
Use greens crayons or colored pencils to color the Emerald City Castle. castle
Make the wall around the Emerald City green as well.
Seeing Green
Why do you think everything is green. Do you have any clues?
You may want to bring in some green or red cellophane to let them experiment.
Chapter 11 Activities
Draw the Wizard
The travelers saw the wizard in different forms. Draw what they saw in the four boxes.
Do What?
What did the wizard ask each of them to do? If you were with Dorothy and her friends, what would you say?
• Let's go for it!
• No way!
Wizard of Oz Chapter 12 Lessons
They encounter rough, hilly country as the party heads west. Draw some hills on your map west of the Emerald City. Draw the witch's castle. What is the favorite color of this land? Color the area that color.
3 Column Matching
Draw a line from the enemies on the left, to their way of attacking Dorothy and her friends in the middle, then to the character who defeated them on the right. If you want, you can use four different colors to make the lines easier to follow.
First Column:
• Wolves
• Crows
• Bees
• Winkies with Swords
Second Column:
• Sting
• Bite
• Lion
• Stab
• Peck at Eyes
Third Column:
• Lion
• Scarecrow
• Tin Man
• Tin Man
Here is the wicked witch's chant:
Eppe peppe kakke
Hillo hollo hello
Zizzy Zuzzy Zik
Can you write your own chant?
Multiple Choice Questions
Why did the witch not want to call the monkeys with the Golden Cap?
a. She could only call them three times and she had already called them twice.
b. She was afraid the lion would hurt the monkeys.
c. She did not want Dorothy to see the Golden Cap.
What two things did Dorothy have that protected her from the witch?
a. The Golden Cap and the silver shoes
b. The silver shoes and the kiss
c. The Golden Cap and the kiss
d. Toto and the Golden Cap
Read the activities for Wizard of Oz Unit Study Chapters 13-24 activities. Continue reading the book, making the map, and answering questions as you travel with Dorothy and Company.
Or, simply print the print-friendly version by clicking the image below.
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Wizard of Oz worksheets
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Activities for your Wizard of Oz Unit Study
Our Wizard of Oz Lessons & Worksheets
Wizard of Oz worksheets Wizard of Oz worksheets
You are going to want to use our free worksheets that help you travel the yellow brick road and beyond with Dorothy and her friends. A variety of fun and interesting activities will keep your students focused and engaged. Make your adventure through Oz fun and meaningful for your students and you.
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Formative Assessment 125
Assessment Problem:
Candy Bar Problem: There were three kinds of candy bars being sold at the concession stand during the Friday dance. There were 22 more Peanut bars sold than Wafer bars and there were 32 more Peanut Butter Bars sold than Wafer bars. There were 306 candy bars sold in all. How many of each kind of candy bar was sold?
Common Responses:
Students generally used a guess and check strategy to choose the individual quantities and check the total. They developed algorithmic strategies to hone their responses until they reached a solution.
Students using the unwind strategy began with the total and worked back toward individual quantities in the relationship.
Mathematical Issues:
Students were hampered by computational errors, time constraints, and confusion about the difference between additive and multiplicative relationships. (See encyclopedia entry on Choosing Operations in Modeling) These two problems (used in conjunction) can be used to assess students’ ability to recognize multiplicative and additive relationships.
Modeling & Word Problems
Guess and check
Common Core Standards:
7.EE: Expressions and Equations
Research References:
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How the Underground Railroad worked
Stations- sheltered and fed slaves. The stations were close together so a conductor had time to return home before dawn so his absence would not arose suspicion.
Conductors- moved the slaves from one station to another.
Main Routes- In Ashtabula County, Route 7 (ending in Conneaut), Route 46 (ending in Ashtabula Harbor), Route 45 (ending in Ashtabula Harbor). Route 193.
Branch Routes- Side Routes, were ones such as running from Conneaut to Ashtabula Harbor, or the one that went from the South Ridge on Route 7 over to Girard in Pennsylvania and then on to Erie. They were used when slaves were being closely pursed by slave catchers.
Freight or passengers- Escaped slaves
Messengers- moved information from one place to another, often preceded passengers so the next station to make them aware they were coming. They also took information to conductors
that their service was needed. They also made sure that the way was clear to move passengers from one station to another.
Terminals- Place where slaves were taken to await transportation across to Canada. Ashtabula Harbor and Conneaut Harbor had terminals.
Freight Solicitors- People who would induce the slaves to escape
(Fuller, pg.7)
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Formative Flashcards Preview
Nervous system - workbook questions > Formative > Flashcards
Flashcards in Formative Deck (43):
In what anatomical plane is the image presented in?
Q image thumb
i) Name the thin grey/white line labeled A ii) What is its Anatomical Importance? iii) What specific tissue of the nervous system does it comprise?
i)Tentorium cerebelli (2 mark)
ii) It is used to divide the intracranial cavity into supra- &infra-tentorial compartments. Its main function is to support occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex ( either of these =2 marks)
ii) (In-folding of the) Meningeal layer (1) of the Dura Mater (1 mark)
i) Name the black spot labelled B
ii) What would you expect to find in it?
iii) Name the chamber labelled C
i) Confluence of the sinuses/ Superior Saggital Sinus /Transverse sinus meet here(1 mark) (NB: Occipital sinus also connects here)
ii) Venous Blood (1 mark)
iii) Lateral ventricle (1 mark)
The features labelled D can give a patchy whitish presentation in some individuals.
i) Name these features. (2 marks)
ii) What bone is labelled E? (1 mark)
iii) Which fossa of the cranium is it part of? (1 mark)
i) Arachnoid villi or when thickened (hence whitish colour) as in this case, arachnoid granulations (2 mark)
ii) Ethmoid (1 mark)
iii) Anterior Cranial Fossa (1 mark)
The anatomical feature labelled F is a tumour in the brain?
i) In what neurological structure is the feature labeled F located? (1 mark)
ii) What neuronal tracts supply this structure for its sensory functions (1 mark each totalling 2 marks)
iii) Assuming this lesion produced clinical signs in this patient, what distinctive triad of neurological signs indicative of damage to this neurological structure would have been elicited on examination? (any 3, 1 mark each)
i) Cerebellum (1 mark)
ii) Dorsal Spinocerebellar tract (1 mark) & Ventral Spinocerebellar tract (1 mark)
Dysmetria, Dysarthria & Ataxia (any 3, 1 mark each) NB: Whilst D-A-N-I-S-H is a useful mnemonic for signs seen following damage to the cerebellum, only the combination of “triad of signs” given above is specific to the cerebellar damage alone.
What anatomical landmark of the body defines T10 Dermatome?
i) Abdominal navel or Belly Button (2 marks)
Given that the youth had a Brown-Sequard disturbance, what does that tell you about the extent of compression of the spinal cord in this case? (4 marks)
By definition, Brown-Sequard disturbance suggests a hemicord ( 2 marks) disturbance. The hemi-cord being referred to here is that in the transverse plane (2 marks).
The compression mentioned in the above case scenario will have affected half of the cord in the transverse plane.
i) Why were the left and right lower limb reflexes both depressed (3 marks)
Max. Mark
i) Tone in both limbs is said to have been reduced. Therefore, the reflexes are also likely to be reduced as tone requires that the muscle spindle afferents, alpha and gamma motoneurones are all intact and the monosynaptic stretch reflex arc works well and the synaptic transmission is not under heavier inhibition. The fact that the limb reflexes are reduced indicates that at the acute stage, in any event, the involvement of upper motoneurones is not reduced. If anything, it would be increased. There is a possibility of limited spinal shock to explain this reduction in limb reflexes. There is also the possibility here that CSF flow to the cord was also compromised, leading to disruption of neuronal function, hence depression of limb reflexes ( See below for fuller explanation) (A question such as this gives you lots of opportunities to show your knowledge. Some facts may be in conflict and so it is important to show good command of the subject and whatever you do, take a sensible and sustainable position on such multifactorial, complex pathways) (3 marks)
ii) Why was the right side more affected than the left? (2mark)
ii) The right side was more affected than the left because it is the side with the Brown-Sequard disturbance. (2 mark)
i) What is your understanding of motor tone?
i) Motor tone is also known as muscle tone. When applied to limbs, It is defined as the resistance to passive limb movements (1 mark). Almost all skeletal muscles have a background resting level of activity from the CNS and this neuronal activity originates from gamma motoneurones whose activity is controlled by the central nervous system. In turn, this activity in gamma motoneurones brings about background muscle spindle activity, which in turn recruits alpha motoneurones into activity via the stretch reflex. Put simply, this whole pathway, therefore, prevents change in muscle length of the limb in question. Body posture is only possible through this notion of motor tone. Without it, we could not maintain posture. Instead we would collapse into a heap of muscle and bone tissues
ii) Name 4 neuronal elements that are important in the establishment of normal motor tone?
ii) Descending motor tracts (1 mark); gamma motoneurones (1 mark), muscle spindle afferents (1 mark) and alpha motoneurones (1 mark)
i) What diagnosis would you make of this man’s medical problem? (2 marks)
ii) If he was given appropriate treatment in reasonable time, what would be his long term prognosis? (1 mark) Explain your answer (1 mark)
He is likely to have suffered a blow to the vertebral column that did not result in stabbing of the spinal cord, this in turn resulted in a subdural haematoma in the spinal cord, that in turn led to compression of the spinal cord. Neurological symptoms given above must have been to compression injury to the cord. (2 marks)
Early diagnosis is critical in injuries of the CNS as compressions can cause serious irreversible damage. The fact that the disturbance here was to one side (Brown-Sequard disturbance) and providing the haematoma is evacuated in good time, the prognosis is excellent providing physiotherapy (1 mark)
In contrast, disturbances of the complete cord do not have positive outcomes compared to hemi-cord disturbances (1 mark
A 65-y.o. HIV-positive man began having spontaneous involuntary movements of his right arm and leg approximately 1 month prior to presentation in clinic. On examination he had continuous, uncontrollable flapping and circular movements of his arm and occasional jerking movements of his right leg, unsteady gait with a lean to the right.
What is the name given to the movements the patient makes? (1 mark)
ii) In which common neurodegenerative disorder are these types of behaviour often found? (1 mark)
Which two areas of the brain often show damage in this disorder? (1 mark each)
Hemiballismus (1 mark)
Huntington’s disease(1 mark)
The subthalamic nuclei and striatum (1 mark each)
Which side of the brain is lesioned in this patient? (movements and leaning on/to the right)
At what level of the spinal cord did you perform the lumbar puncture to obtain the CSF? (1 mark)
Why is it performed at this level and why is it at a different level in young children? (2 marks)
L3-L4 (1 mark)
The end of the spinal cord proper is L1-L2, thus to avoid the cord the punch is performed below this as the need can pass through the cauda equine causing little or no damage, in young children the cord is less misaligned thus requiring a lower punch(2 marks)
The regions involved in this disorder form part of which group of brain areas? (1 mark) What function are these areas involved in (2 marks) and which other area of the brain do they work with?(2 marks)
They form part of the basal ganglia (1 mark)
Together with the cerebellum (2mark) they are involved in motor control (2 mark)
What is the most well-known of the hypokinetic disorders? (2 marks)
Which area of the brain is affected in this disorder (2 marks) and how? (2 marks)
Parkinson’s (2 marks?!!!)
The substantia nigra is affected in this disorder (2 marks). There is a loss of dopaminergic neurons in this region (2 marks) which leads to a slowing down of motor outflow, hence hypokinesia
Figure 1 below shows a pre-labelled picture of a major system of the central nervous system in the adult brain
i) Name this system (2 marks)
ii) Name the 2 major contents of this system (2 marks)
iii) By what name are cells lining this system of the brain called? (2 marks)
i) Ventricular System
ii) Cerebrospinal fluid & Choroid Plexus
iii) Epindymal Cells
i) What is a hydrocephalus? (1 mark)
i) Hydrocephalus means a state of increased CSF pressure within the ventricular system, often due to a mismatch between CSF production and its re-absorption into general circulation
ii) What then is a communicating hydrocephalus? (1 mark) What is it also known as? (1 mark)
ii) In a communicating hydrocephalus the ventricular system remains patent and CSF flow is not impeded, but rather absorption at the level of the arachnoid granulations is impeded. It is also known as external hydrocephalus since the problem occurs externally to the ventricular system.
iii) What is a non-communicating hydrocephalus? (1 mark) What is it also known as? (1 mark)
iii) A non-communicating hydrocephalus occurs when there is blockage of CSF flow within the ventricular system itself. The most likely site for such blockage is the cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius that joins the 3rd ventricle to the 4th ventricle. This aqueduct is physically the narrowest part of the ventricular system. It is also known as an internal hydrocephalus
This case of hydrocephalus resulted from scarring of the meninges subsequent to parasitic infection.
i) What would be the most likely explanation for the general mechanisms giving rise to this case of hydrocephalus? (4 marks)
The patient acquired an external (1 mark) hydrocephalus that resulted in raised intracranial pressure. The problem must primarily affect the area of the arahcnoid granulations (1 mark).
The most likely causes are: ( 2 marks for an valid answer) Parasytic cyst Tuberculous meningitis infections Subarachnoid haemorrhage, or head injury Tumour of the brain
Left untreated, and assuming the condition does not worsen, i) Name 2 distinctive features you might expect to see in this patient’s CT head scans (1 mark each totaling 2 marks) ii) Which intracranial structures are likely to be damaged? (1 mark) iii) Explain your answers (1 mark)
i)Dilated ventricles ( 1 mark) and atrophy of brain tissue (1 mark)
ii)Atrophy of the cerebral cortex as it is exquisitely sensitive to compression. (1 mark)
iii)Explanations: (1 mark) Dilated ventricles result from increased csf volume and therefore, they appear large to reflect this increased capacity. This increased CSF capacity compresses cortical tissue that in turn degenerates as a result this disruption. If the primary problem is not resolved the CSF volume will steadily increase and the cerebral cortical tissue in turn atrophies.
i) Regarding Non-Communicating hydrocephalus, what pathology of the brain is likely to lead to this condition? (0.5 marks)
ii) Which neuro-anatomical structures are likely to be implicated in this condition? (0.5 marks) Explain both your answers
Tumour in the Cerebral aqueduct. Tumours of the 3rd ventricle are a common explanation here (0.5 marks)
Pituitary tumours are usual suspects here. Others will include the pineal gland, optic nerve and the hypothalamus (0.5 marks)
The patient exhibited a left ptosis and smaller reactive left pupil (of the eye) and decreased left facial sweating.
What syndrome is the patient displaying? (2 mark)
Horner’s syndrome
i) Where are the two most likely sites of lesion that would cause these autonomic symptoms? (4 marks)
ii) You are told that impaired sweating is more common with a preganglionic lesion, where then would you localize the lesion in this case scenario. (2 mark)
i)Either the carotid plexus or the sympathetic chain
ii) In the sympathetic chain (the information you have been given here is meant to help you to distinguish between vascular localization of the lesion from that in the sympathetic chain)
The pellet took a slightly downward trajectory and lodged between the left T1 and T2 nerve root exits points. Draw the dermatomal distribution that would be expected if these roots had been damaged. (2 marks for front, 2 marks for back)
The pellet damaged part of the T1 ventral horn.
Identify the types of motoneurones likely to be damaged by a lesion in this area? (4 marks)
The α and γ motoneurones
If an infection were to establish as a result of this wound and this became supperative, where, most inferiorly might you expect puss to collect? (2 marks) Justify your answer (2 marks)
Posterior mediastinum (2 marks)
The infection would have established within the pre-vertebral fascia of the neck that extends as far inferiorly as the posterior mediastinum. (2 marks)
Name the functions of the thalamus
Main relay site for projections of all sensory signals to the thalamus apart from the olfactory system
Plays a key role in the integration of visceral and somatic functions
Involved in the performance of voluntary movements
Together with the reticular formation, it controls the level of overall excitability of the cerebral cortex
i) What clinical signs will you expect from a patient with an advanced case of ALS? Explain your answer.
The condition lesions both upper & lower motoneurones. When upper & lower motoneurone signs are superimposed on each other, the lower motoneurone signs predominate. Upper motoneurone signs can only be detected if the lower motoneurone innervation of the muscle is intact
i) What other additional target organs should you be concerned about in a patient with ALS?
ii) What is the prognosis for this patient? iii) Explain your reasoning in ii) above.
i) Respiratory muscle innervation by the thoracic ventral horn columns is critical to life
The bladder
The anal sphincters
ii) Currently, there is no known treatment
Patients eventually die from complications of respiratory tract infections or cessation of breathing through death of thoracic motoneurones
Regarding function of the urinary bladder in motoneurone disease, what type of neurological bladder should be expected here? Justify your answer.
It is curious that ONUF’s nucleus is spared in MND. Although it is a somatic lower motoneurone pool, it does not succumb t o MND and for that reason it is considered an anomally. The Detrusor Muscle also continues to receive normal innervation from the lateral horn of the sacral cord (PARASYMPATHETIC). Taken together, this information suggests that bladder function in MND rema ins normal. Urinary incontinence seen in MND (as the sub - type given above) is not due to disrupted bladder function, but due to immobility. This leads to failure to access sanitary facilities on time, hence incontinence, not bladder function per se.
Outline the cardinal lower motoneurone signs. Give a brief explanation for each of these.
Flaccid Paralysis
Muscle Weakness
Areflexia or hyporeflexia
Muscle wasting (denervation atrophy)
Map the general path taken by cerebrospinal fluid as it circulates from lateral ventricles to the venous circulation via the fourth ventricle
Right and lef Lateral Vent ricles (1 and 2) communicate with each other and the third venticle vi via the foramen of Monro, in turn the third ventricle communicates with the 4 th ventricle by way of the cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius. From the 4 th ventricle CSF passes into subarachnoid space via its 3 openings, the 2 lateral apertures of Luschka that drain into the cistern of the great cerebral vein and the midline aperture of Magendie that drains into the cisterna magna
Which parts of the brain are exempt from attendance of the blood brain barrier? Why is this necessary?
Pituitary Gland
(stimulatory hormone release upon sensing, e.g. low oestrogen; FSH)
chemoreceptor trigger zone in the fever region of the hypothalamus
They need to be able to sense stimuli / levels and contents of blood to react and to maintain homeostasis
How might immune previllege of the brain be exploited in the treatment of some degenerative conditions of the brain?
Allografts of brain tissue is possible as there no likelihood of tissue rejectio
Contrast the communicating and non-communicating hydrocephalus
Blockage at the level of the arachnoid granulations following infections of the meninges
Non - Communication
Within the lumen of the ventricular system, usually a tumour - most probable along the course of the cerebral aquenduct of Sylvius
Regarding Motor Tone What role do gamma motoneurones play in muscular tone?
They are responsible for the genesis of motor tone due to their small size, hence high input resistance and therefore small depolarisation of their membranes will lead to threshold for action poten tial firing. This will result in the activation of intrafusal muscle fibres, hence activation of the muscle spindle afferents and in turn recruitment of alpha motoneurones through the stretch reflex. Alpha motoneurones are not thought to bring about tone i n themselves
Name 2 upper motoneurone structures which when selectively lesioned produce hypotonia. Why is it important to be aware of these?
Selective Lesion of the corticospinal Tract (Rare)
Cerebellum (ipsilateral signs)
The se are rare exceptions to the rule
What is spastic paralysis? Which functional group of muscles tend to be predominantly active in this form of paralysis?
It is the paralysis of muscle through simultaneous co - contr action of flexors and extensors acting across the same joint. This simultaneous activity deprived the joint of movement, hence paralysis
Limb anti - gravity muscles are the predominantly active muscles that are active during spastic paralysis
What type of muscle atrophy is seen in patients with long term spastic paralysis
Disuse muscle atrophy
What is a reflex? How does it differ from a reflex arc?
It is a motor act (an unlear ned automatic response to a specific stimulus which does not require the brain to be intact) The arc is simply a neuronal circuit that brings about a reflex act
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The discovery of a large quantity of bones belonging to Tristram’s jird, a common gerbil-like rodent in Israel, has provided Israeli researchers with the first biological evidence of the northern Negev’s flourishing agriculture some 1,500 years ago.
The bones were discovered in ancient fields tended by Byzantine farmers during a period when the area was much greener than it is today.
“We have found bones of this rodent dating back to the Byzantine period in areas that are currently arid and do not offer the habitat it requires. The findings show that Byzantine agriculture was so well-developed that it had an impact on species diversity in the Negev,” explained Prof. Gur Bar-Oz of the University of Haifa, who is heading a study researching the collapse of Byzantine cities of the Negev.
While archeological evidence and ancient historical texts had led scientists to conclude there was extensive agriculture in the region, no biological evidence was found until now.
The current study is being conducted by research student Tal Fried, together with Lior Weissbrod, Yotam Tepper, and Prof. Guy Bar-Oz from the University of Haifa’s Institute of Archaeology. Findings from their research, including the rodent bones, were published in the Journal of the Royal Society of the British Academy of Sciences.
The two most common species of rodents in the Negev are the gerbil and Tristram’s jird. The gerbil is found in more arid areas with sandy soil and little vegetation. Tristam’s jird is found in areas that get enough precipitation to have moist soil covered with greenery.
Today the soil in the areas where the rodent bones were found is dry and wind-blown, so the discovery of Tristam’s jird is surprising, the researchers say. The climate may have been wetter than it is today, but farmers would have needed great ingenuity to create an agricultural habitat in the region.
“We still do not understand why the agricultural system they established ultimately failed. This subject is very relevant today, particularly in an era of climate change in which we need to adapt to changing environmental conditions that are leading to the expansion of deserts around the world,” Bar-Oz concluded.
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This week in math, we learned long division. The strategy we learned was D for dad/divide, M for mom/multiply, S for sister/subtract, B for brother/bring down and R for rover/repeat. We had to do a bunch of questions in our Jump Math book. We learned 1 digit divided by 2 digit and 1 digit divided by 3 digit.
In science we were separating a solid-solid mixture using different methods. The methods we used were sieves, magnets and water. When we used the sieves we had to choose from 5 different materials and mix three of the materials into a cup. Then, we put the mixture in a sieve and separated it. When, we used the magnet, it was in a plastic bag and we dipped it into a mixture of sand and iron filings.
After, we pulled out the bag and put it over a bowl. Then, we took the magnet out of the bag and the iron filings fell into the bowl. To separate peatmoss and marbles we put them in a container with water. The peat moss floated and the marbles sunk to the bottom.
Syrian Refugees
Yesterday, in class we watched four videos on Syrian refugees.Then, everyone had to fill in a chart on what we were seeing, feeling and thinking. We had to pick the video that made the biggest impression on us. I choose the “One Second Per Day” video.
1.The video that made the biggest impression on me personally was “One Second a Day”. This video made the biggest impression because it showed me what is really is happening in Syria right now. We need to help them settle in Canada and give them warm clothes for the winter. Canadians also need to help them find jobs, housing, health care, schools for the children, and language lessons for the adults.
2.My opinion changed because the refugees need a safe place to live in away from the war. They have been going through tough times in their country and need help. 1.5 billion children were forced to flee their homes and need to help them.
3. Some of the questions I still have are:
-How did the civil war start?
-Who is fighting it and why?
-When did it start?
-How many people were forced to flee their homes?
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More Options: Make a Folding Card
Storyboard Description
This storyboard does not have a description.
Storyboard Text
• We're starving...
• Bread is so expensive!
• Our leader is incompetent!
• He's spending our money!
• I hear he can't have kids!
• WE REBEL!
• After King Louis came into power, his poor leadership and the First Estate's lavish spending incurred massive amounts of debt. As a result of this, already high food prices skyrocketed, and the people could no longer afford food. One reason they went into debt was because they helped fund the American Revolution. At the time, do you think it was a smart decision? Why or why not.
• The stories about the King and his Queen quickly spread throughout the country. The people learned about their inability to herald an heir, which caused civil distrust and loss of national pride. Additionally, the people learned about King Louis weak political nature and the lavish spending of his court, which also lead to unrest. Do you think the people were fair in hating the King because he could have a kid, even though he couldn't control it?
•
• As a result of these corruptions of the rights of the people, the people rebelled against the King in a dramatic and forceful fashion. They stormed the armories and started the French Revolution. In the long run, do you think France benefited from the French Revolution?
Explore Our Articles and Examples
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Your Week at Camp
Camp Galileo
Supernovas (3rd - 5th grades)
Galileo Makers: Materials Challenge
Art & Engineering with a Single Supply
Project Spotlight
Hydraulic Animals
This week in science, Supernovas will engineer an animatronic animal from simple cardboard. They’ll hone their cutting and building skills to create a cardboard creature with working hinges. Campers will animate their animal with hydraulics and a mini motor for realistic movements they can show off at an end-of-week petting zoo.
BE VISIONARY: I believe it is my place to turn ideas into reality
Daily Breakdown
In Art, campers will be using duct tape in new and surprising ways to create a customized and fully functional Duck Tape® messenger bag. Today, they’ll kick off the project by making a maquette (small-scale model) for their bag out of index cards. They’ll be visionary by pushing past their initial ideas to try unique shape or theme ideas for their bags, then cut and label all the parts they’ll need to make their final design a reality.
In Science, campers will create an animal using cardboard and hydraulics. They’ll begin by deciding what their animal will be, and what motion they want their animal to make. Campers will start constructing the robot components involved in the first motion, such as a flapping bird wing or swinging elephant trunk.
Ask your camper: What design elements are you envisioning for your duct tape messenger bag? Are you thinking of a particular color scheme or unusual shape?
In Art, campers will learn basic duct tape techniques and immediately put this knowledge—and their determination—to the test by covering three foam sheets with duct tape, focusing on smooth tape and clean edges. These covered foam sheets will become the front, back, and flap of their messenger bag.
In Science, campers will start to bring their animal to life by adding a hydraulic system made with plastic syringes and tubing. To figure out the most effective position for the hydraulics, campers will need to be reflective as they test their animal’s motions.
Ask your camper: How will the hydraulic system work to move a part of your animal?
In Art, campers will practice being determined and level up their duct tape skills from yesterday. They’ll learn how to make duct tape sheets and turn them into pockets, using size guides to ensure the pockets can hold phones, tablets, pens, or water bottles.
In Science, campers will envision and create a second motion for their robot animal. They’ll need to create new components, hinge the components, and create a new hydraulic system, requiring plenty of collaboration as they’ll be encouraged to turn to each other for troubleshooting help and new ideas.
In Outdoors, campers will make a move to reclaim the most important supply in their makerspace, sneakily stealing back their group’s rubber chicken from the thief who took it in the game Chicken Thief.
Ask your camper: How many times did you need to redesign your new hydraulic motion for your animal? Did collaborating with others help to solve any challenges?
In Art, campers will see their duct tape pieces come together into a usable bag. They’ll connect their bag to a functional strap, then practice being reflective by stress-testing their bag for strength and comfort.
In Science, campers will add another new motion to their hydraulic animals using motors. They’ll learn how asymmetric weight on a motor’s shift can make the robot vibrate or create sound. There are numerous ways to utilize their motor, so they’ll need to be visionary to come up with inventive ideas that will make their robot as lifelike as possible.
Ask your camper: Is your bag coming together the way you envisioned earlier in the week? What design tweaks might you make tomorrow to make it even more unique, comfortable or functional?
In Art, campers will put the finishing touches on their messenger bags. They’ll take the time to be reflective and consider ways to push their design a step further, adding embellishments like tassels and charms.
In Science, campers will identify the key features of their animal and decorate accordingly. At the end of the day, they’ll open up their sold out petting zoo for Nebula (pre-K - K) campers, who have been eagerly anticipating meeting these cardboard robot creations.
In Outdoors, campers will work together to round up a malfunctioning herd of hydraulic animals before they wander away in the game Animal Herders.
Ask your camper: What were the younger campers the most excited about when they got to see your group’s hydraulic animals? What were you most proud to show them?
Camp Continued
Activities and outings to build on this week's adventures
Galileo Innovation Approach
1. The Innovator's Mindset: How Galileo innovators approach the world
I am Visionary
I am Courageous
I am Collaborative
I am Determined
I am Reflective
2. The Innovator’s Knowledge:What Galileo innovators need to understand
Concepts and Facts
Historical Context
Skills and Techniques
Audience and Environment
3. The Innovator’s Process:How Galileo innovators innovate
Read more about the GIA
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Also: sighting depth
An Italian invention, eponymously named for Fr. Pietro Angelo Secchi, who, at the behest of a Papal naval officer, Commander Ciardi, devised the method. In 1865, the papal yacht L'Immacolata Concepzion systematically used the technique to measure sighting depth while on patrol in the Mediterranean
Secchi disk depth is a measure of the clarity of sea or lake water. The technique consists of lowering a Secchi disk (a circular plate, sometimes all-white, sometimes quartered black-and-white) on a cord into the water. When the disk ceases to be visible from the surface, the depth (marked on the cord) is noted, and the disk retrieved.
The higher the Secchi disk depth, the deeper light penetrates into the water. As a common rule of thumb, enough light to permit photosynthesis usually penetrates to about 1.7 times the Secchi disk depth.
Secchi disk readings show (unsurprisingly) seasonal variations, as a result of changing presence of algae over the year. It can also vary with the presence of particulate matter (for instance, as a result of landslides or erosion). Since both of these factors are important in determining the "health" of a lake, fjord, or other enclosed or semi-enclosed body of water, they are extremely important in environmental monitoring of such bodies of water. They are also useful in overall environmental monitoring of the open ocean.
Secchi disk depths can vary immensely. In polluted lakes, the sighting depth can be as little as 10-15 cm, whereas a clean lake might easily have a sighting depth of 8 m. In the Memorabilia nonnulla lacus Veteri from 1705, the Swedish lake Vättern is reported to have had a sighting depth of 30 m, but this is exceptional.
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, , , , , , , , , , ,
twins_xenizationOne of the unusual words we examined last semester was xenization. Watch Rebekka and Ryan explain their investigation into the meaning, roots and morphemes of both xenization and xenophile.
Recently the Greek root ‘xenos’ has again cropped up in response to the text and illustrations in picture book The Island by Armin Greder, an illustrated allegory revolving around xenophobia (see the other texts linked with this on our class blog Hold Fast to Dreams). This text is part of our year’s exploration of ‘identity’ where we wrestle with questions such as: What does it mean to belong? When does difference make a difference? How does difference matter?
The Island opens with:
‘One morning the people of the island found a man on the beach, where fate and the ocean currents had washed his raft ashore. When he saw them coming, he stood up.
He wasn’t like them’.
The word ‘stranger’ occurred in the brief text four times:
‘He’s a stranger. He doesn’t belong.”
Students also noted the line: “Foreigner Spreads Fear in Town,” said the newspaper in big black letters.
These words plunged us into an exploration of the synonyms for ‘stranger’ of which the word ‘foreigner’ is one. We examined the following words:
stranger, outsider, foreigner, arrival, immigrant, outcast, misfit, alien, refugee, asylum-seeker, exile, outcast and later pariah.
Students spent some time examining the denotation, determining the morphemes and exploring the etymology that has helped tease out deeper understandings. We learned that:
Stranger, estranged and extraneous are related to the Latin root extraneus meaning foreign or external from extra outside of.
Outsider and outcast are compound words , both made of two free base elements , both having the Old English root ut while the cast in outcast means to throw coming from Old Norse kasta… and yes the cast of the a play is one of many meanings this word contains as it has the sense of the form something takes after being thrown! Cast is a great example of polysemy, one student read that it had eighty-three different verbal senses and forty-two senses used nominally! (Online Etymology Dictionary)
Foreigner has etymological connections to doors as the root Latin foris has a meaning of out of doors and this ultimately from a Proto Indo European root meaning door , doorways! (Online Etymology Dictionary) .
Arrival too revealed an interesting discovery -from the Latin phrase ad ripam:’to the shore’ with Latin root ripa meaning shore. Therefore, riparian is etymologically connected to arrival and that lead to more fascinating comparisons with the Norse root producing the words rift and rifle and riven.
We found that alien and alias are related to the Latin root alius: ‘an other’ and the sense of not belonging to earth as recent as 1920s while the science fiction sense from the 1950’s.
Refugee and fugitive share the Latin root fugere to flee. Initially this meant seeking shelter but evolved to the sense of fleeing home in 1914 as citizens fled Flanders to escape fighting (Online Etymology Dictionary).
Immigrant, migrate, migratory share the same bound base element ‘migr’ from Latin migrare to move from one place to another.
Asylum a Latin loan word from the Greek asylom from the root syle meaning ‘right of seizure’ so with the prefix a- meaning without , it has the sense , according to Online Etymology Dictionary, of an inviolable place . It was in 1776 that it came to mean a benevolent institution for ‘the shelter some class of person'(Online Etymology Dictionary)
Pariah, a Tamil word referring to the lowly caste drummers from theTamil word parai meaning festival drum.
What great tales these words tell! Digging through the layers of time to uncover roots allows students to compare the present day denotation and to consider metaphors implied by the root meaning. This allows students to connect deeply with the words and the texts. From here we then considered the connotation of the words and ranked them from the most positive to negative and then after reaching consensus with the group, reconsidered initial ranking to make adjustments when taking into account power, a suggestion from one group as they clustered their words. We later discovered the word ‘pariah’ as a synonym and threw that into the list after examining the denotation,etymology and morphology. Which word implied more power, which word was associated with the least amount of power? A lot of debate, arguing and thinking!
Watch the clips below:
Initial thoughts:
Comparison of groups:
Teaching word study and asking students to investigate, draw conclusions based on evidence, to critique one another, to provide evidence in support of an idea is teaching thinking. Analysis of the words and ranking them in terms of connotation from positive to most negative will help students later to engage and write more formally about larger moral issues concerning ‘otherness’, difference and identity. As students talk, you’ll see its messiness- the exploratory nature of discussion. These students in this activity argue and are passionate. As students rank the words, they analyze and question one another. This activity allows them and me to test assumptions , and re-evaluate ideas and consider them in regard to the our texts, thereby encouraging us to return to the texts and reread.
Xenization from The Project Twins.
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Conflict in the Senegal River Valley
In 1989, a conflict erupted along the Senegal River Valley, which forms the border between Senegal and Mauntania, on the Atlantic coast of Africa. A dispute between Mauritanian herders and Senegalese farmers that led to two people being killed and scores injured unleashed a wave of violence that spread as far as the two capital cities, Dakar and Nouakchott. Selective killings, expulsions, and expropriations followed. In addition to thousands of dead and wounded, over a quarter of a million people were affected, as entire communities were expelled on both sides of the border; Mauritanian merchants were forced out of Senegal and around 80,000 of their Halpulaar-en, Soninké and Wolof compatriots were deported from the right bank of the river and lost everything, including their nationality.
The conflict between Mauritania and Senegal is rooted in land tenure issues and rural conditions found in the Senegal River Valley. The area where the conflict is centered has been deeply affected by the construction of dams built upstream and downstream. These expensive dams are at the heart of regional integration strategies and the plans of the OMVS (The Senegal River Development Scheme). However, they have exacerbated problems in regional land tenure that has often led to tragic consequences for the area's residents.
Traditional Tenure Regulations and Rural Conditions
Prior to the construction of the dams in the 19805 and significant land reforms, the region's population abided by modes of tenure regulation and occupation specific to each ethnic group. The Halpulaar-en (commonly known as Fulani), Soninké, and the Maures (or Moors), and Wolof -- all ethnic groups stratified by caste -- relied on subsistence farming, pastoralism and some fishing. The gum trade and Western urbanization of Saint Louis opened up small valley communities along the Sénégal River. Gradually, groundnut monoculture, transferring the capital from St. Louis to Dakar, successive droughts, and emigration further marginalized the river zone and overshadowed the severeness of the region's land problems.
Traditionally, communities on both sides of the river practiced forms of cultivation that integrated agricultural, pastoral, and fishing activities. Flood plain and rain-fed agriculture were practiced on different types of lands. Harvests were very unpredictable due to the vagaries of rainfall and flooding. Each plot was subject to complex modes of appropriation and exploitation. While the jeeri, or drier lands, were less coveted, the waalo, or rich recession lands, were subject, among the Halpulaar-en, to the levré authorizing the use of the land in any of a number of land-use arrangements including rental, sharecropping, or the loan of a parcel of land in return for nominal compensation.
Another tenure arrangement involves usufruct rights with payment of a title to the `landowner' who is in fact more of a traditional guardian than the owner of this inalienable land. The subtle overlapping of properties and their uses according to lineage, household, inheritance, transfer, rental, or sharecropping arrangements, are clearly understood by residents. The hierarchy of access to different types of land depends on one's social position within the caste system. Social relations among the Halpulaar-en, for example, are greatly influenced by access to land. For instance, on flood plains, there are areas where `landowners,' landholders, and farmers all have land rights. Each one possesses different prerogatives as a result of their tenure, lineage, caste, or status. Potentially confrontational land disputes have been generally resolved locally through traditional arbitration mechanisms.
Despite their economic differences, there existed complimentary relationships between herders and farmers. For instance in the leydi, or landholders lands, once the harvest was complete, cattle was permitted to graze in the basin, thus enriching it with its manure. Exchange relations regarding camels and cattle fostered commercial interdependence between herders and farmers and even resulting in herders becoming semi-sedentary and farmers becoming semi-nomadic. The Maure nomads traveled in tribal and pastoral routes at the end of the 19th century which proved to be an asset during the drought between 1984-1985; thanks to Wolof hospitality and solidarity in the region they were able to save some of their livestock. These complimentary relationships, however, are being eroded. Changes have prompted many herders to abandon their nomadic way of life and become farmers or significantly reduce their herds.
Transhumant pastoralism, subject to the vagaries of nature and dependent on the river to water livestock, also underwent fundamental transformations following land reforms in both Senegal and Mauritania. Boring wells and other forms of water development led to an increase and concentration of livestock, overgrazing, and deforestation. During the drought in the 1970s, herders became even more sedentary while prompting peasants to emigrate to urban centers or to European metropoles on a seasonal, and increasingly permanent basis. While the migration of younger members of the community helped offset the worst effects of the agricultural crisis through the transfer of their wages back to their communities, it has also put a strain on the remaining labor force and the land-based power of community elders.
The 1973 drought intensified the irrigation craze in the valley, leading communities to question traditional agricultural practices, become more dependent on equipment and inputs, and accelerated the monetarization of social relations. In Senegal, a portion of the money sent home by youths is being spent on motor pumps and other accessories, while the state, through the SAED, the development corporation for the exploitation of land in the Senegal River delta and the valleys of the Senegal and Falémé Rivers, provided central control of rural development and financing. This was the context in which land reforms took place.
Modern Principles of Land Ownership, Irrigation, and Land Speculation
In 1905, France established the boundary down the middle of the river that flowed between its two colonies. Twenty-eight years later, another decree imposed a border along the right bank. While communities were scarcely aware of this border, as well as colonial land expropriations carried out under the civil code of July 16, 1932, the fathers of independence and the Organization for African Unity (OAU), maintained the existing colonial borders.
By 1964, legislation on national property was rigorously applied in Senegal, but ignored by traditional rights holders. It divided national property into four categories: urban, wildlife and forestry reserve, pioneer (under the management of development agencies), and agricultural territories. In 1980, this law was applied to the valley, thus cementing the state's rights to unclassified lands. More than the decentralization of 1972, enforcing users' rights combined with land development, transferred authority to elected rural counselors who enjoyed greater powers than traditional rights holders, and assigned land to those who "had the means to develop it" (to the detriment of subsistence farmers). `Landowners' adapted to these changes by being elected, or co-opting existing counselors. Another gain for area residents in 1986-87 was the addition of pioneer lands in the Delta to their territory.
In 1983, Mauritania overhauled tenure legislation, claimed lands on the banks of the rivers, and abolished traditional tenure. The largely Halpulaar-en communities experienced large-scale expropriations of land by the sudden arrival of farmers from the north who wanted the prime lands created by the dam construction and irrigation projects for rice production. As rice production soared on both sides of the river, elders became nostalgic for the old days of sorghum, fresh fish, and milk still hot from the cow.
Land expropriations were carried out through patronage and business and political networks, but also through the influence of castes and hierarchies that favored the noble classes and their protégés. Those with money had privileged access to irrigated zones. There is no question that the first to suffer from land reforms were those who traditionally worked both sides of the border, namely the peasants who cultivated according to season and who had access on both sides of the river; sometimes they lived on one bank and farmed on the other; raised cattle or shared land with a relative on the other side of the river, etc. In the new context, it was precisely these groups, only marginally sedentarized and whose nationality was open to question, who found it difficult to protect their traditional tenure rights.
Structural adjustment programs, disengaging the state, and liberalizing the economy contributed to exacerbating land hunger and speculation. Producing rice was as costly to the state as it was to the producers, since it requires a lot of land and water and it impoverishes the soil. Improvised development has increased the salt content of the river and depleted over half the lands in the Delta (which have subsequently been abandoned). But both countries are determined to produce rice and are attempting to transform peasants into agricultural laborers (to the debatable benefit of large-scale producers and corporations). If household production and small-scale cultivation had intensified, it could have benefited the communities. Instead, they are being pushed to the brink of extinction.
The multiplication of PIVs (village irrigated perimeters) for rice production cannot keep up with unsatiable producer needs and is exacerbating land hunger and generating ever greater mega-projects. Better rainy seasons encouraged some peasants to return to flood recession lands as agricultural wage laborers, but they came into direct confrontation with developers and business interests. Scarcity of money and land and the growing frustration caused an increase in land disputes between farmers themselves and between farmers and herders. Incidents multiplied in 1988, forcing both countries into some form of reconciliation.
Fratricidal Violence Syndrome
An accord was signed in Aleg, Mauritania in August, 1988. This accord mandated that a detailed report of the lands cultivated by nationals of both countries be produced, that the lands and their users in zones that had undergone country planning were to be protected; and there was to be a freeze on development in the zones where no development had previously taken place. But the accord has gone unheeded. In an incident at Diaw, on the small island of Dundu Khoré (at Diawaraon the Mali/Mauritania/Senegal border), a dispute arose between Mauritanian herders and Senegalese farmers. As previously described, people were killed and injured, stimulating subsequent violence as far as the two national capitals. Economic frustration, as well as latent superiority and inferiority complexes present in the communities found a convenient outlet. The selective killing of Maures in Senegal, and Soninké, Halpulaar-en and Wolof in Mauritania, in a cycle of revenge, foreshadowed expropriations to come.
Thousands were injured or killed, while hundreds of thousands were displaced and fled or were forced in both directions across the Mauritania-Senegal border. Ever since, authorities have been unable to control attempts from both sides of the river to forcefully retrieve goods and livestock, or to sabotage land development. From the left bank, displaced persons and refugees can actually see the new occupants on their lands and in their houses. The incident prompted the two countries to break diplomatic ties and brought them to the brink of war.
In 1990, the Mauritanian regime claimed that it discovered a coup plot within the ranks of the army and carried out a purge, executing 503 Halpulaar-en and Soninké Mauritanians, some of whom had limbs amputated. Suppressing accusations of anti-government plots in 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990, exacerbated the fighting and tensions in the region and drew the attention of the international community to the human rights situation in the country. The world also started to take heed of charges made by opposition parties and NGOs that slavery persisted throughout Mauritania at every level of society since the Maures held a monopoly of political, economic, and military power. The Maures retaliated, accusing the Halpulaar-en of chauvinism, as well as slaveholding of their own.
Both countries, under strong internal sociopolitical pressure, reopened their borders in May 1991 and renewed diplomatic ties two months later. Senegal announced that as compensation, it would relinquish customary lands on the right bank, although this area would remain the border. Mauritania maintained that the boundary is located down the middle of the river, and that it would consider the return of refugees only on a case-by-case basis.
In 1994, in the face of ongoing killings, both governments (joined by Mali), declared that they were prepared to cooperate in order to ensure security and to counter the proliferation of arms. Another accord was signed in November 1997 that called for joint patrols along the border. Some 25,000 Mauritanians were able to return home (to Trarza, Barkna, Gorgol and Guidimakha), 16,000 of whom benefited from support from the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). But their compatriots, living as refugees in Senegal in some 200 sites spread over 600 km. along the river, demanded the right to return under the auspices of the UNHCR, as well as the return of their property or compensation. To complicate matters, from 1991 to 1994, the influx of 15,000 Maure and Touareg nomads into Mauntania from the north of Mali, was mired in a simmering conflict. By 1998, most refugees had returned, with only a few dozen remaining in Mauritania. To this day, a climate of violence persists.
The organized return of deportees and the restitution of their property would partially solve this crisis. But the two governments must also voluntarily adopt solutions to long-term, fundamental issues in society, such as those concerning the security of land tenure.
In the face of pending ecological disaster, increasing numbers of unresolved land disputes and a growing cycle of revenge, it may soon be too late to rectify the situation. Opting for large-scale land developments will be at the expense of household production, traditional herding, and the environment. Only powerful officials and wealthy business people who have entered agrarian capitalism stand to profit from the modernized feudalism in Senegal and Mauritania that lay behind the violence of the 1990s. Pastoralism, with large absentee owners will become more pronounced. The herders' world will continue to be disrupted by the market, politics, tenure issues, and environmental degradation, resulting in a deterioration of peasant-pastoralist, as well as inter-ethnic alliances.
Any lasting solution should also include halting arbitrary allocations of land, returning illicitly acquired property, documenting residents' land demands on both sides of the river, and finally, it must take into account a final delimitation of the national boundary. States must review certain aspects of their legislation that have neglected poorer peasants that are ill-prepared for the cutthroat competition of unbridled business where their chances of survival are minimal. It is possible to integrate agriculture and herding through the production of legumes as fodder and fertilizer, the fertilization of soils with manure, and rotating crops, while allowing for traditional Sahelien transhumanance across international borders.
At the legal level, the bodies involved in regional integration should undertake a more in-depth analysis of local traditional systems in order to adapt tenure legislation to the basic needs of the existing occupants. Tenure legislation must not only be made more comprehensible to communities, but must be democratized through land reform. Agrarian reform designed to benefit the majority would enable intensive, integrated and diverse systems of agriculture and pastoralism by independent households, cooperatives, or village units of production. In addition, greater peasant and herder participation in the decision-making process is essential to conflict resolution.
Finally, a boundary agreed upon through a referendum or international arbitration that is acceptable to all residents concerned is a precondition for true regional integration at the economic, political, and military levels. Of course, changes to tenure arrangements that would privilege self-reliant and intensive development in herding and agriculture are fundamentally incompatible with political regimes serving their own and foreign interests. It is clear that the recent conflicts impeding development in the Senegal River Valley have arisen, not from age-old animosity between different ethnic groups, (which in fact have long pursued complementary economic strategies). To the contrary, ethnic tensions and the eruption of violence have ripened as tenure and security, and small-holder production has weakened. The state, with foreign guidance and aid, has initiated costly, large-scale, and often counterproductive programs of agricultural and water development. Local resolution of conflict in the Senegal River Valley depends, then, both on mediation of particular claims and losses suffered as a result of recent violence, but also on the pursuit of self-reliant development strategies that support, rather than undermine, local lives.
Badouin, Robert. 1986. "Les systèmes d'exploitation des sols en Afrique subsaharienne," in A. Rochegude and R. Vedier, Systèmes fonciers à la ville et au village. Paris: L'Harmattan, CNRS, p.169.
Black, R. and M. Sessay. 1995. Refugees and Environmental Change: The Case of the Senegal River Valley. London: Department of Geography, Project CFCE, King's College.
Chassy, F. de. 1977. L'étrier, la houe et le livre. `Sociétés traditionelles' au Sahara et Sahel occidental. Paris: Anthropos.
Dia, Ibrahima, Boubacar Fall. "Dimensions socio-culturelles dans la conception des aménagements, le cas de la cuvette de Kaskas." La vallée du fleuve Sénégal. op.cit.
Fall, Aziz S. 1997. "Eléments d'un démarche de réflexion et d'action en matière de prévention et de gestion des conflits liés à la terre." Document de travail, Symposium de Conakry, Montréal: CECI.
Fall, Aziz S. 1997. "Pour une force africaine de maintien de la paix." in Génocides et violences dans l'Afrique des Grands Lacs: Six propositions pour une réforme de la coopération international. Montpellier: Coopération internationale pour la démocratie, No. 7.
Galaty, John & Pierre Bonte, eds. 1991. Herders, Warriors and Traders: Pastoralism in Africa, Boulder: Westview Press.
Leplaideur, M.A. 1997. "Fleuve Sénégal: Génération barrage," Syfia. no. 100.
Maïga, Mahamadou. 1995. Le fleuve Sénégal et l'intégration en Afrique de l'Ouest en 2011. Paris Paris: Karthala, CODESRIA.
Mathieu, P., V.M. Niasse. 1986. "Aménagements hydro-agricoles, concurrences pour l'espace et pratique foncières locales dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal: Le cas de la zone du lac de Guiers," in B Crousse, E. Le Bris, E. Le Roy, Espaces disputés en Afrique noire. Paris: Karthala, ORSTOM, CNRS.
Nuttall, Christophe. 1991. "Quels types d'aménagements du territoire?" in B. Crousse, P. Matheu, S. Seek. La vallée du fleuve Sénégal. Paris: Karthala.
Pelissier, Paul. 1983, Atlas du Sénégal. Paris: Les Éditions Jeune Afrique.
Santoir, C.J. 1975. "L'émigration maure, une vocation commerciale affirmée." Série Sciences Humaines. Vol. 12, 2.
Seck, Sidi M. 1991. "Les cultivateurs transfrontaliers de décrue face à la question foncière." in La vallée du fleuve Sénégal.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah, et al, "Experiences in Pastoral Institutional Building," in Resource Management and Pastoral Institution Building in the West African Sahel, World Bank, ATDS, Washington DC, 1992.
Traoré, Sadio. 1984. "La sédentarisation et la migration en Mauritanie, de 1965 à 1976: Mesure et interprétation." Montreal: Mémoire, Departement de démographie, Université de Montréal.
1998. Worldwide Refugee Information, Country Report Mauritania. US Committee for Refugees. Ligue Mauritanienne des droits de l'homme, February 1997; l'Association Mauritanienne des droits de l'homme, SOS-Esclaves; Comité national pour la lutte contre les vestiges de l'esclavage en Mauritanie; Comité pour la solidarité avec les victimes de la repression en Mauritanie; Collectif des survivants des détentions politiques et de la torture.
Article copyright Cultural Survival, Inc.
CSQ Issue:
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4th Grade Memories
By: Erin Collins and Jason Llosa
Social Studies
Revolutionary War
The Revolutionary War was fought by the Colonies of America and Great Britain. The war started because Great Britain was taxing the colonists and the colonists disagreed because they didn't have a say in Parliament. That meant they couldn't say no. The colonists were so furious about these taxes that they threw crates of tea into the Boston Harbor and this act was called the Boston Tea Party. They did this as an attack because one of the taxes was that they could only buy tea from the East India Tea company. Afterwards they declared war with Great Britain even though the colonies were outnumbered they still had the bravery to fight. They declared war because they thought that Great Britain had gone too far with the taxes.The Colonies were losing and people were changing their mind about wanting to fight until the battle of Trenton. After that everything went uphill. They won the battle because they used strategy by going in different directions over the Delaware and did that by night.The war lasted 8 years until Great Britain and the colonies signed the Treaty of Paris.
Language Arts
One thing in language arts that we did was that we learned about mythology. One of the myths we learned was a Lenape story called "Rainbow Crow". It was about how the Lenape thought that fire came to be on Earth. We also learned about Greek mythology. Examples of Greek mythology are Zeus and Pandora. We read a book about King Midas and the golden touch. We also read "Pandora's Box".
Cedar Mountain Fun
Some of the fun that we had in Cedar Mountain this year was the Wax museum and Chorus. The Wax museum was to learn about a famous person that interested us and we did a slide presentation about them. We also got dressed up as them and had to have a speech and be wax figures and move only when our button was pushed. Chorus was fun because we learned teamwork and that we are all unique but together we can make something beautiful. We learned to memorize songs and know when to sing when there were different parts and solos.
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Thousand-Year-Old Anvil Still Has the Smith’s Handprints on It
Steve Dockrill
Steve Dockrill
Archaeologists working on the Scottish island of Rousay discovered two stone anvils that likely date back at least 1000 years—and one still bears handprints, likely made by the copper smith who used it, according to the BBC.
The discovery was the result of a dig by the Swandro-Orkney Coastal Archaeology Trust that has been ongoing since 2010. (The site, located near the Bay of Swandro, is known as the Knowe of Swandro, and Rousay is part of the Orkney Islands.)
A close up of a dark handprint on a stone slab
Steve Dockrill
At first, the researchers assumed the handprint belonged to one of them, left during the process of excavating the anvils from the remains of the partially underground workshop. However, they have since realized that the marks are hand and knee prints left by the smith. The knee marks are likely from the smith kneeling next to the anvil and brushing against it regularly.
The building has been identified as a Pictish structure dating to the 6th to 9th century CE. The Picts, a group of tribes that lived in Scotland in the late Iron Age (around the 3th century CE) into the Early Middle Ages, disappeared around 1100 CE. Excavation co-director Julie Bond told the BBC that she pegs the age of the prints between 1000 and 1500 years old.
The Swandro-Orkney Coastal Archaeology Trust is attempting to excavate and study the site before it falls prey to rising sea levels and coastal erosion on the island.
[h/t BBC]
Advanced CT Scans Reveal Blood Vessels and Skin Layers in a Mummy's Hand
Jenny Romell, et al./Radiology
Jenny Romell, et al./Radiology
Mummies hold some intriguing secrets to their pasts, like the food they ate and the diseases they had when they were alive. Now scientists are using a tool originally designed for medicine to get an even deeper look at the clues mummified bodies carry with them into the present day, Gizmodo reports.
In a proof-of-concept study published in the journal Radiology, researchers from the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden detail how a new-and-improved CT scanning technique can be used to visualize the interior of mummies on a microscopic level. By creating detailed X-ray images, CT scans allow doctors to see inside their patients without invasive surgery. Archaeologists have been using this technology to study delicate ancient artifacts for years, but the level of detail that can be achieved this way—especially when it comes to looking at interior soft tissue—is limited.
The upgraded version of the tech, called phase-contrast CT scanning, measures the phase shift, or the change in the position of a light wave, that occurs when X-rays pass through solid objects. The images generated this way have a higher contrast level than conventional X-rays, which means they capture more detail.
Cross-section of mummy hand.
Jenny Romell, et al./Radiology
Doctors have been using this 10-year-old technology to examine soft tissues like organs and veins in living patients, but it hadn't been used on a mummy until recently. Working with a mummified human right hand dating back to 400 BCE in Egypt, which they borrowed from the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities in Stockholm, the researchers fired up a phase-contrast CT scanner. It produced images with a resolution of 6 to 9 microns, giving a clear picture of the different layers of skin, individual cells in the connective tissue, and the blood vessels in the nail bed—all without damaging the artifact. Previously, researchers looking to study these same tissues in mummies would have needed to use a scalpel.
As Ars Technica reports, a phase-contrast CT scanner is similar in cost to the conventional machine. The study authors hope their work will lead to phase-contrast CT scanning becoming just as common in archaeology as regular CT scanning, potentially creating new research opportunities in mummies that will be discovered in the future and even in artifacts that have already been examined.
[h/t Gizmodo]
A 2.63-Carat Diamond Was Unearthed by a Grandmother at an Arkansas State Park
Visitors to the Crater of Diamonds Park in Murfreesboro, Arkansas clearly have an objective in mind: Excavate one of the diamonds lurking on or beneath the park's soil, the onetime site of a volcanic crater. If they do, it's theirs to keep.
Earlier this month, a 71-year-old grandmother from Colorado made the biggest discovery on park grounds of 2018: a 2.63-carat ice white diamond. And she did it in about 10 minutes.
The retiree, who asked media outlets not to identify her by name, visited Crater of Diamonds with her husband, son, and grandchildren. After briefly scraping away dirt, she saw the gem on the surface. The diamond was so large and clear—roughly the size of a pinto bean—that she assumed it was just a piece of glass. Further inspection by her family and park personnel revealed it was a diamond.
Park officials told press that employees frequently till the soil, which can loosen the gems and allow them to catch the reflection of the sun, making them easier to spot. Roughly 33,000 diamonds have been found by visitors since the park opened in 1972.
It's hard to know the exact value of the diamond. While there is a certain fluctuating value assigned to a carat, appraisers also look at three other "Cs": clarity, color, and cut. A two-carat diamond is often more than double the price of a one-carat diamond because the larger gems are more rare. But tourists have profited from their finds: In 2015, a visitor retrieved a 8.51-carat white diamond that was cut down to 4.6 carats by a jeweler and valued by the American Gem Society at $500,000.
[h/t WGN TV]
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“The importance of this figure in her context shows us that women had the possibility of having power in ancient Egypt — women were integral to the governmental structure of Egypt.”
The enigmatic ancient Egyptian “female figure,” also known as the “Bird Lady,” appears in jars and painted terracotta figurines dating back to 3500 B.C.E.. Based on her outsize appearance, the Bird Lady gestures towards the goddess-like standing of females in ancient Egyptian society — a hierarchical positioning that distinguishes ancient Egypt from other civilizations of the era.
In this installment of Looking Closer, Edward Bleiberg, Senior Curator of Egyptian Art at the Brooklyn Museum, demystifies the Bird Lady and the significance of her high-status representation. He also provides an inside glimpse into The Brooklyn Museum’s collection of ancient Egyptian art, one of the largest in the United States.
For more behind-the-scenes arts insights, enjoy another episode of Looking Closer. This video series highlights the 10th anniversary of the Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art at the Brooklyn Museum.
View all posts
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The Troika Sleigh
Silence. The faraway roar of the wind in tree branches and the large, hurrying flakes dancing to the soft sound dampen the once lively town, now still with cold. A gentle crescendo of singing bells breaks the crisp quiet, first growing into a steady cadence and then into a thunder of hooves on packed earth and ice. A trio of horses follow this melodic rhythm, with feet so lightly touching the trail that they appear to be in flight! The horses—with necks arched wildly and steady, rhythmic movement—are more like a single, brightly haloed phoenix, three-headed and soaring through the frigid Russian terrain. One horse, carrying its head proudly despite its thick coating of ice and hoar-frost, cries loudly, as if to say, “Make way for the Russian troika!”
The troika is a traditional Russian sleigh or carriage drawn by three horses harnessed abreast. It was developed around the 17th to 18th century as a method of quickly crossing Russia’s lengthy and hazardous roads. Harnessing three horses abreast increased stability and reduced strain on the animals. The troika was primarily used for mail coaches, but also transported passengers across the vast terrain. The sleigh would travel in stages, exchanging teams of animals at each post, to transport loads quickly. The troika introduced the first carriage drawn by multiple horses that did not require an equal number of drivers to guide the horses.
The troika is a uniquely Russian symbol, though it spread to other parts of Eastern Europe in different variations. Every detail and accessory of the troika has a specific purpose, reflecting the utilitarianism of the Russian people. In the summer, a wheeled carriage may be used, but given that many regions of Russia are snow-covered for the duration of much of the year, the sleigh is far more popular. One of the most distinctive features of the troika is the shaft bow (the duga)—the brightly colored centerpiece arc above the center horse (shaft horse)—which attaches to the wooden shafts that straddle the sides of the horse. The duga is elastic and spring-like upon a hitched horse, reducing the stain on the neck and shoulders, which is particularly useful to combat the impact of knocking movements on poor trails. The duga is scarcely seen outside of Russia, Finland, and other east Baltic countries and was originally used in single carriages. The driver coordinates the ornate elements of his or her troika—the painted duga, bells, chains, rosettes and stars, leather tassels, and brushes—that decorate the various harness parts. The troika bells, strung from the duga and along straps, harnesses, tassels, and brushes were introduced to help organize growing troika traffic. There were no traffic laws at the time, and the racing sleighs began to incorporate sound signals, alerting other drivers and nearby stations of their approach. Although horns and whistles were first considered for that purpose, bells (especially Valdai bells) won popularity because of their melodic “singing.” The many bells, each with specific tones, with the steady beat of hooves running create a harmonious sound unique to the troika, merging beauty with practicality.
Driving or pulling a troika requires years of training for both the coachman and the horses. Shaft horses begin training at three and a half years, and trace horses start at two and a half years. To achieve the expected artistic perfection and coordination of movement, the horses are trained up to ten years! The driver must manipulate the horses through the four sets of reins, ever careful that he balances the loads of each horse and steers carefully while speeding along at a respectable 45 to 50 kilometers per hour. Troika drivers train from a young age and need to be physically fit—at times enduring up to 50 kilograms of weight while maneuvering the horses. Each horse has a specific set of straps and reigns—the shaft horse is harnessed in a horse collar and the duga and directed with two reins, while the outer horses, or trace horses, wear a breast collar harness and have one rein each. The trace horses gallop smoothly with outward bent heads, though each must gallop with a right or left lead (which hoof initially lifts for a movement) that corresponds to their position in the troika. The shaft horse moves at a trot or a canter, and stands erect and confident. This harmony of movement and direction between each horse and the driver provides the speed and stability necessary to maneuver through the Russian terrain, a characteristic of the troika that evokes comparison to the grace of a three-headed bird in flight. To achieve this effect, specific horse breeds are chosen—most notably, the Orlov trotter, with a long stride, speedy trot, stamina, beauty and elegance. In addition, each horse must meet specific requirements: the duga horse is stronger and five to ten centimeters taller, with a well formed neck, proud carriage, and decent ground cover at a walk and trot. A well-balanced character and disposition is of decisive importance, given that it serves as lead horse and the “locomotive” of the troika. The careful choice of horses and driver, specific alignment, and years of special training gives the troika unmatched speed, endurance, cargo capacity, maneuverability, and stability—each characteristic of the values and nature of Russians.
With the development of trains, the use of troikas diminished in postal service, but became popular in festivals and weddings due to its beauty and grace. Troika driving also became a popular sport in the 19th century, with the first competition held in the Moscow hippodrome during the 1840’s. Races have two forms—one determined by pure speed, and the other (held at winter festivals) judged by driving style, beauty of the horses and harnesses, dress, and figure driving on a ten-point scale. A horse’s score is determined by its matching colors, type, and correct size. The most important features of the festival races are perfection of dressage and harmony of movement. Races are held on icy courses lined with wooden fences, with the stands and embankments lined with cheering people. The necessity of solid training and difficulty in controlling the sleigh make the dangerous races intoxicating and exhilarating. The troika demonstrates the broad, audacious, and elegant soul of the Russian people.
The image of the troika is often used in folkloric scenes in film, art, and literature, with one of the most beloved references by Nikolai Gogol in Dead Souls:
And what Russian does not love rapid driving? … his soul that craves to be lost in a whirl … to say at times, ‘Damnation take it all!’ … there is a feeling in it of something ecstatic and marvelous … the whole road flies into the unknown retreating distance … Ah! Troika … thou couldst only have been born among a spirited people—in that land that does not care to do things by halves, but has spread, a vast plain, over half the world … nothing is elaborate … about thy construction … no, a deft Yaroslav peasant fitted thee up and put thee together, hastily, roughly, with nothing but axe and drill … and, Russia, art thou too flying onwards like a spirited troika that nothing can overtake? … everything falls back and is left behind! The spectator stands still struck dumb by the divine miracle: is it not a flash of lighting from heaven? … everything there is on the earth is flying by, and the other states and nations, with looks askance, make way for her and draw aside. (Gogol 77, 78)
Gogol captures the troika and the Russian soul in his prose, their audacity and extreme nature; their sensationalism and love of sensation; their sense of adventure, uninhibited by their past; and their delicate balance of elegance and purpose. The troika demonstrates the energy and determined nature of all things Russian, despite the strain of their burden and their past. They will give “no time to distinguish the vanishing object” as they rush ever onwards with decisive intention, spirit and with the certainty of the phoenix, from ash reborn of hope, as the paragon of beauty.
– Alisha Pedzinski, January 2010
Works Cited
• “The Troika.” Web. 20 Dec 2009. <>.
• “” 10 Dec 2002. Web. 24 Dec 2009. <>.
• “Shaft bow.” wikipedia. Web. 20 Dec 2009. <>.
• “Troika.” rt. Russia Now, Web. 26 Dec 2009. <>.
• Nikolai, Gogol, and Odets Clifford. Dead Souls. Random House, 1936. 77 – 78. Print.
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问题 21925 --Minecraft Maze
21925: Minecraft Maze
时间限制: 2 Sec 内存限制: 128 MB
提交: 10 解决: 4
Today XiaoMing is playing Minecraft, an interesting game in which you can build your own virtual world.
Suddenly he found one underground maze which may contain a lot of diamonds, a precious raw material in Minecraft.
The maze consists of three components, path, soil and brick.
XiaoMing has a digging shovel with him, which can be used to dig away the soil, but not brick. The game plays in turn. Each turn XiaoMing can either move one unit of path, or dig one unit of soil(and no move this turn). He can only move to a neighboring place in four directions(up, down, left, right).
Given the decription of the maze, in order to get these precious diamonds as soon as possible, can you find out the minimum turns XiaoMing has to take to get these diamonds?
The input consists of several test cases.
The first line of each test case contains two integers M and N (2 <= M, N <= 300).
Each of the following M lines contains N uppercase letters, each of which is one of 'X' (XiaoMing), 'D' (diamonds), 'B' (Brick), 'S' (soil) and 'P' (path). Both 'X' and 'D' appear only once.
For each test case, please output the minimum turns XiaoMing has to take in a separate line. If XiaoMing can't arrive at the diamonds, output "-1" instead.
3 4
0 0
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Researchers provide new insight on origins and global spread of HBV
Researchers have provided new insight on the geographical origins and global spread of two classes of the hepatitis B virus (HBV), according to a study in eLife.
The findings identify the HBV genotypes D and A (HBV-D and HBV-A) as having originated in the Middle East and North Africa. They also reveal considerable differences in the global dissemination patterns of these genotypes, adding to our understanding of both the historic and prehistoric spread of one of the world's largest viral pandemics.
HBV, the main cause of liver disease, is a global public health concern with an estimated 257 million people living with the infection, according to figures from the World Health Organization. The virus is classified into nine genotypes (A-I). HBV-A and HBV-D are present around the globe, with A prevailing in Europe and Africa and D in Europe and the Middle East.
"The epidemiological history of HBV-D and HBV-A remains unclear due to a lack of relevant studies," says lead author Evangelia-Georgia Kostaki, PhD Candidate in Molecular Epidemiology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. "In order to uncover more of this detail, we wanted to establish how HBV was disseminated across different geographic regions."
To do this, the team used 916 HBV-D and 493 HBV-A full-genome sequences to reconstruct these genotypes' global evolutionary development and diversification, known as their phylogeny, and analyze their levels of regional clustering. They revealed that HBV-D's geographical origin was in North Africa and the Middle East, although they were unable to infer the exact origin accurately from the available data. Their analysis also suggests the origin of HBV-A is close to Africa and Europe, and likely in the Middle East and Central Asia.
"Major dispersal pathways for HBV-D were complex, including different geographic regions," explains senior author Dimitrios Paraskevis, Assistant Professor of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. "We found low levels of HBV-D transmission occurred locally in North Africa and the Middle East, suggesting a high amount of movement among populations infected with HBV in these areas. This is in line with our previous observations about the central role of these regions as hubs for human expansion, due to the early development of agriculture and the resulting spread and genetic shuffling of HBV-D."
Paraskevis adds that after HBV-A's initial spread in Central Africa, this genotype followed two distinct pathways: one to eastern and southern Africa, and another to sub-Saharan and western Africa. Spillovers later led to major regional transmissions towards Brazil, Haiti and the Indian subcontinent, most likely as a result of the slave trade.
Together, these results highlight considerable differences in the global dissemination patterns of HBV-D and HBV-A, as well as different levels of their regional clustering, which likely reflect the impact of prehistoric and more recent human migrations and other activities on the evolution of these HBV genotypes.
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