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Dr. Philip Zimbadro Experiment
In reading the account of the "Stanford County Prison," a famous experiment conducted by Dr. Philip Zimbadro in 1971. Take particular note of the outcome of the experiment and what conclusions might be drawn. How did Dr. Zimbardo's findings might apply to a current, real-life event. Try to relate a parallel current event other than the Abu Ghraib incident. Be sure to share some of the concepts outlined in Dr. Zimbardo's experiment.
Solution Preview
A parallel event that has happened in the last year was in regards to children. In fact, 78 children from the state of Oklahoma went missing that was in the care of Department of Human Services custody (http://newsok.com/missing-78-children-from-oklahoma-department-of-human-services-custody/article/3871014). One should quickly start asking why and how come. This is a beta test for the prison system through the use of FEMA camps on American citizens when martial law is overtly declared after a ...
Solution Summary
This solution discussed Dr. Philip Zimbadro's experiment, outcome and a real-life example in society today.
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Thursday, September 15, 2011
Law and Order: Anglo-Saxon Unit
The Anglo-Saxon system of law and order (England: around 800 AD) may have been written in law but it was not arbitrary. If one man charged another with an injustice the case was settled by counting who had the largest number of witnesses testifying on their behalf. The math was not a simple sum though. If you had thousands of peasants testifying on your behalf, it would be negated by the testimony of a single thane (nobleman). If you had a thousand thanes' testimonies, they would be negated by one earldorman's testimony.
Moreover, the punishment for wounding or killing another without due cause was not arbitrary. Each life, and each limb, had a invariable value known by everyone of the same class. And of course, a thane's hand is valued greater than a peasant's, and an earldorman's life is worth more than a thane's.
Economists who study the value of a life might wish to revisit these values, for curiosity, at a minimum.
From Sarum: A Novel of England by Edward Rutherfurd. It may be a fiction, but the history is truthful.
Blog Archive
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How Engines are Tested
How Engines are Tested
WHEN a railway has turned out a new type of engine, an early experience the first locomotive of the class has usually to undergo is a very thorough series of tests. The boiler has been tested under its full working pressure of steam, and some-thing over, before it was mounted on the engine frame at the locomotive works. Then, when the engine is at last complete, there comes its first test under steam; and this consists in taking it for a twenty-mile spin, or thereabouts, down the line from the works and back again.
ON A “TRIAL TRIP”The “trial trip” is made with workmen hanging on all round, as you can see in the picture; they are armed with large oilcans, and charged with seeing that no part of the machinery “runs hot”, or develops any other kind of trouble. It is not until this trial is over that the engine goes into the paint-shop, to exchange its rough lead-coloured livery for the beautiful coat of paint with which you are so familiar.
Later on there come some further and more important tests. Possibly you have, at some time or another, seen an engine with the front all boxed in, as in the case of the big Great Western engine, “Caldicot Castle”, at the head of this chapter. This shows that the locomotive is in course of being “indicated”. Indicating consists in obtaining curious boot-shaped diagrams on paper, which to those who understand them show exactly what is going on in the cylinders of the engine. The diagrams are drawn by the actual pressure of the steam in the cylinder, in a way that is a little too complicated to explain to you simply.
“CALDICOT CASTLE” READY FOR THE TESTSThe man who has charge of the indicating apparatus must be protected from the wind and the weather, as he rides on the front of the engine, and so these fine shelters are now erected to make him as comfortable as possible. The idea of indicating the engine is to see whether it is really working as efficiently as it has been designed to do.
Other very important tests require the use of what is called a dynamometer car; you see some of the recording apparatus inside the Great Western car in the picture below. The chief object of this remarkable coach is to record exactly the “pull” exerted by the engine as it starts and draws along its train. So the hook of the car, to which the coupling of the engine is attached, is connected to a most complicated mechanism under the dynamometer car, which, by moving a pen, has the effect of drawing an unbroken line on a long roll of paper all the way through the journey.
The paper itself is slowly unwound by clockwork, and many kinds of other ingenious devices are used to mark on the paper all the mile-posts and stations passed, so that the exact work done by the engine at each point may be known, and various other records that are required. In the latest types of dynamometer car up to a dozen pens in all are used to make their different marks upon the long roll, each teaching its own lesson about the “performance” of the engine. The lessons thus learned are put into practice in later designs, so that the locomotives of to-day are always becoming more powerful and more efficient.
From Cecil J Allen’s Railway Wonders (1925)
This article complements the article “Testing a Locomotive” in Clarence Winchester’s Railway Wonders of the World (1935).
You can read about “A Test Run on Cock o’ the North” on this website.
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I told you exactly why Buffalo was called the Nickel City yesterday (really the answer is so simple), but today we're going to find out exactly why we have that other nickname.
Why is Buffalo called the Queen City?
Get ready. The answer is not as simple as Nickel City because there is no definite answer. 'Queen City' is a term used to describe the largest city in a country, state, province or territory but which is not the capital. Obviously, this is not the case for Buffalo.
Originally called Queen City for being the largest and most prosperous city along the Great Lakes in the end of the 1800's to the beginning of the 1900's, it was at one point the second largest trade port in the North after NYC. Buffalo's original downfall from prosperity came with the diminished use of the Erie Canal. Buffalo was the Queen City of America at the turn of the century.
Others argue that we are the 'Queen City' because we are simply the second largest city in the state behind New York City.
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Grades 9-12 Performance Tasks
The grades 9-12 performance tasks come from several sources.
Some tasks cover multiple content areas. All tasks include Science as Inquiry and Math Problelm-Solving components. The specific inquiry skills are displayed in the assessment chart for the task.
Major Content Area
Click on a task you want to browse, or select one or more tasks and click on "Show Chart For Selected Tasks" to view a chart of the selected tasks and the NSES standards they intend to meet.
Fishkill (NYSED) Explain the impact a change in temperature could have on the fish.
How Effective is Perspiration at Cooling (NYSED) Collect data on the cooling of water in two different test tubes.
Hooke's Law (NYSED) Design and carry out an experiment testing Hooke's Law that describes the relationship between the force applied to a spring and its elongation (stretch).
Human Inheritance (NYSED) Use knowledge and understanding of classic Mendelian genetics.
Hydrated Salt (NYSED) Plan, design, and carry out an experiment to determine an empirical formula for a hydrated salt X that will tell students when all the water has been removed from hydrate crystals.
Snell's Law (NYSED) This task will determine whether the index of refraction of a sample of Corn Syrup meets Federal standards.
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Revolutionary Voyage
Grade 5
Maritime Field Trip 18 hours
Participating as a new “greenhand” sailor transporting much needed supplies to General George Washington’s army in 1777, students will appreciate the bravery and spirit of those who risked their lives, facing countless dangers as they pursued the American ideals of free trade. Working together, learning how to defend and maintain the ship, handle sails, navigate, provide provisions and medical care under the looming threat of British attack, students will reflect on the political, social, and economic ideas and interests that affected the colonists during the Revolutionary War. Students will experience the trials of a typical boy in a time when even mundane pursuits (like a career at sea) meant having to take bold and courageous steps for freedom and democracy.
5th: HSS 5.2.1, 5.5.1, 5.5.4, 5.6.1, 5.6.3, 5.6.4, 5.7.5, 5.7.6; S 1a, 3a, 4a; VPA Music 3.0-3.4; Theater 2.0, 2.1,5.0,5.1
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Show Summary Details
Page of
date: 23 February 2018
Summary and Keywords
The Mediterranean Sea dominated Greco-Roman society in many ways, but none more importantly than as a source of food. Early Punic settlers in the West and later Greeks and Romans, motivated by the need for long-term storage and commercial transportation of highly spoilable marine products, developed methods for salting fish that have persisted, albeit in more technically sophisticated ways, into modern times. Salted fish products took two basic forms, salt-fish (salsamentum, tarichos) and fish sauce (garum, liquamen, allec, muria). The former served as an appetite enhancer during the gustatio; the latter was the primary condiment used in food preparation and consumption. In addition, both products had perceived dietary and therapeutic value.
Ancient literary, epigraphic, papyrological, and archaeological sources show that salt-fish products were produced at family, artisanal, and industrial levels and played a significant role in long-distance trade. Greeks and especially Romans, for whom evidence is more plentiful, established processing centers at places on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, including in some urban areas, that offered sources for fresh water, salt, and fish, particularly pelagic species. Extant remains of fish salteries (cetariae), especially in Spain, North Africa, and the Black Sea, display consistent patterns of vat construction, arrangement, and operation that imply a common origin for the salting process. The most active period of production of and commerce in salted fish occurred between the 1st century bce and the 3rd century ce, with some installations active into the early 6th century ce.
Keywords: allec, cetaria, garum, liquamen, muria, salsamentum, tarichos, umami, Douarnenez, Gades
Please subscribe or login to access full text content.
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Spacing Mechanisms
• Richard H. Yahner
Dispersion, habitat selection, and location of home ranges are affected by physical and biological factors (e.g., food). Behavior can affect where an animal occurs, but often resource managers have overlooked this factor and the public certainly is not aware of it. For instance, why can white-tailed deer herds in winter achieve densities of 200 deer per square miles, yet we do not see red foxes in large groups during winter? A major reason is that red foxes exhibit territoriality.
Europe Beach Defend Mast Canid
1. Barash DP (1977) Sociobiology and behavior. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 378 ppGoogle Scholar
2. Brown JL (1973) The evolution of behavior. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, New York, 76 ppGoogle Scholar
3. Davies NB (1978) Ecological questions about territorial behaviour. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology:an evolutionary approach. Sinauer Associates, Inc, Sunderland, MA, pp 317–350Google Scholar
4. Fisher RJ, Wiebe KL (2006) Investment in nest defense by northern flickers: effect of age and sex. Wilson J Ornithol 118:452–460CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5. Gill FR (1990) Onithology. W.H. Freeman and Co, New York, 660 ppGoogle Scholar
6. Goodenough McGuire, Wallace J, McGuire B, Wallace RA (2001) Perspectives on animal behavior, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, 542 ppGoogle Scholar
7. Mech LD (1970) The wolf: the ecology and behavior of an endangered species. Natural History Press, New YorkGoogle Scholar
8. Morse DH (1980) Behavioral mechanisms in ecology. The Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 383 ppGoogle Scholar
9. Partridge L (1978) Habitat selection. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioral ecology: an evolutionary approach. Sinauer Associates, Inc, Sunderland, MA, pp 351–376Google Scholar
10. Pough FH, Janis CM, Heister JB (2002) Vertebrate life, 6th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, NJGoogle Scholar
11. Verner J (1977) On the adaptive significance of territoriality. Am Nat 111:769–775CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12. Yahner RH (1978b) The adaptive nature of the social system and behavior in the eastern chipmunk, Tamias striatus. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 3:397–427CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13. Yahner RH (1980c) Burrow system use by red squirrels. Am Midland Nat 103:409–411CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14. Yahner RH (2001) Fascinating mammals: conservation and ecology in the mid-eastern States. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PAGoogle Scholar
Copyright information
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Authors and Affiliations
• Richard H. Yahner
• 1
1. 1.The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkUSA
Personalised recommendations
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Skip to main content
Arid springs: the hidden evolutionary cradles of Outback Australia
By Sam Nicol (CSIRO), Renee Rossini (University of Queensland), Adam Kerezsy (Dr Fish Contracting)
June 15, 2017
Person squatting amongst wet ground in landscape
Dr Sam Nicol at Edgbaston springs. Image: May-Le Ng
Deep in the blazing heat of the Australian desert, a few centimetres of water sits unobtrusively on a flat clay pan. There’s nothing around for miles but big skies, the merciless sun, cracked clay and weathered red dirt, and certainly nothing to tell you that the unimpressive puddle you’re standing next to is actually one of the great wonders of the natural world.
Out here, water is life, but in this case, that’s an understatement. What makes this puddle special is that it’s no ordinary puddle, but a spring, meaning that the water here has flowed up from an artesian source deep underground, making it a permanent puddle. Drought is the norm here in arid and semi-arid Australia—while standing here by the springs on Edgbaston Reserve in Central Queensland we’re in the middle of yet another one that’s stretching the resolve of the tough local graziers who run cattle on the surrounding properties.
But there’s always water in the springs. And, amazingly, if you kick off your shoes, walk carefully out into the spring and peer into the shallow water, you’ll find fish. And not just any fish—these fish, red-finned blue-eyes (Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis), are Australia’s most endangered fish, because they are found nowhere but this one former station. The red-finned blue-eye’s global distribution is less than 8000 hectares and it is confined to only four springs within the Edgbaston Reserve site, making the amount of habitat it can occupy little more than about 4000 square metres.
The sheer improbability of fish living in this arid environment is astounding. Temperatures regularly soar over 47 degrees Celsius during the summer, and plummet to near-freezing overnight in winter. The spring is only a few centimetres deep, so there is little protection from these large temperature fluctuations. Although you’re technically on a floodplain, there’s no other water anywhere remotely close to you. It’s hard to imagine a worse place for a fish to live.
Yet despite this, if you look more closely into the spring around you, you’ll find that the eye-catching red-finned blue-eyes are the tip of the iceberg, and that many of the species—plants, fish and invertebrates such as crustaceans and snails—are unique to the springs. How did all these aquatic species get here, and why aren’t they found anywhere else? The answer is that you’re looking at an example of an evolutionary highway, where isolated environments and the perfect combination of stability and environmental variance create conditions that favour rapid speciation.
Small coloured fish in shallow water among vegetation
If you look closely you can spot the endemic red-finned blue-eyes darting amongst the vegetation in the shallow waters of Edgbaston springs. The vegetation seen here, Myriophyllum artesium and Eriocaulon carsonii, is also rare, being endemic to springs fed by the Great Artesian Basin. Image: May-Le Ng
Why so many aquatic species in the desert?
To understand the species diversity here, you first need to know why there is permanent water. Below the dry and sweltering desert expanse lies a vast ancient aquifer that is slowly transporting water deep underground from the wetter coastal regions, through the heart of the driest parts of the Australian desert. This aquifer, known as the Great Artesian Basin (or GAB), is one of the world’s largest and one of the few that still maintains strong pressure. The extent of the Basin is huge—it covers about a quarter of the Australian mainland, including large areas of Queensland, the Northern Territory, New South Wales and South Australia. Unlike many other aquifers that require pumping to bring groundwater to the surface, groundwater in the GAB is trapped under pressure (artesian). In some locations, the underground pressure is so great that unrestrained bores will shoot water 5 metres vertically above the ground when drilling penetrates the rocks confining water within the aquifer.
Springs are located at points in the landscape where this pressure naturally forces water to the surface along weak points in the rocks that overlay the aquifer. These springs range from expansive pools of warm water deep enough to swim in (e.g. Dalhousie springs, Witjira National Park, South Australia), to bubbling pools no bigger than a fish-pond (e.g. Blanche Cup, Wabmakdarbu National Park, South Australia) and shallow emerald-green meadows no deeper than your ankles (e.g. Edgbaston and Elizabeth springs, Central Queensland). Despite this diversity in form, their connection to the GAB ensures these springs are constantly refilling with water, making them one of the only permanent sources of water in the Australian arid zone.
A small round pond of water in arid landscape
One of the more famous GAB springs, ‘the Bubbler’, within Wabma Kadarbu National Park in northern South Australia, has such strong flow rates that bubbles of water burst above the water line, disrupting the sediments on the bottom of the pool and creating patterns akin to the writhing snake of the Arabana Dreaming story that gave this place it’s name. Image: Renee Rossini
That explains why there’s water here, but why are there so many endemic species? To answer this question you must think not only about the springs as they are now, but also as they would have been in the past. What is now Australia’s arid interior has witnessed a lot of change over geological time. The area was once covered in moist semi-tropical forests, which slowly gave way to the grasslands, scrub and deserts we now know. As the landscape became drier, rivers and streams that were once permanent dried up. Species that relied on these water sources were left ‘stranded’ in what little water was left. However, the species that found themselves in springs not only persisted there, they underwent a phenomenal amount of diversification, speciation and change, and this resulted in the vast array of animals and plants we see today. Rather than just being a ‘museum of past diversity’, GAB springs also act as ‘evolutionary cradles’ that appear to see greater numbers of species appear through time than other ecosystems. For example, in one family of snails scientists currently think there are 34 species but new species are still being discovered. The species from Edgbaston in the north are completely different to the species in the springs surrounding Kati Thanda (Lake Eyre), which are different again to the species at Dalhousie.
The key to springs as evolutionary cradles is likely to lie in the isolation of the springs and the tough environmental conditions. The same principles that apply to famous examples of diversification across islands (e.g. Darwin’s finches) apply in springs, but in this case the springs are the ‘islands’ of wetland in a ‘sea’ of aridity. Because species like fish or snails die without water, populations of species in different springs are isolated from one another. This isolation means that there are extremely few immigrants and a limited choice of mates, making it more likely that mutations will be passed on to offspring. Over time, these accumulated mutations can make a spring population differ sufficiently from the source population that it becomes a new species. The harsh environment also helps to drive this speciation: the tough environmental conditions mean that individuals with certain characteristics survive to pass on their genes to the next generation. Only a limited set of genes are passed on in each generation, so individuals start to differ from the original population more rapidly than they would if all genes were equally likely. This accelerates evolutionary processes. The red-finned blue-eye is a good example of a species that has developed characteristics to suit the environmental conditions of the springs. All other species in the red-finned blue-eye’s family occur in coastal-draining catchments in northern Australia and Papua New Guinea, and most have long, flowing fins. The red-finned variety, existing as they do in water that is barely deeper than their bodies, have evolved short fins, almost certainly because long fins would be ecologically impractical.
Person standing in front of small hill in arid landscape
Renee Rossini standing in-front of a mound spring in the Strangways springs complex on the western side of Kati-Thanda (Lake Eyre). These huge mounds only form where spring water emerges on the surface in the baking sun. Some springs in this region of the basin are thought to be over 700,000 years old. Image: Renee Rossini
Species of the springs
If you go looking in springs you will find their still, stable and permanent waters teeming with life. In each new region of springs you visit, you will find a completely different set of species unique to the area. There are at least 98 species that are only found in springs, and around 33 unique combinations of species in different parts of the Basin. Compared to other arid zone waterways, this diversity is astounding. There are eyeless shrimps whose ancestors lived in underground aquifers, dozens of different species of spring snails, adorable button grasses, beautiful but carnivorous bladderwort plants, and some of Australia’s (and the world’s) rarest fishes.
A small snail in shallow water
Gabbia fontana, one of nine species of snail endemic to the Edgbaston springs. Image: Renee Rossini
Of all the species that are only found in GAB springs, about 70% of them are snails. Each spring region is home to a separate lineage of species. Even the more closely-related snails found within a single cluster of springs look completely different and behave in very different ways. For example at the Edgbaston Reserve, six different species of snail within the family Tateinae live side-by-side. In some cases, diversification of species is happening so rapidly that you see it happening by comparing snails from adjacent springs. In the springs surrounding Kati-Thanda (Lake Eyre) Fonscochlea zeidleri, a small cream coloured spring snail, remains a single species but each isolated population has started to evolve along its own unique path. In time, each of these populations will become sufficiently different that we will call them different species, a perfect example of how isolation, time and the unique combination of environmental variability and stability make the springs evolutionary cradles.
In contrast, some species have adapted to life in the springs but did not diversify once they got there. Instead, these species are relics of the interior’s wetter past, surviving in the permanent water provided by the springs. For example, the red-finned blue-eye is the only species in its family to live in springs.
A smaill brown fish in shallow water
The Edgbaston goby. Image: Renee Rossini
The Edgbaston goby (Chlamydogobius squamigenus), which shares the springs with red-finned blue-eye, and its relatives the Elizabeth Springs goby, the Finke goby and the Dalhousie goby (all in the genus Chlamydogobius) all persist in isolated populations in the outback. These species look very similar to one another and to another close relative called the desert goby (C. eremius), which is found throughout the arid areas of South Australia. All of these gobies probably evolved from a single species of goby which lived throughout Central Australia when the climate was much wetter. As the country dried out, the populations in places like Edgbaston and the other spring complexes became isolated, and over time have diverged enough – genetically – to be different species.
Threats, conservation and management
Although the species that live in springs have evolved to tolerate tough conditions, their existence is precarious. The spring communities are listed nationally as a threatened ecological community and many of the most diverse spring complexes are now reserved either as part of national parks or by private conservation groups (e.g. Bush Heritage Australia manages Edgbaston Reserve). Although reserving the springs is a step in the right direction, these unique Australian flora and fauna are by no means safe from extinction.
The biggest threat to the springs is groundwater extraction for human use. The existence of the springs depends on the pressure of the groundwater within the Great Artesian Basin staying high—if there’s not enough pressure to bring water to the surface then the springs will stop flowing and dry up. Drilling of free-flowing bores, predominantly for the pastoral industry, has reduced the groundwater pressure. Spring flows have reduced as a result—current estimates suggest that one in five spring complexes have stopped flowing since European settlement of the basin. Fortunately, substantial efforts were made to increase water use efficiency in the basin in the early 2000s. Most importantly, many of the free-flowing bores were capped to allow the groundwater pressure to stabilise. Although groundwater extraction for the pastoral industry may be manageable, extraction for the mining and coal seam gas industries are growing pressures and ones not yet fully understood.
On top of the threats to groundwater pressure, spring communities must also persist in the face of ongoing biological threats. Although the environment is tough, weeds and pest animals need to be controlled to preserve the precarious existence of the spring species. One of the worst localised impacts for small springs is trampling caused by large feral mammals like pigs and camels or by stock such as cattle. Introduced aquatic animals like cane toads and mosquitofish prey directly on spring fauna or compete with them for habitat and food. Managers and scientists at the red-finned blue-eye’s home (Edgbaston Reserve) are continuing to experiment with different approaches for managing mosquitofish—one of the world’s worst invasive fish, which is present in many larger springs and has been implicated in the declines of many Australian native fish populations—to help the native populations persist there.
What can I do to help?
There are many ways you can support research and conservation efforts that are working to ensure that the unique biodiversity of Australia’s desert springs is not lost. First, take the opportunity to visit some of the phenomenal reserves and parks that contain springs: Witjira and Wabma Kadarbu National Parks in South Australia, or Elizabeth Springs and Doongmabulla Mound Springs Reserves in Queensland. You can support or volunteer to assist on conservation projects through the National Parks or Bush Heritage Australia, as well as the Wangan Jagalingou Family Council’s work at Doongmabulla Mound Springs. And finally, if you’re living on the land, you can ensure that the groundwater pressure vital to maintaining springs is preserved by capping unused bores on your property.
This article is an edited version of the original, which was published in Wildlife Australia.
Publications and further reading
2 comments on “Arid springs: the hidden evolutionary cradles of Outback Australia
1. Ken Robinson says:
I would like to know if a study of plankton has been carried out, being the bottom of the aquatic food chain it would have to be there, could you advise me?
1. Hi Ken,
In terms of plankton, I guess I conventionally think of things like Copepods and waterfleas. To my knowledge, there have been descriptions of these small organisms in springs at Edgbaston – Winston Ponder & team published a full survey from there in 2010 in which they report finding Cladocerans as well as calanoid Copepods. There’s also other small crustaceans like Amphipods – 12 species of which are endemic to GAB springs – and Ostracods – again lots of endemic species. The snails in this system are also generally small (<5mm) and are probably prey for the larger fishes and frogs. There's also plenty of aquatic insects and their larvae, again tasty morsels for the bigger predators.
When it comes to the snails especially, a large number of animals in this system are herbivorous/detritivorous – for example the majority of species endemic to springs are snails, and the majority of these snails are probably feeding on algal films and detritus. So these guys are probably functioning in that "bottom of the food chain" role as well. For example, in the few studies I know of looking at gut contents of invasive predators in GAB springs (Cane Toads and Gambusia), snails form a big part of the diet. This isn't that surprising, given that they can be very abundant (I've found over 200 individuals in a single 3 x 3cm sample), but is concerning as some of these snails only live in one or two springs and, in Edgbaston in the past for example, have never had to deal with predator numbers like they do now with Gambusia.
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Profile in Courage: Julia Ward Howe
26 Aug
Julia Ward Howe was born in New York City during the year 1819. She grew up privileged and her name possessed great strength socially. Samuel, her father, was a very involved, successful Wall Street banker, and her mother, also named Julia, was a published poet who passed away during the birth of her seventh child. Raised in a wealthy environment, Julia Ward Howe managed to become educated, and she secretly became acquainted with impressive writers of that time.
Consumed by the death of her father and sister-in-law, Howe quickly betrothed Samuel Gridley, a man well recognized for his social work. After marrying, Howe settled into the role of domestic motherhood; however, that was not a position she willfully accepted. Gridley had expectations for his new wife. Along with controlling her behavior, Gridley also took control of Howe’s estate, and she did not possess control of what was left of her affairs until Gridley’s death in 1876.
Howe, desperate for independence and exploration, dealt with a suffering marriage. She was not allowed to work outside of the house, and this was very problematic. In 1852, the couple separated. During this time Howe behaved as though she was not married, ignoring her husband’s wishes and publishing some of her work, beginning with the anonymous collection of poems “Passion Flowers.” The poems themselves were not well liked by the public, but what the poetry represented and the idea of female publication was exciting to readers. Much of the poetry explained the relationship between Gridley and her. This caused Howe’s marital dilemmas to escalate, but she had uncovered a method of coping with her perpetual depression.
It was at this point in her life that Howe became an advocate for women’s rights, abolition, prison reform, and education. Through her work in these areas, Howe became affiliated with several of Boston’s elite. This helped her writing career. Gridley felt strong opposition to Howe’s work. Yet, he needed her. Howe participated as the author and editor of Gridley’s “The Commonwealth,” a short lived newspaper venture.
In 1861, Howe’s “Battle Hymn of the Republic” was published, bringing her instant celebrity. She was then one of the most famous women of the 19th century. Her work continued, but it was with the death of Gridley in 1876 that her new life began. From that point on, Howe was an impeccable force in women’s suffrage, utilizing her fame to bridge the gap between society and reform.
In addition to all this, Howe co-edited the Women’s Journal and created the American holiday Mother’s Day. She was the first woman inducted into the Society of Arts and Letters, and her biography, written by her children, won a Pulitzer Prize. Through her work as a suffragette, literature, and musical contributions, Howe became a female icon of the 19th century. Looking at her life, multiple men of stature applauded her, some even referring to Howe as “The Queen of America.” Howe passed away in Portsmouth, Rhode Island, having just reached her nineties in the year 1910.
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Schottenbauer Publishing
Friday, January 1, 2016
Geometry of Track & Field Events
Geometry is essential for track and field. Take a moment to write down a few ways in which geometry affects the precision of the sport.
Discussion Questions
1. What data is necessary to collect in order to understand the role of geometry in track and field events, including running, hurdles, long jump, triple hump, high jump, pole vault, shot put, javelin, discus, and hammer?
2. What spatial perspectives and/or mathematical planes are important for precision?
One figure in The Geometry of Summer Olympic Sports, centered below, features a sprinter on the track.
Discussion Questions
1. What angles can be measured on the diagram, in order to understand the accuracy of technique?
2. Is any essential information missing from the picture? What is necessary in order to measure that information?
Geometry diagrams featuring track and field events are available in the following book from Schottenbauer Publishing:
Geometry Workbooks
Additional Information
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Adjective "zygodactyl" definition and examples
Definitions and examples
(of a bird's feet) having two toes pointing forward and two backward.
1. 'Their legs are strong, and feathered in many species; they have zygodactyl raptorial feet.'
2. 'Their talons are sharp and hooked and their feet are zygodactyl with a reversible fourth toe.'
A bird with zygodactyl feet.
1. Also, zygodactylous. (of a bird) having the toes of each foot arranged in pairs, with two toes in front and two behind. noun
2. a zygodactyl bird.
More examples(as adjective)
"toes can be zygodactyl."
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Detroit Example: Long-Term Fallout Pattern
Long Term Radioactive Fallout Pattern
Radioactive Fallout
The extent and location of radioactive fall-out will depend on weather conditions, especially the speed and direction of the wind. It should not be forgotten that fallout patterns are idealized - such neat ellipses would occur in reality only with an absolutely constant wind and no rain. The onset of fallout would depend on wind velocity and distance from the explosion and it would be most dangerous during the first few days. In the case of an attack on a single city (using a surface burst, as our example does), people living downwind would probably evacuate
Those who neither evacuated nor found adequate fallout shelters would be subjected to dangerous levels of radiation: people in the inner contour would receive a fatal dose within the first week; people in the next contour out would contract very severe radiation sickness if they stayed indoors and would probably receive a fatal dose if they spent much time outdoors; people in the next contour out would contract generally nonfatal radiation sickness, with increased hazards of deaths from other diseases. People in the outer contour (90 roentgens in the first week) would suffer few visible effects, but their life expectancy would drop as a result of an increased risk of eventual cancer.
Page 7 of 9 Previous PageNext Page
© Copyright 1998-2015 AJ Software & Multimedia All Rights Reserved
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Pius XII Announced Discovery of Peter's Tomb
Pius XII Announced Discovery of Peter's Tomb
On December 23, 1950, Pope Pius XII declared in a radio broadcast that St. Peter's tomb had been found several feet below the altar of St. Peter's Basilica at the Vatican in Rome.
"The tomb of the Prince of the Apostles has been found," said Pius. "Such is the final conclusion after all the labor and study of these years. A second question, subordinate to the first, refers to the relics of Saint Peter. Have they been found? At the side of the tomb remains of human bones have been discovered. However, it is impossible to prove with certainty that they belong to the apostle."
For ten years, Monsignor Ludwig Kaas, the administrator of St. Peter's, oversaw the dig which was conducted by two Jesuit archaeologists and their colleagues. Kaas did not sympathize with the methods archaeologists use. He felt it was wrong for them to treat human bones like scientific evidence. Secretly, he examined the digs each night after the workmen left and collected all bones that he found. He stored these in boxes off the site, making no scientific record of where the bones had been found or their placement. The procedure diverged drastically from accepted archaeological method.
The pope's claim was guarded because bones originally identified as belonging to a sixty-year-old man and thought to belong to the Apostle Peter turned out to include those of a young man, some animals and a bone from an elderly woman.
Other questions were not satisfactorily answered. The early church historian Eusebius, writing at the time when Emperor Constantine ordered the original St. Peter's built, mentioned a monument with an inscription. No such monument was found. The only inscription which ever came to light, appeared mysteriously in an adjacent vault. This was on a flake of stone and supposedly came from a graffiti-covered wall unearthed below the basilica. Writing on the small flake was interpreted to mean "Peter is in here;" however it could not be matched to the wall.
A widely distributed photograph of the bones turned out to be a fake: the bones had been removed from a pile and were later brought back to the scene and arranged for the photo. Atheists made much of these discrepancies.
Eighteen years after Pius XII's original announcement, Pope Paul VI announced that the actual bones of Peter had been identified. Three of the original archaeologists protested the pope's claim which came about because Margherita Guarducci, studying graffiti on the wall, accidentally learned of the boxes of bones Kaas had taken off-site. Kaas was dead. One of the workmen, however, remembered that Kaas had ordered a new-found crypt opened and its contents removed so that the archaeologists could not "desecrate" the bones. The workman led Margherita to the box. The bones proved to be that of an elderly man. According to the Vatican, carbon dating confirmed they dated to Peter's era.
However, questions remained. Tests showed that the soil on the bones did not match the soil of the crypt where they were supposed to have been found. A spokesman for the Vatican later admitted the church was in an "insecure position" regarding identification of the bones.
Few archaeological finds corroborate the existence of individuals mentioned in the New Testament. Biblical Archaeology Review enumerated these in its November-December 2002 issue. Significantly, Peter's bones were not mentioned. In archaeological circles, the identification is considered completely unsatisfactory. But Catholic apologists reminded the faithful that the Christian faith rests not on archaeological remains but on a risen, living Christ.
1. Allen, John L., jr. "The Bones of St. Peter." Catholic Digest. http://www.catholicdigest.org/stories/200105052a.html
2. Feldman, Steven and Roth, Nancy E. "The Short List: The New Testament Figures Known to History." Biblical Archaeology Review. (November/December 2002).
3. Hijmans, Dr. Steven. "In Search of Peter's Tomb." http://www.expressnews.ualberta.ca/expressnews/articles/ ideas.cfm?p_ID=794&s=a)
4. Zindler, Frank R. "Of Bones and Boners; St. Peter at the Vatican." American Atheists. http://www.atheists.org/church/bones.html [This article is cited because it demonstrates the mockery made of the claims].
Originally published April 28, 2010.
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1.1 The Argonne, a perfectly preserved zone
Flanked to the west by the Aisne valley and to the east by the Aire valley, the Argonne region takes the form of a vast rectangle 40km long and 15km wide. The region’s subsoil is composed exclusively of ‘gaize’ (a form of siliceous rock), giving naturally poor soil in which only the forest can thrive, on rolling hills ranging from 170 to 280 metres above sea level. In the early stages of the Great War (October-November 1914) the front cut right through this forest, forming a line running east to west.
On either side of the front the French and German armies made the most of this natural cover to construct the various logistical installations required to supply the front lines. After 4 years of fighting which caused fairly extensive deforestation, American forces took control of this zone in October 1918. Once the conflict was over the forest gradually repopulated this land, thus protecting the many traces left behind by the opposing forces of the Great War (trenches, camps, railways etc.). Almost a century later the Argonne is still home to a near-intact section of front line, preserved by the presence of the forest.
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Sunday, February 14, 2010
Practice With Present, Unreal Conditional.
"Monument in Fertile Country" by Paul Klee, 1929
Instructions: Combine two sentences to make one sentence. Use the Present, Unreal Conditional. In the Condition Clause, use the past tense. Remember that for "be", use the subjunctive form which is "were" for all subject pronouns. In the Result Clause, use "Would" or "Could" plus the base form of the verb. If you're using a pronoun, you can make a contraction with "would": I'd, he'd, she'd, we'd, they'd, you'd.
1. I'm not sick. I don't go to the doctor.
2. I don't have a headache. I don't take an aspirin.
3. It's very cold today. We don't go to the beach.
4. I'm not the president. I don't make the right decisions.
5. I don't understand your question. I can't answer you.
6. I don't have a lot of money. I can't live in a big apartment.
7. She doesn't have a car. She can't drive to the mountains.
8. He's very tired. He doesn't go out to dinner..
9. She doesn't have a car. She can't drive to the mountains.
10. They don't have a new computer. They don't browse the web more.
11. Michelangelo isn't alive. He doesn't decorate Mission Dolores.
Read about the famous chapel Michelangelo did decorate.
12. We don't play soccer on Saturday. We aren't in good shape.
13. We don't have a car. We don't go out of town very often.
14. I'm not you. I don't take a credit class.
15. He has to work. He doesn't have time to read books.
16. I don't lose my hair. I don't purchase a wig.
17. He's not interested in history. He doesn't learn about his ancestors.
18. I have a notebook. I can take notes in class.
19. He's not a ghost. He doesn't haunt Tombstone, Arizona.
See the story about the historical Ghost Town: Tombstone, Arizona
1. good job thanks
2. Thank you for looking at the website. Please, come again soon.
3. Neat! a really good exercise that makes students think!
Thank you!
4. Thank you so much,God bless you for helping to us
6. Good job. I loved it. amazing!!!!
7. plz change this sentence into past perfect tense "we had a car"
8. change this sentence into the past perfect tense "we had a car." Sir JOHN ROBINSON please answer the above question
9. We would almost be having more of the attributions by the time as we have seen the practice they made and various other activities are said to be of great reasons.
10. Probably a better instance that will bring around the positive values that one must be tried to his own and there will surely be more respective elements that must be look forward in the future.
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Thursday, 30 August 2012
A Maori Putorino - an Art Treasure
This is Forster No. 116, 'A flute', from New Zealand.
The putorino is only found in New Zealand, and is esteemed by the Maori. Sometimes the instrument is called a bugle flute, because it has two complementary voices, male and female. The male voice with it's kokiri (negotiating skill) sounds when the instrument is played as a trumpet, using the large hole at proximal end. The sound is used to summon, or to make people aware of something about to happen, and each named call has a meaning.
The female voice sounds when the instrument is played like a flute, using the opening half way down the instrument. This voice is sometimes a crying sound, and is used on appropriate occasions.
The sounds made "can stir a wide range of emotions, from the ghostly chill of an icy wind to the heart-warming resonance of a peace-giving hue puruhau" (resonating gourd instrument). (Brian Flintoff, Taonga Puoro - Singing Treasures, The Musical Instruments of the Maori, Nelson, New Zealand, 2004).
1886.1.1153 Detail of carving
The shape of the instrument is derived from the shape of the casemoth coccoon that houses Raukatauri, Goddess of Flute Music.
Bugle flutes were made in two halves, using a dense wood like matai (Prumnopitys taxifolia). Once the inside was shaped, the two halves were bound together with the split aerial root of the kiekie vine (Freycinetia banksii).
1886.1.1153 Detail of kiekie binding, with applied plant resin
This was applied when wet, and shrank on drying to hold the pieces tightly. Before binding, a sealant such as the sap of the tarata (Lemonwood tree, Pittosporum eugenioides) was applied to the edges of the two halves.
The museum labels on this putorino were removed for the 1970 Pitt Rivers exhibition 'From the Islands of the South Seas', and were retained in the museum archives. One of the labels was especially interesting, as it meant that the flute was sent by the Ashmolean to the Art Treasures Exhibition in Manchester in 1857.
This exhibition ran from the 5th May to the 17th October, and still remains the largest art exhibition ever held in the UK. There were more than 16000 works on display, and 1.3 million people visited.
The Exhibition Hall
The venue was a specially constructed hall, similar to the Crystal Palace in London. The hall was divided into separate galleries, including Pictures by Ancient Masters, Pictures by Modern Masters, Engravings, Works of Oriental Art, and Sculpture. Works were borrowed from over 700 collections, most of them private. One of the nobility, when approached to lend to the exhibition, is said to have replied 'What in the world do you want with Art in Manchester? Why can't you stick to your cotton-spinning?'
Nine objects currently in the Pitt Rivers Collection were sent to Manchester, seven of them from Polynesia. They were presumably exhibited either in the Museum of Ornamental Art or in the Oriental Court. Although an editorial in the Manchester Guardian on the 20 July 1857 was of the opinion that 'we are inclined to regard the museum of ornamental art as that portion of the present Manchester exhibition which is calculated to produce the most practically useful result, and to be of the highest importance to the community' the contents of that gallery are not listed in the exhibition catalogue.
See Jeremy Coote, 'A review of The Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition of 1857. Entrepreneurs, Connoisseurs and the Public' in 'Journal of the History of Collections' Vol 24, Issue 1, 2011.
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UNC Geophysicist Hypothesizes ‘Communication’ Between the North and South Poles
August 16, 2017
During summer in Greenland, snow melts and bare ice is exposed to the sun. Meltwater trickles downward until large rivers form, carrying the water through the ice sheet, weakening it, and allowing large volumes of ice to easily slide into the ocean. Photo by José Rial.
Each June, across North Carolina, the familiar twinkle of fireflies fills the evening sky. Slowly, one by one, these beetles emit a spark of light — a chemical reaction called bioluminescence. They flicker randomly until more and more of them gather together amongst the leaves. Then, an odd thing happens: They begin to sparkle in unison.
“Soon enough, the entire forest is going vroom, vroom, vroom,” José Rial explains. He holds his hands in the air and, together, they pulse back and forth. This coordination of events, called synchronization, happens every day, all over the world, in different ways — from the schooling of fish, to your cardiovascular and respiration systems, to the processing that takes place in your computer. Rial believes this also occurs between the North and South Poles.
“There is nothing new about the scientific phenomenon called synchronization,” Rial, a geophysicist at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, points out. “But the synchronization of the polar climates is a little more of a novelty.” Using data from ice cores, Rial began comparing records from the Arctic and Antarctic in 2012. Looking at the temperature fluctuations over the last 120,000 years, he’s convinced that the North and South poles ‘talk’ to each other. “In fact, their climates dance with each other,” he says. “And the dance is relatively simple.”
Rial hypothesizes that the poles send signals to one another through the Atlantic Ocean, acting as one large telephone line between the two. But instead of electricity, the connection is fueled by a transfer of heat every 1,670 years. “Think of it like a clock,” Rial says. “Instead of marking every hour on the hour, it marks every 1,670 years.”
The Ebb and Flow
For much of Earth’s history, ice ages came and went about every 41,000 years, according to paleoclimatology research. But just 1 million years ago, that pattern changed and the periods of ice began to lengthen. Today, that pattern has stretched to 120,000 years — nearly three times as long — without any concrete explanations. Although this has baffled climate scientists including Rial, he’s more concerned about the fact that we’re currently facing the end of one of those 120,000-year periods.
During that time span, the North and South poles have experienced a pattern of abrupt warming followed by abrupt cooling, according to the climate records Rial obtained from polar ice core data. He points to a chart comparing the two, noting that the repeated temperature spikes equal approximately 15 degrees centigrade. “And we’re concerned about the 1-degree change that’s happened in the last 120 years,” he says. “Those 15-degree temperature changes probably happened in about a month’s time. If that were to happen today, it would be catastrophic.”
In the last 10,000 years, though, the unstable ice age pattern has disappeared and the temperature fluctuations seem steadier. Why? That’s the nature of our climate system — it’s nonlinear, meaning it’s full of surprises. “In a linear system, if you double the input, the output doubles,” Rial explains. “But in a nonlinear system, if you double the input you have no idea what the output is going to be.”
Assuming that Rial is correct about the poles synchronizing, though, there is hope to better understand how the climate patterns might change globally. But he continues to rack his brain about what exactly happened when the Earth underwent those 15-degree temperature changes so long ago. “Nature produced that phenomena without human intervention — so what will human intervention ultimately do?”
Rial checks on the network of portable seismometers that record sounds produced by Greenland ice as it cracks under the pressure of global warming. “The installation of the network is easy in nice weather,” he says, “but the extreme environment of the High Arctic creates a series of unexpected challenges.” Photo courtesy of José Rial.
Earth’s Air Conditioner
For miles and miles, a frigid white desert stretches across the horizon — a solid mass of ice and snow that makes up the Greenland ice sheet. As summer advances, meltwater trickles downhill, accumulating in ponds and lakes and creating shafts in the ice that, sometimes, make the 3,000-foot trek to the bottom of the ice sheet. Today, Greenland moves approximately 150 cubic miles of ice to the ocean every year.
Rial spent five years (from 2006 to 2011) flying over the ice-covered country, hammering small seismic sensors all over the ice sheet. “I needed to understand the beast,” he says. “To see the glaciers, see how they move, see how they behave during warming seasons.” As the ice cracks it produces hundreds of micro-earthquakes — events that Rial recorded with seismometers to determine the location of major, growing cracks, which create large volumes of unstable ice.
“Seeing those icebergs come down,” he says — and pauses, at a loss for words. He switches to an analogy. These masses of ice work like buttresses in a cathedral, he explains, and if you take away the buttresses, everything comes crashing down. A collapse of the frigid slabs surrounding Greenland could potentially lead to a 2-meter sea-level rise — and change the climate for the entire planet. What happens to a world where the sea level has risen two meters?
Greenland isn’t the only player in this game — Antarctica is its ever-vigilant dance partner. As Antarctica warms, Greenland remains cold. That is, until the warming of Antarctica reaches a climax and begins to cool. At that very moment, the temperature in Greenland jumps up. “The polar regions are our global air-conditioning system,” Rial says. “And if that system begins to malfunction, then we’re in trouble.”
Imagine that, in the middle of summer, on the hottest, most humid day in Chapel Hill, your air conditioner breaks down. Then apply that concept to the ice caps. “Or, imagine the opposite,” Rial points out. “A very, very cold winter, where all the ice caps grow and grow and grow and eventually cover the entire planet. We need to understand how the climate system of poles interacts with the rest of the world’s climate to predict how that system behaves under the pressures of global warming.”
On the Bright Side
Rial admits that this research becomes grim at times — the unknowns overwhelming. So while he spends the next four years continuing to analyze ice core data with his research team, he’s also looking ahead toward a brighter future.
In 2010, just two years before he developed the hypothesis for polar synchronization, Rial began the North American Renewable and Neutral Energy Alliance (NARNEA) — a project with undergraduates focused on harnessing and connecting renewable energy resources using smart grid and microgrid technologies.
On the project website, a map of the North America bursts with symbols representing the availability of energy sources in certain regions. Blue windmills surround ocean communities, while orange solar plants line desert regions. “The West, of course, has geothermal and solar energy,” Rial points to the map. “The United States, alone, has enough geothermal energy to power the entire country for the next 40,000 years.” Clean and sustainable, geothermal energy comes from the heat of the earth —the same heat that warms hot springs and causes magma to melt.
This isn’t just some dream — proof that these systems work exists, according to Rial. Just four years ago, the largest solar thermal power plant in the world began operation in California’s Mojave Dessert. The 377-megawatt Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System uses mirrors to reflect the sun onto solar receivers atop power towers, generating enough electricity to power 140,000 homes during peak hours. What’s more, the facility will reduce carbon dioxide emissions by more than 400,000 tons per year. “This is just one indication that the United States is strongly committed to a carbon-free economy,” Rial says.
“Dr. Rial really makes you think,” UNC undergraduate Thomas Clerkin says. “He pushed me to consider all aspects of a problem, pushed me to get out of my comfort zone.” Clerkin spent a lot of time on NARNEA, researching cost and the pros and cons of renewable energy resources, comparing them to the use of fossil fuels. “I liked trying to solve these problems,” he says. “I felt like I was doing my part to fight climate change.”
“I cannot become depressed — even though there are a million reasons why I should,” Rial says. “We cannot give up. Ever. For each student that’s gone through the NARNEA Project, I can only hope I’ve planted a little seed. A seed that this is one possible solution.”
José A. Rial is a professor and the director of graduate studies for the Department of Geological Sciences within the UNC College of Arts & Sciences.
Thomas Clerkin is majoring in exercise and sport science within the UNC College of Arts & Sciences. He is a research assistant for the NARNEA Project.
By Alyssa LaFaro
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"url": "https://global.unc.edu/news/unc-geophysicist-studies-communication-between-the-north-and-south-poles/"
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Planning Ahead
Planning for the future is one of our most important – and complex – cognitive abilities. It requires the ability to make predictions about future events or states by relying on knowledge and past experiences. More basically, it requires us to disconnect ourselves from our current state, including our current emotions and motivations, to anticipate our future emotions and motivations. Scientists call this ability “mental time travel”, or chronesthesia.
As with many cognitive abilities discussed here, the mental time travel ability was initially thought to belong only to humans (the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis). However, an ingenious study done with scrub jays has demonstrated that animals may possess this ability, too.
Scrub jays, which belong to the same family as crows and magpies, cache excess food, hiding it in various places that they can access when food is scarce. This behavior may seem like planning ahead, but it could just be an automatic response to an abundance of food or the season.
Raby et al. (2007) investigated whether scrub jays could demonstrate planning for the future in a very specific way through their caching behavior. Each jay was housed in a cage divided into three compartments. The jay was fed every evening in the middle compartment. Each of the side compartments contained a caching tray, where the jay could hide food. During the day, the jay could move freely between all of the compartments. However, each morning, the jay was restricted to one of the two side compartments for two hours. In one compartment, the jay was always fed a breakfast of (uncachable) powdered pine nuts. In the other compartment, the jay was never fed breakfast, and had to wait two hours for food.
During a training phase, each jay spent a few mornings in each of the side compartments, in order to learn the associations between one compartment and breakfast, and the other compartment and no breakfast. The jay was only fed powdered pine nuts, so no caching occurred during the training phase.
After the training phase came the critical test: when given whole pine nuts (which can be cached) in the evening, would the jay cache more nuts in the no-breakfast compartment than the breakfast compartment? Such behavior would indicate that the jay was planning for the future by caching more food where it knew food would be scarce. However, if the jay cached similar amounts of nuts in both of the side compartments, then it was not planning for the future.
Raby et al. found that the jays cached significantly more nuts in the no-breakfast compartment than in the breakfast compartment, indicating that they were planning ahead. This is especially impressive because it required the jays to take into account both their future motivational state (i.e. hunger) and future available resources (breakfast or no breakfast), and suggests that they have the ability of mental time travel.
In addition to planning for the future, mental time travel also includes remembering past events (episodic memory). There’s even evidence that these cognitive processes (planning for or imagining the future and remembering or imagining the past) involve similar areas of the brain in humans!
For a more thorough discussion of mental time travel and whether non-human animals have this ability, check out this paper.
Source Cited:
Raby, Caroline R., et al. “Planning for the future by western scrub-jays.” Nature 445.7130 (2007): 919-921.
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"url": "https://animalcogblog.wordpress.com/tag/mental-time-travel/"
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Example Lesson
Topic Numbers and colors
Level Beginner
Length 90 mins
Course Japanese conversation
1. Students learn a useful word in asking for things, "kudasai".
2. Students learn basic colors in Japanese using real items such as clothes that they are wearing and looking at traditional Japanese pictures.
3. Students learn how to count simple things in Japanese, using lists, mnemonics, chants, and Q & A-style role-plays.
4. Students do a listening task involving counting questions.
5. Students are divided into two groups. One group is the shop staff, and the other is customers. Students must figure out the appropriate conversation in each situation.
6. Outdoor activity: buying flowers
Students and teacher leave the classroom to visit a nearby flower shop. The teacher videotapes the students as they perform the task. Each student is given the chance to perform.
Task: Today is your host mother's birthday. You are going to buy her a bouquet of flowers. What do you say to the woman in the shop, Julia?
Sample conversation
Julia) Sumimasen. Hana wo kudasai.
Staff) Dore ga ii desuka?
Julia) Ano pinku no hana wo kudasai.
Staff) Nanbon desuka?
Julia) Sanbon kudasai.
Students and teacher return to the classroom. The teacher provides feedback on the outdoor activity using the video.
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"url": "http://genkijacs.com/examplelesson.htm"
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Western Europe 1939-1945: Deception & Bluff
Your task
Imagine that you have met someone who simply does not believe that the British used deception and bluff tactics in WW2. Your task is to choose two examples that you think will convince this person and then present them with the evidence.
You could do this as a presentation or a written report. Use the following report sheet to help.
Did the British really employ magicians and practical jokers?
The simple answer to this question is yes! The most famous example is a man called Jasper Maskelyne. Maskelyne was a stage magician who used his talents to fool the Germans. He was involved in the North African theatre of the war as part of a team that disguised tanks and even concealed the Suez Canal! Maskelyne wrote a book after the war describing his achievements, which some historians dispute. Many other imaginative characters worked for the British armed forces and British intelligence in the field of deception.
These images show stamps that were used in Germany in 1943. You probably recognise Hitler in the two stamps on the right. What you might not know is that Hitler’s face was the only one allowed on German stamps. So why is Heinrich Himmler, commander of the SS and one of the most senior Nazis, shown on the stamp on the left?
Stamps used in Germany, 1943
Catalogue ref: HS 6/641
Stamps used in Germany, 1943; HS 6/ 641
What is this source?
This is a collection of stamps used in Germany in the later stages of the war. The stamp on the left is a fake stamp that was produced in Britain.
The actual image shown here is taken from an envelope that was posted in Germany and arrived in Switzerland late in 1943.
What’s the background to this source?
By late 1943 the tide of war was beginning to turn against Germany. There was some evidence that German morale was poor. The British intelligence agencies were keen to take any opportunity that they could to try and stir up trouble in Germany. They came up with this idea of creating a stamp bearing the head of Heinrich Himmler. They hoped this would make Germans think that Himmler was trying to overthrow Hitler.
Heinrich Himmler was one of the most powerful Nazis. He controlled the SS. This huge organisation was almost a state inside the German state. It had its own armed forces and factories. It controlled the police and the Gestapo (secret police) and the concentration camps for Jews and other enemies of the Nazis. The SS certainly could have arranged to have stamps printed if Himmler had been plotting to overthrow Hitler. The British were hoping to cause doubt and suspicion between the leading Nazis
It’s worth knowing that...
Despite all this power, Himmler was not one of Hitler’s closest companions. In fact, in 1945, he tried to start negotiations with the British and American leaders to get them to join Germany against the USSR. Hitler had him arrested.
Hitler actually made a lot of money out the use of his portrait on stamps. He charged the German post office a royalty for using his image, even though they had to! As a result another head appearing on stamps would have caused a lot of talk.
How does this source help us to understand the importance of deception tactics during the war?
1. What kind of images do you see on stamps in Britain today, and in other countries?
2. Imagine the Queen’s head was replaced on stamps by another image (e.g. the Prime Minister). Do you think this would cause controversy in Britain today?
3. Do you think the Himmler stamp would cause more controversy in Germany in 1943-44?
4. Do you think this source can help you to convince your friend that the British used deception tactics in WW2?
Now open the source box
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"url": "http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/worldwar2/theatres-of-war/western-europe/investigation/deception/task-source/"
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jump to: navigation, search
Latvian Wikipedia has an article on:
Wikipedia lv
From trij (three[obl. form]) + -nieks.
trijnieks m (1st declension)
1. three, number three (digit or figure)
uzrakstīt trijniekuto write the number three (i.e., 3)
aplūkosim, piemēram, skaitli 593, kura pirmajā kārtā ir trijniekslet us consider, for example, the number 593, in whose first position is the (digit) three
2. three (C, satisfactory, a school grade)
institūtu pabeidza bez neviena trijniekahe finished college without a single three (= he only had better grades)
3. something with the number three on it
pīķa trijnieksthe three of spades (playing card)
4. three (people, animals, objects) together, a trio; a sports team consisting of three people
man ir trijnieks rokāI have a set of three (nuts) in my hand
See also[edit]
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"url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trijnieks"
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Gates / 門
This is a subtype of Features
There are many different types of gates, but the basic construction is the same for all. Two columns (kagamibashira) that hold the gate doors are connected by a crossbeam (kabuki) across the top. Usually, the columns are joined to support pillars (hikaebashira) behind them to help prevent the gate from being pushed over backwards. The rest of the gate construction is developed from the gate's position, function and defensive needs.
Gates were often strategically positioned in the walls of each bailey so that anyone who attempts to enter the castle must zig zag back and forth to reach the inner grounds and the main keep. Gates were often further fortified by bolting metal plates over them for strength.
Yaguramon (櫓門)
A gate with a yagura situated on top. These are often large, strong and impressive looking gates. They are frequently used as the inner gate of a masugata and for other important entrance points. Yaguramon were were a safe place to observe the outside and they could be used as defensive platforms with defenders in the top. They were equipped with loopholes and windows to shoot from and the floor in front of the gate could be opened like a rock chute to attack anyone at the doors below. There are 2 types of yaguramon. Watariyagura style uses a watariyagura to span from one stone wall across the gate to another stone wall. The other style is basically a free standing yagura with a gate built into the first floor.
Watariyagura Style
Nijo5.jpg Edo7.jpg Marugame5.jpg Matsuyama27.jpg
Free Standing Yagura Gates
Kochi8.jpg Hirosaki6.jpg Hirosaki12.jpg Tsuchiura8.jpg
Yakuimon (薬医門)
A gate where one roof covers both the main front pillars (kagamibashira) and the rear support pillars (hikaebashira). The roof was necessarily large to cover all four pillars. This is an older style gate that was eventually replaced by Koraimon gates (see below), because it was impractical for defense. The large roof blocked the defenders vision of the outside and it actually shielded any attackers at the doors. There are very few extant examples of yakuimon gates at castles today. The second picture below is an inside view of the gate in the first picture so that you can get a better view of the structure of Yakuimon gates compared to Koraimon gates. The picture from Kakunodate Castle shows a smaller yakuimon in front of a samurai home.
Mito11.jpg Ashikaga7.jpg Kofu10.jpg Marugame63.jpg Obatajinya8.jpg
Koraimon (高麗門)
The front pillars and doors are covered with one small roof and the rear support pillars and support beams are each covered by a separate roof on either side at right angles to the main roof over the front pillars. This type of gate is often used as the outer gate of a masugata. There are two types of Koraimon. The roof of the older style is nearly even with the surrounding walls, while the newer style gate is taller so the roof is up higher than the surrounding walls.
Older Style Koraimon
Nagoya13.jpg Nagoya14.jpg
Newer Style Koraimon
Edo13.jpg Edo76.jpg Matsumoto9.jpg Matsumoto10.jpg Himeji29.jpg
Munamon (棟門)
Munamon is a gate with two main pillars covered by a roof. It is similar to the koraimon, but lacks the extra support pillars in the rear making it relatively unstable. It is often wedged in between stone or earthen walls to gain extra support.
Himeji28.jpg Bitchu11.jpg
Tonashimon (戸無し門)
As the name implies, tonashimon is literally a gate with no doors. The only extant gate of this type that I know of is at Iyo Matsuyama Castle. It is basically a koriamon gate with no doors. It is said that this gate was built here atop a long slope at the front of a hairpin curve to trick attackers into thinking it would be an easy way into the castle. Once they pass through the gate and around the curve they are actually met with a large heavily fortified gate.
Kabukimon (冠木門)
This is a gate with only the two front vertical pillars and the one horizontal cross beam. It has doors but no roof. This gate is a formality only and has little or no defensive value.
Ikeda3.jpg Nanbata6.jpg Kakegawa4.jpg
Heijuumon (塀重門)
A heijuumon gate takes the kabukimon a step further and eliminates the cross beam between the two front pillars.
Nagayamon (長屋門)
This is where a gate is passed through a section of a long warehouse. Rooms were easily built on either side of the gate and it was often used as a guardhouse around samurai homes.
Yonago18.jpg Nijo15.jpg Iwamura7.jpg
Karamon (唐門)
An ornate gate with a karahafu style roof. A karahafu is a gable chracterized by the rounded ridge in the center. There are several surviving karamon that were moved from castles to temples, but the only one that I know of that is at a castle is the famous gate from Nijo Castle.
Nijo2.jpg Nijo3.jpg Ichijodani3.jpg
Uzumimon (埋門)
Uzumimon literally means buried gate. There are two types of uzumimon. In one type, a hole is literally cut through the middle of a completed stone wall. In the second type, when the stone walls are constructed a narrow gap is left for a gate. Then the defensive wall atop the stone wall foundation is run across the gate evenly with the rest. An uzumimon was often used as an emergency exit or as a rear entrance to the castle.
Nagoya15.jpg Odawara4.jpg Himeji14.jpg Matsushiro12.jpg
Masugata (枡形)
A masugata is a compound gate made up of 2 gates, most commonly a koraimon on the outside and a yaguramon on the inside. The 2 gates are placed at right angles and joined by walls to create a square enclosure. Any enemy who attempts to enter the castle will be trapped in the box while it tries to breach the strong inner gate. The trapped enemy is then vulnerable to attack from the defenders inside the castle, and lining the walls above.
Edo84.jpg Matsumoto10.jpg Kofu14.jpg Sunpu5.jpg
Castles with Gates
1. Aizu Wakamatsu Castle
2. Akashi Castle
3. Akita Castle
4. Akizuki Castle
5. Ako Castle
6. Amagajo
7. Aoyagi Castle
8. Ashikagashi Yakata
9. Asuke Castle
10. Bitchu Matsuyama Castle
11. Echizen Katsuyama Castle
12. Echizen Ohno Castle
13. Edo Castle
14. Fukuchiyama Castle
15. Fukuyama Castle
16. Funai Castle
17. Funaoka Castle
18. Fushimi Castle
19. Gujo Hachiman Castle
20. Hachigata Castle
21. Hachinohe Castle
22. Hagi Castle
23. Hamada Castle
24. Hamamatsu Castle
25. Hekirichi Jinya
26. Hikone Castle
27. Himeji Castle
28. Hirado Castle
29. Hirosaki Castle
30. Hiroshima Castle
31. Hitoyoshi Castle
32. Hotta no Saku
33. Ibaraki Castle
34. Ichijodani Castle
35. Iga Ueno Castle
36. Ikeda Castle
37. Imabari Castle
38. Inatsuke Castle
39. Innoshima Suigun castle
40. Inuyama Castle
41. Iwamura Castle
42. Iwatsuki Castle
43. Iyo Matsuyama Castle
44. Izu Nagahama Castle
45. Izumi Jin'ya
46. Izushi Castle
47. Kakegawa Castle
48. Kameda Castle
49. Kaminoyama Castle
50. Kamioka Castle
51. Kanazawa Castle
52. Kasama Castle
53. Kawanoe Castle
54. Kinojo
55. Kishiwada Castle
56. Kiyosu Castle
57. Kochi Castle
58. Kofu Castle
59. Komoro Castle
60. Kubota Castle
61. Kumamoto Castle
62. Kushima Castle
63. Marugame Castle
64. Matsue Castle
65. Matsumae Castle
66. Matsumoto Castle
67. Matsushiro Castle
68. Minakuchi Castle
1. Minokubi Castle
2. Mito Castle
3. Nagahama Castle
4. Nagoya Castle
5. Nanbata Castle
6. Natsukawa Castle
7. Ne Castle
8. Nijo Castle
9. Nishio Castle
10. Nobeoka Castle
11. Obata Jin'ya
12. Obi Castle
13. Odawara Castle
14. Ogaki Castle
15. Oka Castle
16. Okayama Castle
17. Osaka Castle
18. Oshi Castle
19. Otaki Castle
20. Owari Ohno Castle
21. Ozu Castle
22. Saga Castle
23. Sakasai Castle
24. Sannohe Castle
25. Sekiyado Castle
26. Shibata Castle
27. Shichinohe Castle
28. Shirakawa Castle
29. Shiroishi Castle
30. Shishido Jin'ya
31. Shiwa Castle
32. Shuri Castle
33. Soma Nakamura Castle
34. Sonobe Castle
35. Sunpu Castle
36. Suwahara Castle
37. Tahara Castle
38. Takamatsu Castle
39. Takane Castle
40. Takasaki Castle
41. Takashima Castle
42. Takato Castle
43. Takatsuki Castle
44. Takenaka Jinya
45. Tamaru Castle
46. Tanabe Castle
47. Tanaka Castle
48. Tatebayashi Castle
49. Tatsuno Castle
50. Tatsuoka Castle
51. Tojo Castle
52. Tokushima Castle
53. Tomioka Castle
54. Torigoe Castle
55. Tottori Castle
56. Toyama Castle
57. Toyooka Jinya
58. Tsu Castle
59. Tsuchiura Castle
60. Ueda Castle
61. Usuki Castle
62. Uwajima Castle
63. Wakayama Castle
64. Yamagata Castle
65. Yamato Koriyama Castle
66. Yuzawa Castle
67. Yuzuki Castle
68. Zeze Castle
Loading map...
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Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, de free encycwopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
3D tsunami simuwation
A tsunami (from Japanese: 津波, "harbour wave";[1] Engwish pronunciation: /tsˈnɑːmi/ tsoo-NAH-mee[2]) or tidaw wave, awso known as a seismic sea wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by de dispwacement of a warge vowume of water, generawwy in an ocean or a warge wake.[3] Eardqwakes, vowcanic eruptions and oder underwater expwosions (incwuding detonations of underwater nucwear devices), wandswides, gwacier cawvings, meteorite impacts and oder disturbances above or bewow water aww have de potentiaw to generate a tsunami.[4] Unwike normaw ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are generated by de gravitationaw puww of de Moon and de Sun, a tsunami is generated by de dispwacement of water.
Tsunami waves do not resembwe normaw undersea currents or sea waves, because deir wavewengf is far wonger.[5] Rader dan appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initiawwy resembwe a rapidwy rising tide, and for dis reason dey are often referred to as tidaw waves, awdough dis usage is not favoured by de scientific community because tsunamis are not tidaw in nature. Tsunamis generawwy consist of a series of waves, wif periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-cawwed "internaw wave train".[6] Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by warge events. Awdough de impact of tsunamis is wimited to coastaw areas, deir destructive power can be enormous and dey can affect entire ocean basins; de 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among de deadwiest naturaw disasters in human history, wif at weast 230,000 peopwe kiwwed or missing in 14 countries bordering de Indian Ocean.
Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his wate-5f century BC History of de Pewoponnesian War, dat tsunamis were rewated to submarine eardqwakes,[7][8] but de understanding of a tsunami's nature remained swim untiw de 20f century and much remains unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah. Major areas of current research incwude trying to determine why some warge eardqwakes do not generate tsunamis whiwe oder smawwer ones do; trying to accuratewy forecast de passage of tsunamis across de oceans; and awso to forecast how tsunami waves interact wif specific shorewines.
Tsunami (Chinese characters).svg
"Tsunami" in kanji
Japanese name
Kanji 津波
The term "tsunami" is a borrowing from de Japanese tsunami 津波, meaning "harbour wave". For de pwuraw, one can eider fowwow ordinary Engwish practice and add an s, or use an invariabwe pwuraw as in de Japanese.[9] Some Engwish speakers awter de word's initiaw /ts/ to an /s/ by dropping de "t", since Engwish does not nativewy permit /ts/ at de beginning of words, dough de originaw Japanese pronunciation is /ts/.
Tidaw wave
Tsunami aftermaf in Aceh, Indonesia, December 2004.
Tsunamis are sometimes referred to as tidaw waves.[10] This once-popuwar term derives from de most common appearance of a tsunami, which is dat of an extraordinariwy high tidaw bore. Tsunamis and tides bof produce waves of water dat move inwand, but in de case of a tsunami, de inwand movement of water may be much greater, giving de impression of an incredibwy high and forcefuw tide. In recent years, de term "tidaw wave" has fawwen out of favour, especiawwy in de scientific community, because tsunamis have noding to do wif tides, which are produced by de gravitationaw puww of de moon and sun rader dan de dispwacement of water. Awdough de meanings of "tidaw" incwude "resembwing"[11] or "having de form or character of"[12] de tides, use of de term tidaw wave is discouraged by geowogists and oceanographers.
Seismic sea wave
The term seismic sea wave awso is used to refer to de phenomenon, because de waves most often are generated by seismic activity such as eardqwakes.[13] Prior to de rise of de use of de term tsunami in Engwish, scientists generawwy encouraged de use of de term seismic sea wave rader dan tidaw wave. However, wike tsunami, seismic sea wave is not a compwetewy accurate term, as forces oder dan eardqwakes – incwuding underwater wandswides, vowcanic eruptions, underwater expwosions, wand or ice swumping into de ocean, meteorite impacts, and de weader when de atmospheric pressure changes very rapidwy – can generate such waves by dispwacing water.[14][15]
Lisbon eardqwake and tsunami in November 1755.
Whiwe Japan may have de wongest recorded history of tsunamis, de sheer destruction caused by de 2004 Indian Ocean eardqwake and tsunami event mark it as de most devastating of its kind in modern times, kiwwing around 230,000 peopwe.[16] The Sumatran region is not unused to tsunamis eider, wif eardqwakes of varying magnitudes reguwarwy occurring off de coast of de iswand.[17]
Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in de Mediterranean Sea and parts of Europe. Of historicaw and current (wif regard to risk assumptions) importance are de 1755 Lisbon eardqwake and tsunami (which was caused by de Azores–Gibrawtar Transform Fauwt), de 1783 Cawabrian eardqwakes, each causing severaw tens of dousands of deads and de 1908 Messina eardqwake and tsunami. The tsunami cwaimed more dan 123,000 wives in Siciwy and Cawabria and is among de most deadwy naturaw disasters in modern Europe. The Storegga Swide in de Norwegian sea and some exampwes of tsunamis affecting de British Iswes refer to wandswide and meteotsunamis predominantwy and wess to eardqwake-induced waves.
As earwy as 426 BC de Greek historian Thucydides inqwired in his book History of de Pewoponnesian War about de causes of tsunami, and was de first to argue dat ocean eardqwakes must be de cause.[7][8]
The cause, in my opinion, of dis phenomenon must be sought in de eardqwake. At de point where its shock has been de most viowent de sea is driven back, and suddenwy recoiwing wif redoubwed force, causes de inundation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Widout an eardqwake I do not see how such an accident couwd happen, uh-hah-hah-hah.[18]
The Roman historian Ammianus Marcewwinus (Res Gestae 26.10.15–19) described de typicaw seqwence of a tsunami, incwuding an incipient eardqwake, de sudden retreat of de sea and a fowwowing gigantic wave, after de 365 AD tsunami devastated Awexandria.[19][20]
The principaw generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is de dispwacement of a substantiaw vowume of water or perturbation of de sea.[21] This dispwacement of water is usuawwy attributed to eider eardqwakes, wandswides, vowcanic eruptions, gwacier cawvings or more rarewy by meteorites and nucwear tests.[22][23] The waves formed in dis way are den sustained by gravity.[how?]
Tsunami can be generated when de sea fwoor abruptwy deforms and verticawwy dispwaces de overwying water. Tectonic eardqwakes are a particuwar kind of eardqwake dat are associated wif de Earf's crustaw deformation; when dese eardqwakes occur beneaf de sea, de water above de deformed area is dispwaced from its eqwiwibrium position, uh-hah-hah-hah.[24] More specificawwy, a tsunami can be generated when drust fauwts associated wif convergent or destructive pwate boundaries move abruptwy, resuwting in water dispwacement, owing to de verticaw component of movement invowved. Movement on normaw (extensionaw) fauwts can awso cause dispwacement of de seabed, but onwy de wargest of such events (typicawwy rewated to fwexure in de outer trench sweww) cause enough dispwacement to give rise to a significant tsunami, such as de 1977 Sumba and 1933 Sanriku events.[25][26]
Tsunamis have a smaww ampwitude (wave height) offshore, and a very wong wavewengf (often hundreds of kiwometres wong, whereas normaw ocean waves have a wavewengf of onwy 30 or 40 metres),[27] which is why dey generawwy pass unnoticed at sea, forming onwy a swight sweww usuawwy about 300 miwwimetres (12 in) above de normaw sea surface. They grow in height when dey reach shawwower water, in a wave shoawing process described bewow. A tsunami can occur in any tidaw state and even at wow tide can stiww inundate coastaw areas.
On Apriw 1, 1946, de 8.6 Mw Aweutian Iswands eardqwake occurred wif a maximum Mercawwi intensity of VI (Strong). It generated a tsunami which inundated Hiwo on de iswand of Hawaii wif a 14-metre high (46 ft) surge. Between 165 and 173 were kiwwed. The area where de eardqwake occurred is where de Pacific Ocean fwoor is subducting (or being pushed downwards) under Awaska.
Exampwes of tsunami originating at wocations away from convergent boundaries incwude Storegga about 8,000 years ago, Grand Banks 1929, Papua New Guinea 1998 (Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis came from eardqwakes which destabiwised sediments, causing dem to fwow into de ocean and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before travewwing transoceanic distances.
The cause of de Storegga sediment faiwure is unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah. Possibiwities incwude an overwoading of de sediments, an eardqwake or a rewease of gas hydrates (medane etc.).
The 1960 Vawdivia eardqwake (Mw 9.5), 1964 Awaska eardqwake (Mw 9.2), 2004 Indian Ocean eardqwake (Mw 9.2), and 2011 Tōhoku eardqwake (Mw9.0) are recent exampwes of powerfuw megadrust eardqwakes dat generated tsunamis (known as tewetsunamis) dat can cross entire oceans. Smawwer (Mw 4.2) eardqwakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (cawwed wocaw and regionaw tsunamis) dat can onwy devastate nearby coasts, but can do so in onwy a few minutes.
In de 1950s, it was discovered dat warger tsunamis dan had previouswy been bewieved possibwe couwd be caused by giant submarine wandswides. These rapidwy dispwace warge water vowumes, as energy transfers to de water at a rate faster dan de water can absorb. Their existence was confirmed in 1958, when a giant wandswide in Lituya Bay, Awaska, caused de highest wave ever recorded, which had a height of 524 metres (over 1700 feet).[28] The wave did not travew far, as it struck wand awmost immediatewy. Two peopwe fishing in de bay were kiwwed, but anoder boat managed to ride de wave.
Anoder wandswide-tsunami event occurred in 1963 when a massive wandswide from Monte Toc entered de Vajont Dam in Itawy. The resuwting wave surged over de 262 m (860 ft) high dam by 250 metres (820 ft) and destroyed severaw towns. Around 2,000 peopwe died.[29][30] Scientists named dese waves megatsunamis.
Some geowogists cwaim dat warge wandswides from vowcanic iswands, e.g. Cumbre Vieja on La Pawma in de Canary Iswands, may be abwe to generate megatsunamis dat can cross oceans, but dis is disputed by many oders.
In generaw, wandswides generate dispwacements mainwy in de shawwower parts of de coastwine, and dere is conjecture about de nature of warge wandswides dat enter water. This has been shown to subseqwentwy affect water in encwosed bays and wakes, but a wandswide warge enough to cause a transoceanic tsunami has not occurred widin recorded history. Susceptibwe wocations are bewieved to be de Big Iswand of Hawaii, Fogo in de Cape Verde Iswands, La Reunion in de Indian Ocean, and Cumbre Vieja on de iswand of La Pawma in de Canary Iswands; awong wif oder vowcanic ocean iswands. This is because warge masses of rewativewy unconsowidated vowcanic materiaw occurs on de fwanks and in some cases detachment pwanes are bewieved to be devewoping. However, dere is growing controversy about how dangerous dese swopes actuawwy are.[31]
Some meteorowogicaw conditions, especiawwy rapid changes in barometric pressure, as seen wif de passing of a front, can dispwace bodies of water enough to cause trains of waves wif wavewengds comparabwe to seismic tsunamis, but usuawwy wif wower energies. These are essentiawwy dynamicawwy eqwivawent to seismic tsunamis, de onwy differences being dat meteotsunamis wack de transoceanic reach of significant seismic tsunamis, and dat de force dat dispwaces de water is sustained over some wengf of time such dat meteotsunamis can't be modewwed as having been caused instantaneouswy. In spite of deir wower energies, on shorewines where dey can be ampwified by resonance dey are sometimes powerfuw enough to cause wocawised damage and potentiaw for woss of wife. They have been documented in many pwaces, incwuding de Great Lakes, de Aegean Sea, de Engwish Channew, and de Bawearic Iswands, where dey are common enough to have a wocaw name, rissaga. In Siciwy dey are cawwed marubbio and in Nagasaki Bay dey are cawwed abiki. Some exampwes of destructive meteotsunamis incwude 31 March 1979 at Nagasaki and 15 June 2006 at Menorca, de watter causing damage in de tens of miwwions of euros.[32]
Meteotsunamis shouwd not be confused wif storm surges, which are wocaw increases in sea wevew associated wif de wow barometric pressure of passing tropicaw cycwones, nor shouwd dey be confused wif setup, de temporary wocaw raising of sea wevew caused by strong on-shore winds. Storm surges and setup are awso dangerous causes of coastaw fwooding in severe weader but deir dynamics are compwetewy unrewated to tsunami waves.[32] They are unabwe to propagate beyond deir sources, as waves do.
Man-made or triggered tsunamis
There have been studies of de potentiaw of de induction of and at weast one actuaw attempt to create tsunami waves as a tectonic weapon.
In Worwd War II, de New Zeawand Miwitary Forces initiated Project Seaw, which attempted to create smaww tsunamis wif expwosives in de area of today's Shakespear Regionaw Park; de attempt faiwed.[33]
There has been considerabwe specuwation on de possibiwity of using nucwear weapons to cause tsunamis near an enemy coastwine. Even during Worwd War II consideration of de idea using conventionaw expwosives was expwored. Nucwear testing in de Pacific Proving Ground by de United States seemed to generate poor resuwts. Operation Crossroads fired two 20 kiwotonnes of TNT (84 TJ) bombs, one in de air and one underwater, above and bewow de shawwow (50 m (160 ft)) waters of de Bikini Atoww wagoon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Fired about 6 km (3.7 mi) from de nearest iswand, de waves dere were no higher dan 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) upon reaching de shorewine. Oder underwater tests, mainwy Hardtack I/Wahoo (deep water) and Hardtack I/Umbrewwa (shawwow water) confirmed de resuwts. Anawysis of de effects of shawwow and deep underwater expwosions indicate dat de energy of de expwosions doesn't easiwy generate de kind of deep, aww-ocean waveforms which are tsunamis; most of de energy creates steam, causes verticaw fountains above de water, and creates compressionaw waveforms.[34] Tsunamis are hawwmarked by permanent warge verticaw dispwacements of very warge vowumes of water which do not occur in expwosions.
When de wave enters shawwow water, it swows down and its ampwitude (height) increases.
The wave furder swows and ampwifies as it hits wand. Onwy de wargest waves crest.
Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: de smashing force of a waww of water travewwing at high speed, and de destructive power of a warge vowume of water draining off de wand and carrying a warge amount of debris wif it, even wif waves dat do not appear to be warge.
Whiwe everyday wind waves have a wavewengf (from crest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height of roughwy 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in de deep ocean has a much warger wavewengf of up to 200 kiwometres (120 mi). Such a wave travews at weww over 800 kiwometres per hour (500 mph), but owing to de enormous wavewengf de wave osciwwation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to compwete a cycwe and has an ampwitude of onwy about 1 metre (3.3 ft).[35] This makes tsunamis difficuwt to detect over deep water, where ships are unabwe to feew deir passage.
The vewocity of a tsunami can be cawcuwated by obtaining de sqware root of de depf of de water in metres muwtipwied by de acceweration due to gravity (approximated to 10 m/s2). For exampwe, if de Pacific Ocean is considered to have a depf of 5000 metres, de vewocity of a tsunami wouwd be de sqware root of √(5000 × 10) = √50000 = ~224 metres per second (735 feet per second), which eqwates to a speed of ~806 kiwometres per hour or about 500 miwes per hour. This is de formuwa used for cawcuwating de vewocity of shawwow-water waves. Even de deep ocean is shawwow in dis sense, because a tsunami wave is so wong (horizontawwy from crest to crest) by comparison, uh-hah-hah-hah.
The reason for de Japanese name "harbour wave" is dat sometimes a viwwage's fishermen wouwd saiw out, and encounter no unusuaw waves whiwe out at sea fishing, and come back to wand to find deir viwwage devastated by a huge wave.
As de tsunami approaches de coast and de waters become shawwow, wave shoawing compresses de wave and its speed decreases bewow 80 kiwometres per hour (50 mph). Its wavewengf diminishes to wess dan 20 kiwometres (12 mi) and its ampwitude grows enormouswy – in accord wif Green's waw. Since de wave stiww has de same very wong period, de tsunami may take minutes to reach fuww height. Except for de very wargest tsunamis, de approaching wave does not break, but rader appears wike a fast-moving tidaw bore.[36] Open bays and coastwines adjacent to very deep water may shape de tsunami furder into a step-wike wave wif a steep-breaking front.
When de tsunami's wave peak reaches de shore, de resuwting temporary rise in sea wevew is termed run up. Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea wevew.[36] A warge tsunami may feature muwtipwe waves arriving over a period of hours, wif significant time between de wave crests. The first wave to reach de shore may not have de highest run up.[37]
About 80% of tsunamis occur in de Pacific Ocean, but dey are possibwe wherever dere are warge bodies of water, incwuding wakes. They are caused by eardqwakes, wandswides, vowcanic expwosions, gwacier cawvings, and bowides.
An iwwustration of de rhydmic "drawback" of surface water associated wif a wave. It fowwows dat a very warge drawback may herawd de arrivaw of a very warge wave.
Aww waves have a positive and negative peak; dat is, a ridge and a trough. In de case of a propagating wave wike a tsunami, eider may be de first to arrive. If de first part to arrive at shore is de ridge, a massive breaking wave or sudden fwooding wiww be de first effect noticed on wand. However, if de first part to arrive is a trough, a drawback wiww occur as de shorewine recedes dramaticawwy, exposing normawwy submerged areas. Drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and peopwe unaware of de danger sometimes remain near de shore to satisfy deir curiosity or to cowwect fish from de exposed seabed.
A typicaw wave period for a damaging tsunami is about twewve minutes. Thus, de sea recedes in de drawback phase, wif areas weww bewow sea wevew exposed after dree minutes. For de next six minutes, de wave trough buiwds into a ridge which may fwood de coast, and destruction ensues. During de next six minutes, de wave changes from a ridge to a trough, and de fwood waters recede in a second drawback. Victims and debris may be swept into de ocean, uh-hah-hah-hah. The process repeats wif succeeding waves.
Scawes of intensity and magnitude
As wif eardqwakes, severaw attempts have been made to set up scawes of tsunami intensity or magnitude to awwow comparison between different events.[38]
Intensity scawes
The first scawes used routinewy to measure de intensity of tsunami were de Sieberg-Ambraseys scawe, used in de Mediterranean Sea and de Imamura-Iida intensity scawe, used in de Pacific Ocean, uh-hah-hah-hah. The watter scawe was modified by Sowoviev, who cawcuwated de Tsunami intensity I according to de formuwa
where is de average wave height awong de nearest coast. This scawe, known as de Sowoviev-Imamura tsunami intensity scawe, is used in de gwobaw tsunami catawogues compiwed by de NGDC/NOAA[39] and de Novosibirsk Tsunami Laboratory as de main parameter for de size of de tsunami.
In 2013, fowwowing de intensivewy studied tsunamis in 2004 and 2011, a new 12 point scawe was proposed, de Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scawe (ITIS-2012), intended to match as cwosewy as possibwe to de modified ESI2007 and EMS eardqwake intensity scawes.[40][41]
Magnitude scawes
The first scawe dat genuinewy cawcuwated a magnitude for a tsunami, rader dan an intensity at a particuwar wocation was de ML scawe proposed by Murty & Loomis based on de potentiaw energy.[38] Difficuwties in cawcuwating de potentiaw energy of de tsunami mean dat dis scawe is rarewy used. Abe introduced de tsunami magnitude scawe , cawcuwated from,
where h is de maximum tsunami-wave ampwitude (in m) measured by a tide gauge at a distance R from de epicentre, a, b and D are constants used to make de Mt scawe match as cwosewy as possibwe wif de moment magnitude scawe.[42]
Tsunami heights
There are different term being used to describe different characteristic of tsunami in term of deir height, and each of dem are used to refer to different characteristic of a tsunami.[43][44][45][46]
• Ampwitude, Wave Height, or Tsunami Height: Ampwitude of Tsunami refer to its height rewative to de normaw sea wevew. It is usuawwy measured at sea wevew, and it is different from de crest-to-trough height which is commonwy used to measure oder type of wave height.[47]
• Run-up Height, or Inundation Height: The height reached by tsunami on ground above sea wevew, Maximum run-up height refer to de maximum height reached by water above sea wevew, which is sometime reported as de maximum height reached by a tsunami.
• Fwow Depf: Refer to de height of tsunami above ground, regardwess of height of de wocation or sea wevew.
• (Maximum) Water Levew: Maximum height above sea wevew as seen from trace or water mark. Different from maximum run-up height in de sense dat dey are not necessariwy water marks at inundation wine/wimit.
Warnings and predictions
Tsunami warning sign
Drawbacks can serve as a brief warning. Peopwe who observe drawback (many survivors report an accompanying sucking sound), can survive onwy if dey immediatewy run for high ground or seek de upper fwoors of nearby buiwdings. In 2004, ten-year-owd Tiwwy Smif of Surrey, Engwand, was on Maikhao beach in Phuket, Thaiwand wif her parents and sister, and having wearned about tsunamis recentwy in schoow, towd her famiwy dat a tsunami might be imminent. Her parents warned oders minutes before de wave arrived, saving dozens of wives. She credited her geography teacher, Andrew Kearney.
In de 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami drawback was not reported on de African coast or any oder east-facing coasts dat it reached. This was because de wave moved downwards on de eastern side of de fauwt wine and upwards on de western side. The western puwse hit coastaw Africa and oder western areas.
A tsunami cannot be precisewy predicted, even if de magnitude and wocation of an eardqwake is known, uh-hah-hah-hah. Geowogists, oceanographers, and seismowogists anawyse each eardqwake and based on many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However, dere are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and automated systems can provide warnings immediatewy after an eardqwake in time to save wives. One of de most successfuw systems uses bottom pressure sensors, attached to buoys, which constantwy monitor de pressure of de overwying water cowumn, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Regions wif a high tsunami risk typicawwy use tsunami warning systems to warn de popuwation before de wave reaches wand. On de west coast of de United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs indicate evacuation routes. In Japan, de community is weww-educated about eardqwakes and tsunamis, and awong de Japanese shorewines de tsunami warning signs are reminders of de naturaw hazards togeder wif a network of warning sirens, typicawwy at de top of de cwiff of surroundings hiwws.[48]
The Pacific Tsunami Warning System is based in Honowuwu, Hawaiʻi. It monitors Pacific Ocean seismic activity. A sufficientwy warge eardqwake magnitude and oder information triggers a tsunami warning. Whiwe de subduction zones around de Pacific are seismicawwy active, not aww eardqwakes generate tsunami. Computers assist in anawysing de tsunami risk of every eardqwake dat occurs in de Pacific Ocean and de adjoining wand masses.
As a direct resuwt of de Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisaw of de tsunami dreat for aww coastaw areas is being undertaken by nationaw governments and de United Nations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is being instawwed in de Indian Ocean, uh-hah-hah-hah.
One of de deep water buoys used in de DART tsunami warning system
Computer modews can predict tsunami arrivaw, usuawwy widin minutes of de arrivaw time. Bottom pressure sensors can reway information in reaw time. Based on dese pressure readings and oder seismic information and de seafwoor's shape (badymetry) and coastaw topography, de modews estimate de ampwitude and surge height of de approaching tsunami. Aww Pacific Rim countries cowwaborate in de Tsunami Warning System and most reguwarwy practise evacuation and oder procedures. In Japan, such preparation is mandatory for government, wocaw audorities, emergency services and de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Some zoowogists hypodesise dat some animaw species have an abiwity to sense subsonic Rayweigh waves from an eardqwake or a tsunami. If correct, monitoring deir behaviour couwd provide advance warning of eardqwakes, tsunami etc. However, de evidence is controversiaw and is not widewy accepted. There are unsubstantiated cwaims about de Lisbon qwake dat some animaws escaped to higher ground, whiwe many oder animaws in de same areas drowned. The phenomenon was awso noted by media sources in Sri Lanka in de 2004 Indian Ocean eardqwake.[49][50] It is possibwe dat certain animaws (e.g., ewephants) may have heard de sounds of de tsunami as it approached de coast. The ewephants' reaction was to move away from de approaching noise. By contrast, some humans went to de shore to investigate and many drowned as a resuwt.
Awong de United States west coast, in addition to sirens, warnings are sent on tewevision and radio via de Nationaw Weader Service, using de Emergency Awert System.
Forecast of tsunami attack probabiwity
Kunihiko Shimazaki (University of Tokyo), a member of Eardqwake Research committee of The Headqwarters for Eardqwake Research Promotion of Japanese government, mentioned de pwan for pubwic announcement of tsunami attack probabiwity forecast at Japan Nationaw Press Cwub on 12 May 2011. The forecast incwudes tsunami height, attack area and occurrence probabiwity widin 100 years ahead. The forecast wouwd integrate de scientific knowwedge of recent interdiscipwinarity and aftermaf of de 2011 Tōhoku eardqwake and tsunami. As de pwan, announcement wiww be avaiwabwe from 2014.[51][52][53]
Photo of seawall, with building in background
A seawaww at Tsu, Japan
In some tsunami-prone countries, eardqwake engineering measures have been taken to reduce de damage caused onshore.
Japan, where tsunami science and response measures first began fowwowing a disaster in 1896, has produced ever-more ewaborate countermeasures and response pwans.[54] The country has buiwt many tsunami wawws of up to 12 metres (39 ft) high to protect popuwated coastaw areas. Oder wocawities have buiwt fwoodgates of up to 15.5 metres (51 ft) high and channews to redirect de water from incoming tsunami. However, deir effectiveness has been qwestioned, as tsunami often overtop de barriers.
The Fukushima Daiichi nucwear disaster was directwy triggered by de 2011 Tōhoku eardqwake and tsunami, when waves exceeded de height of de pwant's sea waww.[55] Iwate Prefecture, which is an area at high risk from tsunami, had tsunami barriers wawws (Taro sea waww) totawwing 25 kiwometres (16 mi) wong at coastaw towns. The 2011 tsunami toppwed more dan 50% of de wawws and caused catastrophic damage.[56]
The Okushiri, Hokkaidō tsunami which struck Okushiri Iswand of Hokkaidō widin two to five minutes of de eardqwake on Juwy 12, 1993, created waves as much as 30 metres (100 ft) taww—as high as a 10-story buiwding. The port town of Aonae was compwetewy surrounded by a tsunami waww, but de waves washed right over de waww and destroyed aww de wood-framed structures in de area. The waww may have succeeded in swowing down and moderating de height of de tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and woss of wife.[57]
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38. ^ a b Gusiakov V. "Tsunami Quantification: how we measure de overaww size of tsunami (Review of tsunami intensity and magnitude scawes)" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-10-18.
39. ^ Center, Nationaw Geophysicaw Data. "NGDC/WDS Gwobaw Historicaw Tsunami Database – NCEI". Retrieved 3 November 2016.
40. ^ Lekkas E.; Andreadakis E.; Kostaki I. & Kapourani E. (2013). "A Proposaw for a New Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scawe (ITIS‐2012)". Buwwetin Seismowogicaw Society of America. 103 (2B): 1493–1502. Bibcode:2013BuSSA.103.1493L. doi:10.1785/0120120099.
41. ^ Katsetsiadou, K.N., Andreadakis, E. and Lekkas, E., 2016. Tsunami intensity mapping: appwying de integrated Tsunami Intensity Scawe (ITIS2012) on Ishinomaki Bay Coast after de mega-tsunami of Tohoku, March 11, 2011. Research in Geophysics, 5(1).
42. ^ Abe K. (1995). Estimate of Tsunami Run-up Heights from Eardqwake Magnitudes. Tsunami: progress in prediction, disaster prevention, and warning. ISBN 978-0-7923-3483-5. Retrieved 2009-10-18.
43. ^ Tsunami Gwossary
44. ^ Tsunami Terms
45. ^ 津波について
46. ^ 津波の高さの定義
47. ^ Tsunami Ampwitude
48. ^ Chanson, H. (2010). Tsunami Warning Signs on de Enshu Coast of Japan. 78. Shore & Beach. pp. 52–54. ISSN 0037-4237.
49. ^ Lambourne, Hewen (2005-03-27). "Tsunami: Anatomy of a disaster". BBC.
50. ^ Kenneawwy, Christine (2004-12-30). "Surviving de Tsunami: What Sri Lanka's animaws knew dat humans didn't". Swate Magazine.
51. ^ Forecast of eardqwake probabiwity is widin 30 years ahead, however Tsunami attack probabiwity is much wower dan eardqwake so dat de pwan is set to be widin 100 years ahead. Yomiuri Shimbun 2011-05-13 ver.13S page 2, 津波の襲来確率、初の公表へ…地震調査委員会 [Newwy pubwic announce of Tsunami attack probabiwity...Eardqwake Research committee of Japan]. Yomiuri Shimbun (in Japanese). 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2011-05-13.
52. ^ IndiaTimes Kunihiko Shimazaki speaks during a press conference in Tokyo Thursday, May 12, 2011
53. ^ Margie Mason (2011-05-12). "Experts: Earwy warnings mitigated Japan disaster". Associated Press.
54. ^ "Journawist's Resource: Research for Reporting, from Harvard Shorenstein Center". 2012-05-30. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
55. ^ Phiwwip Lipscy, Kenji Kushida, and Trevor Incerti. 2013. "The Fukushima Disaster and Japan’s Nucwear Pwant Vuwnerabiwity in Comparative Perspective". Environmentaw Science and Technowogy 47 (May), 6082–6088.
56. ^ Fukada, Takahiro (21 September 2011). "Iwate fisheries continue struggwe to recover". The Japan Times. p. 3. Retrieved 2016-09-18.
57. ^ George Pararas-Carayannis. "The Eardqwake and Tsunami of Juwy 12, 1993 in de Sea of Japan/East Sea". Retrieved 2016-09-18.
Furder reading
Externaw winks
Retrieved from "https://en,"
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Eurasian Siskin
For a number of years the sociability of large birds such as swans, geese and members of the crow family has been studied and is well understood by scientists.
However, until now, these stable, long-lasting bonds had not been observed in smaller birds. But a recent study published in Bird Study has revealed that Eurasian siskins (Carduelis spinus) have a tendency to travel long distances in groups over the course of several years.
Researchers from the Natural Sciences Museum of Barcelona who led the study had previously discovered that female Eurasian siskins in captivity prefer to mate with males they know but they needed to prove that these birds, when in their natural habitats, live together for periods of time that are long enough for them to interact and get to know each other.
Dr. Juan Carlos Senar, from the museum’s Group of Evolutionary and Behavioural Ecology and lead author of the paper, said, “In this study we show how the Eurasian siskin is able to form stable group relationships lasting for periods of several years in addition to travelling in each other' company over distances spanning more than 1,000 km.”
The team examined data from the European Union for Bird Ringing (EURING), which is the European institution responsible for banding and tracking birds, that recorded over 42,000 Eurasian siskins between 1907 and 2011.
For accuracy the scientists limited their study to those birds that had travelled distances greater than 50 km from the place they had been banded which is the distance that exceeds the number of kilometres Eurasian siskins tend to travel in a single day.
The findings demonstrated that siskins can remain together in the same group for up to four years and that they can travel with other individuals for distances up toe 1,300 km. The records shoed that they could either be single-sex or mixed-sex groups.
Dr. Senar explained, “What is important is that several groups of individuals were detected travelling together for hundreds of kilometres, and that these groups included both males with females (possible partners), as well as single-sex groups, thus implying that these bonds are not only formed between mating partners, but that they can also form between groups of friends with social ties."
Until now, some studies had confirmed a marked sociability in small birds such as the pine siskin (Carduelis pinus) and the common redpoll (Acanthis flammea). However, these studies had been conducted over the course of one winter so the data corresponded to relatively short travel distances and a period of time of only a few months.
Dr. Senar and his team wanted to replicate these results in the Eurasian siskin by studying the journeys made during the entire biological period and throughout the lifetime of an individual.
He added, "This study conducted on the Eurasian siskin also carries the added importance of the fact that this species, unlike the European goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) or the European greenfinch (Carduelis chloris), is nomadic, meaning that these specimens fly to a different destination each year," indicates the scientist.
What this means if that two individual birds are recaptured together hundreds of kilometres from where they were originally captured this is not because both were going to independently spend the winter in the same place and coincidentally happened to bet there, but rather, they would have purposely travelled together.
The study also revealed that these individuals prefer to mate with others that they are familiar with, something that may be an important mechanism to help them adjust to new places. For this to be possible, these small birds must interact with each other long periods of time which is not just a characteristic of large birds as previously thought.
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Your friend Carol loves to prepare gifts of marbles in bags for children. On Monday, she has five red marbles, six blue marbles and seven white ones.
How many different bags can she pack so each bag will have a different collection of marbles? Two bags are different if for at least one color, one bag has a different number of marbles from the other. For example, a bag with two red marbles and one blue is different from a bag having one red and one blue or a bag having one red and two blue.
Solution to Warm-Up:
For brevity, the colors will be represented by their first letters: R (red), B (blue), and W (white). The commas indicate distinct bags. Carol can pack 10 different bags:
R, B, W, RR, BB, WW, RB, BW, RW, BWW.
That was just the warm-up. Now let's try something more challenging.
1. On Tuesday, she again starts with five red marbles, six blue marbles and seven white ones. In order to give the children more opportunities to trade, she wants to pack the bags so that each bag differs by at least two "moves" from any other bag. A move consists of inserting a marble into a bag or removing a marble from a bag. So for example, R and RR differ by only one move (insert R). On the other hand, RW and RB differ by two (remove W and insert B). How many different bags of marbles can Carol create that differ by at least two moves?
2. On Wednesday, Carol is feeling physically better, but she is troubled by the fact that she didn't select the marbles herself. She knows she has 18 of them in total. She also knows that there is at least one red, at least one blue, and at least one white. Knowing only this much and before seeing the marbles, Carol receives a phone call. "Can you guarantee to be able to give each child a bag with a different collection of marbles (i.e. at least one move apart) if there are eight children at a party? If not, then can you make this guarantee if there are seven children? If so, then how about nine?" How should Carol answer?
3. On Thursday, she is in the same situation as Wednesday with respect to her knowledge of her marble supply (she knows only that she has 18 marbles and at least one of each color) and in the same situation as Tuesday as far as her wanting the children to trade. So she wants each gift to differ from every other by at least two moves. How many children can she guarantee to prepare bags for in that case?
4. On Friday, her friend Diane packs the bags. Diane assures Carol (i) that every bag contains a different (by at least one move) collection of marbles, (ii) that there were 18 marbles to start with, (iii) that there are more whites than blues and more blues than reds, (iv) and that the maximum number of different bags she could pack was seven. Assuming that Diane is an extremely capable packer, what is the maximum number of red marbles that there could have been?
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Moose are the largest animals of the deer species.
Moose Activities for Kids
by Zora Hughes
For kids, it can be easy to get animals like deer, elk, reindeer and moose mixed up, being that they all belong to the same family. Help your kids learn the differences between these similar animals by focusing on each one separately. If you are focusing on moose one day, plan a variety of kid-friendly educational activities that teach your kids all about moose, their characteristics and habitats.
1. Books about Moose
Read both non-fiction and fiction books that feature moose and help your kids learn more about them. For kids 4 and older, read "Welcome to the World of Moose," by Diane Swanson, which uses photographs and interesting facts to teach kids about moose. Also for kids 4 and older, the fiction book, "If You Give a Moose a Muffin," by Laura Joffe Numeroff, follows a little boy trying to be nice to a guest moose who ends up needing a lot more than just a muffin.
2. Moose Arts and Crafts
Help your kids make paper moose faces using their hands and feet. Let your kids press one bare foot into brown paint, then step onto a white sheet of construction paper. They can then press both hands into the paint and press them on either side of the heels to make the antlers. When the paint dries, your kids can add googly eyes and a nose to their moose creations. You can also have the kids make paper bag moose puppets by cutting out a long, oval nose shape from brown construction paper and pasting it to the bottom flap of a brown paper bag. Have the kids cut out antler shapes from light brown construction paper as well to paste to the corners of the bag for the antlers.
3. Moose-themed Games
Young children can play a moose version of "duck, duck, goose," using "deer, deer, moose," or a similar animal. They could also call out other "M" animals, like monkey and mouse, to trick the kids into thinking they are going to say moose. To play a habitat-needs game, divide the kids in half and line them up a few yards apart, facing away from each other. One line of kids will be moose and the other line will be habitat needs. The moose kids will each choose between needing food by holding their stomach, water by putting their hand to their mouths or shelter by holding their hands over their heads. The other kids will then choose which habitat need they wish to be. When you say go, have the kids turn around and face each other and the moose run to the person who matches the need they have. Whoever is left without a match is eliminated or joins the habitat-need side.
4. Visit Real Moose
Take your kids to a zoo near you that has moose, allowing your kids to see these gigantic animals up close. If you live in a state where moose are prevalent, such as in Alaska and northern states that border Canada, you could get lucky and spot moose in their natural habitats on a trip to a state park or national park. For those that don't live near any zoos or areas that have moose, you can also take your kids on a virtual tour online to look at learn more about moose, or pick up some educational wildllife DVDs that feature moose.
About the Author
Photo Credits
• Jupiterimages/ Images
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Kanga (sometimes known as khanga or leso) is a colorful popular garment worn by women and occasionally by men throughout Eastern Africa. It is a piece of printed cotton fabric, often with a border along all four sides (called pindo in Swahili), a central part (mji) which differs in design from the borders and the writing (jina or ujumbe). The mji and jina are two features that usually give the kanga its local name, popularity and meaning. Kangas are usually rectangular in shape, each with their own ‘name’ or slogan written in the Kiswahili language in the same position in every design printed in a variety of designs and colors. Kangas are artifacts of the Swahili culture and as such are designed with a lot of care to appeal to its users. Kangas are sold in matching pairs- called “doti” and are mainly worn by women as a shawl or headdress. Men are allowed only to use kangas inside the house.
Early designs of kangas had a border and a pattern of black and white spots on a dark background. The buyers thus began calling these early designs “KANGA” after the noisy, sociable guinea-fowl that has elegant black and white dotted colors. It is important to note that kanga designs have evolved over the years, from simple dotted black and white shapes to more elaborate patterns with varying motif and color made from a variety of fabrics.
Kangas are extremely popular throughout East Africa not only as a form of clothing but for their multiple uses; no-one can ever have too many! There is a common Swahili proverb that says "a woman can't be happy until she has got a thousand kangas." The first Kangas would have been without any writing, but it is claimed that writings may have been added to the design around 1910. This fashion, it is claimed, was began by a famous trader in Mombasa, Kenya called Kaderdina Harjee Essak. Earlier forms of writings, sayings, aphorisms, and slogans and proverbs that were used on kangas were mainly in Arabic script and later there was the use of Roman script. It is vital to note that new designs of kangas keep appearing each year and they take on various forms ranging from simple to more abstract and intricate forms or pictures depicting people’s daily activities in East Africa. There are distinct and noticeable regional differences. For instance, most kangas in Kenya have mottos on them while those made in Tanzania commemorate social, political events and iconic figures.
In the past kangas were confined to coastal communities of Tanzania and Kenya (e.g. Zanzibar, Pemba, Mombasa, Lamu etc). Nowadays they are worn throughout East Africa and some other parts of Africa like Madagascar, Zambia, Malawi, Comoros Islands, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi among others. Today, kangas are worn by women of all faiths and play a key role in all major life ceremonies like – birth, puberty, marriage and death. Sometimes they are also used for everyday functions. Kangas originated from the East African coast in the mid 19th century. It is not clear whether the origin was in Mombasa or Zanzibar. Historically, hand-stamped varieties of kangas have been locally produced in Eastern Africa for several decades, though until the late 1960s machine-printed versions were mainly produced overseas, first in Europe, then later in India and Far East (China and Japan). At present, kangas are produced in textile industries in Tanzania and Kenya and other African countries as well as imported from overseas.
Kanga as a Means of Communication
Apart from its protective and decorative role, kangas are all about communicating the message. The writing that are printed on the kanga is usually of central significance and it is the one that makes people buy the kanga. Messages are often in the form of riddles, saying, aphorisms, metaphors, a poetic phrase or proverbs. It is important to note that most writings use proverbs than other phrases. Over the years kangas, because of their dominance of fashion industry in East Africa, have become a valuable medium of expressing personal, political, social and religious ideas and aspirations in Eastern Africa.
Kangas are often traded or purchased for friends and family for the sheer beauty of the cloth, and to communicate messages implied by the phrase on the cloth. In this way, the kangas are used as a form of potent, indirect and direct communication. Because of the significance of the messages written on them and their communication power, Swahili speaking people do not just buy kangas because of their color or beauty but are mostly lured by its message. This message can be a message of love, comfort, educational, or thank you. There are some messages that indicate that the person wearing the kanga is not in good terms with another person. Kangas that have abusive messages are never given out as presents. Apart form being used as shawls, headscarfs, veils or beddings, kangas have many other uses. Kangas can be used as curtains/blinders, bed covers or table cloths, floor mats, prayer mats and baby coats as well as gifts to significant others. The latter usually have messages of love showing how much the person giving the kanga values the person receiving it. Women in rural areas use kangas as aprons when doing farm work and when fetching water. Further, Muslim women use kangas as veils during prayer sessions.
Just like in western campaign elections where print t-shirts are used for sending their messages to voters, kangas are an important tool for mobilizing people in East Africa during elections seasons and other political engagements. Whereas t-shirts apply equally well to men and women, kangas are more appealing to women. Kangas are often used in political rallies as a form of identity for people supporting a particular party or candidate. In addition, they are also used to mobilize people during public health campaigns as well as creating awareness on various developmental programs. In conclusion, kangas as an art form as well as beautiful, convenient garments, have become an integral and significant part of East African culture.
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No second helpings
Is there a food that once made you so sick the mere sight of it now makes your stomach turn? While food poisoning is an unpleasant experience, it could be the ticket to long term survival for one culturally significant lizard.
The yellow-spotted monitor or floodplain goanna is an important source of bush tucker for Indigenous people in the Kimberley and maintaining their populations keeps cultural practices and stories strong. However one invader, the cane toad, is having a significant impact on predators’ populations. Goannas are especially susceptible to the impacts of cane toads because they are top-level predators and can locate and consume the poisonous toads even when the toads are in low densities.
Fortunately, NERP researchers discovered a successful way of training goannas not to eat the poisonous pests, following a study in a remote Kimberley floodplain which began in 2013.
“We encouraged a group of goannas to eat young cane toads to provoke a kind of food poisoning response,” said lead researcher Georgia Ward-Fear from Sydney University.
“Juvenile toads are less toxic than adults, so it was enough to make the goannas sick, but not kill them.”
Around 65 goannas had high frequency transmitters fitted to their tails and the Balanggarra rangers used radio receivers and aerials to track the goannas while foraging. Once located, the goannas were offered a small cane toad dangling by a fine cord from a fishing rod. Their response to either eat or reject the cane toad was then recorded. The rangers continued to track the goannas over 18 months as cane toads began to invade the floodplain.
“At the end of the study, half of the trained goannas had avoided eating the toads. In contrast, almost all of the untrained goannas died within four months of the toads arriving,” said Dr Ward-Fear.
How can we use the research?
Researcher Georgia Ward-Fear holds a yellow-spotted monitor
Researcher Georgia Ward-Fear holds a yellow-spotted monitor, photo Georgia Ward-Fear
Dr Ward-Fear says the research shows taste aversion training can prevent goannas from eating larger toads that could kill them.
“This study demonstrates that in-situ aversion training (releasing small toads in advance of the main invasion front) offers a logistically simple way to buffer the impact of invasive toads on large monitor lizards in the tropics,” said Dr Ward-Fear.
“We don’t expect a 100% increase in survival of breeding adults, but a 50% or even 20% increase in survival could be enough to buffer the impacts and allow the populations to recover far more rapidly than current trends. We also know that many other native species have the capacity to learn in the same way if given the opportunity.”
The project team is currently in talks with government, NRM groups and Indigenous landholders about how best to apply the research. It’s hoped the research will direct future conservation strategies ahead of the cane toad invasion.
“Losing larger predators such as goannas from the landscape destabilises ecosystems, especially in tropical Australia where these systems are extremely fragile. That’s why it’s so important to preserve this species where we can,” said Dr Ward-Fear.
Excitingly, Professor Rick Shine who led this research as part of a larger NERP project, was recently awarded the Prime Minister’s Prize for Science for his achievements in this field.
You can read more about the research here.
Top Image: Yellow-spotted monitor, photo: Georgia Ward-Fear
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Armored Spiky Worm Had 30 Legs, Will Haunt Your Nightmares
Post 6987
Armored Spiky Worm Had 30 Legs, Will Haunt Your Nightmares
A spiky, wormlike creature with 30 legs — 18 clawed rear legs and 12 featherlike front legs that likely helped it filter food from the water — once lived in the ancient oceans of the early Cambrian period, about 518 million years ago, a new study finds.
The critter is one of the first known animals on Earth to develop protective armor and to sport specialized limbs that likely helped it catch food, the researchers said. This newfound species lived during the Cambrian explosion, a time of rapid evolutionary development, they said.
“It’s a bit of a large animal for this time period,” said one of the study’s lead researchers, Javier Ortega-Hernández, a research fellow in paleobiology at the University of Cambridge. “The largest specimen is just under 10 centimeters [4 inches], which, for a wormy thing, is quite mighty.” [See Images of the Spiky Worm & Other Cambrian Creatures]
Why June 30 Will Be 1 Second Longer
Post 6986
Why June 30 Will Be 1 Second Longer
2015 is not a leap year, but it does have a leap second, set to take place Tuesday (June 30) at 7:59:60 p.m. EDT (23:59:60 GMT).
“Earth’s rotation is gradually slowing down a bit, so leap seconds are a way to account for that,” Daniel MacMillan of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, said in a statement.
Ask any person the length of a day, and she’ll say 24 hours, which equates to 86,400 seconds. But the time it takes for Earth to rotate on its axis relative to the sun, called a mean solar day (or the average length of a day) is roughly 86,400.002 seconds. This happens because Earth’s rotation is slowing down, thanks to a kind of braking force caused by the gravitational tug of war among Earth, the sun and the moon, researchers at NASA said.
These Webspinning Insects May Look Like Spiders’ Prey—But They’re Not
Post 6985
Esther Inglis-Arkell
These Webspinning Insects May Look Like Spiders' Prey—But They're Not
If you’ve wandered through a wood and idly peeled back the bark of a tree, you may have found a little expanse of silk, like a nest, with insects stuck inside. If you thought that those insects were the prey of a spider, you might have been right, or you might have been looking at the only known stop on an early evolutionary pathway.
Embioptera are called “webspinners” by scientists, and “ew” by everyone else. They have specialized structures on their legs that produce silk. There are no other insects, or even fossils of insects, that have the same structures. Webspinners use these silk-spinning legs to make their often communal homes. They build expanses of silk that have galleries and tunnels. The fact that they spend their whole lives in these tunnels is probably what gives the embioptera the ability to crawl backwards as fast as they can crawl forwards—Exorcist-style. And they can crawl fast, when they want to. The reason they often don’t move when you find their homes is they tend to play dead when discovered—possibly hoping whatever found them will think they’re just another sucked-dry victim of a spider.
Even quick research on embioptera gives you a wealth of disturbing details. Yes, the females do care for their young when the young are in the larval stage, but they often do so in huge, elaborate maze-like structures that only they can navigate. The males sometimes have wings, but sometimes do not. If they don’t, they have to crawl to the nearest nest to mate, and so tend to mate, over generations, with their own close relatives. Even the winged males are creepy. They have mouth parts—not mouths, mouth parts. After they’ve gone through several transformations to reach adulthood, males never eat again. Their mouth parts are solely there to grab hold of their mates for some insect sex. Once they’re done, they obligingly starve, often falling prey to their mate or her sisters in the web-maze that the females have spun.
Eh. Still better than spiders.
Images: S. Dean Rider, Jr.
How to Pour Two Liquids into a Glass and Make a Rope
Post 6984
Esther Inglis-Arkell
How to Pour Two Liquids into a Glass and Make a Rope
How to Pour Two Liquids into a Glass and Make a Rope
One of the most famous tricks in chemistry is “The Rope Trick.” First discovered in 1959 by the chemist who went on to invent kevlar, this lets chemists pour two liquids into a glass . . . and then pull out a seemingly endless nylon rope from between the still-separated-liquids.
Here’s how this trick goes. (If you don’t like long names, I suggest you skip this paragraph.) First you take 1,6-diaminohexane and dissolve it in water. This molecule is a corrosive six-carbon chain with a -NH2 group at both ends. Then you mix sebacoyl chloride with heptane and get decanedioyl dichloride. This is a ten-carbon chain with -COCl group at both ends.
When you combine these, they should look like unmixed salad dressing, one solution sitting placidly on top of the other. Then you take tweezers or a wand and reach down to right where the solutions touch each other. Pull up. You’ll get a thin cord of rope. Wind it around a nail, a stick, or a bobbin. Turn. Just keep turning. You’ll get a seemingly endless stretch of rope. This isnylon 6, 10, named for the number of carbon atoms in each of its components.
What, you might ask, the hell?
Look down at the equation. In the top line you’ll see 1,6-diaminohexane with its NH2, also known as the amino group, at both ends. There’s the plus sign. Then there’s the decanedioyl dichloride with its -COCl, or acid chloride, group at both ends. At the interface where the fluids are touching, the amino and acid chloride groups combine.
Which brings us to the second line. At the right we have HCl, or hydrochloric acid, which is why you wind the string of nylon around a rod and you wash it before touching it with your fingers. On the left we have a very long string of atoms, which still has a NH2 (amino group) at one end and a -COCl (acid chloride) group at the other. It can just keep combining.
nH2 N(CH2 ) 6 NH2 + nClOC(CH2 ) 8 COCl →
H2 N[(CH2 ) 6 NHCO(CH2 ) 8]nCOCl + nHCl
As the chemist takes away the solid formed at the border between the two liquids, they create a new border between liquids, where more “rope” forms. This little demonstration has been called “The Rope Trick” ever since chemist Stephanie Kwolek used that as a title for her paper on the discovery in 1959. It’s become a staple of chemistry classrooms. Now that we know what’s going on – who wants to see it?
Here we have it with some explanation.
And here’s a close-up.
Top Image: Thctamm
The F-35 Can’t Beat The Plane It’s Replacing In A Dogfight: Report
Post 6983
Tyler Rogoway
A U.S. Air Force F-35 Lightning II flies over the desert
Image :
RNLAF F-35A F-001 Prior to Takeoff
Image :
Eisenhower, and others to some degree, did warn us gravely to beware of the military-industrial complex I supposed, of which the F-35 is its poster child.
The fact that the F-35 is not really a good fighter at all is reminiscent of the question that we’ve been asking for years — if you don’t really need competitive maneuverability, than why do we need a fighter at all?
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Some physicists believe we’re living in a giant hologram — and it’s not that far-fetched
Post 6982
The idea isn’t that the universe is some sort of fake simulation out of TheMatrix, but rather that even though we appear to live in a three-dimensional universe, it might only have two dimensions. It’s called theholographic principle.
Athenian Wealth: Millions of Silver Coins Stored in Parthenon Attic
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Athenian Wealth: Millions of Silver Coins Stored in Parthenon Attic
Athenian Wealth: Millions of Silver Coins Stored in Parthenon Attic
Millions of silver coins may have been stored in the attic of the Parthenon,one of the most famous structures from the ancient world, a research team says.
The attic of the Parthenon is now destroyed and the coins would have been spent in ancient times. The researchers made the discovery by reconstructing the size of the attic, analyzing ancient records to extrapolate how large the reserves may have been and re-examining archaeological work carried out decades ago.
Their evidence suggests that millions of coins made up the cash reserves of the city-state of Athens and much of this hoard was stored in the attic of the Parthenon. During the fifth century B.C., when the Parthenon was built, Athens was a wealthy city-state whose people erected fantastic buildings and fought a series of devastating wars against their rival Sparta. This vast reserve of coins would have helped fund those endeavors. [In Photos: Amazing Ruins of the Ancient World]
While the Parthenon’s attic is now destroyed, researchers estimate its floor would have spanned an area more than three times that of a tennis court, with dimensions of 62 feet wide by 164 feet long (19 by 50 meters) and about 10 feet (3 m) high at the center. The coin reserves were likely placed there around 434 B.C., when the Parthenon was dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens.
Visitor looks at the columns of the Parthenon temple atop the Acropolis hill in Athens
A visitor looks at the columns of the Parthenon temple atop the Acropolis hill in Athens, June 14, 2015. Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras said he was willing to accept unpalatable compromises to secure a deal with international creditors provided he gets debt relief in return, something that Germany refuses to countenance. REUTERS/Kostas Tsironis
Incredible riches
In the fifth century B.C., Athens was one of the richest and most powerful city-states in Greece. Boasting a large navy, it exacted tribute from other Greek cities in exchange for military protection. Ancient writers say the Athenians kept vast coin reserves on the Acropolis, but don’t say exactly where.
For instance, one decree dated to around 433 B.C. refers to “3,000 talents” being transferred to the Acropolis for safekeeping, a colossal sum of money, researchers say. The highest-denomination coin minted in Athens at the time was a silver tetradrachm, and it took 1,500 tetradrachms to make one talent, the researchers noted. This means the “3,000 talents” mentioned in the decree would be worth 4.5 million tetradrachms. Such a huge number of coins would have weighed about 78 metric tons, or nearly 172,000 lbs., researchers say. To put that in perspective, that’s heavier than the M1 Abrams battle tank used today by American soldiers.
Remarkably, ancient writers said the Athenian reserves could, at times, reach up to 10,000 talents (potentially 260 metric tons).
Researchers caution that Athens may have minted some of its coins in gold (which was worth about 14 times more than silver). If that were the case, the number of coins (and the overall weight of the reserves) would be somewhat less, since it takes fewer gold coins to form one talent.
“Gold coinage was always minimal in Athens, in part because Athens mined silver locally,” study researcher Spencer Pope, a professor at McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada, told Live Science in an email. As such, the ancient writer Aeschylus called Athens and its nearby area a “fountain of silver,” Pope added.
The ultimate money stash
Ancient records mention nothing about where on the Acropolis thecoins were stored, nor do they reveal the purpose of the Parthenon’s attic. “The sources are silent on the use of this space,” said Pope at a presentation recently in Toronto during the annual meeting of the Classical Association of Canada.
However, there are several reasons why researchers believe the attic was used to store most of Athens’ immense coin wealth. [Photos: Mysterious Tomb from Ancient Greece]
While the attic is now virtually destroyed, the remains of a staircase that would’ve led up to the attic still survive. This staircase appears to have had a utilitarian rather than a ceremonial use, suggesting it could have been used to bring coins to and from the attic.
Additionally, the sheer floor size of the attic not only would have provided room to store the coins, but also would have meant the coins’ weight could be spread over a wide area. Assuming the attic was floored with thick cypress wood beams, it would have been able to support the weight of the coins, the researchers say.
Because the Parthenon was located centrally, people would’ve had an easier time securing and accessing the money there. And criminals would be less likely to steal the coins, as the Parthenon was a temple for Athena — meaning any theft from it would be considered a crime against the goddess.
“The attic of the Parthenon is the only suitable space large enough to hold all of the coins in the Treasury,” Pope said in an email. “While we cannot rule out the possibility that coins were distributed across numerous buildings, we should recall that the attic is the most secure space.”
Researchers say that the coins may have been stored in boxes whose dimensions could be standardized to make counting easier.
Pope co-wrote the scientific paper with Peter Schultz, a professor at Concordia College at Minnesota, and David Scahill, a researcher at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Consolidation laminae and dish structures form high-density zones that are interpreted to have formed by disruption of primary structures during gravitational collapse of the grain framework during water escape and consolidation. They are not associated with higher contents of clay-size material than adjacent units, but the chloritic clay minerals associated with consolidation laminae and dish structures have a different microtexture than observed elsewhere. Clay mineral texture has a direct effect on petrophysical characteristics, in particular water saturation and conductivity in hydrocarbon-saturated intervals. CT-scans identify consolidation laminae and dish structures as zones of high density that correspond to tighter packing of sand grains and are unrelated to clay distribution. Dish structures may form independently of consolidation laminae or by further modification of fragmented consolidation laminae.
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An artistic depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus showing the location of his wounds)
Stigmata (from Greek: stizo, “to prick”) refers to the five wounds that were said to be inflicted on Jesus' body during his crucifixion, and to similar wounds resembling Jesus' puncture marks that have mysteriously appeared on others. Stigmata are traditionally located at the specific spots where Jesus' flesh is said to have been pierced during his crucifiction: namely his wrists (two wounds from nails), his shins (one wound from a nail), his head (bleeding from a crown of thorns), and his heart (one wound inflicted by a Roman soldier’s spear). A person who spontaneously bears one or more of these wounds is called a “stigmatic.” Stigmatics are most commonly found in Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church, although there have been documented cases elsewhere.
The causes of stigmata are largely mysterious, but some observers suggest that stigmata are found in deeply pious individuals who overwhelmingly empathize with the suffering of Jesus. Reactions to the phenomena are varied, ranging from doubt and skepticism to praise and reverence. Many people, especially in Latin America, see the marks of stigmata as signs of saintliness and faith. The other important matter related to stigmata (and similar physical manifestations related to religious faith) concern questions regarding boundaries between the spiritual and the physical. Often scientists endeavor to understand this relationship through rigorous controlled experiments on such things as prayer, healing, and other spiritual and religious activity.
Historical Antecedents
Originally, in the Greco-Roman world, stigmata could refer to any form of puncturing of the flesh including “marks” such as tattoos. In ancient times such branding of the flesh was common: tattoos were burned on humans and animals to indicate ownership and to deter theft. They were also used to denote slaves or soldiers of particular rulers, or to designate acclaim or disgrace. Criminals and deserters from armies were often branded with tattoos as signs of dishonor. However, sometimes stigmata indicated a positive message for the bearer such as membership in a specific religious cult or a certain level of achievement within an organization.
One of the earliest examples of this was the sect of Carpocrates who “employed outward [physical] marks, branding their disciples inside the lobe of the right ear.”[1] The Hebrew Bible notes that slaves voluntarily had one ear pierced to indicate a desire to remain in the service of their owners (Exod. 21:5-6, cf. Deut. 15:16-17). Therefore, the locations of stigmata varied ranging from the forehead to the thigh, ear, breast, and hand, and were originally intrinsically related to ownership.
Precedents and Marks in the Bible
A depiction of Saint Francis of Assisi receiving the stigmata, by Ludovico Cigoli. Like other depictions of the event, rays of light are seen emanating from the heavens to pierce Francis's hands.
Although there are numerous Old Testament references to signs and marks that can be taken as stigmata, the Book of Ezekiel denotes a special stigmata that is considered to be relevant to Christians. The prophet Ezekiel warns of how to be saved from the oncoming destruction by stating, “Pass through the city [Jerusalem] and mark an X on the foreheads of those who moan and groan over all the abominations that are practiced within it. To the others I heard him say: Pass through the city after him and strike! . . . But do not touch any marked with an X” (Ezek. 9:2-6). This stigma, of the ancient Hebrew letter taw, is cross-like and, as a symbol of salvation from final judgment, is seen as foreshadowing Jesus' crucifixion (cf. Rev. 7:3-4).
The Book of Revelation (chap. 13) refers to the power of the Second Beast, who deceives the inhabitants of the earth:
...[i]t forced all the people, small and great, rich and poor, free and slave, to be given a stamped image on their foreheads, so that no one could buy or sell except one who had the stamped image of the beast’s name or the number that stood for his name. Wisdom is needed here; one who understands can calculate the number of the beast, for it is a number that stands for a person. His number is six hundred and sixty-six. (Rev. 13:16-18)
Another controversial example of a mark in the Bible is found in the “mark of Cain,” which was said to be a mark of protection for Cain, who murdered his brother, Abel. Cain implored God to intercede for him as he served the punishment of banishment for his crime. Cain said, “‘Since you have now banished me from the soil, and I must avoid your presence and become a restless wanderer on the earth, anyone may kill me at sight.’ ‘Not so!’ the Lord said to him. ‘If anyone kills Cain, Cain shall be avenged sevenfold.’ So the Lord put a mark on Cain, lest anyone should kill him at sight” (Gen. 4:13-15). This is the first indication in scripture of a mark placed on someone by God. It indicates a special relationship between God and the man, Cain. Even though Cain was a murderer, he was God’s possession.
One last precedent to stigmata is the mark of baptism. Those baptized are marked with the sign of the cross in oil on their foreheads. Many Christians throughout the ages have also marked their bodies with either a cross or the name of Jesus in some form.
Stigmata in the Bible
The only specific reference to the term “stigmata” in scripture is found in the Epistle to the Galatians where Paul says, “From now on, let no one make troubles for me; for I bear the marks of Jesus on my body" (6:17). This statement is related to Paul's discussion of circumcision. His point is that there is no need for new converts to Christianity to undergo a ritual circumcision. It appears that some new Jewish Christians were insisting on this procedure to avoid persecution by the (Jewish) authorities. But for Paul, it is not so much adherence to the old Law of Moses that defines who is a Christian (any more than a slave being marked by his or her owner defines slavery), but identification with the suffering of Jesus. Paul had seen quite a number of scourgings and crucifixions in his time and knew the identifying marks left on the victims’ bodies. It is doubtful that Paul had the exact same scars as Jesus (thus the claim that he might be the first stigmatic is tenuous), but he certainly was wounded and scarred in many ways for his Christian faith.
Of course, any person (Christ, Christian, or otherwise) undergoing a crucifixion would exhibit the marks of crucifixion: pierced feet/ankles and pierced wrists/hands. But Christ exhibited a fifth mark when he was pierced in his side by a Roman spear. Normally, crucifixion victims were simply left on the cross until they died of asphyxiation, or their legs were broken to hasten death, they were not speared. Additionally, since Christ had a crown of thorns pushed into his head, these left a number of deep punctures one his head and scalp. Much of his body was also marked by the Roman scourge, which was a whip-like instrument of torture which had pieces of lead, bone, or stones attached to some of the various strands from which it was made.
Historical Stigmatics
The phenomenon of the stigmata (expressly related to the wounds of Christ) has been documented in more than five hundred cases. The Catholic Church has investigated and officially recognized more than three hundred stigmatics (both men and women) and 62 of these have either become saints of the church or have received the title, “blessed.”
Originally, stigmatics were most commonly associated with the Roman Catholic Church and were Europeans. However, the exploration and population of the Americas have led to a growing number of stigmatics in the Western hemisphere and, in the post-Reformation period, and today there is a growing trend of non-Catholic stigmatics.
Aside from Paul’s introduction of the stigmata as the wounds of Christ, there were no reported incidents of this phenomenon until the year 1222. One possible explanation for the lengthy interval between Paul’s writings and this first stigmatic could be that those who had the wounds earlier were afraid to come forward because they might be condemned in some way for them, perhaps even being accused of witchcraft. The first known stigmatic was the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, who was an especially pious priest that labored to reform the church and often was opposed by the king.
Francis of Assisi, a reported stigmatic
The most famous stigmatic is usually thought to be Saint Francis of Assisi (c. 1182-1226 C.E.). Francis led an austere life of poverty and humility, declining ordination to the priesthood and forming the Friars Minor to promote penitence and faith while refusing to acquire property. In 1224, two years prior to his death, he was involved in restructuring the order which had grown to the extent that it was approximating the structure of established religious monastery. While attempting to address this situation, it is said that he was in deep prayer when he received all five of the wounds of Christ on his body. These were apparently accompanied by severe and debilitating pain. Although Francis received all of his wounds at once, many stigmatics exhibit only one would at first and then progressively add another at successive appearances until they bear all five wounds. There may also be a perfume-like odor that accompanies the events.
Another early stigmatic was Saint Catherine of Siena (1347–1380 C.E.). She did not display the visible wounds of stigmata during her actual lifetime but it is said that she suffered greatly from the pains (a legend says she prayed for her marks to become invisible and this prayer was answered when they disappeared). She is known as one of the great female mystics and is said to be a “bride of Christ.” She authored a number of works on piety and faith and died in 1380. She is also an example of a stigmatic who partook only of the Eucharistic bread for long periods of time, while declining all other forms of nourishment.
Another very famous stigmatic was Saint Pio of Pietrelcina, commonly known as Padre Pio. It is said that his visible stigmata occurred during a vision he received on September 20, 1918 (he had suffered from invisible stigmata for exactly three years prior to this event). After celebrating Mass he was overcome with drowsiness and had a vision of a person who bore the five bleeding wounds of Christ. Once the vision disappeared, he found that his own body was bleeding in the same locations. Thereafter, he bled from both of his hands for fifty years on a daily basis. It is noteworthy that Padre Pio’s wounds, although bleeding daily, remained most active from the evening before Fridays and through to Saturdays. Medical examinations confirmed the loss of about one cup of blood per day from his side alone.
It is also said that Padre Pio had received supernatural gifts that often defy reason such as “perfume, of conversion, of bilocation, of discernment of spirits, and of penetrating the future.”[2] There are numerous documented cases of Padre Pio curing the sick as well as converting many individuals to the Catholic faith who formerly opposed it.
Another modern stigmatic was Teresa Neumann, a German who died in 1962 at the age of 64 having been a stigmatic for 36 years. At the age of 25, she was miraculously healed of blindness and paralysis that she suffered from an accident at age 20. She was especially devoted to St. Therese of Lisieux and her recovery is credited with the numerous prayers devoted to the saint. She is one of the stigmatics who ate only on the Eucharistic wafer that she received daily. Her stigmata appeared in 1926. She initially received the five wounds of Christ and later marks of the crown of thorns, then a shoulder wound (from the carrying of the cross), and finally marks of a scourging on her body.
Though all of these stigmatics were from Europe, there has been a recent trend of stigmatics arising in North and South America.
The Canadian stigmatic, Georgette Faniel of Montreal, reported stigmata on her wrists and feet in 1950, which expanded to a crown of thorns in 1953. Her stigmata were accompanied by a painful wound in her heart and identification with Christ’s pain from carrying the cross. Although she did not exhibit puncture wounds (the sites were extremely swollen with noticeable discoloration), her pain was most noticeable “on Fridays and at the point of consecration during Mass.”[3]
A famous American stigmatic was a ten-year-old black girl whose family were members of a Baptist church. In 1972 she exhibited daily bleeding (up to six times per day) from her left palm, although she did not experience any pain. During the following two week period, bleeding from the other wounds became evident even though there were no physical marks on her skin. This phenomenon occurred near Easter and on Good Friday she experienced bleeding from all of the traditional stigmata sites, and then the bleeding ceased. This child had reported hearing voices calling her to pray for the healing of certain individuals. She was also noted for a keen awareness of the suffering of Christ.[4]
It is also reported that Father Jim Bruse of Lake Ridge, near Washington, D.C. received stigmata on December 26, 1991. This event occurred when local statues of the Virgin Mary were observed to shed tears after they were touched by Bruse.[5]
Recent times have seen the arising of a number of South American stigmatics. In 1983, in Argentina, Gladys Quiroga de Motta began having visions of the Virgin Mary on a regular basis. The signs of stigmata began to appear on her wrists around the Fridays of Advent and on Holy Fridays. It is said that “[h]er left foot becomes ‘fixed’ on top of her right foot and once, during an examination, defied the doctors’ attempts to separate them with their bare hands."[6]
A famous Argentinian stigmatic is Emiliano Aden, who, at age 19, received his first wound. It was initially manifested as a sharp pain on his forehead, but later developed in a cross-shaped wound that emitted blood. Later, his wrists began to ooze blood, without visible signs of wounds.
A famous Cuban stigmatic is Irma Izquierdo, who also at the age of 19 received wounds. She was very religious at a young age and was the recipient of visions of winged beings. These prefigured a dramatic vision of Christ’s Passion at Easter during which she seemed to find herself experiencing actual crucifixion and the piercing of her own side. Just before Holy Week (1956), the five wounds appeared on her body with a bloody sweat appearing on Easter morning. These signs were accompanied by her hair changing texture and an orange tint to her complexion. Later, the letters ‘INRI’ formed on her thighs. She developed an ecstatic language and shouted unknown words of praise. Additionally, after prevailing upon neighbors to construct a cross for her, Izquierdo carried it 560 miles across the island to the Hermitage Caridad del Cobre.[6]
It must be noted that there has been a great deal of skepticism regarding the cause of stigmata on individuals. While they may well be miraculous or supernatural manifestations of divine origin, some call for a scientific or medical explanation. Needless to say, some stigmatics have been closely examined and monitored by doctors and scientists. However, there is no doubt of the actual existence of these various wounds on stigmatics’ bodies. There has also been evidence that some individuals have deliberately inflicted wounds themselves for various reasons. Nevertheless, there are simply too many documented cases of stigmata that are not self-inflicted to discount a supernatural origin.
One of the fundamental concepts associated with individuals who became stigmatics is their keen concentration on Jesus Christ in their lives. Many stigmatics are ecstatics who have cultivated the ability to focus on God to such a degree that they become immersed in the sufferings of Christ, and receive visions and revelations associated with divine mystics. In some cases these individuals have led lives of extreme poverty. As such they seem able to reach a state of oneness with the sufferings of the crucified Jesus and are able to achieve a deep sense of the significance of the Passion of Christ not attained by most people. Just as Jesus is said to have meditated to such a degree in his Passion that he erupted into a bloody sweat, so too do some of the stigmatics allegedly break into bloody sweats when they are focused on this event.
Common to all stigmatics is painful suffering. Stigmatics typically display bleeding wounds of the crucified Christ, some have invisible wounds while others have wounds and bleeding from the head and scalp as typified by the crown of thorns pressed into Christ’s head or from whip-like marks on various other parts of their bodies. The stigmata are often associated with bleeding from the wound areas. The blood flow cannot be stopped as would be the case with an injury or self-inflicted wound, but once the emanation ceases, the wounds themselves heal until the next episode. Analysis of blood flowing from such wounds often reveals a blood-type different from that of the individual stigmatic.
Many of the stigmatics exhibited their marks and bleeding on Fridays—the day of the week that Jesus was crucified. Some are especially susceptible during the Easter season. Others have blood oozing at frequent intervals, while some exhibit the puncture wounds without any blood. Lengthy periods of contemplation, prayer, and ecstatic visions usually accompany the stigmata of many of these individuals. There are cases where some discontinue eating or drinking and survive only on the communion wafer for years at a time, often receiving the host only once a week.
The suffering of stigmatics is often seen as a form of penance for the expiation of sins. In the case of individuals who have lived exemplary lives, their sufferings, including the suffering caused by the wounds of the stigmata, are often deemed to have meritorious value for a divine purpose with the stigmata possibly a confirmation of their relationship with Christ’s suffering for humankind.
1. Irenaeus, Against Heresies Book I: Chapter XXV, Verse 6.
2. Laura C. White, Who is Padre Pio? (Rockford, IL: Tan Books & Publishers, 1974, ISBN 0895551012), p. 13.
3. Ted Harrison, Stigmata: A Medieval Phenomenon in a Modern Age (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994, ISBN 0312113722), 91.
4. Harrison, 87-90.
5. Harrison, 80-87.
6. 6.0 6.1 Rosalba O’Brien and Enzo Daedro, “Blood, sweat and tears: Living stigmatics,” ForteanTimes (October 2002). Retrieved August 14, 2007.
• Attwater, Donald. The Avenel Dictionary of Saints New York: Avenel Books, 1981. ASIN B000LOBF2C
• Berry, George Ricker. Greek to English Interlinear New Testament. Iowa Falls, IA: World Bible Publishers, Inc., 2000.
• Carty, Charles M. Who is Teresa Neumann? Rockford, IL: Tan Books and Publishers, Inc., 1974. ISBN 0895550938
• Harrison, Ted. Stigmata: A Medieval Phenomenon in a Modern Age. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. ISBN 0312113722
• Irenaeus. Against Heresies, Book I. Edited by A. Roberts and J. Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 2004.
• Kittel, G. H. and G. W. Bromley (eds.). Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. VII. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0802822499
• Kohlenberger, J. R. (ed.). The Precise Parallel New Testament. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0195284127
• The New American Bible: Saint Joseph Edition. New York: Catholic Book Publishing Co. ISBN 0899429513
• O’Brien, Rosalba and Enzo Daedro. “Blood, sweat and tears: Living stigmatics,” ForteanTimes (October 2002). Retrieved August 14, 2007.
• Poulain, A. Mystical Stigmata. Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved August 14, 2007.
• White, Laura C. Who is Padre Pio? Rockford, IL: Tan Books & Publishers, 1974. ISBN 0895551012
Research begins here...
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Soudanese soldiers were incorporated into the British Army in the late 1880s and brought to Kenya in the early 1900s. They served for the British Army in the King's African Rifles during World War I against the Germans, and in World War II in places like Somalia, Abyssinia, Madagascar and Burma. Nubians played a vital role in the defense of Kenya and the development of East Africa. Unable to return to Sudan, the Nubians and their families remained in Kenya and in 1912, the British government
designated some 4197 acres of land for the Nubians to settle on. In 1917, the British gazetted it as land for the Soudanese askaris and their dependents. The land was located outside of what would become the city of Nairobi. The Nubians named the land, Kibra, or 'land of forest'.
The British colonial government categorized tribes in Kenya and designated the 'Kenyan tribes' to live on land called 'Native Reserves'. Nubians were intentionally categorized as 'Detribalized Natives' by the Colonial government and not a tribe native to Kenya, which denied them the right to claim land on 'Native Reserves'. Over the decades, this designation has been used to exclude the Nubians from Kenyan society as well as any rights to the land of Kibra. In 1955, only 3000 people, mostly Nubians, lived in Kibra. Over the past 40 years, hundreds of thousands of rural migrants have flooded into Nairobi seeking jobs and Kibra has been the land where they’ve been encouraged to settle. Eventually, the Nubian village of Kibra would come to be known as Kibera, one of the largest slums in Africa.
Since Kenya's independence, Kibera has been contested land. In 1971, a Bill requiring the government to demarcate and title land parcels in Kibera was passed yet was never implemented. Nubian claims to title deed for land in Kibera have never been recognized. Meanwhile, the hundreds of thousands of people living in Kibera, including the Nubian community, continue to be considered squatters, even though they settled on the land of Kibera generations ago.
Having lived in Kenya for over 100 years, the Nubian community in Kenya has historically been denied recognition. Before Kenya's independence, many Nubians carried British Colonial passports and had birth certificates that stated their nationality as British. After independence, they have been one of Kenya's most invisible and under-represented communities economically, politically and socially. Most of the Nubians were not recognized as citizens of Kenya after independence. Up until the most recent census conducted in mid-2009 the Nubian community was not a formally recognized tribe of Kenya. They were considered as 'Other Kenyans' or simply 'Others'.
Because they were not recognized as a tribe in Kenya and because their claim to land in Kibera has been contested by successive governments, the Nubians have been unable to fully participate in Kenyan society. In addition to their struggle to secure land rights, obtaining important documents needed for everyday life like National ID cards and passports has been a challenge for
For years, Nubian youth have had to go through a nationality verification process called 'vetting'. Vetting is a process where Nubian youth at the age of 18 are interviewed by a panel of officials to which they must prove their connection to Kenya. Nubian youth have commonly had to present any number of documents, including grandparents' birth certificates. Vetting has been a requirement for a Nubian to obtain a National ID card. While members of Kenya’s recognized tribes receive their ID cards in only a few days, or at most a few weeks, many Nubian youth have had to wait years and some have yet to be issued IDs. Nubian youth say vetting is the primary reason why they lack documentation or National ID cards. As a result, unemployment is a common challenge among Nubian youth because without an ID they cannot secure even basic formal employment. In addition, this has also led to difficulties in their freedom to travel and to access higher education. In recent years, a more flexible approach by the authorities has helped ease some of these restrictions.
Nubians consider Kenya to be their home and Kibera their ancestral homeland in Kenya. As one Nubian elder says, “My rural homeland happens to be in the capital of Kenya.”
Over the years the Nubian community has strived for recognition in order to contribute to a country and society they have lived in for over one hundred years. This exhibition, aims to inform people about the Nubian community’s history in Kibera and it’s contribution to the development of Kenya. It aims to help promote the dynamic and rich heritage of a community few are aware of and it intends to help tell the story of one of Kenya’s communities who, as one Nubian elder described is, “being squeezed into extinction.”
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13.2 Birth Control in Antiquity
Today, women's reproductive rights are a hotly debated issue. The heat of those arguments obscures the long history of birth control and that more sensitive of subjects--abortion. In ancient times, many women practiced birth control with little interference from religious or civil authorities. They did it by using their knowledge of plants.
How was that knowledge obtained and how was it transmitted? Herders of domesticated animals noticed that when animals grazed on certain plants, they failed to reproduce. Trial and error were the next steps and then persons informed others about their experience. In time, plants were chosen on the basis of word-of-mouth information or traditional lore which it was based on cumulative experience and reputation.
Midwives apparently passed on their knowledge by word of mouth. That knowledge could be dangerous; some old women were feared because of their know-how and were branded as witches. With the decline of midwifery, the chain of knowledge was broken.
The Greeks used Silphium, known commonly as giant fennel. Its pungent sap was good in cough syrups and gave food a rich, distinctive taste. These plants were also known to have contraceptive and abortifacient properties. The plant was honored on a four-drachma Cyrenian coin showing a seated woman touching the plant with one hand while pointing to her genitals with the other hand. The demand for the plant was so great that by the third or fourth centuries, Silphium was extinct. Related plants survived, but were less effective.
The seeds of Queen Anne's Lace (a wild carrot) may have also been effective. Studies in rats show that the seeds inhibit both fetal and ovarian growth. Women in India today chew the dry seeds. A small number of women in rural North Carolina drink a glass of water containing a teaspoon of the seeds immediately after intercourse to prevent pregnancy. Chewing the seeds or deliberately cutting them before ingestion releases the active ingredients. Failure to do so permits the seeds to "go right through you" with no effect.
Another plant used in classical times as contraceptives or abortifacient was pennyroyal. Studies in the 1930s showed that the plant stimulated the production of female sex hormones and reduced fertility in laboratory animals, much as modern contraceptives do.
The ancient Egyptians also practiced birth control. A medical document from 1500 BC lists substances that it claims 'stops pregnancy.' According to the papyrus, unspecified amounts of acacia gum, dates, and an unidentified plant were mixed with plant fiber and honey and formed into a pessary (vaginal suppository). Modern researchers have found acacias to be spermicidal.
How many ancient people actually practiced birth control? Historical demographic studies suggest that pre modern peoples of Europe regulated family size.
Scarring and pitting of bones in the pelvic region provide clues to the number of full-term pregnancies amongst skeletal remains from prehistoric times. Demographic research, laboratory studies, and scrutiny of ancient texts have given us new hints concerning the efficacy of ancient 'family planning.'
We can now understand why the ancient Greeks and Romans valued Silphium and why they tried to develop substitutes when it disappeared from the marketplace. It is more difficult to discover why such herbal birth control agents faded from common usage. Although they are described in medical texts of the early and late Middle Ages, by the onset of the Renaissance, physicians were no longer writing about them. Did doctors no longer know what plants to use, when to use them, or what doses would prevent contraception or end pregnancy? Why was that knowledge passed down through generations of women but not physicians? The research question now becomes not what the ancients knew about birth control, but why that knowledge was lost when it was once so well known.
By the twelfth century, medical training had moved from apprenticeships to the universities. By the fourteenth century in most of the towns and cities of Europe, guilds required that one be a university graduate in order to practice medicine. The curriculum moved more toward theory and less toward practice. Increasingly, drugs passed from the physicians and into the domain of the pharmacists' guilds.
Although women had studied medicine at some universities in the early Middle Ages, men gradually came to dominate the profession. At the same time, gynecology became more and more the province of midwives who had learned the uses of herbs in the fields. They knew how to identify the necessary plants, how and when to harvest their appropriate parts, how to make extracts and administer them, in what dose, and perhaps most important, when to administer them in relation to the last coitus or missed menstruation. However, such complex knowledge may have slowly faded from common usage simply because, perhaps, it became increasingly difficult to transmit this information orally. Indeed, by the fifteenth and sixteen centuries, physicians were being summoned to women's bedsides only when their medical problems called for drastic or non routine action.
Few physicians knew about birth-control agents since they were not part of their training, nor were there an easy way to learn about them. The chain of learning broke, and the folk knowledge chain was greatly restricted. The ancients learned about herbal agents from people who knew what and how much to take. Physicians of the Renaissance, however, distrusted folk medicine and had no occupational or professional means to acquire this knowledge. In time, Christian church doctrine, canon law, and eventually the laws of states came to restrict women's claims that they should regulate their own reproduction.
In any case, we can now be reasonably certain that many women in antiquity knew what only a few women know today. Many twentieth-century historians still assume that those women relied solely on magic, superstition, and ineffectual folklore to limit their reproductive capacities. That was certainly not the case. Women in antiquity had significant control over their reproductive lives. The evidence is there in the documents where it has been all along.
How did religion or the state get involved in reproductive issues? In 1869 Pope Pius IX outlawed abortion among Catholics, declaring that the human soul was born at conception. The decree reflected a very old debate. These issues will be reviewed here.
Greco-Roman, Hebrew, and early medieval sources all contain sophisticated discussions of the issues surrounding contraception and abortion. While there was never uniform opinion among them as to the ethics and medical advisability of birth control practices, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman law generally did not protect the fetus. However, there was a religious distinction made once the fetus had formed recognizable features. Before that point women could abort without fear of reprisal.
(My comment: you reading this paper have a better visualization of the infant before birth than many medical people had fifty years ago. Program such as NOVA on public television with their graphic images of the live fetus in the womb have shaped our views on contraception and abortion probably more than has religious instruction in childhood.)
The most famous medical statement from classical antiquity, the Hippocratic oath, was misinterpreted early on as forbidding physicians to perform abortions. In reading the oath, formulated in the fifth century B.C., initiates swore not to administer an abortive suppository. Scribonious Largus, a Roman physician writing in the first century A.D., was among the first to interpret the Hippocratic injunction against abortive suppositories as a blanket condemnation of abortion.
This misreading survived into modern times. The error became particularly important in the nineteenth century when many American states passed anti abortion laws based in part on this misreading of a doctor's sacred obligations.
Both Plato and Aristotle advocated population control to ensure population stability in the ideal city state.
Hebrew sources give idiosyncratic interpretations of the Biblical directive to "be fruitful and multiply." The Babylonian Talmud records: "A man is commanded concerning the duty of propagation, but not a woman." In other words, men were encouraged to spread their seed, but women, who had to suffer pregnancy, childbirth, and child rearing, were excused by God from the command to be fruitful. Hebrew religious law did not regard a woman as pregnant until 40 days after conception.
Early church fathers were divided about the ethics of abortion. In a sermon around 390, John Chrysostom, the bishop of Constantinople, decried those who used contraceptives, likening the practice to sowing a field in order to destroy fruit, and raising the question whether it was not the same as murder. Jerome (348-420), who revised and translated the Bible into Latin, condemned those who drank potions causing (sterility and murder of those not yet conceived." Augustine (354-430), on the other hand, appears to have been influenced on this subject by pagan authors, principally Aristotle.
We tend to believe that the quandaries over birth control are recent, brought on by the presence of effective contraceptives and safe abortion procedures. In fact, the ethical dilemmas are much the same as they were when Juvenal wrote, almost 2,000 years ago, "we have sure fire contraceptives." Hundreds of generations--saints and sinners, people in distress, kings, queens, merchants, and peasants--have faced many of the same problems we do. The debate over abortion and contraception is indeed old in Western society.
The Egyptians recognized some of the procreative relationships among the testes, phallus, semen, and pregnancy. They regarded the man's contribution as a 'seed' that he planted in the fertile ground provided by the uterus. Semen was believed to originate in the spinal cord--a belief derived from veterinary medicine (a bull has retractor muscles that arise from the sacral vertebrae. This lowest extension of the vertebral column was called the os sacrum because it was believed to be a sacred bone.
The maternal contribution to the fetus was not clear to the Egyptians; however, they did regard the mother's nutritional role via the placenta as vitally important.
The duration of pregnancy was estimated variously between 294 days and 182 days. The basic problem then as well as earlier, was probably that no one knew how to determine the exact time of conception.
Egyptians seem to have been more concerned with how to tell if a woman is pregnant. A number of magical methods for making the diagnosis have survived; none is predicated on the cessation of menses as a clue. Several documents from both the Middle and New Kingdoms provide instructions for detecting whether a woman is capable of conceiving a child. One involves examining the "vessels" of her breast. Another states that the likelihood of becoming pregnant is proportional to the number of times the woman vomits while sitting on a floor that has been covered with the sediment of beer and date mash. A third, also found in later Hippocratic writings, specifies that a woman can become pregnant if, on the day after an onion is inserted into her vagina, the onion's characteristic odor can be detected in her breath.
Not all women wanted to become pregnant. The oldest of all the surviving medical papyri, the Kahun Gynecological Papyrus, lists several recipes for contraceptives to be inserted into the vagina. They included pessaries made of honey with a pinch of natron (you will remember natron from our unit on mummies), of crocodile dung in sour milk, of sour milk alone, or of acacia gum. Recently the latter has been recognized as spermicidal in the presence of vaginal lactic acid, and it is conceivable that sour milk, too, might be an effective spermatocide.
Predicting the sex of an unborn child was also done. "Let the woman water Wheat and Spelt (a hardy wheat) with her urine--in two bags. If wheat grows, it will be a boy; if the spelt grows, it will be a girl." The basis for this test was the ancient association of wheat and spelt with male and female divinities. You'll like this: in 1962 the method was tried in a modern botany lab in Cairo. The results were no better than chance.
Women delivered while squatting on two large bricks, or while sitting in a chair from which the center of the seat has been removed. Women in labor were assisted by female birth attendants--midwives.
..... CJ '99
Estes, J. "The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt" in Medicine, a Treasury of Art and Literature Carmichael and Ratzans, eds. New York: Hugh Lauter, 1991.
Jordan, M. "Selling Birth Control to Indian's Poor" Wall Street Journal Sept.21, 1999.
MacCormack, C. Ethnography of Fertility and Birth 2nd ed. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, 1994.
Peres, J. "Fears keeping 'after sex' pill on the back shelf" Chicago Tribune
Riddle, J. Eve's Herbs Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Riddle, Estes, & Russell 'Ever Since Eve---Birth Control in the Ancient World' Annual Editions Archaeology 95/96 Hasten, L ed. Guilford: Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc.,1995.
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Ancient Mysteries & Unexplained Phenomena
Nuremberg Sky Battle
Nuremberg Woodcut
Nuremberg Gazette Woodcut (Fg. 1-6)
In 1561, Hans Glaser documented a strange event on a woodcut for the German Nuremberg Gazette described as hundreds of crosses, globes and tubes fighting each other above the city. Some of the objects were reported to have disappeared into the sun, and others into a thick cloud of smoke after crashing into the ground. Many were said to witness the entire spectacle along with the appearance of a black, spear-like object after the battle. According to the accounts, not only did people of the 16th century witness what seems to be a UFO sky battle, they were also able to distinctly tell which side was winning.
Coupled with the occurrence in Nuremberg, five years later in 1566, citizens of Basel Switzerland witnessed a similar spectacle involving several black orbs engaged in sky battle above. The people of Basel also recorded the event in their city gazette with a woodcut that cannot be traced to a known artist. Accounts claimed the black orbs would sometimes turn red and fiery before fading to nothing. Science suggests these events were the result of meteor showers and comets as the most logical explanation, yet the people of Nuremberg, and surrounding areas, described the sighting as something completely out of this world. These events were significant enough to be featured in news woodcuts, which undoubtedly were talked about for years after happening. The fact that people believed a battle was taking place in the sky above, involving a number of differently shaped objects, makes it difficult to understand this mysterious phenomena as simply comets or a meteor shower.
† Article 1-6
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ionization is the physical process of giving or taking away electrons from an atom. That makes it an ion, because it now has an electric charge.
References[change | change source]
1. Encyclopædia Britannica. Ionization (chemistry and physics). Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 13 May 2014. <>.
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Principles of Philosophy
Rene Descartes
I.66–75: The Senses
II.10–22: Space
Though Descartes is convinced that his physics is as simple as it gets, any Descartes student will be willing to attest to the fact that few concepts are harder to grasp than Descartes' concept of extension. His may well be a simple picture once you get past that crucial first step, but getting past that step is no easy task. (Actually, it is never a simple picture.)
The best way to get clear on the notion of extension is to try to get clear on what the notion does and does not include. We have already seen that extension does not amount to shape. Shape and extension are two different things. In fact, as you might recall from Part I, shape is a mode of extension. So what does the notion of extension include? Descartes tells us in II.1 that extension is just length, breadth, and depth. This makes sense if you think about the common use of the term "extended." What does it mean to be extended? It just means to spread from one point to another. A line is extended in one direction: it has length. A plane is extended in two directions: it has length and breadth. A body is extended in three dimensions: it has length, breadth, and depth.
The next step is to ask what it is about this picture that makes the common conception of rarefaction impossible. Why can a body not lose any length, breadth, or depth? It seems clear that if you take a seven inch by five inch by one inch board and cut off three inches of length from it, the original board is losing some of its extension. Why is this any different from the common conception of condensation that Descartes is so eager to attack? The answer is that in the case of the board, we all admit that in cutting off the three inches we are creating two separate bodies. The three inches by two inches by one inch that was lost from the original board do not just cease to be a part of body just because they cease to be a part of that original board. They now define a new body: a body that is three inches, by five inches, by one inch. If you cut off another chunk from this board, you would create yet another body. No matter how small you cut the pieces, even if you just took off some shavings, you would never separate the dimensions from body since to have dimensions is what it means to be body. (This is what Descartes means when he tells us in principle I.8 that the difference between quantity and substance is only conceptual. There is no such thing as three liters or twelve cubic feet, except insofar as there are bodies with this quantity of matter.)
On the naïve view of rarefaction and condensation, on the other hand, it seems as if extension can just float free of body. It seems as if body is one thing and extension is another, so that extension can be lost from body without the creation of another body. That is why Descartes needs to show that rarefaction does not involve losing extension at all. If you took a rarefied body and added together all of its matter, the quantity would be the same as in its condensed form. The only difference is that the parts of the matter are spread further from each other, separate by a different sort of matter.
This way of viewing extension provides a good enough level of understanding of body in order to tackle the next hurdle: the relationship between body and space.
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western mind body dualism
by henkt, January 12, 2015
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How Did El Salvador Get Its Name?
In the early 16th century, the Spanish conquistadors called the land 'Provincia de Nuestro Senor Jesucristo El Salvador Del Mundo' ('Province of Our Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior of the World'), later abbreviated to 'El Salvador'. You can find more information here:
Q&A Related to "How Did El Salvador Get Its Name?"
Italian explorer Giovanni de Verrazano was the first European to arrive at and investigate the area that is now New Jersey. Englishman Henry Hudson, who worked for the Dutch, began
Like many regions and cities named by the Spanish, it was given a name to honor God. In this case, Padre or Father, can refer to a priest or God the Father. Further north on the
Silver Lake was named after the Silver Lake Lodge in Deer Valley, where the plans for a technology private equity fund were developed by the firm's founders.
Wikipedia will tell you it means Lion City - iki/Sin. The English name of Singapore is derived from the Malay name Singapura (Sanskrit सिं
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Black-collared lovebird
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Black-collared Lovebird)
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Black-collared lovebird
Stavenn Agapornis swindernianus 00.jpg
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Superfamily: Psittacoidea
Family: Psittaculidae
Subfamily: Agapornithinae
Genus: Agapornis
Species: A. swindernianus
Binomial name
Agapornis swindernianus
(Kuhl, 1820)
Range map
The black-collared lovebird (Agapornis swindernianus) also known as Swindern's lovebird is a small, 13.5 cm (5 in) long, African parrot in the genus Agapornis. It is a mostly green parrot with black band on the back of its neck, and a dark greyish-black bill. Both sexes are similar. It is rarely kept in captivity because of its dietary requirement for a native fig.[2]
It is a mostly green parrot with black-collared nape, brownish red chest, greyish black bill, yellow iris and grey feet. Both sexes are similar.[2]
There are three subspecies of the black-collared lovebird:
• The nominate subspecies, A. s. swindernianus - Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana
• Cameroon black-collared lovebird, A. s. zenkeri - Cameroon, Gabon and Congo
• Ituri black-collared lovebird or Emin's lovebird, A. s. emini - Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda.
The black-collared lovebird was discovered by Heinrich Kuhl in 1820. The name commemorates the Dutch professor, Theodore van Swinderen of University of Groningen.
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The black-collared lovebird is distributed across a wide range in equatorial Africa. It inhabits the forests of Cameroon, Central African Republic, the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Liberia and Uganda.[1] They hide high in the forest canopy and are characterized as being very shy.
It is rare in some parts of its range. The range is so large that the population is difficult to estimate, but it is believed that the population is not under significant threat. The black-collared lovebird is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[1]
Black-collared lovebirds are rarely kept in captivity or as pets. They require certain native fig seed or fig flesh as a basis of their daily diet, and without these vital dietary necessities they do not normally thrive or breed well in captivity.[2]
1. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2012). "Agapornis swindernianus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
2. ^ a b c Le Breton, Kenny. Lovebirds...getting started. USA: T.F.H. Publications. pp. 89–90. ISBN 0-86622-411-4.
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Water hardness plays a role in removing bacteria from chicken skin.
Article Type: Brief article
Subject: Broilers (Poultry) (Research)
Scientists (Research)
Pub Date: 02/01/2010
Topic: Event Code: 310 Science & research
Accession Number: 242015832
Full Text: Water used in commercial poultry-processing facilities can play a major role in the quality of the meat produced. Researchers have found that soft water is more effective than hard water in removing bacteria from broiler chicken skin. Hard water has higher concentrations of dissolved minerals like calcium and magnesium, and water is softened by removing these minerals.
Scientists compared how well very hard, moderately hard, and soft water rinsed away different bacteria--including Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, and Pseudomonas--from the skin of broiler chicken carcasses. They found that soft water removed up to 37 percent more bacteria than the other two water types. The effectiveness of sanitization procedures to remove microorganisms from carcasses during processing is affected by several water-quality variables, including pH, ammonia concentration, microbial contamination levels, and hardness.
These findings suggest that poultry processors might want to more closely monitor water hardness and its impact on carcass processing. Arthur Hinton and Ronald Holser, USDA-ARS Richard B. Russell Agricultural Research Center, Athens GA 30605; (706) 546-3621 [Hinton], (706) 546-3361 [Holser], arthur. hinton@ars.usda.gov, ronald.holser@ars. usda.gov.
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National Endowment for the Arts - The Big Read
Fahrenheit 451
Fahrenheit 451
by Ray Bradbury
1. Supplement Handout Three with additional research on Ecclesiastes. Explain why Bradbury chose Ecclesiastes to be the material that Montag would memorize. How does this expand on other themes within the novel? How might this be the right guide for Montag’s further development?
2. Beatty’s dying words are quoted from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar: “There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats, for I am arm’d so strong in honesty that they pass me in an idle wind, which I respect not!” Beatty mocks Montag as a “second-hand litterateur.” Explain why Bradbury would portray the fire Captain as a literary expert. Why has Bradbury chosen these final words for Beatty?
3. Consider the symbolism of fire in the novel. Explore passages where fire significantly factors into the story. How does Montag’s understanding of fire (and/or burning) change throughout the novel? At the end of the novel Granger looks at the fire and says, “phoenix.” How does fire capture both destruction and renewal?
4. Mildred’s leisure makes her suicidal. Faber argues for the leisure of digesting information. Near the end of "The Hearth and the Salamander" Beatty mocks how people “super organize super-super sports.” What is wrong with the concept of leisure in Montag’s world? Does Bradbury succeed in establishing a new idea of leisure by the end of the novel? Why or why not?
5. Does Montag kill Beatty out of self-defense or to preserve something lost? Has Montag avenged the deaths of Mrs. Hudson and Clarisse? Can Montag justify murder in defense of books? Finally, do the extreme circumstances of Montag’s world justify lawless behavior to preserve the freedom to read?
6. As noted in the reader’s guide, Bradbury has suggested the story turns on the input from a teenager, Clarisse. Explore Clarisse’s character in detail, explaining her motivations and the values she represents. Why must Clarisse be killed or silenced?
7. Near the novel’s end, Granger tells Montag “the most important single thing we had to pound into ourselves is that we were not important.” What does he mean? How does Granger’s statement reflect a major theme of the novel?
The Big Read
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Article Free Pass
Alternate titles: Al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʿArabīyah as-Sūrīyah; Sūrīyah; Syrian Arab Republic
Rural settlement
In areas of traditional rural settlement, the choice of a village site is usually determined by the availability of water. Some of the villages in the Al-Anṣariyyah Mountains, however, have given priority to the requirements of defense and fortification. Village dwellings stand close together, and village streets are extremely narrow. Usually, there is a small central common overlooked by a minaret (a tall tower attached to a mosque from which the populace is called to prayer). There are usually a few small shops containing articles manufactured in the cities or towns.
In rural areas, work takes place according to the seasonal rhythm of agriculture. Women generally share in much of the agricultural labour. Agricultural machinery, introduced on a large scale after World War II, caused unemployment and drove many villagers to the cities.
Attempts to restrict the Bedouin took place during Ottoman rule and were later taken up again by the French, who had initially encouraged Bedouin self-government. These efforts continued after Syrian independence in the 1940s, and in 1958 the land of the bādiyah (Syrian Desert)—which accounted for some four-fifths of Syrian territory—was nationalized, and tribal holdings were no longer recognized by the state. Pasturelands were ruined and vast quantities of sheep and camels were lost in the massive drought of 1958–61, which devastated many Syrian Bedouin. Many were forced to seek employment in the urban centres, and some did not return to their pastoral lifestyle after the drought was over. Others, however, became partners with urban merchants who sponsored the restocking of their flocks. With the activation of state-sponsored programs, pastoral activity was revived, albeit in a new form: subsidized fodder and government-drilled wells were used in the nourishment of the herds; migration became increasingly individualized; and pastoral endeavours grew more market-oriented.
Urban settlement
Ten centuries of Greek and Roman rule left an urban mark still visible in the towns of Latakia, Tadmur, and Buṣrā al-Shām (ancient Bostra). The urban tradition of Islam appears in such cities as Damascus and Aleppo. The continuation of old commercial and religious interests enabled the cities to maintain their economic and cultural supremacy under the four centuries of Ottoman rule. Following a period of rapid urbanization in the 1950s and ’60s, rural-to-urban migration abated somewhat. Nevertheless, disparities between rural and urban areas, albeit reduced on several fronts, persisted into the 21st century and contributed to Syrians’ continued movement from rural to urban areas.
The national capital is Damascus, situated in the southeast on the banks of the Baradā River. It is not only the national headquarters of government and the diplomatic community but also the main centre of education, culture, and industry. In addition, it serves as a marketing hub for central Syria and produces traditional handicraft products such as brocades, engraved wood, gold and silver ornaments, and carpets. It is well served by transport facilities and public utilities.
Located between the Orontes and Euphrates rivers, Aleppo, Syria’s largest city, is a trade and light-industry centre. The city is well served by roads and railroads and is surrounded by an area that specializes in the production of sheep for market in Damascus and other countries. The Mediterranean port of Latakia is surrounded by a rich agricultural region and contains some industry. Because of its seaside location, the city is a major tourist centre.
Homs is located in the midst of a fertile plain east of the Orontes River. It is a hub of the country’s road and railway systems. Ḥamāh, to the northeast of Homs, is bisected by the Orontes River. It contains irrigated orchards and is an agricultural trade centre. There is also some light industry. In 1982 the Syrian armed forces leveled the downtown area when they crushed a local rising against the government.
Demographic trends
Syria’s population is growing at a rate somewhat higher than the world average. The country’s birth rate is higher than that of most neighbouring countries and is also higher than the world average. Life expectancy in Syria is well above the world average. At the beginning of the 21st century, Syria’s population was on the whole quite young, with more than one-third of Syrians under age 15 and almost another one-third under 30.
Only about half the country’s land can support population, and about half the population is concentrated in the country’s urban centres. The desert steppe, which has the country’s lowest population density, is inhabited largely by Bedouins and oasis dwellers. Population density varies considerably in the rest of the country and is highest in the northwest and southwest and in the northeast. It is also fairly high along the banks of the major rivers.
Regional conflict has affected migration patterns in the country. Much of the population of the Golan Heights was expelled to other parts of Syria after Israel took control of the region in 1967; many, along with their descendants, continue to be internally displaced. After the creation of Israel and the first of the Arab-Israeli wars, some 80,000 Palestinian Arabs found refuge in Syria in 1948, a population that is estimated to have since expanded to number more than 400,000. Likewise, with the outbreak of the Iraq War in 2003, Syria absorbed more than one million Iraqi refugees.
The process of socialist transformation under the Baʿth Party and, less rigorously, under Pres. Ḥafiz al-Assad has been the cause of much social, political, and economic turmoil and has led to emigration among the wealthy and among some religious minorities. Increasing numbers of workers and professionals have been leaving the country since the 1950s for other Arab countries, the United States, and western Europe. This movement has caused an alarming drain on the Syrian workforce.
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Home>Collection & Louvre Palace>Curatorial Departments>Plaque with a harpist
Plaque with a harpist
© 2007 RMN / Franck Raux
Near Eastern Antiquities
Demange Françoise
In Mesopotamia, stone and metal were rare and costly materials. Clay, however, was abundant and easily available for all to use. It served to make all sorts of utensils, as well as human and animal figurines. Toward the end of the third millennium BC, small reliefs of stamped clay began to appear, proof of the development of a fresh, lively artistic tradition. The plaque with a harpist is one of the most refined examples of this popular art form.
A popular art form
The invention of the single-valve or open mold towards the end of the third millennium BC meant that large numbers of small reliefs of stamped clay could be produced. These have been found in great quantities in archaeological sites throughout Mesopotamia. They were probably made in temple workshops that produced the small plaques very cheaply, much like today's devotional images. Visitors to the temple would buy them as offerings to leave in the shrine, or to take them home for their own household altar. They were also placed in sepulchers to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. These charmingly fresh, sometimes naive, plaques feature a range of subjects, including gods, worshippers making offerings, nude female forms, and embracing couples - probably used in fertility rites - as well as animals, acrobats, and, as in this case, musicians. They reflect a popular religion that was closer to the everyday lives of its believers than the official religions.
The importance of music
In Mesopotamia, music had a vital social and religious function. It was an important part of every official ceremony, religious or otherwise. It was played at banquets. It was a vital part of the sacred chants that accompanied the daily religious devotions and the recitation of hymns and lamentations. Every palace and temple had its own professional musicians.
Some cuneiform tablets giving precise details on musical techniques have been discovered, but only a tiny number of original musical instruments have survived. This means that figurative representations such as this plaque are particularly important as a source of information.
The harpist and his harp
The musician, wearing a long, draped garment, is playing a bow-shaped harp, holding the boat-shaped resonator (or sound box) under his left arm. In his right hand he holds a plectrum which he uses to pluck all the strings together, holding down the ones he does not want to sound with his left hand.
This harp may be the magur, as played by Shulgi, king of the third Ur dynasty, at the end of the third millennium BC. The word "magur" means "ship", and the resonator of the harp does indeed resemble a boat.
In the early years of the third millennium, many different types of harp were invented. Alongside the bow-shaped harps, which are based directly on musical bows - one of the earliest known instruments - there appeared the first angular harps, whose resonator is perpendicular to the strut the strings are attached to. These harps can be held either horizontally or vertically. This new type of harp spread to Assyria and Iran, and was still in use in a more elaborate form in seventeenth-century Turkey.
We know very little about what these harps would have sounded like. Their tone must have been deep and muffled, the notes much lower than modern harps.
Duchesne-Guillemin M., "La harpe en Asie occidentale ancienne", Revue d'Assyriologie 34,1937, pp.29-41.
Barrelet M-T., Figurines et reliefs en terre cuite de la Mésopotamie antique, Paris, 1968.
Spycket A., "La musique instrumentale mésopotamienne" Journal des Savants, Juill.-Sept. 1972, pp.153-209.
Spycket A., "La musique du Proche-Orient ancien", La Musique dans l'Antiquité, Les Dossiers de l'archéologie 142, Nov. 1989, pp.33-39.
Technical description
• Plaque with a harpist
Circa 2000 BC
Eshnunna (Mesopotamia)
• Stamped and baked clay
H. 8.4 cm; W. 8.9 cm
• Purchased 1930
AO 12454, AO 12457, AO 12453
• Near Eastern Antiquities
Richelieu wing
Ground floor
Mesopotamia, 2nd and 1st millennia BC
Room 3
Practical information
Night opening until 9:45 p.m. on Wednesdays and Fridays
Musée du Louvre, 75058 Paris - France
Buy tickets
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Children's, Intermediate and Advanced Online English Dictionary & Thesaurus
Word Explorer
Children's Dictionary
parts of speech:
verb, noun
flip one's lid, flip one's wig
part of speech: verb
inflections: flips, flipping, flipped
definition 1: to throw in such a way as to cause to turn over or spin.
He flipped the coin to see who would get the seat by the window.
definition 2: to toss with a quick, sharp movement.
Bill flipped the car keys to Sally.
definition 3: to turn or turn over quickly and easily.
She flipped the pages until she found the map she was looking for.He flipped the turtle on its back.
similar words:
definition 4: to do a somersault in the air.
The circus dog jumped and flipped.
phrase: flip one's lid
part of speech: noun
definition 1: an act or instance of flipping.
With a flip of the light switch, the darkness was gone.
definition 2: a somersault in the air.
He did an amazing back flip.
phrase: flip one's wig
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15th Century Kalmar Union
At the end of the last century, we saw the creation of the Kalmar Union, which encompassed Sweden (with Finland), Norway, and Denmark under one ruler while maintaining their independence. This came from a series of mismanagement throughout each country until the ascension of Queen Margaret of Denmark I, who united them in this union under her rule– mostly because her only child and heir, Olaf II of Denmark, was set to inherit all three crowns from both maternal and paternal sides. Olaf died in 1384, leaving her without an heir. She was told it would be on her to find them the three countries a King, but that Norway would have her rule alongside them, and Sweden honestly did not mind her sole rule. Instead of marrying, she adopted her great-nephew and great-niece; Boguslaw and Catherine. Boguslaw changed his name to Erik of Pomerania and was created her heir. He was crowned King of Norway in 1389, and the crowns of Sweden and Denmark followed in 1396, but Margaret would rule until her death in 1412.
She worked hard to suppress the Riksråd (Danish council) and kept the nobles in check during her reign. Justice was maintained keeping the countries running well, and the aspirations of Sweden and Norway. She included women in her legislation–particularly women who had been sexually assaulted. She gave money to the female victims of the previous wars, and included punishment for violating a woman as part of her plan for peace. She recovered all the land lost by Vlademar IV, bringing vast amounts of estates to the crown. She revamped the economy first by swapping copper coins for silver. She also created new taxes. All this led to upset nobles, but she kept them at bay by having one close council instead of three separate ones for the countries. She also employed more Danes in Sweden and Norway than she almost did in Denmark to ensure loyal administration, though this frustrated the respective countries. She often traveled throughout the three countries and encouraged intermarriages among the nobility to help secure the union. When it came to foreign policy, she sought to maintain neutral unless it came to retrieving lands lost to the union. Much of the Danish land was recovered through purchase and diplomacy, rather than war though. In 1402, she entered into marriage negotiations with Henry IV of England. They planned a duel wedding: King Erik to Princess Philippa and Prince Henry (future Henry V) to Catherine of Pomerania. Margaret envisioned uniting into the kingdom once ruled by Cnute the Great, but Henry IV saw it as a means to launch an offensive strike against France. In the end, they compromised, and the Union promised to defend England against France, and only one wedding took place in 1406, Erik and Philippa). Catherine would marry the Count Palatine of Neumark to give Margaret and Erik a German alliance.
After her death, Erik ruled on his own with Philippa by his side. He made Copenhagen a royal possession and forced the Bishop of Roskilde from the Copenhagen Castle, so he made it his home and the city his capital. He was energetic, intelligent, ill-tempered, magnetic, and lacked diplomacy. Pope Pious described him as having women flock to him. He traveled throughout Europe and even made a pilgrimage to the Holy Lands, during which Philippa was regent for the Union. The longest conflict of his reign was with the Counts of Schauenburg and Holstein, who held South Jutland. Margaret was winning the state back through diplomacy, but when Erik returned, he chose warfare instead. It was a lengthy war and they lost terribly. In 1424, the Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund of Bohemia, tried to settle it by declaring Erik, ruler of South Jutland, but he was largely ignored. To help economically, Erik came up with the idea to tax the straight in between Denmark and Sweden, which leads into the Baltic Sea called the Sound (Øresundtolden). He built a fortress called the Kronborg to reinforce this, and it lasted until the 19th century. It was a secure and stable income for the country, and allowed Erik to challenge the Hanseatic League. He was at war with the cities from 1426 to 1435–though when they attacked Copenhagen in 1428, Erik fled with Philippa defended the city.
Philippa died in 1430, and he married her former lady-in-waiting, Cecilia, in a morganic marriage. Rebellions over his poor management broke out around 1434, which lasted until 1436, and forced him to create peace with the Hanseatic League and the Holsteiniers in 1435 (The Swedes in particular were unhappy with his rule). Erik tried in vain to have his cousin recognized as his heir, and when he failed, he took up permanent residency at Visborg Castle, which would become his prison. A coup d’état occurred in 1440, and his nephew Christopher of Bavaria replaced him in Sweden and Denmark. Norway tried to keep him as king, but he was isolated in Gotland, Sweden, so they were also forced to turn on him.
Christopher would only reign for 8 years before he died, and the thrones would be temporarily split for about three years. Christian I would ascend to the Danish throne, while Karl Knutsson Bonde became Charles VIII of Sweden (I of Norway). A rivalry ensued between them, with Norway being the defining country. Both men fought for support, but in 1449 Charles was elected their King. Christian would not surrender easily though, and the Swedes were uneasy about going to war with Denmark over Norway. Charles was forced to abdicate in 1450 Norway to him. Christian sailed to Denmark to be coronated and made a more official treaty between Denmark and Norway. It was now explicitly stated that Denmark and Norway were elected monarchies, but the monarch would always be the same in both countries, and that the monarch had to be elected from the legitimate sons of the last King (unless none existed).
Charles VIII became increasingly unpopular, and by 1457 he was driven into exile, giving Christian a chance to reunite the Kalmar Union. He succeeded and finally ruled all four countries. Factions split Sweden that disliked the un-nationalistic nature of the Union, and soon they were pushing Christian out. Charles would return to the throne, lose it again, and then regain it a final time, holding it until his death in 1470. During this time, his nephew, Sten Sture the Elder, continues to prove himself an efficient military leader and savvy politician. His uncle elected him as his heir to his personal lands and the crown, but he would never be elected King. Instead, he would rule as Regent to Sweden. He ruled pretty much unchallenged until 1497.
Christian would continue to fight for the Swedish throne until the decisive Battle of Brunkeburg, where he lost miserably. He came up his campaign, but swore on his claim until his death. In 1474, he traveled to Milan, Rome, and Burgundy to visit Pope Sixtus IV and Charles the Bold. In 1479, he established the University of Copenhagen. He and his Queen, Dorothea, built a chapel for their family to be buried in, and that his where he was interred after dying in 1481. His eldest son succeeded him, John (Hans). Denmark and Norway easily elected John, but it was not until 1983 that he was recognized as King of Sweden. Even then, he could not remove Sten from power. John began searching for allies and became the first Danish King to ally with Russia. Ivan III thereafter imprisoned all Hanseatic traders in Novgrod, which led to a war between Sweden and Russia (the beginning of many throughout history). In 1497, John led a successful military expedition into Sweden, chasing Sten from power until he returned with apologies. Sten bent the knee to John, and in return was given the next highest position of power below the king. This is something that almost never ends well, but we will learn more about it when we return to the next century. For now, the Kalmar Union is mostly peacefully ruled by John I of Denmark, while the precedent of fighting between Sweden and Russia has been set.
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Arts and Cultures - Sacrifice in Ancient South India
Arts and Cultures
Dr Archana Verma
In the ancient South Indian literature, sacrifice was used largely in the form of killing an animal and offering its blood and meat to the deity, often along with toddy, Cey/Murugan and the goddess Koṟṟavi being the most prominent recipients of the sacrifice of this nature. We have references from the Sangam poetry, which talk about oblations being offered to the sea-god Varuṇan on a full-moon night by the fishermen community, as homage to the god’s grace in providing livelihood to his worshippers. Toddy was offered to the god and later drunk by the fishermen in this case, accompanied by dancing. The goddess Koṟṟavi granted victory to her devotees in battle, cattle-raids etc. and the hunting tribes of the hills offered her animal sacrifice in order to gain victory. Cey/Murugan was also the god of war who received similar offerings. Other than this, toddy, meat and blood were also offered to Murugan during exorcism rites, since he was also believed to ‘possess’ women. In the case of Murugan, we know about the shamanic priest velan, who makes the sacrificial offerings and performs the exorcist rites.
These cases show that the sacrificial ritual in the ancient South India was used by the community as a surviving strategy.
This was a society oriented along kinship alliances, rather than territory-based kingdoms and martial superiority in the battle and raids was instrumental for the survival of the community, as also a success in the professions specific to the ecological-zone (tiṇai) specific to a social group such as the fishermen. The sacrificial act here acted as a contract between the community and the patron deity, aimed at deriving sustenance and survival in the world. How important was this sense of exchange between the oblate and the recipient is evident from the reference that if the goddess was not propitiated she would not grant victory to her devotees and therefore, they offered their own heads in sacrifice to her.
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This transformation experiment re-creates one of the crucial experiments which proves that DNA really is the genetic material. Dr Cox demonstrates this by adding genetic material (DNA) from one strain of bacterium to another, so that a genetically determined characteristic of the former is transferred to the latter.
Metadata describing this Open University video clip
Rights Statement: Rights owned or controlled by The Open University
Duration: 00:11:30
Keyword(s): DNA transformation, bacteria, enzyme, Tryptophan.
Contributor(s): Dr Brian Cox
+ Show more...
Footage description: B/W. Cox standing behind a table in the studio speaking. He removes two test tubes containing bacteria culture, from a rack. Close up of the cultures. Cox replaces the tubes in the rack and selects two small plates containing growth medium. Cox marks the plates with a pen. He sterilises a wire loop in a flame. He takes cells from one bacterial culture and streaks them on the growth mediums then repeats with cells from the second culture. Cox removes two plates from an incubator. He displays one on a board. Close up of bacterial culture growth on the plate. Cox displays the second plate. Close up of both plates. Cox speaking to camera behind table. Close up of test tube rack. Cox takes a cell extract solution in a tube and places is in the centre of the table. He pours alcohol into the tube from a beaker. Close up of the layers of liquid produced in the tube. Close up of the precipitate being spooled onto a glass rod. Cox transfers the precipitate into a tube containing a salt solution. Cox speaking behind table. Closeup of test tube rack. Cox uses a glass tube to add purified DNA solution to test tubes of cell solutions. Cox speaking behind the table. He places a plate containing growth medium on the table. Close up of the plate. He pipettes cell solution onto the plate. He sterilises a glass rod and spreads the cells on the plate. Close up of plate. Cox speaking behind table. He puts the plate into the incubator and removes another. He displays the plate on a board. Close up of plate. Cox adds a label 'Mix' above the plate. Cox speaking behind table. Close up of test tube rack. Cox removes two plates from the incubator and displays them on the board adding the labels 'DNA' and 'Try' above them. Cox speaking behind table. He removes a test tube from the rack then replaces it. Close up of three plates displayed on the board. Cox points to the bacterial growth. Close up of the first plate.
Master programe code and title: S100/17 Genetic code
Master programme recording date: 16/05/1971
Master programme first presentation: 1971
Master programe filename: S100_1971X_BX_V017.avi
Master programme production number: JOUZ371T
Available to public: yes
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Ed Golson Outdoor Education
glossy buckthorn
Scientific Name: Rhamnus frangula
Description: Glossy buckthorn is a woody shrub or small tree that can reach a height of up to 20 feet. The bark of this plant is grayish-brown with many small lightly colored speckles. When the buckthorn stems are cut, you can see that the wood inside is yellow or orange. The leaves of this shrub are oval shaped, 1 to 3 inches long, and shiny on top. They also have a somewhat wavy appearance.
The flowers on a glossy buckthorn have 5 petals and are a pale green in color. Its fruit starts off as a red color and then turn dark purple as they ripen.
Habitat: Glossy buckthorn grows best in wetlands like swamps or bogs, but it will also grow along roadsides and old field.
What's the Problem? : Glossy buckthorn is an invasive plant that was originally native to Europe and Asia. Since it has gotten here it has spread very quickly and aggressively into all sorts of new areas. When it does get started, it grows very quickly and will shade out native plants. It is also hard to kill because if any part of the root is left living in the soil, they will quickly sprout many new shoots, making the plant bigger than before
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Get detailed explanations to advanced GMAT questions.
Excavations of the Roman city of Sepphoris have uncovered numerous detailed mosaics depicting several readily identifiable animal species: a hare, a partridge, and various Mediterranean fish. Oddly, most of the species represented did not live in the Sepphoris region when these mosaics were created. Since identical motifs appear in mosaics found in other Roman cities, however, the mosaics of Sepphoris were very likely created by traveling artisans from some other part of the Roman Empire.
Option A:
The Sepphoris mosaics are not composed exclusively of types of stones found naturally in the Sepphoris area
Option B:
There is no single region to which all the species depicted in the Sepphoris mosaics are native
Option C:
No motifs appear in the Sepphoris mosaics that do not also appear in the mosaics of some other Roman city
Option D:
All of the animal figures in the Sepphoris mosaics are readily identifiable as representation of known species
Option E:
There was not a common repertory of mosaic designs with which artisans who lived in various parts of the Roman empire were familiar
Difficulty Level
Option E is the correct answer.
Option Analysis
Question type: Find the assumption.
Summary of the argument: Since the designs found in the Sepphoris region were also found in other areas, the argument goes onto assume that the traveler designers were the ones who created them.
A) Stones are not the matter of concern here.
B) The concern is about the design found on the mosaic. Not the native of the stones.
C) This weakens the conclusion.
D) This doesn’t suffice the argument’s assumptions to say that the travelers were the one who made the design.
E) Correct Answer
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CPM Homework Banner
Home > A2C > Chapter 1 > Lesson 1.1.3 > Problem 1-37
Nissos and Chelita were arguing over a math problem. Nissos was trying to explain to Chelita that she had made a mistake in finding the -intercepts of the function . “No way!” Chelita exclaimed. “I know how to find -intercepts! You make the equal to zero and solve for . I know I did this right!” Here is Chelita’s work:
Step 1:
, so
Step 2:
Step 3:
Nissos tried to explain to Chelita that she had done something wrong. What is Chelita’s error? Justify and explain your answer completely.
Notice that is being subtracted, not added.
She made a sign error while factoring. The correct factorization is .
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SSC History Sample Paper NCERT Sample Paper-2
• question_answer
Direction: Following item consists of two statements, one labelled as 'Assertion (A) ' and the other as 'Reason (R)'. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answers to these items using the code given below:
Assertion (A) : The Government of India introduced income-tax in 1860 as a temporary measure.
Reason (R): The Government of India wanted to utilize the extra revenue to spread and promote western education in India.
C) A is true but R is false
D) A is false but R is true
Correct Answer: C
Solution :
[c] Following the Mutiny of 1857, the British Government faced an acute financial crisis. To fill up the treasury, the first Income-tax Act was introduced in February, 1860 by James Wilson, who became British-India's first Finance Minister. Thenceforth, there were many developments in the field of taxation. The tax system was modelled largely on the lines of the British system prevailing then. James Wilson, while introducing the I-T Act in 1860, quoted from Manu for levying income-tax in the country.
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Byron Bay Public School logo
Byron Bay Public School
Byron Bay Public School
Respectful, Responsible, Fair
Telephone02 6685 6557
Responding appropriately to teachers
This lesson revolves around the expectations of being respectful and showing respect to everyone.
Explicit Teaching:
• Explain the difference between responding appropriately and inappropriately to someone who is addressing you.
• How can we show respect?
• What can we do to be respectful? Who do we show respect to? Why should we be respectful?
• Settings where this expectation applies: Whole school, classroom, computer room, library, assembly, playground, transitions, bus lines, before school & toilets.
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Action Synopsis: Bird Conservation About Actions
Use prescribed burning on savannas
How is the evidence assessed?
• Effectiveness
• Certainty
• Harms
Study locations
Key messages
• A replicated and controlled study from Kenya, of five studies captured, found that burned areas of savanna tended to have more birds and more species than control or grazed areas. However, the authors note that differences were not present during drought years and burned sites showed significant annual variation, unlike grazed sites. A replicated and controlled study from Australia found that the effects of burning on bird abundances depended on burn season, and habitat type.
• Two replicated studies in the USA found that some open country species were more common in burned areas than unburned, whilst other species were less so.
• A small study from the USA found that two eastern bluebird Sialia sialis successfully raised chicks after the habitat around their nest boxes was subject to a prescribed burn.
About key messages
Supporting evidence from individual studies
1. A small study in Minnesota, USA (Cox 1987), found that eastern bluebird Sialia sialis clutches in two nest boxes in an area that underwent prescribed burning both had 100% success (i.e. all eggs produced fledglings), compared with an average success of 93% for 23 nest boxes nearby. Flame height was 1 m or less and did not reach the boxes at 1.2 and 1.4 m above ground. Adult bluebirds left their boxes as the fire approached, returning when it had passed.
Study and other actions tested
2. At Cedar Creek Natural History Area, Minnesota, USA (Davis et al. 2000), a replicated controlled study of oak savanna restoration by prescribed burning (initiated in 1964) found that ‘open country’ bird abundance increased as restoration progressed. Seven units (8-18 ha) were subject to one of seven burn frequencies, ranging from nearly every year to no burning over the previous 31 years. Burns were conducted in spring (except two in late summer). Bird species richness in the two unburned units (17 and 23 species) was lower than that of two frequently burned units (30 and 32) in June 1995 and similar in 1996. As woodland became more open, upper tree canopy insectivores declined, whilst omnivorous birds, particularly ground and lower canopy foragers increased. Woodpeckers increased as standing dead tree abundance increased.
Study and other actions tested
3. A replicated, paired study in oak Quercus spp. savanna in Illinois, USA (Brawn 2006), found that bird community composition was significantly different in areas with prescribed burning compared to closed-canopy oak forest. Of the 31 bird species analysed, 12 were more common in burned savanna and five more common in unburned forest. Twelve savanna sites maintained by burns (spring, autumn or both, on a 3-5 year rotation, with periodic removal of Acer spp. and European buckthorn Rhamnus catharticus) were paired with 12 forest sites (no burning for over 50 years). Point counts were conducted for 3-5 years (between 25 May-10 July 1995-1999) to assess bird abundance. There was no effect of burning on brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbird Molothrus ater.
Study and other actions tested
4. A replicated, controlled study in January-March 2001 and 2004 in open eucalypt and riparian woodland along three creeks in Queensland, Australia (Valentine et al. 2007), found that plots burned in the dry season of 2000 had significantly fewer birds in 2004 than control (unburned) sites, whilst sites burned in the wet season of 2000 had higher abundances. Species richness did not vary in 2004. However, several species showed short-term changes in abundance after fire: three species were more abundant in dry-season burned sites in 2001; two were less abundant after burns. Pied butcherbirds Cracticus nigrogularis were more abundant in burned eucalypt sites and little friarbirds Philemon citreogularis were more abundant in dry season burnt sites and riparian habitat of wet season burnt sites.
Study and other actions tested
5. In Laikipia District, Kenya, a replicated controlled study in 2005-2007 (Gregory et al. 2010) found that five burned plots of savanna had, on average, but not consistently, higher densities of birds and more species than five grazed or four unmanaged control areas (3-17 birds and 3-8 species/100 m2 for burned areas vs. 4-6 birds and 2.5-4.0 species for controls; 5-8 birds and 4-5.5 species for grazed areas). The authors note that there were no differences between treatments in drought years, and that the yearly variation in burned plots was greater than in grazed plots, suggesting that grazing may have longer term benefits. In addition, some species were only recorded in unmanaged areas. The impact of burning appeared to decrease over time.
Study and other actions tested
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Israel under the Maccabees
As the Seleucid Empire continued to lose land to rival powers and internal revolts, Antiochus IV Epiphanes sought to unify his diverse domain by forcing Greek religious and political practices upon all his subjects (1 Maccabees 1; 2 Maccabees 6-7). Eventually his harsh policies fomented open rebellion by faithful Jews under the leadership of Mattathias Maccabeus and his sons (1 Maccabees 2; 2 Maccabees 8). Beginning in Judea in 167 B.C., the Maccabean leaders established an independent kingdom and gradually accumulated more and more land until their domain roughly equalled the territory allotted to the twelve tribes of Israel(1 Maccabees 3-16; 2 Maccabees 9-15).
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A team of scientists made an exciting discovery when they dug up a huge elephant tusk in Saudi Arabia, now confirmed to be 300,000 years old. They discovered it under sand beside a dried up ancient lake, suggesting that the scorching hot deserts there, were once covered in lush fertile grassland, where large animals roamed. Scientists believe the tusk belonged to an extinct species related to the elephant family from the Pleistocene era, known as Palaeoloxodon. These findings were further discussed at the Green Arabia conference held in April in Oxford, UK. HRH Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Chairman of the Board and President of the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA), delivered the introduction, providing an overview of the heritage of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its importance to the history of Islam. He also discussed Saudi Arabia’s heritage in relation to the wider world and the importance of tourism development. HRH The Prince of Wales welcomed the guests, noting the importance of the Green Arabia concept, in the light of environmental concerns in the 21st century and highlighting how understanding the past can help shape the future.
The Palaeodeserts Project will examine environmental change in the Arabian Desert over the last one million years. A multidisciplinary team of researchers is meanwhile studying the effect of environmental change on early humans and animals that settled or passed through the desert and how their responses determined whether they survived or became extinct.
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Cobbler, Cobbler
Before presenting the song, spend some time with your children thinking of ways that your feet can move (walk, jump, skip, run, etc.). Explain how a long time ago children would wear out their shoes from lots of activity. They would often take their shoes to be repaired by a cobbler. A cobbler takes a hammer and fixes shoes by putting in special tacks to keep the shoes together.
Pretend to be a cobbler with a hammer and “pound” the steady beat before, during, and after the song. Pay close attention to hammering the steady beat and not the rhythm of the faster notes.
Cobbler, Cobbler musical notation
Verse 2
Cobbler, cobbler, mend my shoe.
Get it done by half past two.
Half past two is much too late.
Have it done by half past eight.
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kids encyclopedia robot
Supramolecular chemistry facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Supramolecular Assembly Lehn
An example of a supramolecular assembly.
Cucurbituril gyroscope AngewChemIntEd 2002 v41 p275 hires
Rotaxane Crystal Structure EurJOrgChem page2565 year1998
An example of a mechanically-interlocked molecular architecture in this case a rotaxane.
Host Guest Complex Porphyrin Sanders AngewChemIntEdEngl 1995 1096
An example of a host-guest chemistry.
Cucurbit-6-uril ActaCrystallB-Stru 1984 382
Lehn Beautiful Foldamer HelvChimActa 1598 2003
Intramolecular self-assembly of a foldamer.
Supramolecular chemistry is area of chemistry that studies the relationship and linking molecules into bigger systems. It focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. The study of non-covalent interactions is crucial to understanding many biological processes from cell structure to vision that rely on these forces for structure and function. Biological systems are often the inspiration for supramolecular research.
Related pages
• 2D and 3D Models of Dodecahedrane and Cuneane Assemlies [1]
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Supramolecular chemistry Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Mamut (Mammoth) Hakkında İngilizce Bilgi
Mamutun ingilizce tanıtımı. Mamut, Mammoth nasıl bir hayvandır, yaşam koşulları, özellikleri ile ilgili ingilizce bilgi, yazı.
Mammoths are extinct relatives of today’s elephants. They lived during the last ice age, and they may have died off when the weather became warmer and their food supply changed. Humans may also be partly responsible for their disappearance due to hunting. Although the word “mammoth” has come to mean “huge,” woolly mammoths were probably about the size of African elephants.
Their ears were smaller than those of today’s elephants. This was probably an adaptation to the cold climate that kept their ears closer to their heads and kept them warmer. Their tusks were very long, about 15 feet (5 meters) and were used for fighting and digging in the deep snow. Mammoths were herbivores and ate mostly grass, but also ate other types of plants and flowers.
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but like the constituents of the chemical compound, these elements were brought into contact, and their action was as violent as that of the acid and the alkali. Each strove for victory, yet none perfectly prevailed, nor on the other hand, was absolutely powerless; for each left its impress upon the new language; and the contributions which each made to it, are beautifully characteristic of the true value of each, and the sphere which each was calculated to fill; thus, our common, homely, fireside words are from the Saxon, while our language of chivalry, law, theology and science are from the Norman.
All those words representing physical action, and strength, and the common concerns of life, are from the Saxon. The Saxon was always acting, and always intent upon some object; he was assiduous in his ordinary duties, and a giant in arms.
Alfred laid the foundation of law, and refreshed the lamps of learning; and in a single age he elevated his native tongue and gave a name to Saxon literature.
All the particles, the elements employed in connecting and qualifying the terms of the language, are Saxon; while as we have said above, abstract terms, and those of law, chivalry, and the court, are usually Norman French.
The Saxon, subjected and oppressed, retired to the humbler walks of life, and there his language was exclusively spoken; the haughty Norman presided at the court, administered the laws, and his language was introduced into the palace. It presided at the altar, and was legalized at the bar. These facts are impressed
upon our language; there these opposing races have carved their history, and it cannot be effaced while the language endures. There they have reared a monument to their memory as immortal as the language itself:
Monumentum aere perennius
Regalique situ pyramidium altius :" there they have executed a monument more lasting than brass, and more sublime than the regal elevation of pyramids."
The Danish tongue, which was closely allied to the Saxon, so far mingled and coalesced with it, as to leave no distinct impress upon the language which resulted from the intermingling of the various elements we have mentioned; while the Normans, though they robbed the conquered of their lands, and imposed upon them their laws, could never force or persuade the Saxon to leave the use of his own tongue, and never succeeded in introducing the more polished dialect of the continent into the households of men. There the Saxon still lingered, and while the court, the triblinals of justice, and the schools used the bastard Latin and French brought from Normandy,--in the field and by the hearth was maturing that noble English tongue to which Chaucer gave form, and in which Shakspeare embalmed the noblest products of human genius.
« A national literature” says Mr, Longfellow,* « is a subject which should always be approached with reverence. It is difficult to comprehend fully the mind of a nation; cven when that nation still lives and we can visit it, and its present history, and the lives of men we know, help us to comment on the written text. But here the dead alone speak. Voices half understood; fragments of song, ending abruptly, as if the poet had sung no further, but died with these last words upon his lips; homilies preached to congregations that have been asleep for many centuries; lives of saints who went to their reward long before the world began to scoff at sainthood; and wonderful legends once believed by men, and now, in this age of wise children, hardly credible enough for a nurse's tale; noth. ing entire, nothing wholly understood, and no further comment or illustration than may be drawn from an isolated fact found in an old chronicle, or perchance a rude illustration in an old manuscript! Such is the literature we have now to consider. Such fragments and nutilated remains, has the human mind left of itself, coming down through the times of old, step by step, and every step a century. Old men and venerable accompany us through the Past; and pausing at the threshold of the Present, they put into our hands, at parting, such written records of themselves as they have, We should receive these things with
We should respect old age.”
This is the language of a poet as well as an historian, in approaching the literature of the Saxons; this is the awe and uncertainty that the historian feels, in attempting to record their departed glory; this is the inspiration that a poet feels in gathering up the fragments of their songs. But though the mantle of genius fall not on us, we have a more delicate task to perform; to analyze their language, to trace its history, and illustrate its connection with ours.
*l'oets and Poetry of Europe.
Various opinions have been entertained and urged, con cerning the origin, and even the character of the Saxon language: one party pass it by in silent contempt, or if they notice it all, denounce it as a barbarous and barren dialect, observing no fixed rules of construction, and incapable of discharging its functions : while the other party maintain directly the reverse, and contend that in the golden days of Anglo-Saxon literature, the era of Alfred, the language was stable in its character, observed the strictest rules in its inflections, and possessed all the innate richness and plastic power of the illustrious Greek and Latin.
In addition to this eulogy upon its character, it is supposed, with some plausibility at least, to be of more ancient origin than either of these great classic tongues: thus coming down to us from the highest antiquity and affording the greatest latitude for fancy and speculation, it is to be expected that much diversity of opinion should arise; and certainly no one ought to be reproached for displaying his learning and research upon this delicate and interesting subject, though he may contribute nothing to the fair solution of the question.
The extremes in this case, are so remote from one another, that it will be hazarding nothing to say, the truth lies between them: and it may suffice to make
a few suggestions with regard to each of these languages, and present a few specimens of Saxon literature, leaving the result to the unbiassed judgment of the reader,
Neither the Greek, or the Latin, is a simple, original language: the former is formed from the Hellenic, and Pelasgic dialects. The Pelasgians were the earliest inhabitants of Greece, and existed there eighteen generations before the Trogan war. They came from Asia, and spread themselves over Europe, even to the southern part of Italy. From the speech of those last named, a branch of the Pelasgic, the Latin was derived.
The Saxon being of Teutonic or Germanic extraction, is traced back in the Indo-European line, to Chorasin, the cradle of the human species : spreading thence to the south, they gave birth to the Persians, in whose language there are many Saxon words; its origin is therefore lost or obscured in the high antiquity of its history: and if it be not older than the Persian, Greek and Latin, and if it contributed nothing to their formation, it contains elements in common with them, and belongs to the same great family. It is not a primitive language, simple, and unadulterated; but is complex, being composed in part of different elements from other languages. (a)
It came upon British soil in the fifth century, when the Anglo-Saxons, a wild and warlike race, or a combination of two races, the Saxons and Angles, (or Anglia, from whom the term English is derived,) invaded Britain, subjugated and expelled the Welsh
(a) See note B at the end of this vol.
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From generation to generation, the moral, religious and political values of a culture are handed on. We are going to dig deeper at the Xhosa people in this article. The easiest way to assess this is by an interview with an older person. King’ Zwelonke’ Mpendulo Sigcawu, who leads the Xhosa Royal Council and the Tshawe clan, was the person selected for this exercise. Xhosa refers to a Bantu minority group found in South Africa with a majority. In Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Lesotho, a few are found as well. Due to their assimilation with the Khoisan people, the Xhosa language has a “click” sound to it. Famous Xhosa personalities are Nelson Mandela, Miriam Makeba, Bishop Desmond Tutu, and Thabo Mbeki. The following are the answers given by King Sigcawu about the various aspects of the Xhosa people.
In the traditional setting, the Xhosa people resided in huts shaped like beehives in scattered homesteads led by chiefs. This society is patriarchal. Children are given names by their grandparents or fathers. The moment a woman gets married, she is given a new name by her mother-in-law. Garments were mostly made of skin and women are expected to wear clothes which cover their upper arm and shoulders. Arranged marriages were the norm. Dowry was ten cows or money with the same value. The girl was then captured by the groom’s side and this closed the deal. Circumcision was practised on both men and women to usher them into adulthood. Uncircumcised males (“inkwekwe”) were not allowed to take part in tribal meeting.
Currently, the Xhosa people adorn western clothes. However, they still practise some of their traditions. For instance, in a home men are served food before women. It is also common that adults are not referred to by their first names. Titles such as aunty, uncle and mother of often precede the names. Circumcision is still practised by men and can be done traditionally or in the hospital.
Traditionally, the Xhosa people were led by kings and chiefs as their village assistants. During the apartheid rule (1948-1994), the government, run by the Dutch, set aside separate regions (“Bantustans”) where black people resided. Transkei and Ciskei were the two areas where the Xhosa people resided. This led to the people being denied citizenship in South Africa. The ruling Nationalist Party mostly consisted of white Afrikaans ensure that 90% of the country was inhabited by whites and the rest occupied the 10%. The “Bantustans” cover the area currently known as Soweto, which is an abbreviation for South Western Townships. Notable members of the Anti-Apartheid Movement include Nelson Mandela and Bishop Desmond Tutu, who have both won Nobel peace prizes for their work.
Currently, apartheid is no longer existent. However, the Xhosa people are yet to heal from its effects such as low adult literacy, poverty, crime and broken families. The chiefs are still existent though they are more of traditional leaders. The Xhosa people are also involved in governing of the country since the former president, Thabo Mbeki, is involved in voicing their opinions.
In the traditional setting, the Supreme Being is the “uQamata” or “uThixo.” God was spoken to using intermediaries who were honored using ritual sacrifices. Ancestors generally spoke to the living through dreams. All the Xhosa people believe that they have one ancestor, “Tshawe” who was the first person in the world and was an exemplary leader.
Currently, most of the Xhosa people are Christians belonging to the Methodist denomination. This is due to its introduction by the colonialists. However, most traditionalists associate with denominations that combine elements of Christianity and the traditional practices.
Before the coming of missionaries, education was mainly informal. Values and customs were taught to the young people by their seniors. This was done using “intsomi” (folktales), “isibongo” (poems of praise) and proverbs. The first formal education schools were introduced to thee Xhosa community by missionaries. University of Fort Hare, stands as one of the most popular institutions. It boasts of influential alumni such as Nelson Mandela. During the apartheid rule, introduced by the Dutch, there was limited access to formal education. This has contributed to the low rates of adult literacy, some areas recording 30%.
Currently, the government has put in pace measures to increase the level of literacy. This has been done by provision of free education for individuals between the ages of seven up to seventeen. In the contemporary society, formal education is required for success therefore it is very important to the Xhosa people.
Economic activity
Traditionally, they were herders and farmers. Currently, they have taken up white collar jobs in many sectors such as banking, medicine and engineering since some have moved into the cities. However, they still practise farming especially in their rural homes.
The Xhosa are the second largest ethnic group in South Africa after the Zulu. They are a people who place utmost importance in their culture even in the contemporary society. They suffered under the apartheid rule and are still trying to recover from its effects just like majority of South Africans. Their contributions cannot be ignored as the community has produced leaders who are recognized in the world such as Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu. They also work in a number of sectors in South Africa such as medicine and finance. Their heritage should therefore be preserved and celebrated.
Works Cited
King Mpendulo “Zwelonke” Sigcawu
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Keys to the Past
Starting with M - 60 Glossary entries found.
A metal staff carried by civic officials, such as a Mayor. This signifies a Medieval right to something - such as the ability to hold a market. Maces are also weapons that could be used to hit an attacker.
Macehead; Mace head
A stone or piece of antler with a central hole, which is rounded and edged straight. Apparently functionless these are thought to be status symbols.
A store for gunpowder and ammunition. These have many anti-spark devices to prevent any explosions. Hoists are made with wooden parts. Ventilation shutters are staggered so as to stop any sparks reaching the gunpowder. These are found near barracks, ranges and quarries. They may be partly underground to minimise the effects of an accidental explosion. An example at Berwick upon Tweed dates to the 1740s AD.
See geophysical survey.
Maltings; Malt house; Malthouse
A maltings or malting house is where barley was malted to make beer or whiskey. Malting involves letting the grain start growing slightly. It is then heated so that the growing stops. This helps to make the drink easier to make and taste better. Malt houses usually contain large wooden floors on which the grain was allowed to begin to grow. They also have large ovens where the grain was then heated.
The land held by a lord - perhaps as payment for services or as a reward. This entailed various customs and obligations to and from the lord. The lord could expect his tenants to grind their crops at his mill; he would also have the pick of crops and livestock. In exchange the lord was to serve his superiors - as well as dispense justice at his own gallows and annual court. The lord would leave at a manor house. A manor is usually all within one parish - but need not be exclusively so.
Since many of these customs have been lost the term may only apply to the land or the central house where the lord lives.
Manor house
See manor.
The residence of a priest (especially a Presbyterian priest).
Marching camp
A camp built by the army (usually) by the side of a road whilst on the march. These could have been used for just a night or many times. Roman examples are usually regular rectangles or squares. Defences were provided by a ditch and rampart around the edge and at the gates. The entrances were defended by a clavicula or titulum. The sizes of marching camps has been used to estimate the size of the army on the march. Such Roman camps are hard to date due to sparse finds, general forms and style. It is possible to generally date some marching camps within the Roman period where they overlap one another, e.g. as at Chew Green, Northumberland. A good sequence of marching camps can be seen along Dere Street in Northumberland from north of Corbridge to the Scottish Border.
Marching camp
Market Cross
The place where a market was held. They may have decoration on - which might refer to specific religious themes. Civil announcements were often made from market crosses.
Market charter
The charter issued by a monarch allowing a market to be held by a lord or civic body at a certain place, at a certain time. A toll of Stallage could be levied on those who wished to sell goods and produce. A proportion of the stallage will have gone to the monarch for granting the licence. Stallage money could be used with other tolls to (re-)build bridges or town walls. Charters were often re-confirmed to individual lords as each monarch was crowned. However, it is noted that some common commodities, e.g. grain, are rarely mentioned, the charters are only a point in time and the charters were copied town for town (regardless of its actual intended applications).
Markets in 1293AD of Northumberland and Durham were; Wark (on Tweed), Norham, Wooler, Chatton, Bamburgh, Embleton, Alnmouth, Alnwick, Warkworth, Rothbury, Harbottle, Elsdon, Netherwitton, Morpeth, Newbiggin, Newcastle, Ovingham, Corbridge, Hexham, Durham, Hartlepool, Darlington and Barnard Castle.
Marl pit
A person put to death for their religious beliefs. These people have usually been canonised to become saints. People were put to death in the Roman period for their religion, (usually Christianity), by a number of means by others who believed in different gods. In Medieval period and the Reformation people were put to death as heretics, for examples Bishops Thomas Latimer and Hugh Ridley at Oxford, by burnt at the stake - by people who shared the same God, but had a different Catholic or Protestant viewpoint.
Mason's marks
A small carved symbol used by a mason to identify his work. They can sometimes be seen on stonework on medieval churches and other buildings.
Master cup
A small cup or metal container used to contain a set of weights.
A chamber designed to act as a burial place. These could be elaborate buildings erected by, and for the sole use of, a family. They might include hatchments. An extreme example is that Seaton Delaval Hall, Northumberland.
Mean high water mark
The point to which an incoming tide will normally reach. It has often been used as a legal boundary.
Mechanic's Institute
A place where lectures were held and reading rooms were provided for artisans to learn more about their trade, including its scientific and theoretical background.
See Overviews for details.
Meeting House
A place where Quakers meet for their services. They are not decorated as other religious buildings are following the group's principles.
Melon bead
A glass bead which is scored down the sides. This scoring makes the bead look like a melon skin. Such beads are commonly found on prehistoric and Romano-British sites, though may be of different colours.
See Overviews for details.
The room used by soldiers to eat in.
A dwelling house and its surrounding buildings and lands.
Metal detector; Metal detectorists
Metal detectors are machines that are able to detect metal objects beneath the soils. Looking for objects using these machines is a popular hobby. Most metal detectorists are responsible, recording the location of the objects they find and informing the local museums or the Portable Antiquities Officer. Their work has made valuable contributions to archaeology in the area.
However, a tiny minority have caused problems by detecting on protected land or on private land without permission of the landowner. This is theft. For further information about metal detecting see our Frequently Asked Question section on the Get Involved page.
See Methodist.
This is a religious revival organisation of the 18th century. The name is a nickname that has stuck. It was established in principle by John Wesley to provide a distinctive style of worship for people Wesley thought had no interests and aspiration in the 18th century church. The meetings included Sunday services as normal, but also further meetings as well. The main theme was on personal conversion and salvation - so any personal status or wealth meant nothing. Methodism was especially common in the industrial areas where people had little status or wealth. It was influential in setting up political parties. Though Wesley saw himself as a member of the church his followers carried on his work - this led to it being a separate organisation. (See also Primitive Methodists).
Methodist Chapel
A small, building where Methodists worship.
Methodist Church
A large, building where Methodists worship.
A very small flint tool, often less than 2.5cm long. They were used as barbs, tips of arrows, or placed edge-to-edge in a wood, bone or piece of antler called a haft. They date to the Early Mesolithic.
A rubbish heap - sometimes used as a place-name element.
Middle English
The English language spoken between roughly 1350 and 1485. It was the language in which some of the first great medieval works of English literature were written, such as the Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.
A military base built in connection with Hadrian's Wall. These were (usually) regularly spaced at every Roman mile giving the name. At some points, such as the eastern section of Hadrian's Wall this is uncertain. These fortifications acted as based for small garrisons - though to be part of the larger cohort units.
Milecastles usually had two gateways; one, to the north, and one to the south through which a drain passed to remove effluent. Both gateways would have substantial doors in, beneath possible small raised parapets with battlements. Good examples of the gateways can be seen at Milecastle 37 (Housesteads, Northumberland). Above the gateways were inscribed stones to the Roman emperor giving the details of the legion building party. Some of the gateways can never have been used for they overlook cliffs, e.g. Milecastle 42 (Cawfields, Northumberland). Internal buildings would have included barracks, latrines and possibly a small stable.
There are varying forms of gateway and milecastle dimensions, which in the absence of other evidence have been used to suggest the legion builders. Outside of the gateways causeways allowed passage across the northern ditch and the Vallum. In the turf-wall sector of Hadrian's Wall the base of the walls were turf, though supplemented by the use of timber for the buildings and battlements. The milecastles have conventionally been number east to west for convenience.
Milestone; Milepost
A stone set up to record distances to and from different points. The Romans set up milestones that also recorded the date of their erection, (with the relevant emperors), though at Roman mile intervals. These were used as later markers.
Similarly mileposts were set up by turnpikes and toll roads. These might also be stone - but some metal shield-shaped examples survive.
Milfield Basin
The Milfield basin forms the largest physically contained alluvial flood basin in Northumberland. It also straddles two key communication routes running north-south and east-west with the entrance to Glendale forming the junction of these two axes. Immediately overlooking this naturally defined cross-roads is the most prominent hill of the northern Cheviot rim; Yeavering Bell. When viewed from the lower lying ground of the basin proper it is the twin-topped hill of Yeavering Bell that stands out most markedly against the southern horizon.
In the Mesolithic period groups were generally targeting settlement on well drained gravels and sandstones, preferably adjacent to the wetland habitats important for economic exploitation, and avoiding wetland and clay habitats for habitation, although smaller sites indicative of brief periods of activity are found on these geologies, probably due to short episode hunting activities.
In the Neolithic period at least 9, and possibly as many as 15 henges were built here, forming a network of religious sites in the area. These were sited within in a complex arrangements of ditches and droveways. There are also many examples of prehistoric rock art in the surrounding area- the main groups of rock art along the route leading towards the Milfield basin are intervisible with one another, so that travellers might approach each of them in turn. It may be no accident that they are found in places where the vista changes, and where the next group of carvings along that route comes into view.
When viewed from the lower lying ground of the basin proper it is the twin-topped hill of Yeavering Bell that stands out most markedly against the southern horizon. Therefore, positioned at a key communication junction, and in the lee of the most prominent hilltop, Old Yeavering (Gefrin) clearly occupies a rather special place in the dramatic landscape of the Milfield basin. Positioned on a gravel terrace immediately above the frequently flooded alluvial basin, Yeavering remained high and dry on the fringe of a vast tract of fertile resources immensely attractive to hunter-gatherer and early farming communities. Stone-Age activity from the Mesolithic through to the Neolithic has been discovered both at Old Yeavering and more widely across the basin. However, recent research has indicated that the distribution of Stone-Age activity was tied to patterns of land-use that utilised different parts of the landscape in different ways. It is argued that through an understanding of the differential pattern of landscape exploitation in the basin across space and time we can glimpse something of the way stone-age inhabitants of the valley viewed and understood Yeavering and the wider landscape.
Military road
The route of the B6318 was originally built as a military road in the 18th century, and is believed to have been carried out under the direction of General Wade. Historical records suggest that the road was built over the top of the foundation course of the wall for a distance of around 10km and probably used stone from the wall itself. It was built to allow the general to easily move his troops around to allow him to fight a possible invading Scottish army during the 1745 rebellion.
Mill race; Millrace; Mill-race
A manmade channel which takes water, which may be controlled, from a gathering pond to a watermill. These channels can be excavated in, or raised above the ground.
Millstones; Mill stones
Usually a pair of flat cylinder shaped stones driven by some machinery to grind materials. These are large than quern stones. These are circular and have grooves cutting across the upper surface of the lower stone to aid the milling process. There were millstone extraction sites across the region, see especially Harbottle Common and near the Millstone Burn, Northumberland. A shape was pecked out and wedges inserted to lever the stone out - some failures may be still found uncompleted or by trackways. Millstones were a famous export of the northeast.
Mine shafts
See shaft.
Mine shop
A building at a mine in which the miners stayed.
Mining subsidence
The slumping of the ground caused by the collapse of rocks and soil into old mineworkings. This can be over large or small areas. Sometimes the type of the slumping can give evidence to the type of underground working, e.g. pillar and stall might produce parallel gullies. Such areas may be dangerous.
Large church which is not necessarily the base of a Bishop. These date from the Anglo-Saxon period onwards.
A place where coins are produced, so they are places of high importance. Examples include Bamburgh and Corbridge - which produced Scottish coins when Northumberland was a Scottish earldom in the 12th century AD. The Durham mint was operated by the Bishop of Durham from the 11th century to the mid-16th century. A further temporary mint was established from 12th to the 14th century at Newcastle, often being the centre for money used in fighting Scotland - which meant a loss in revenue to the Bishops of Durham, recorded in the 12th century Boldon Book. Individual mints can be identified for coins by mint marks - distinguishing features and inscriptions on the dies used, (equipment used to mark the blanks discs of metal as a coin).
A temple where Mithras was worshipped. The temples at Carrawburgh, Housesteads and Rudchester, (all Northumberland), were small so as to imitate the cave where Mithras killed the bull. Progress for the only male worshippers was obtained by undergoing particular trials - such as lying by a fire - which Mithras was thought to have undergone. The remains of these 'ordeal pits' can be seen at Carrawburgh. These temples had minimal light - but were coloured with a frieze of the bull killing in an apse behind the altars. A reconstruction of a Mithraeum is at the Newcastle Museum of Antiquities in Newcastle, based on the excavated Carrawburgh remains. It is thought that these temples were deliberately destroyed as part of Christian iconoclasm.
A Middle Eastern god who was adopted by some Romans. Such Romans included army officers in Britain,. His worshippers built Mithraea - see Mithraeum. Mithras was 'The Sun God', had been born from an egg and brought life by killing a bull in a cave.
A wide ditch surrounding a building, usually filled with water.
Moated site; Moated farmstead; Moated farm
A domestic site surrounded by a moat.
Mock Tudor
An architectural style from Victorian times (1837-1901) which mimicked the earlier Tudor styles from 16th century England.
Model farm
A farm building erected in the 18th and 19th century which were architect-designed rather than built in the local style.
Model village
A planned village or settlement, varying from picturesque arrangements of estate cottages to workers villages.
Used by archaeologist to describe the period after 1900.
Striving to be modern in appearance or style.
A religious community of men, as monks, or women, as nuns. (Very occasionally both men and women). These people devote their lives to religion and the service of others. Abbeys were controlled by an abbot, priories by a prior and establishments of nuns called a convent. In Christianity there were orders on how to organise physically and spiritually the life of the monastery - giving rise to different monastic orders. For both cases an ideal monastery was to be entirely self-supporting, using its granges as the basis for exchanges and subsistence. The earliest monastery in the region was that at Lindisfarne (Northumberland) established by King Oswald around 635AD.
Physically Medieval monastery buildings included a crucifix shaped church of nave, chancel and side arms of transepts. This was to imitate the crucifixion of Jesus and would face east. The remaining buildings were arranged around a courtyard called a cloister. To the south of the south transept were the slype - a passage from the cloister outside, and the chapter house. Other sides of the cloisters were made up of accommodation for the monks or nuns, lay staff and guests, (which might be pilgrims), and stores for produce for sale or use. Sometimes the accommodation was all on upper floors - so the stores were held in places called undercrofts. Other buildings may have included a watermill, hospital, prior's house and prison for the rule-breakers, separated at a distance from the main site. An enclosing curtain wall, sometimes with battlements, may also have been added. Beside a watercourse was a favoured location - so watermill wheels could be turned and waste washed away after being dropped in, from locations such as garderobes. In the case of convents a house for a priest was included, as the nuns could not take all the religious services themselves. In the cases of mixed orders, such as the Gilbertines, the basic plan was replicated - though one divided church was shared.
The community would have been expected to attend several services throughout the day and night. Stairs were provided between the accommodation and the main church, bypassing cloisters at night. These can be seen at Hexham, Northumberland where they remain. Both the plans and style of worship would have had minor differences from one monastery to another. This was because of affiliations to different Orders, which followed different rules. (See the entries for Augustinians, Benedictines, Cistercians and Premonstratensians). Some monasteries acted as private chantries, others were deliberately in remote or urban situations, as teaching colleges and as rest homes for busier monasteries. If the general public were allowed in, (for sometimes they were not), they could not do further than the nave
By the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the Reformation some monasteries were well known for their pilgrimage relics and shrines, their wealth, manuscript collections, bells and ornaments. Such decorations would include stained glass and effigies in the various architectural styles. The things of value and the sites themselves were sold for King Henry VIII at Courts of Augmentation at the Dissolution of the Monasteries - though some were taken over as cathedrals and churches by the locals. This upset many and led to the Pilgrimage of Grace. Post-Medieval monasteries have been established - often in country houses, such as Ministeracres, Northumberland, or after the destruction of monasteries elsewhere. Ushaw, (County Durham), seminary is the successor to the monastery at Douai, Northern France, destroyed following the French Revolution (1788AD). It is too early to comment on historically on the monasteries established for other religions in the region, such as the Buddist monastery at Harnham, near Belsay, Northumberland.
A mixture of sand and cement used to hold bricks and stones together.
Mortuary Chapel
A small chapel at a cemetery in which funeral services were held.
A technique of using small coloured tiles to create pictures and patterns (either religious, symbolic or for entertainment) on a large scale. This would take a long time to make - so only high status buildings, monasteries, villas and churches have them. They were popular in the Roman period and in the Post-Medieval Oxford Movement churches.
The first castles built by the Normans often consisted of a steep-sided earthen mound with a tower built on it. The mound was known as a motte.
Diagram of a motte and bialey castle. Copyright Peter Ryder 2003.
Motte and Bailey
The first castles built by the Normans often consisted of a simple motte with a tower built on it. A motte is a large earth mound. This mound would often be surrounded by a larger outer, enclosure, known as a bailey. This might contain storerooms, stables and houses. Although castles continued to be built throughout the medieval period, mottes fell out of use by the 12th century.
Mullions; Mullioned
Mullions are the vertical parts of Lead, or wood, which divide a window up. This was because it was hard to produce strong enough window glass in large single pieces in the past. Such a window is said to be mullioned.
Multivallate; Multivallate enclosure; Multivallate hillfort
Possessing many ditches, e.g. a hillfort. The term is usually reserved for places with three or more ditches. (Compare with bivallate).
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In the Tomb, Out Of The Tomb
By: SCCC Posted On: 2020-06-05
Draw a long line using string or masking tape. Have the children line up in a straight line facing the leader on the right side of the line. The right side of the line is called "In the tomb" and the left side of the line is named "out of the tomb". The leader yells "out of the tomb or in the tomb". Upon hearing the command the children jump from one side to the other. If the children jump in the wrong direction or don't jump to the other side when it's a valid command they are out of the game. The last player in wins the game. The leader will try and get the players to miss jump by pointing to one side as they yell to jump to the opposite side or by repeating the same side and/or changing the pace.
References / Source:
SCCC Pow wow 2003
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Oregon has a number of officially designated symbols, ranging from those that are essential to the state government, such as the seal and flag, to some that some may consider superfluous, including the state dance and gemstone. Legislators and proponents of state symbols have argued that there is an economic benefit to identifying state symbols, either in increased tourism or in raising the profile of Oregon products. As of 2011, Oregon had twenty-two symbols, but it is likely there will be more. Some states have twice as many symbols as Oregon, which has yet to choose a state muffin, crustacean, grass, reptile, or toy, among others. In the last several decades, failed symbols include a state waltz (Oregon Waltz) and a horse (Kiger Mustang).
State Seal (1859)—Oregon’s provisional government (1843-1848) used a simple seal with three bundles of wheat and a salmon under the banner “Oregon.” The territorial seal (1848-1859) included the motto “Alis Volat Propriis” (see Motto). It showed a plow and a merchant ship, surrounded by a Native American, a beaver, five stars, and an eagle about to take flight. In 1859, the newly established state legislature adopted a new seal, which has undergone only minor changes since. On the seal is written, “The Union” (see Motto). Pictured are a covered wagon; an elk; a plow; a pick ax; and two ships, a departing British man-of-war and an arriving American merchant ship. Surrounding the symbols are thirty-three stars, signifying that Oregon was the thirty-third state accepted into the United States.
Flower: Oregon grape (1899)—At their annual convention in 1892, the Oregon Horticultural Society nominated the Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium) as the state flower, beating out the bearded gaillardia, Washington lily, wake robin, and madrone. The state legislature officially adopted the Oregon grape in 1899. The Oregon grape is not a grape but a small broadleaf evergreen shrub, native to the Pacific states, in the barberry family. The berries are edible, but bitter. Some people use the Oregon grape in jellies or jams, and also in alternative medicine.
Flag (1925)—Oregon’s flag, adopted in 1925, is the only state flag with a different image on each side. One side shows a shield from the state seal, under the banner “State of Oregon,” and includes the date 1859; the year Oregon became a state. On the reverse side is a beaver. The parade version of the flag has gold fringe. The Oregonian reported that the beaver was placed on the flag because it “was the primary incentive for early exploration and it dominated the fur trade era in this part of the Northwest . . . its appropriateness is intensified also by its commonly accepted attributes. It is the universal symbol of thrift and industry and constructive endeavor—qualities as essential now as ever.” Portland's Meier & Frank Company made the first flag, which was unfurled on April 11, 1925. Until that time, Oregon used a blue military regimental flag.
Bird: Western Meadowlark (1927)—In 1927, the Oregon Audubon Society sponsored a contest among schoolchildren to choose the state bird. The western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) won by a large margin (40,000 out of 75,000 votes), and Governor Isaac L. Patterson officially proclaimed it the state bird. The state bird is the only Oregon symbol not officially chosen by the state legislature. Oregon is one of seven states to favor the species. The western meadowlark is native to western North America, favoring open grasslands. In Oregon, the species has declined in the Willamette Valley and is more commonly found in the eastern part of the state. The birds nest on the ground and are also ground feeders, eating insects, invertebrates, grains, and seeds. The western meadowlark is known for its lilting melody.
Song: Oregon, My Oregon (1927)—Oregon’s state song was the result of a 1920 contest sponsored by the Society of Oregon Composers. Five judges chose John A. Buchanan’s poem from 212 entries, and Society vice-president Henry B. Murtagh set the poem to music. Buchanan was a city judge in Astoria and a former state legislator. Murtagh was well-known silent-film theater organist, then living in Portland. The Society shortened and edited Buchanan’s poem, “Oregon” and renamed it “Oregon, My Oregon.” The Oregon legislature officially designated “Oregon, My Oregon” as the state song in 1927:
"Land of the Empire Builders, Land of the Golden West / Conquered and held by free men, by free men / Fairest and the best / Onward and upward ever, Forward and on, and on / Hail to thee, Land of Heroes, My Oregon"
"Land of the rose and sunshine, Land of the summer’s breeze / Laden with health and vigor, Fresh from the Western seas / Blest by the blood of martyrs / Land of the setting sun / Hail to thee, Land of Promise, My Oregon"
Tree: Douglas-fir (1939)—The Oregon legislature chose the Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziensii) as the state tree in 1939 at the request of the Daughters of the American Revolution. It was the eighth state to choose an official tree. The choice for Oregon was an obvious one. Douglas-firs are and have been abundant in the state and played an important role in the timber industry. In 1939, the Oregonian reported that the tree was a “magnificent emblem,” known for growing tall and wide. “It furnishes the finest and largest saw-timber of any tree in the world.” Douglas-firs were named for botanist David Douglas, who traveled in Oregon in 1825-1827. Douglas-firs are not actually firs, but are in the Pseudotsuga genus, meaning “false hemlock.”
Father of Oregon: John McLoughlin (1957)—The state legislature gave Dr. John McLoughlin (1784-1857) the title of “Father of Oregon” in 1957, a century after his death. McLoughlin first came to the Pacific Northwest in 1824 as the chief factor of the British Hudson’s Bay Company’s Columbia District. He established Fort Vancouver in 1825 and was the most influential regional figure until 1846, when he retired, settled in Oregon City, and became an American citizen. In naming McLoughlin the “Father of Oregon,” the legislature recognized his role in settling Oregon and his aid to many early Oregon immigrants, whose presence eventually undermined British claims to the region.
Fish: Chinook Salmon (1961)—The Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) was named the state fish in 1961. Known as “Kings,” Chinook are the largest and most commercially prized of the Pacific Northwest salmon species. Since the late nineteenth century, over-fishing, hydroelectric dams, and habitat destruction have dramatically reduced numbers of Oregon Chinook salmon. Many runs, recognized as distinct populations, have federal endangered and threatened status. Chinook salmon are native to the Pacific Ocean and western North America. They are born in freshwater rivers and streams and then migrate to the ocean. At the end of their life cycle, they migrate back to their spawning grounds and reproduce before dying.
Rock: Thunder Egg (1965)—In 1965, the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry (OMSI) asked Oregonians to choose a state rock. Voters chose the thunder egg “by a landslide,” according to the Oregonian. In officially recognizing the thunder egg, the legislature described it as a “remarkable and colorful agate-filled spherical mass of silicified claystone, and rhyolite.” Thunder eggs are similar to geodes and are found in central and eastern Oregon. While the exterior of a thunder egg appears ordinary, the interior reveals agate, jasper, or opal. The town of Nyssa celebrates the state rock each year with a "Thunderegg Days" festival.
Animal: Beaver (1969)—The “Beaver State” was late in officially recognizing the American Beaver (Castor canadensis) as a state symbol. After the Oregonian called attention to the oversight in 1968, Governor Tom McCall and Secretary of State Clay Myers Jr. nominated the beaver as the state animal. The legislature adopted it in 1969. The association of the beaver with the state is longstanding. In 1849, the Oregon provincial government issued “beaver money” with an image of the icon, and the animal was included on the territorial seal and state flag. Although fur trappers nearly exterminated the species in the region in the nineteenth century, beavers have recovered their population in Oregon. Known for their engineering abilities, beavers create ponds by damming creeks and rivers. They are mostly nocturnal, weigh between thirty and seventy pounds, and are strong swimmers. Beavers eat bark, grasses, and other plants found along streams and rivers.
Dance: Square Dance (1977)—At the request of the Oregon Federation of Square and Round Dance Clubs, the state legislature named the square dance the official state dance in 1977. The legislation was part of a national campaign by square dance clubs that resulted with nineteen states declaring it their state’s dance. The effort to have it named the national folk dance has not yet been successful. The square dance features eight dancers (four couples) in a small square formation, accompanied by guitar, fiddle, banjo, or accordion. There are about 100 clubs in the Oregon Federation of Square and Round Dance Clubs, formed in 1956.
Insect: Oregon Swallowtail (1979)—After the rain beetle failed to become the state insect in 1977, because it was harmful to orchard fruits, Portland Zoo director Warren Iliff nominated the Oregon swallowtail (Papilio oregonius), a large yellow and black butterfly native to the Northwest. The state legislature approved this selection in 1979. The species lives in sagebrush canyons in eastern Oregon and in the Columbia, Deschutes, and Snake river basins.
Mother of Oregon: Tabitha Moffatt Brown (1987)—Oregon pioneer Tabitha Moffatt Brown (1780-1858) was founder of a school for orphans that grew into the Tualatin Academy, a high school in Forest Grove. The institution later became Pacific University. She is also known for having survived a difficult 1846 overland journey from Missouri to Oregon as a sixty-six-year-old widow. Brown and her traveling party took a shortcut into Oregon Country on the Applegate Trail. Moffatt later remembered: “We had sixty miles of desert without grass or water, mountains to climb, cattle giving out, wagons breaking, emigrants sick and dying, hostile Indians to guard against by night and day.” In selecting Tabitha Moffatt Brown as the “Mother of Oregon,” the state legislature declared that she “represents the distinctive pioneer heritage and the charitable and compassionate nature of Oregon's people."
Gemstone: Oregon sunstone (1987)—In 1987, the legislature named the Oregon sunstone as the state gemstone. “The development and marketing of these beautiful gems," the legislature stated, "can contribute to tourism and the economic development of the high desert country of southeastern Oregon.” Sunstones, found in Lake and Harney counties, are transparent and are found in a variety of colors. The U.S. Bureau of Land Management allows the public to collect sunstones in the Rabbit Basin near the town of Plush.
Motto: "She Flies With Her Own Wings" (1987)—In 1859, the state of Oregon adopted a new seal, which included “The Union,” likely an affirmation of legislators’ unionist sentiments immediately preceding the Civil War. During Oregon’s centennial in 1959, the state legislature officially chose “The Union” as the state motto. In 1987, the Oregon legislature changed the state motto from “The Union” to “She Flies With Her Own Wings,” the unofficial motto from Oregon’s territorial period. Supporters of the change argued that “She Flies With Her Own Wings” reflected Oregon’s independent nature. The phrase comes from the Latin “alis volat propiis,” which was first added to Oregon’s territorial seal by Jesse Quinn Thornton, a judge for Oregon’s provisional government and later a state legislator. While it is now translated as “She Flies With Her Own Wings,” Thornton translated the phrase as “He Uses His Own Wings.” He said it was “an allusion to the general facts of the history of colonization of Oregon and the establishment and maintenance of the provisional government without aid of the mother country.”
Nut: Hazelnut (1989)—The Oregon state legislature designated the hazelnut as the state nut in 1989, recognizing the economic and historical significance of Oregon’s hazelnut farmers. Oregon farmers produce less than 5 percent of the world’s hazelnuts but 99 percent of the national crop. Hazelnuts have been traditionally known as filberts in Oregon, but the Oregon Hazelnut Marketing Board adopted “hazelnut” in 1981 to reflect more common terminology. Oregon farmers began importing European varieties of hazel trees as early as 1876. By the 1920s, there was a notable industry. There are fifteen species of hazel and filbert shrubs and trees in the genus Corylus, including a variety native to the western United States (Corylus cornuta var. californica). Native Americans ate the nuts of the native hazel, which is an understory shrub common in Northwest forests.
Seashell: Oregon hairy triton (1991)—In 1991, at the request of the Oregon Society of Conchologists, the state legislature named the shell of the Oregon hairy triton (Fusitriton oregonensis) the state seashell. The Oregon hair triton is a snail that grows to a length of three to five inches. Its range includes much of the northern Pacific Ocean. Unverified sources attribute the snail's original naming to botanist J.H. Redfield, who is said to have chosen the name in 1848 to honor Oregon's territorial status.
Beverage: Milk (1997)—In 1997, elementary school students from Tillamook requested that the state legislature designate milk as the state beverage, which it did, making Oregon one of nineteen states with milk as its official beverage. In a joint resolution, the Oregon house and senate announced that “milk production and the manufacture of dairy products are major contributors to the economic well being of Oregon agriculture.” In 2007, Governor Ted Kulongoski proclaimed February “Oregon Dairy Farmer Month,” and the Dairy Farmers of Oregon installed a milk-vending machine in the state capitol.
Mushroom: Pacific Golden Chantrelle (1999)—At the request of Oregon Mycological Society member Kevin Winthrop, the legislature named the Pacific golden chanterelle (cantharellus formosus) the official Oregon mushroom in 1999. Winthrop testified that the annual harvest of the wild mushrooms was valued at $25 million. In a joint resolution, the house and senate found that “more than 500,000 pounds of Pacific golden chanterelles harvested annually represent a large portion of Oregon’s commercial mushroom business.”
Fossil: Metasequoia (2005)—Oregon became the last western state to name a state fossil in 2005, when the state legislature selected ancient remains of the Metasequoia tree, or dawn redwood. Newport amateur paleontologist Guy DiTorrice and eleven-year-old MacKenzie Smith of Tigard both testified in favor of the fossil, which faced no competition. While Metasequoia trees went extinct in Oregon about 5 million years ago, abundant fossilized remains have been found in the state. The trees have been growing again in Oregon since the late 1948, shortly after scientists discovered living Metasequoia trees in China.
Fruit: Pear (2005)—At the request of the Pear Bureau Northwest, the 2005 Oregon legislature named the pear the state fruit. Teenage girls from Hood River, representing that city’s “Blossom Court,” testified before lawmakers in favor of the measure. In their resolution, legislators noted that pears were Oregon’s “top-selling tree fruit crop and its 10th largest agricultural commodity.” Historically, Oregon’s pear industry has been centered in the Hood River and Rogue River valleys.
Crustacean: Dungeness Crab (2009)—In a hands-on civics lesson, fourth graders from West Linn's Sunset Primary School successfully lobbied the legislature to declare the Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) the state crustacean in 2009. In their campaign, students worked with the Oregon Dungeness Crab Commission and testified before legislators. The industry-funded crab commission reports that while harvests can fluctuate radically, Oregon's fishermen harvest an average of about 10 million pounds of Dungeness crab each year, making "the Dungeness crab fishery the most valuable 'single species' fishery in Oregon." Dungeness crabs live in coastal waters and thrive in estuaries. The state government regulates the fishery for sustainability, with restricted seasons, size limits, and a ban on harvesting female crabs.
Jory soil (2011)—A nearly twenty-year effort by the Oregon Soil Science Society culminated in the legislature designating Jory soil as a state symbol. The society unofficially adopted Jory soil in 1993 as part of a nationwide effort by soil scientists to recognize soil’s importance for agriculture and the environment. Members aligned with state representative Mitch Greenlick and with Richard Page, a descendent of the Jory family for which the soil was named. After a failed 2007 attempt, Greenlick ensured approval in 2011 by threatening to block unrelated legislation.
USDA soil scientists first identified the soil in 1970 on Jory Hill, which was named for 1847 Marion County pioneers James and Mary Jory. The red soil largely came from ancient volcanic basalt flows that originated in eastern Oregon. In the Willamette Valley, the rock weathered into a deep soil that drains well and is optimal for growing Christmas and filbert trees, berries, and other crops.
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"url": "https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/oregon_state_symbols/"
}
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• History
Why And How Peoples Of The Dani Tribe Cut Off Fingers As A Way Of Mourning
For peoples of the Dani tribe, finger cutting, or Ikipalin, was a typical mourning practice. Located in a remote area of Papua, New Guinea, that is only accessible by plane, the Dani had their own unique way of dealing with and expressing grief. As a physical way to manifest the emotional pain of losing a loved one, the Dani removed a portion of a finger when someone close to them died. The custom was primarily followed by women, but older men sometimes participated as well. Although the practice was declared illegal and is no longer practiced by the Dani, evidence of the custom can be seen on older women from the tribe, many of whom are missing multiple portions of their fingers. The more loss a woman experienced, the more she lost of herself.
Why did the Dani cut their fingers? What purpose did it serve? Scroll down to learn more about this intriguing custom.
• Sometimes, A Finger Was Not Enough
Photo: Stefan Winkler / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Sometimes, people worried that losing a finger didn't convey their full sense of grief.
On those rare occasions, mourners elected to remove an ear or to cover themselves in river sludge and go for weeks without bathing.
• People Collected The Ashes Of Their Severed Fingers
Photo: Corporate Video Australia / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
After a finger was amputated, it was placed in the funeral fire to burn. The ashes were then saved much like a person's ashes after cremation.
Sometimes, the ashes were buried, but they were usually stored in the amputee's home to ward off the powerful spirits of those who have passed.
• Fingers Symbolized A Small Piece Of A Larger Whole
Although the tradition might seem extreme to many, the Dani have a philosophy: "each finger of the hand is related to life, universe, and each other." The fingers of one's hand are distinct and unique, but they all must work together to reach a goal, like picking something up. Like people in a community, if one of the fingers is hurt, it will reduce the potential of all others.
This philosophy explains their willingness to sacrifice their fingers: their physical loss is a link to the universe and family and friends who have gone before them.
• Older Women Suffered The Greatest Loss
Every time that a woman in the Dani tribe lost a loved one in her life, it represented another occasion to remove a segment of one of her fingers.
The excessive loss of loved ones experienced by many older Dani women can be observed by looking at her diminished hands.
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"fasttext_score": 0.04505342245101929,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9336950778961182,
"url": "https://www.ranker.com/list/dani-tribe-finger-cutting/triciapsarreasmurray?page=2"
}
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Resources for Focus on Risk Special Topic – Chlorine
We encounter many types of risks every day. What is meant by the term risk? What types of risks do we encounter daily? Are all risks equally likely to occur? Are they all harmful? Why are we willing to take some risks but not others? Is anything really 100 percent risk free? In this activity, students will work together to explore these and other questions as they discuss, develop, and refine their definition and concept of risk and of risk assessment.
This is one of 11 activities that can be found in PLT’s Exploring Environmental Issues: Focus on Risk. To get the activity, attend a training and receive PLT’s Focus on Risk secondary module. Below are some supporting resources for this activity.
Download the copyright free student pages that are included with this activity:
Introduction to Chlorine (PDF)
Chlorinated Solvents (PDF)
Chlorine and Ozone—CFCs (PDF)
DDT An Organochlorine Pesticide (PDF)
Use of Chlorine as a Drinking Water Disinfectant (PDF)
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"edu_score": 3.859375,
"fasttext_score": 0.023415803909301758,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9166112542152405,
"url": "https://www.plt.org/activity-resources/focus-on-risk-special-topic-chlorine-looking-at-tradeoffs/"
}
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Cambrian Explosion #60: Crustacea – Larvae Larvae Everywhere
One of the characteristic features of the crustacean lineage are their larval forms, passing through various tiny larval stages. They often look nothing like their eventual adult forms and historically weren’t even recognized as being the same species, with their complex lifecycles not being properly recognized until the late 1800s.
A lot of Cambrian crustaceans are only known from their larvae, preserved in exquisite microscopic detail in sites of “Orsten-type preservation”. Only disarticulated fragments of larger-bodied forms have been found in a few places, and it isn’t until much later in the Paleozoic that fossil crustaceans actually seem to become abundant in marine ecosystems.
It’s not clear why there’s such a bias in their early fossil record compared to most other arthropods, but possibly they were just very very rare animals early on. Adult forms may have mostly lived in places where they just didn’t fossilize, while their tiny larvae sometimes dispersed into different environments with a better chance of preservation.
One of the earliest known of these crustacean larvae, and one of the oldest known true crustaceans, is Wujicaris muelleri.
Wujicaris muelleri
Found in the Chinese Chengjiang fossil deposits (~518 million years ago), this microscopic larvae was just 270μm long (0.01″). It had a wide shallow head shield with a backwards-pointing spine, a pair of eyes, and another long spine projecting from its underside at the front of its body.
Like similarly-shaped modern larvae it probably lived on or just above the seafloor as meiofauna, using its developed head appendages for both locomotion and catching food particles.
For such an early example of a crustacean it’s surprisingly similar to modern forms, resembling the “metanauplius” stages of some copepods and barnacles. Along with Yicaris, another larva from the same deposits, it was a probably a basal member of the major crustacean lineage that both those groups are part of: the altocrustaceans.
It suggests that some groups of crustaceans established their specific larval forms very early on in their evolution, and hit on a something that worked so well for them that they’ve barely needed to change it in over half a billion years.
The pentastomids, or “tongue worms”, are a very unusual group. Small worm-like animals that almost exclusive parasitise the respiratory tracts of vertebrate hosts, outwardly they don’t even look like they’re arthropods – but their true affinities are revealed by their chitinous “skin” and arthropod-like nervous system.
Their evolutionary affinities have been controversial, but they’re now generally considered to be highly specialized and modified crustaceans and very closely related to the parasitic fish lice. An alternate hypothesis proposes them instead as being surviving early panarthropods, related to tardigrades or lobopodians – but this is based purely on morphology, while the crustacean placement is also supported by genetic evidence.
While their fossil record is very poor, there are several different larvae known from the late Cambrian, including Heymonsicambria scandica.
Heymonsicambria scandica
Found in the Swedish Orsten Lagerstätte (~497 million years ago), this larva was about 0.5mm long (0.02″). Like other tongue worms it had four limbs on its head ending in hooked grasping claws, but unlike modern forms it also had two pairs of vestigial legs further down on its body.
It’s unclear if these very early pentastomids were actually parasitic, or what their hosts would have been at the time if they were. Conodonts have been proposed as potential hosts, but they also may have initially externally parasitized other types of arthropods – a Silurian-aged fossil shows an ancient tongue worm “caught in the act” of clinging on to an ostracod.
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"language_score": 0.9714796543121338,
"url": "https://nixillustration.com/science-illustration/2021/cambrian-explosion-60-wujicaris-heymonsicambria/"
}
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DIA DE PORTUGALThe recent Dia de Portugal celebration in San Jose, California was enjoyed by thousands of attendees. For many this is a time to enjoy music and dancing, native food, and unique handicrafts. But for people of Portuguese background this unique event is a very special day that takes place on, or near, June 10. What happened on June 10 to cause Portuguese communities around the world to stop and celebrate their heritage both past and present? It’s about a brilliant poet, Luis Vaz de Camões, who lived in the 1500’s and is so identified with his homeland that celebrating him on the date of his death has become a way to give voice to the heartfelt link that Portuguese people have with their country. It is a day of pride, honor, and patriotic exuberance.
Luis Vaz de Camões lived a full and eventful life, but most notable about him is that although he suffered shipwrecks, incarceration, and the loss of an eye, he completed his epic poem, Os Lusíadas. This poem celebrates the Portuguese heroes who lived during that well-known era of risk-taking explorers. These are the adventurers who brought fame, wealth, and power to their homeland by going where no one had gone before. Despite the fact that Camões is not a commonly recognized name today, scholars recognize his work to be on the same level as Shakespeare. But make no mistake, in Portugal, the poet is honored and revered as a symbol of Portuguese nationalism.
The recognition of Camões began in the 1940’s when Salazar invoked the poet in order to awaken nationalistic fervor, but the celebration aspect came to full fruition in the early 1970’s. Since that time it has become a major day of national pride in Portugal and a joyous connection for those who are away from their homeland. Wherever there are Portuguese people living, there is bound to be a celebration.
Look for Dia de Portugal near you, and join in the fun!
This entry was posted in Cultural Articles and tagged , , . Bookmark the permalink.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.020830512046813965,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9718915224075317,
"url": "https://study-portuguese-abroad.com/2020/05/dia-de-portugal-celebrating-the-past-and-the-present/"
}
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How to Draw a Wigeon
In this quick tutorial you'll learn how to draw a Wigeon in 7 easy steps - great for kids and novice artists.
At the bottom you can read some interesting facts about the Wigeon.
How to Draw a Wigeon - Step-by-Step Tutorial
Step 1: Let's draw the wigeon's head first. Make it rounded on top. Add a short beak.
Step 2: Give your bird an eye and a line for the beak. Add a dot for the nostril.
Step 3: Now draw the body. The front of the bird will have a line with a much bigger curve. Leave the back open for the tail.
Step 4: Add the tail in the shape of an M on its side.
Step 5: Add legs to your duck. They are short and have wide, webbed feet.
Step 6: Make a wavy line for the wing.
Step 7: Lastly, add the feather pattern. Your wigeon is done. If you'd like to color it, its body is pinkish-brown but it's forehead and beak are white.
Interesting Facts about the Wigeon
The wigeon (Anas penelope) is a medium-sized duck that is found across Asia and Europe. They usually nests near wetlands and marshes and lay their eggs on the ground near water. Outside of breeding season they can usually be found around large bodies of water such as lakes or reservoirs.
Did you know?
• Although this specific wigeon is also called the Eurasian wigeon, it has also occasionally been sighted all over North America.
• The North American counterpart is called the American wigeon (Anas americana).
• Breeding males are quite colorful, with green and black feathers, a pink breast and a dark red head with a white crown. Females and non-breeding males had primarily brown coloring.
• The Euroasian wigeon will sometimes join the flocks with the American wigeon and will also cross breed with them.
• During breeding season, the male wigeons erect a small crest on the top of their head to attract females.
Lesson plan note: Review the changes that occur in the male wigeon during breeding season. Discuss how many animals experience physical changes during breeding seasons, and how those changes would help during breeding season to make the males more attractive to the females.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9543414115905762,
"url": "https://www.wedrawanimals.com/how-to-draw-a-wigeon/"
}
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2509. Girls’Party
单点时限: 10.0 sec
内存限制: 256 MB
Issac H. Ives hosted a party for girls. He had some nice goods and wanted to distribute them to the girls as the presents. However, there were not enough number of presents and thus he needed to decide who would take them. He held a game for that purpose.
Before the game, Issac had all the girls divided into two teams: he named his close friends Bella and Gabriella as two leaders and asked other girls to join either Bella or Gabriella. After the two teams were formed, Issac asked the girls to form one big circle.
The rule of the game was as follows. The game consisted of a number of rounds. In each round, the girls called numbers from 1 to N in clockwise order (N was a number fixed before the game started). The girl calling the number N was told to get out of the circle and excluded from the rest of the game. Then the next round was started from the next girl, that is, the girls called the numbers again, and the one calling N left the circle. This was repeated until only the members of either team remained. The remaining team won the game.
As the game went on, Bella found far more girls of her team excluded than those of Gabriella’s team. Bella complained it, and requested Issac to make the next round begin with a call of zero instead of one. Issac liked her idea as he was a computer scientist, and accepted her request. After that round, many girls of Gabriella’s team came to leave the circle, and eventually Bella’s team won the game and got the presents from Issac.
Now let’s consider the following situation. There are two teams led by Bella and Gabriella respectively, where they does not necessarily have the same numbers of members. Bella is allowed to change the starting number from one to zero at up to one round (regardless the starting girl belongs to her team or not). We want to know how many girls of Bella’s team at most can remain in the circle. You are requested to write a program for it.
The input is a sequence of datasets. The first line of the input contains the number of datasets. The number of datasets does not exceed 200.
Each dataset consists of a line with a positive integer N (1 ≤ N ≤ 230) and a string that specifies the clockwise order of the girls. Each character of the string is either ‘B’ (that denotes a member of Bella’s team) or ‘G’ (Gabriella’s team). The first round begins with the girl indicated by the first character of the string. The length of the string is between 2 and 20000 inclusive.
For each dataset, print in a line the maximum possible number of the girls of Bella’s team remaining in the circle, or “0” (without quotes) if there are no ways for Bella’s team to win the game.
1 GB
1 人解决，3 人已尝试。
1 份提交通过，共有 8 份提交。
9.9 EMB 奖励。
创建: 12 年，10 月前.
修改: 4 年，5 月前.
最后提交: 10 年，6 月前.
来源: N/A
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<urn:uuid:5f8a9f4f-d934-4017-a0a9-9b3678800212>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4,
"fasttext_score": 0.2228643298149109,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9630464315414429,
"url": "https://acm.ecnu.edu.cn/problem/2509/"
}
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题库> 逻辑 CR> CR-6316qk
Paleontologist: About 2.8 million years ago, many species that lived near the ocean floor suffered substantial population declines. These declines coincided with the onset of an ice age. The notion that cold killed those bottom-dwelling creatures outright is misguided, however; temperatures near the ocean floor would have changed very little. Nevertheless, the cold probably did cause the population declines, though indirectly. Many bottom-dwellers depended for food on plankton, small organisms that lived close to the surface and sank to the bottom when they died. Most probably, the plankton suffered a severe population decline as a result of sharply lower temperatures at the surface, depriving many bottom-dwellers of food.
In the paleontologist's reasoning, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
【选项】The first introduces the hypothesis proposed by the paleontologist; the second is a position that the paleontologist opposes.
• 所属科目：逻辑CR
• 题目来源1：PREP07 Test 2-32
难度： 难
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.8125,
"fasttext_score": 0.8424442410469055,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9201246500015259,
"url": "https://gmat.kmf.com/question/6316qk/19996.html"
}
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Hip to be Square
Hip to be Square
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After looking at works from Keith Haring's "Dance" book, 3rd grade students use a square piece of paper to design their own Keith Haring dance composition. Using markers, they outline and color in their shapes solidly like Keith Haring's paintings
fingerpaint paper
examples of artwork from Keith Haring's "Dance" book
and examples from www.haringkids.com.
On the first day, students listen to music from the 1980s while striking the dance moves shown in the Haring works which are projected onto the board so the whole class can see. They then are asked to draw their own dancing a figures on a square sheet of white fingerpaint paper, making sure that they use bold lines, shapes, and colors AND use all of the SPACE!
Students can take the next 2 (45 min.) class periods to neatly color in their composition.
How did Keith Haring show movement in his paintings?
How does Keith Haring show some of the 5 senses in his paintings?/which senses do you think of when you see this painting?
What type of dance is being shown in these images?
How would you describe the way Keith Haring used shape? color? line?
When you see those kinds of shapes, lines, and colors, how do they make you feel?
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<urn:uuid:63c2850f-5253-4bd5-a391-14a0d4f42f9a>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.3734031319618225,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9329514503479004,
"url": "https://www.haring.com/!/learn/hip-to-be-square"
}
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In ancient Greek and Roman mythology Orpheus was a hero and outstanding musician. Eurydice was his wife. Several books, movies, and musical pieces have been written about their tragic love story.
According to legend, Orpheus’ mother was a Muse. The Muses were goddesses who inspired musicians and artists. Orpheus sang and played a stringed instrument called a lyre. No one could resist Orpheus’ music. Even the animals, trees, and rocks moved around him in dance.
Orpheus married Eurydice. But she died of a snakebite shortly after their wedding. Overcome with grief, Orpheus went to the land of the dead to try to bring her back
Orpheus played his lyre for Hades, the god of the underworld. Hades was so moved, he agreed to let Orpheus get his wife. But there was one condition: Orpheus could not look back at her until they were out of the underworld. So Orpheus and Eurydice climbed up through the darkness. When Orpheus first saw the sun’s light, he turned back to share his happiness with his wife. She then disappeared from view and was lost to him forever.
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<urn:uuid:4717428e-adbd-447c-8f85-1f3ccb1a3251>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.90625,
"fasttext_score": 0.14641940593719482,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9817563891410828,
"url": "https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Orpheus-and-Eurydice/353575"
}
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Hyperbolic geometry is a type of non-Euclidean geometry that arose historically when mathematicians tried to simplify the axioms of Euclidean geometry, and instead discovered unexpectedly that changing one of the axioms to its negation actually produced a consistent theory. The [course_title] provides an introduction to hyperbolic geometry. It starts by discussing what is meant by “distance” and what is “straight” about a straight line in the Euclidean plane R2. Then it gives an introduction to the hyperbolic plane. Topics include distance and area in the hyperbolic plane, distance-preserving maps, hyperbolic trigonometry and hyperbolic polygons.
• Show it to prove your success
Course Credit: Open Culture
Course Curriculum
Module: 01
Universal Hyperbolic Geometry 0: Introduction 00:23:00
UnivHypGeom1: Apollonius and polarity 00:40:00
UnivHypGeom2: Apollonius and harmonic conjugates 00:38:00
UnivHypGeom3: Pappus’ theorem and the cross ratio 00:21:00
UnivHypGeom4: First steps in hyperbolic geometry 00:37:00
UnivHypGeom5: The circle and Cartesian coordinates 00:36:00
Module: 02
UnivHypGeom6: Duality, quadrance and spread in Cartesian coordinates 00:51:00
UnivHypGeom7a: The circle and projective homogeneous coordinates 00:37:00
UnivHypGeom7b: The circle and projective homogeneous coordinates (cont.) 00:24:00
UnivHypGeom8: Computations with homogeneous coordinates 00:44:00
UnivHypGeom9: Duality and perpendicularity 00:33:00
UnivHypGeom10: Orthocenters exist! 00:44:00
Module: 03
UnivHypGeom11: Theorems using perpendicularity 00:37:00
UnivHypGeom12: Null points and null lines 00:36:00
UnivHypGeom13: Apollonius and polarity revisited 00:26:00
UnivHypGeom14: Reflections in hyperbolic geometry 00:31:00
UnivHypGeom15: Reflections and projective linear algebra 00:50:00
UnivHypGeom16: Midpoints and bisectors 00:37:00
UnivHypGeom17: Medians, midlines, centroids and circumcenters 00:34:00
Module: 04
UnivHypGeom18: Parallels and the double triangle 00:29:00
UnivHypGeom19: The J function, sl(2) and the Jacobi identity 00:42:00
UnivHypGeom20: Pure and applied geometry–understanding the continuum 00:39:00
UnivHypGeom21: Quadrance and spread 00:36:00
UnivHypGeom22: Pythagoras’ theorem in Universal Hyperbolic Geometry 00:36:00
UnivHypGeom23: The Triple quad formula in Universal Hyperbolic Geometry 00:39:00
Module: 05
UnivHypGeom24: Visualizing quadrance with circles 00:34:00
UnivHypGeom25: Geometer’s Sketchpad and circles in Universal Hyperbolic Geometry 00:25:00
UnivHypGeom26: Trigonometric laws in hyperbolic geometry using Geometer’s Sketchpad 00:20:00
UnivHypGeom27: The Spread law in Universal Hyperbolic Geometry 00:24:00
UnivHypGeom28: The Cross law in Universal Hyperbolic Geometry 00:35:00
UnivHypGeom29: Thales’ theorem, right triangles and Napier’s rules 00:42:00
Module: 06
UnivHypGeom30: Isosceles triangles in hyperbolic geometry 00:33:00
UnivHypGeom31: Menelaus, Ceva and the Laws of proportion 00:42:00
UnivHypGeom32: Trigonometric dual laws and the Parallax formula 00:36:00
UnivHypGeom33: Spherical and elliptic geometries: an introduction 00:32:00
UnivHypGeom34: Spherical and elliptic geometries (cont.) 00:44:00
UnivHypGeom35: Areas and volumes for a sphere 00:32:00
Module: 07
UnivHypGeom36: Classical spherical trigonometry 00:35:00
UnivHypGeom37: Perpendicularity, polarity and duality on a sphere 00:32:00
UnivHypGeom38: Parametrizing and projecting a sphere 00:39:00
UnivHypGeom39: Rational trigonometry: an overview 00:33:00
UnivHypGeom40: Rational trigonometry in three dimensions 00:31:00
Submit Your Assignment 00:00:00
Certification 00:00:00
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"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.039369165897369385,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7373892068862915,
"url": "https://edukite.org/course/universal-hyperbolic-geometry/"
}
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Zac de Lusignan
2 minute read
From TidyTuesday’s Roman Emperors data set.
The chart shows us that elected emperors had longer reigns than those who rose to power by other means and the shortest reigns were by those who purchased the throne.
Below is the code used to create the visualization using R:
#Load libraries
#Custom color palette
imperiumromanum = c("#8E1F2F","#702963","#B85C28","#297036", "#F0BC42","#26619C","#321C6F","#1F8E7E")
#Read in data
emperors <- readr::read_csv("")
#Convert the dates into numeric
emperors$reign_start <- as.numeric(emperors$reign_start)
emperors$reign_end <- as.numeric(emperors$reign_end)
#Find the mean length of reign for each method of assuming the throne
reign <- emperors %>%
group_by(rise) %>%
mutate(reign_length = reign_end - reign_start) %>%
summarize(mean_reign = mean(reign_length)) %>%
mutate(years_in_power = mean_reign / 365)
#Create a plot
p <- ggplot(reign, aes(x = years_in_power, y = reorder(rise, years_in_power))) +
geom_bar(aes(fill = rise), stat = "identity") +
scale_fill_manual(values = imperiumromanum) +
scale_x_continuous(breaks = seq(0, 12, 2)) +
labs(title = "Roman Emperors",
subtitle = "Rise to Power and Length of Reign",
caption = "Data Source: Wikipedia",
x = "Average Length of Reign (years)",
y = "") +
#Font adjustments
p + theme(legend.position = "none",
plot.title = element_text(family = "Trajan Pro",
face = "bold",
color = "black",
size = 24),
plot.subtitle = element_text(family = "Trajan Pro",
color = "black"),
axis.title.x = element_text(color = "black"),
plot.caption = element_text(color = "black"),
text = element_text(family = "Trajan Pro",
color = "black")
Note: I was curious why those who purchased their power had such short reigns and decided to do further research. In 193 CE, Didius Julianus paid the Praetorian Guard 25,000 sesterces (this was 41 times a soldier’s annual salary) for every soldier in the army in exchange for being named emperor. He was widely despised for this as the people found such blatant corruption insulting and proceeded to mock him whenever he appeared in public. After nine short weeks as emperor, the senate ordered his execution.
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<urn:uuid:87521566-4a54-4c64-aebe-e946acb4b289>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.9901595115661621,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8832974433898926,
"url": "https://www.zacdelusignan.com/blog/2020-11-08-roman-emperors/roman-emperors/"
}
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Chinese : San zi jing
<p style='text-align: justify;'>Named 三字經 (Three Character Classic) because each line in the text is made up of a three-character phrase. A traditional primer for primary education, it teaches Literary Chinese reading as well as elements of history and philosophy. Likely first composed in the 13th century CE, and attributed to several authors but its original author remains unknown. The text was widely used right up to the mid twentieth century, and is still used today though no longer part of formal education. Virtually every educated person in early modern and modern China, and elsewhere in East Asia, would have memorised this text. Printings of this text were widely available in relatively cheap woodblock printed editions. A few lines were added in the early twentieth century to describe the history of the fall of the Qing and the founding of the Republic of China in 1912.</p>
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Professor Ian Barnes explains how the people who lived on the British Isles thousands of years ago transformed into the the population that live in the UK today. Cutting-edge scientific technology confirmed earlier in 2018 that Britain’s oldest complete skeleton, known as Cheddar Man, had dark brown skin and blue eyes. This caused a social media storm, angering some groups who said the findings were incorrect. Ian argues that such factions were upset due to their own inaccurate narratives of racial continuity. Ian is a Research Leader at the Natural History Museum, where he focuses on the investigation of ancient biomolecules to resolve questions in archaeology, palaeontology and evolutionary biology. He has degrees in Archaeological Science (from Bradford) and Molecular Ecology (from York) and for the last 20 years he has been heavily involved in the development of ancient DNA. Recently, his major focus has been on the role of adaptation and migration in the human settlement of the British Isles. This talk was given at a TEDx event using the TED conference format but independently organized by a local community. Learn more at
Ian Barnes
Research leader and ancient DNA specialist
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Day 12: Multiple representations on one graph
I love when students think of things that the adults don't think of. Here's a group that chose to represent three things (density, luster, conductivity) on one graph, using patterns and colors to represent whether the materials had luster or were conductive, as well as using the bar graph to show the density.
Students were tasked with displaying the data they collected however they chose and this group clearly stood out from the others as a creative and efficient way of doing that. Excellent work!
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Related Scripts
Quick Facts
LocationEast Asia > Manchuria
Time12th to 16th century CE
DirectionTop to Bottom
The Jurchen is a Siniform script, that is, the form of its characters are based on those in the Chinese writing system. However, the signs in Jurchen are not derivative of Chinese. The visual similarity is due to that each character is composed of brush strokes, but the way the strokes are combined is different from that of Chinese. Also, as in Chinese, Jurchen characters are highly logographic, and do not give any clue onto the sounds of the words they represent.
Before the 12th century AD, the Jurchen people were a confereration of hunting and fishing tribes in northeastern Manchuria. But from 1115 AD to 1234 AD they rose to power and formed a kingdom called "Jiang" that occupies a large portion of northern China.
The Jurchen also overthrew the kingdom of Khitan (of Inner Asia), but took and adopted the Khitan writing system. Khitan itself is poorly attested and remains undeciphered. Even the Khitan language is unknown.
The Manchurians are the descendants of the Jurchen. The name "Manchu" became the official name of all Jurchen tribes after the 16th century. The Manchurians adopted the Mongolian script (which is a distant descendent of Brahmi) in 1599, and the Jurchen script ceased to be used.
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It is clear from Steinbeck’s epic novel of American experience, The Grapes of Wrath (1939), that he is particularly sensitive to the effect of landscape on a person’s life. Because Elisa Allen’s sense of her own self-worth is so closely tied to the land, Steinbeck has chosen to connect her psychic state to the season, the climate, and the terrain she inhabits. The mood of the story is set by his description of a fogbound valley in winter, a description that is also applicable to Elisa’s mood. She is entering middle age, and when the valley is likened to a “closed pot” with “no sunshine . . . in December,” there is a close parallel to the condition of her life at that point, a sealed vessel with little light available. Steinbeck calls it “a time of quiet and waiting,” and the land, Elisa’s only field of action, is dormant, with “little work to be done.”
Elisa is earthbound, rooted securely in her garden but also held down by her connection to it. It is significant that her excitement in talking to the stranger is expressed by a vision of the stars and by her exclamation that “you rise up and up!” The stranger is not bound to a particular place, and although his freedom to roam is only a step removed from endless exile and rootlessness (as exemplified by Elisa’s uprooting her plants, only to have them thrown away and left to die on the road), it is appealing in contrast to her chainlike connections to the earth....
(The entire section is 400 words.)
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Historical Context
The Great Depression
Steinbeck wrote ‘‘The Chrysanthemums’’ in 1934, as the United States was just beginning to recover from the Great Depression. The Depression began with the collapse of the New York Stock Market in October 1929, and eventually affected employment and productivity around the world. Banks collapsed and businesses folded. Millions of people lost their jobs, and with less money to spend they bought fewer goods, leading to factory closings and more unemployment. There was no federal ''safety net'' at that time, so poor and hungry people had to rely on individual states for assistance beyond what their families could provide. In many states, there was no help available. In 1932 President Franklin Delano Roosevelt initiated a series of programs, called the New Deal, to get the country back on its feet. He reformed the banking and stock market systems to make them more stable, created the Public Works Administration to create jobs, and gave new protection to labor unions to help workers get fair wages and decent working conditions.
The Depression did not affect all Americans equally, and many people even grew wealthier during the 1930s. With prices lowered by the Depression, it was possible to live well on less money. Necessities like food and housing, and luxuries like restaurant meals and fashionable clothing, were actually cheaper, because so few people worldwide could buy them at all. Some areas not directly affected...
(The entire section is 608 words.)
Literary Style
As is typical of Steinbeck's fiction, ''The Chrysanthemums’’ uses clusters of images to subtly reinforce important themes and ideas. For example, imagery of seasons and weather reinforces the contrast between Elisa's life and the tinker's. Elisa's life is confined, closed in, as described in the story's opening line: ''The high gray-flannel fog of winter closed off the Salinas Valley from the sky and from all the rest of the world.'' The atmosphere in Elisa's world is grim; there is ''no sunshine in the valley now’’ and the air is ‘‘cold and tender.’’ The tinker, however, moves about freely, and he is free ‘‘to follow nice weather.’’ He is not confined to this closed off place, and when he drives away Elisa notices, ''That's a bright direction. There's a glowing there.’’ Later, as she again looks off in the direction he has taken, she notices that ''under the high gray fog'' the willows look like ''a thin band of sunshine.’’ For Elisa there is ‘‘no sunshine in the valley,’’ but for a man who can travel, the horizon holds promise.
The story contains other image clusters that function in much the same way. As Ernest W. Sullivan, II, observes in Studies in Short Fiction, ‘‘The correspondences between people and dogs elucidate the social and sexual relationships of the three humans, as well as foreshadow and explain Elisa's failure at the end of the story to escape from her sterile and...
(The entire section is 670 words.)
Compare and Contrast
1930s: The Great Depression swept across the United States and abroad, creating massive unemployment and poverty. Soup kitchens and bread lines were familiar sights. In the early 1930s, however, California still prospered because of the motion picture, oil, and fruit industries.
1990s: The worldwide economy is relatively solid and stable, and the economy of the United States is strong, with low unemployment and high productivity. Some economists believe that rapid fluctuations in Asian economies could spell trouble for the United States.
1930s: Popular movies included King Kong (1933), Anna Karenina (1935), and the movies of Shirley Temple, Fred Astaire, and the Marx Brothers. They tended to be glamorous and optimistic, providing audiences a refuge from economic and political troubles. Movies were mostly black-and-white, and a ticket cost about twenty-five cents. Roughly a third of Americans went to the movies at least once a week.
1990s: Popular movies showcase special effects and science fiction, and are almost exclusively in color. Many present a grim view of human problems. A ticket costs six to eight dollars. Fewer Americans go to the movies, but many watch movies at home on videocassette.
1930s: Although newly built homes were wired for electricity, most older homes did not have it. Housework was done by hand, without electric appliances, and keeping a house clean...
(The entire section is 336 words.)
Topics for Further Study
Many critics have found it useful to compare ‘‘The Chrysanthemums’’ with another Steinbeck short story from the same collection, ''The White Quail.’’ Read both stories. Do you agree, as some have suggested, that Elisa Allen and Mary Teller are similar characters in different situations? Or do you agree with other critics, who believe the two women are opposites?
Steinbeck was interested in plants and knew quite a lot about propagating them. Learn what you can about pollination, and about producing new plants by transplanting cuttings, as Elisa Allen does. What might Elisa's choice of methods say about her, in the context of the rest of the story?
Find out what you can about steer. What exactly are they? How are they created? What are they used for? How does the fact that Henry raises steer connect with important issues in the story?
Is Elisa Allen a victim of her circumstances? How might her situation be improved or made worse if she lived in our modern technological world?
(The entire section is 167 words.)
Media Adaptations
''The Chrysanthemums'' was adapted as a twenty-three-minute film by Pyramid Film and Video in 1990. It is available from Pyramid as a 1/2-inch VHS videocassette.
The making of the film adaptation has itself been captured on film, in the ''Behind the Camera'' segment of Fiction to Film. The forty-minute program, which shows the mechanics of producing a film, was produced by Mac and Ava Motion Picture Productions and is distributed on videocassette by the Indiana Department of Education, Instructional Video Services.
(The entire section is 80 words.)
The Grapes of Wrath (1939), Steinbeck's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel about migrant farm workers pursuing a happy life that is always just out of reach. During the Great Depression, the Joad family leaves dustbowl Oklahoma for California, where they hope to find a better life.
"The White Quail’’ (1935) by John Steinbeck, collected in The Long Valley (1938) alongside ‘‘The Chrysanthemums.’’ Mary Teller's dream of the perfect garden has such a firm hold on her that she gives all her devotion to it, ignoring even her lonely husband.
"The Snake’’ (1935), a strange story by Steinbeck, collected in The Long Valley (1938). A woman enters an animal laboratory, buys a male snake, and asks to see it eat a rat. Though critics have interpreted the character differently, Steinbeck claimed ''I wrote it just as it happened. I don't know what it means.''
Winesburg, Ohio (1919), a novel by Sherwood Anderson made up of thematically related stories. A young reporter encounters and learns the secrets of several of the inhabitants of his small town. Anderson's way of exploring people's secret lives influenced Steinbeck.
The Awakening (1899), by Kate Chopin. A woman feels bored and unfulfilled with marriage and attempts to find her true self by having an extramarital affair. A century ago, this novel caused a furor.
Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), by Steinbeck's...
(The entire section is 248 words.)
Bibliography and Further Reading
Adams, Carol J., Introduction to Ecofeminism and the Sacred, New York: Continuum, 1993, p. 1.
Beach, Joseph Warren, American Fiction, 1920-1940, New York: Macmillan, 1941; reprinted New York: Russell & Russell, 1960, pp. 3, 311-14.
Benton, Robert M., ‘‘Steinbeck's The Long Valley,’’ In A Study Guide to Steinbeck: A Handbook to His Major Works, edited by Tetsumaro Hayashi, Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1974, p. 71.
Davis, Elmer, Review of The Long Valley: The Saturday Review of Literature, September 24, 1938, p. 11.
Gide, Andre, The Journals of Andre Gide, translated by Juston O'Brien, London: Secker and Warburg, 1951, Vol. 4, p. 79.
Hughes, R. S., John Steinbeck: A Study of the Short Fiction, Boston: Twayne, 1989, p. 26.
Marcus, Mordecai, ''The Lost Dream of Sex and Childbirth in 'The Chrysanthemums,'’’ Modern Fiction Studies, 1965, Vol. 11, p. 55.
Osborne, William, ‘‘The Education of Elisa Allen: Another Reading of John Steinbeck's 'The Chrysanthemums',’’ Interpretations, 1976, Vol. 8, p. 11.
Renner, Stanley, ''The Real Woman Inside the Fence in 'The Chrysanthemums'.’’ Modern Fiction Studies, 1985, Vol. 31, pp. 306, 313.
Steinbeck, John, Steinbeck: A Life in Letters, edited by John Steinbeck and Elaine and Robert Wallsten, New York: Viking,...
(The entire section is 382 words.)
Bibliography (Masterplots II: Short Story Series, Revised Edition)
Astro, Richard. John Steinbeck and Edward F. Ricketts: The Shaping of a Novelist. Hemet, Calif.: Western Flyer, 2002.
George, Stephen K., ed. The Moral Philosophy of John Steinbeck. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2005.
Hayashi, Tetsumaro, ed. A New Study Guide to Steinbeck’s Major Works, with Critical Explications. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1993.
Parini, Jay. John Steinbeck: A Biography. New York:...
(The entire section is 221 words.)
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Eboracum: see York, England.
Eboracum was a fort and city in Roman Britain. Today it is known as York, located in North Yorkshire, England. The etymology of Eboracum is uncertain as the language of the indigenous population of the area was never recorded. One theory is that Eboracum is derived from the Proto-Brythonic word Eborakon which can mean "place of the yew trees" or "the field of Eburos". Efrog in Welsh, Eabhrac in Irish Gaelic, Iorc in Scottish Gaelic. The name is then thought to have been Latinised by replacing -akon with -acum. Another theory is that the language of the indigenous population was a Germanic language similar to Old English and so Eboracum is derived from *eburaz meaning a boar.
The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 AD but advance beyond the Humber did not take place until the early 70s AD. This was because the people in the area known as the Brigantes by the Romans became a Roman client state. When their leadership changed becoming more hostile to Rome Roman General Quintus Petillius Cerialis led the Ninth Legion north from Lincoln across the Humber.. Eboracum was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress (castra) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. In the same year Cerialis was appointed Governor of Britain.
A legion at full strength at that time numbered some 5,500 men, and provided new trading opportunities for enterprising local people, who doubtless flocked to Eboracum to take advantage of them. As a result permanent civilian settlement grew up around the fortress especially on its south-east side. Civilians also settled on the opposite side of the Ouse, initially along the main road from Eboracum to the south-west. By the later 2nd century, growth was rapid; streets were laid out, public buildings were erected and private houses spread out over terraces on the steep slopes above the river.
From its foundation the Roman fort of Eboracum covered an area of 50 acres (0.202 km²) the standard size for a legionary fortress. The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary. These defences originally consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation, were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD. Later these were replaced by a clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation, and eventually, wooden battlements were added which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers. The original wooden camp was refurbished by Agricola in 81, before being completely rebuilt in stone between 107 and 108.
There is evidence that the Emperor Hadrian visited in 122 on his way north to plan his great walled frontier. He certainly brought with him the Sixth Legion to replace the existing garrison. Emperor Septimius Severus visited York in 211 and made it his base for campaigning in Scotland, The fortress wall was probably reconstructed during his stay and at the east angle it is possible to see this work standing almost to full height. In that same year, Severus became the first of the two Roman Emperors to die in York and was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta.
In the later 3rd century, the western Empire experienced political and economic turmoil and Britain was for some time ruled by usurpers independent of Rome. It was after crushing the last of these that Emperor Constantius I came to York and, in 306, became the second Emperor to die there. His son Constantine was instantly proclaimed as successor by the troops based in the fortress. Although it took Constantine eighteen years to become sole ruler of the Empire, he may have retained an interest in York and the reconstruction of the south-west front of the fortress with polygonally-fronted interval towers and the two great corner towers, one of which, the 'Multangular Tower', still survives, is probably his work. In the colonia, Constantine's reign was a time of prosperity and a number of extensive stone town houses of the period have been excavated.
As a busy port and a provincial capital Eboracum was a cosmopolitan city with residents from throughout the Roman Empire.
A range of evidence of Roman religious beliefs among the people of Eboracum have been found including altars to Mars, Hercules, Jupiter and Fortune, while phallic amulets are the most commonly found type of good luck charm. In terms of number of reference the most popular deities were the spiritual representation (genius) of Eboracum and the Mother Goddess. There is also evidence of local or regional deities. Evidence showing the worship of eastern deities has also been found during excavations in York. For example evidence of the Mithras cult, which was popular among the military, has been found including a sculpture showing Mithras slaying a bull and a dedication to Arimanius, the god of evil in the Mithraic tradition. Another example is the dedication of a temple to Serapis a Hellenistic-Egyptian God by the Commander of the Sixth Legion.
There was also a Christian community in Eboracum although it is unknown when this was first formed and in archeological terms there is virtually no record of it. The first evidence of this community is a document noting the attendance of Bishop Eborius of Eboracum at the Council of Arles in 314. The Episcopal see at Eboracum was called Eboracensis in Latin and Bishops from the See also attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Sardica, and the Council of Ariminum.
For the Romans, York, or Eboracum, was the major military base in the north of Britain and, following the third century division of the province of Britannia, the capital of northern Britain, Britannia Inferior. By 237 Eboracum had been made a colonia, the highest legal status a Roman city could attain, one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers. This mark of Imperial favour was probably a recognition of York as the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. At around the same time Eboracum became self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants, and veteran soldiers. In 296 Britannia Inferior was divided into two provinces of equal status with Eboracum becoming the provincial capital of Britannia Secunda.
The military presence at Eboracum was the driving force behind early developments in its economy. In these early stages Eboracum operated as a command economy with workshops growing up outside the fortress to supply the needs of the 5000 troops garrisoned there. Production included military pottery until the mid-third century, military tile kilns have been found in the Aldwark-Peasholme Green area, glassworking at coppergate, metalworks and leatherworks producing military equipment in Tanner Row.
Archaeological remains
Substantial remains of the headquarters building of the Roman legionary fortress were discovered under the Minster, and they are open to the public. A re-erected Roman column now stands, upside down, on nearby Deangate, where there is also a recent statue of Constantine. Other sites of excavated remains include a Roman bath, located under the Roman Bath pub in St Sampson's Square, a Roman temple, near the foot of Lendal Bridge, and the site of a Roman bridge over the River Ouse. Some remains of the Roman city walls can be seen between Monk Bar and the Merchant Taylors' Hall, and a more substantial section can be seen between Museum Gardens and the Central Library, together with the late Roman Multangular Tower. Outside the city walls are the remains of substantial Roman cemeteries. A large number of Roman finds are now housed in the Yorkshire Museum.
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Objects & Places from Fall of the Roman Republic
Buy the Fall of the Roman Republic Lesson Plans
Object Descriptions
Capite Censi - This is a measure that created the armies of the last century of the republic, where the armies were dependent on their generals for rewards when their service was complete.
Triumph - This is an elaborate procession that is formal in nature and used to welcome a man who has accomplished some great deed through a parade, feasts, and entertainment.
Cirrhaeaton - This is the village where Marius grew up, located near Arpinum.
Vercellae - This is where the Romans, led by Marius, won a thorough victory over the Cimbri, prompting the mass suicide of thousands, but ending with the capture of some sixty thousand people.
Tarpeian Rock - This is a place near Rome where people were put to death by being thrown from a high place.
Picenum - This is the area where Pompey lives, and where he raises an army and...
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A small 12.5 g plastic ball is tied to a very light 29.6 cm string that is attached to the vertical wall of a room. (See the figure .) A uniform horizontal electric field exists in this room. When the ball has been given an excess charge of -1.30 uC, you observe that it remains suspended, with the string making an angle of 17.4 degrees with the wall.
Part A.) Find the magnitude of the electric field in the room.(answer E= ? N/C)
Part B.) Find the direction of the electric field in the room. (its either to the right, or to the left)
Best answer:
Answers (1)
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vortograph, the first completely abstract kind of photograph, it is composed of kaleidoscopic repetitions of forms achieved by photographing objects through a triangular arrangement of three mirrors. Alvin Langdon Coburn, a member of the Photo-Secession group and a pioneer in nonobjective photography, invented vortography in 1917 and remained the principal advocate and practitioner of the technique. Coburn’s experiments with the technique lasted only a short while.
The name is a reference to the Vorticist group of British writers and painters. The fractured planes and complex space characteristic of vortography reflect the Vorticists’ as well as Coburn’s own interest in Cubism.
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Boreal chickadee (Parus hudsonicus)
Synonyms: Parus hudsonica, Poecile hudsonica
GenusParus (1)
SizeLength: 12.5 - 14 cm (2)
Weightup to 10 g (2)
The boreal chickadee is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1).
A small songbird, the boreal chickadee (Parus hudsonica) is, as its name suggests, almost entirely restricted to the boreal forests of North America (3). Very similar in appearance to other chickadees in its range, the boreal chickadee has a brown body and a brown cap, with bright reddish flanks and undertail-coverts (2).
The top of the head and the back of the neck often have a greyish tinge, which extends down the sides of the head to below the eye. A white stripe runs from the base of the bill to below the eye, while the chin and throat are black (2). The back, wings, rump and uppertail-coverts of the boreal chickadee are generally pale grey-brown, and the breast and abdomen are white. The juvenile boreal chickadee is very similar to the adult in appearance, although its colouration is usually slightly duller (2) (4).
The boreal chickadee inhabits the northern coniferous forests of North America, breeding throughout Alaska, Canada and the northernmost states of the U.S. (2).
Somewhat unusually for a North American passerine, the boreal chickadee is a permanent resident of boreal forests. It occurs primarily in coniferous spruce and fir forests, often at high elevations (2) (4). It may occasionally be found in mixed woodlands (3).
Insects and spiders, including their eggs and larvae, make up the majority of the boreal chickadee’s diet. It will also take seeds, especially during winter (2) (4). An opportunistic species, the boreal chickadee forages by hopping on twigs and branches, gleaning food off the surface of the tree or probing into crevices in the bark. It will occasionally hover in front of branches, and will hangs upside-down to get at the undersides of branches, cones and needles (2) (4).
The boreal chickadee frequently stores ‘parcels’ of food in storage points, such as in bark crevices, under lichen and between spruce needles (5). This behaviour allows the boreal chickadee to cope with the harsh boreal environment during winter and other periods of food scarcity (2) (4) (5) (6).
The breeding season of the boreal chickadee typically begins around May, when breeding pairs will defend small territories (4) (7). The boreal chickadee nests in cavities in trees, which both the male and female excavate prior to mating. The pair inspects a number of holes and cavities together, although it is usually the female that begins the initial excavation of the chosen cavity (2) (4) (7). The boreal chickadee often enlarges an existing hole in a tree, but it will also use old woodpecker holes, and has been observed using the earth beneath exposed tree roots for nest sites (2) (4). The nest itself is usually lined with a combination of dry moss, pieces of bark, hair, fur, feathers, lichen or ferns (2) (4).
The boreal chickadee produces a clutch of four to nine eggs, which are incubated solely by the female. Incubation generally lasts for around 15 days, during which time the male only enters the cavity to feed the female. Following hatching, the female broods the young for up to 11 days, with both adults contributing to feeding the chicks (2) (7). The young leave the nest at about 18 days, but stay on the breeding territory for another two weeks (4) (7).
Although this species inhabits boreal forest throughout the year, in some parts of its range it may undertake short-distance movements in response to localised food shortages (4).
Habitat modification and habitat destruction due to logging are the primary threats to the boreal chickadee (2) (3) (4). In eastern regions of the boreal chickadee’s range, ‘salvage-cutting’ to remove dead and damaged trees in forests infested by budworm (a serious insect pest of spruce) has reduced much of the suitable habitat for this species (3).
As the population of the boreal chickadee is considered reasonably secure, there are currently no specific conservation measures targeted at this species. Much of the boreal chickadee’s range is fairly remote and relatively free from widespread logging, while its ability to inhabit both mature and young coniferous forest has made it less vulnerable to some of the negative impacts of logging in boreal forests (2) (3) (4).
Further research on the life history of the boreal chickadee is required, as are detailed population monitoring surveys to assess the effects of habitat loss on this species (2) (3).
Find out more about the boreal chickadee:
1. IUCN Red List (July, 2011)
2. Ficken, M.S., McLaren, M.A. and Hailman, J.P. (1996) Boreal chickadee (Parus hudsonicus). In: Poole, A. (Ed.) The Birds of North America Online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. Available at:
3. Boreal Songbird Initiative - Boreal chickadee (July, 2011)
4. Bird Web - Boreal chickadee (July, 2011)
5. Haftorn, S. (1974) Storage of surplus food by the boreal chickadee Parus hudsonicus in Alaska, with some records on the mountain chickadee Parus gambeli in Colorado. Ornis Scandinavica, 5: 145-161.
6. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology: All About Birds - Boreal chickadee (July, 2011)
7. McLaren, M.A. (1975) Breeding biology of the boreal chickadee. The Wilson Bulletin, 87(3): 344-354.
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Cellular Automata: Replicators
A replicator is usually defined as a cellular automaton pattern which can make copies of itself. This definition is somewhat vague, but there are so few examples known that it would be unhelpful to try to be more precise. Replicators are interesting not only in themselves, but because they can be used to build many other types of patterns: high-period oscillators, glider guns, puffers and spaceships, and pseudo-random number generators.
Most replicators work accoding to a parity rule: there is a (usually one-dimensional) grid of possible replicator positions, such that, if replicators are placed at certain grid positions, they produce new replicators at the positions with an odd number of replicators in neighboring cells. If the grid positions are spaced k units apart, and the period (number of generations between each replication) is p, then the resulting pattern of oscillators expands at a speed of kc/p, with a sawtooth growth rate in which the number of active cells repeatedly increases to linear (or quadratic, for two dimensional grids) then decreases to a constant. The minima of the number of active cells occur at generations that are powers of two times the period.
Parity-rule replicators are fairly common in rules with B1 (birth on a single neighbor, in standard semitotalistic notation), but those rules are not very interesting because any pattern quickly grows to infinity in all directions, so gliders, oscillators, and similar structures are impossible. The more interesting rules are those with B0, B2 or B3, in which gliders are possible (and many gliders are known). Among these rules, only the following replicators are known:
It is believed that B3/S23 (Conway's Life) and B35/S236 also support replicators due to construction universality, but explicit replicators for those rules have not been constructed.
Cellular Automata -- D. Eppstein -- UCI Inf. & Comp. Sci.
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National Battlefield Virginia
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Pictionary: L
A strong cord with a hook at one end used to fire a cannon. In use, the wire of the friction primer was hooked to the lanyard. The long tube of the friction primer was inserted into the vent. A steady, quick pull on the lanyard set off the powder which ignited the charge. It was a convenient and generally sure method of firing artillery.
Each limber carried an ammunition chest that contained various quantities of ammunition depending on the cannons in the battery. In addition, friction primers and fuses were to be found in the chest, and the limber itself was a means of hauling a cannon. The limber was pulled by 4 to 6 horses.
Did You Know?
Depot Field Hospital
The Depot Field Hospital, which was located in City Point, Virginia, (present day Hopewell) was the largest field hospital for Union or Southern troops during the Civil War. (Petersburg National Battlefield)
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Mires are the second most common major habitat type in Finland. The total area of mires is almost 9 million hectares, which corresponds to 20% of Finland's total area and 28% of land area. The share of species which occur primarily in mire habitats equals 4% of all well-known species in Finland. This is notably less than could be expected from the area of mires.
The amount of mire specific species is overall low. However, several species which primarily inhabit forests, also occur on wooded mires, especially spruce mires. Finland has proportionally more mires than any other country. Therefore it can be said that Finland has a special responsibility to protect mire species and habitats.
Pine mires are the most common mire type in Finland: 55% of all mires are included in this group. The area of spruce mires corresponds to 26% and the area of open mire types 19% of all mires. The share of open mire types in southern Finland is only a quarter of their share in northern Finland. Rich fens have become rear in the whole country, since less than 2% of total mire area consists of rich fens.
What and where?
In this context mires are represented by all habitats which are covered by a peat layer, or at least 75% of their surface vegetation consists of mire species. Because of this classification some mire habitats include wooded types. In reality there is no clear boundary between forests and mires, but a gradient along which the habitat type changes to the other. Thus any direct limit setting is at least in part artificial. However, the biodiversity of wooded mires (like other mires) has been mainly affected by large scale drainage, and discussing them together can be explained from this ground.
Mires are most abundant in the northern Ostrobothnia, where they cover almost have of the land area. Mires are plentiful also in southern Lapland, Koillismaa and Kainuu regions, Ostrobothnia and North Karelia. In southern Finland mires have always been fewer than elsewhere in Finland, but drainage for fields and forestry has also been more common there.
Indicators by category
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Fort Wayne
Views: 53
Fort Wayne
In September 1812, Indians from the Potawatomi and Miami tribes, led by Chief Winamac, undertook a campaign against Fort Wayne, commanded by Captain James Rhea.
The siege began on September 5 when Chief Winamac assaulted the fort from the east side and burned the homes of the surrounding village. The Indians constructed two wooden cannons and were able to trick the garrison into thinking they had artillery besieging the fort as well. When Rhea began to discuss ideas of surrender, two of his lieutenants decided he was unfit to continue his duties and relieved him of command. These two lieutenants then assumed command and continued to hold out in the fort until reinforcements arrived.
General William Henry Harrison, the newly appointed commander of the Northwest frontier, led a relief force of 2,200 soldiers to Fort Wayne, arriving on September 12. Harrison attacked and defeated the Indian force, lifting the siege. The Potawatami/Miami force retreated into Ohio and Michigan Territory. Harrison had originally arrested Rhea but allowed him to resign instead. He then placed Lieutenant Philip Ostander (one of the two lieutenants who had relieved Rhea) in command of the fort.
The siege of Fort Wayne prompted Harrison to order punitive expeditions against the Miami which culminated in the Battle of the Mississinewa. This Miami defeat at Fort Wayne, as well as that in Battle of Fort Harrison, caused the Miami warriors to lose confidence in their chiefs. Many of them turned instead to the influential leadership of Tecumseh and joined his confederacy.
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BOX 12-8
Examples of Students’ Critiques of Their Own Darwinian Explanations
On the first day of class, students were asked to explain how the carapace of Galapagos tortoises may have changed from the dome shape to the saddleback shape. As part of the final exam for the class, students were asked to critique the explanation they had given on the first day. Below are the original explanation and critique offered by one student.
Original Answer
The saddleback carapace came into being due to the need of migrating tortoises to adjust to a new environment. On Albermarle Island the domed shaped carapaces served well for shedding rain and eating ground vegetation. However, when the tortoises began to migrate to a smaller, drier island with less ground vegetation, they had to adapt in order to survive. The majority of the food was now higher up and the domed shell served as a hindrance. Over time, the saddleback carapace developed to allow the neck to extend further, thereby allowing the tortoises to reach the fleshy green parts of the prickly pear cactus. This evolutionary process created a new species of giant tortoise that could live successfully in a new environment.
Critique on Final Exam
In my original answer, I used an almost exclusive Lamarckian definition of evolution. In my introductory statement I stated that the saddleback carapace came into being due to the need of the tortoise to fit its environment. I needed to acknowledge the existence of variation within the tortoise population of the shape of the shell. My original explanation makes the evolutionary process sound like a physical change taking place during the life of the tortoise and then being passed on to the offspring. I now know that variations that are advantageous give animals a better chance of survival (survival of the fittest!) and allow them a better chance of passing on their advantageous trait to their offspring. In my original explanation I also touched on ideas of use and disuse to explain how the saddleback carapace came to be, this is a Lamarkian model of evolution which is incorrect. I did explain how the saddleback carapace was an advantage because it allowed the tortoise to eat higher vegetation. Since I didn’t understand evolution through the generations, I wasn’t able to describe how the species changed over time. Overall, I would say I had a basic but flawed understanding of evolution but I lacked the tools to explain evolution from a scientific and Darwinian perspective, until now.
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Terms of Use and Privacy Statement
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Ore Milling
Photo: Workers at Ogden Iron Mine. During the 1890s, Edison tried to develop a method for concentrating low-grade iron ore into high-grade briquettes suitable for use in Eastern steel mills. Edison had developed an electromagnetic ore separator in 1880 while working on electric light and power. In this device, sand from tailings or crushed rock was poured through a hopper so that it fell in a thin, broad stream in front of an electromagnet that attracted magnetic particles, such as iron, into one receptacle while non-magnetic particles fell straight through into another bin. His first ore venture involved the concentration of iron found in black sand during the early 1880s, but his more important effort took place between 1887 and 1898 when he designed a whole system of mining, crushing, separating, and concentrating the ore into briquettes at a mine in northern New Jersey. After pouring over $2 million of his own money into this venture, Edison was forced to abandon it when the discovery of large iron ore deposits in the Great Lake region made Edison's concentrated low-grade ore too expensive for steel mills. Edison was able to recoup part of his investment by transferring his rock crushing technology to the production of Portland cement.
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ArtLex Art Dictionary
Below and in the background: a value scale employing a smoothly nuanced gradation of values.
Below: a value scale — or gray scale — in eight stepped grades of values.
And another stepped scale produced by hatching and cross-hatching.
a hatched scale
Below: another value scale — or gray scale — in which stepped grades of values are labeled for their percentages of black, and values used to give planar shapes greater solidity and depth.
A full range of values can also be produced by a variety of other means. These include hatching and stipple techniques, as well as with textures and patterns of other sorts.
The following illustration diagrams colors of various values. Value changes from pure hues are called shades and tints. On the right, pure hues are marked by dots. Notice how their values — their positions beside the gray scale — are varied.
Changes in value, whether sudden or gradual, can add greatly to the visual impact of art forms. Changes in value can also be used to help the artist express an idea.
Related Links:
The History of "Value" and Problems with Its Use
One of the senses in which The Oxford English Dictionary (1928, 1972) defines "value" is: "[In] Painting. Due or proper effect or importance; relative tone of colour in each distinct section of a picture; a patch characterized by a particular tone." As a historical dictionary, the OED cites quotations of uses by various English writers as far back as they can be found. The earliest of the OED's three quotes is
"A certain quantity of cold colours is necessary to give value and lustre to the warm colours."
Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), English painter, lecturer on art, and the first president of the Royal Academy. In a lecture to students at the Royal Academy, Discourses, viii (1778, 1876), 453.
Sir Joshua Reynold's published use of "value" has been read by artworld readers ever since the late 18th century. This suggests that the term has been in use within the English-speaking academia at least since that time.
Art educators generally credit Arthur Wesley Dow (American, 1857-1922) with introducing the teaching of the art elements in the USA through his book Composition, first published in the 1890s, and still in print. Did he use the term "value"? Which of his followers did so?
English speakers more typically use this term to refer to emotional or monetary worth. Artworld speakers' exceptional usage from that of the general English speaker can be problematic.
Is there a better word for this than "value"?
Outside of the art world, "value" is primarily understood to mean "worth." Why does the art world persist in speaking of "value," when the maintenance of this convention chonically demands explanation? Even with explanations, using the word "value" frequently result in misunderstanding!
Is there any way to avoid these undesirable results?
Yes! Scientists refer to the same lightness-darkness phenomena, and never create the confusion with which we cope. They simply use the terms "luminance" and "luminosity" interchangeable synonyms. Both are typically defined as "the condition or quality of emitting or reflecting light." "Luminance" and "luminosity" concern what is either self-generated or reflected light. Understanding that art speakers more typically employ "value" to reference the continuum of lightness / darkness of reflected light, when we speak of the "luminosity" of any passage in a drawing, painting or print, we are unbothered about whether the reader might think the surface is lit internally or from its back. We also posit that surfaces are generally "well lighted." Typically we are talking about the degree of a color's potential to reflect that light. Whenever we are discussing a work which emits its own light (backlighting, projection, incandescence, fluorescence, halogen, neon, laser, light-emitting diode, etc.), we are likely to observe and point out that fact, and consider other aspects of the work with this one in mind. In other words, in contrast to uses of the word "value," the potential for the L-word's causing confusion is comparatively negligible.
Indeed, a scientist (or photographer) measuring the potential of a surface to reflect light would speak of its luminance, unworried that the surface is not itself generating the light. instead, a scientist, would measure the surface's luminance in relation to the brightness (measured in lumens or candle-power) of the light cast upon it.
Every new word requires explanation, but "luminance" and "luminosity" have the advantage of coming from the Latin root lumen light. This old word gave birth to the words luminous, luminary (a person who has achieved eminence in his / her field), illuminate, and illumination.
As a rule, ArtLex is descriptive of the meaning of words, and rarely prescriptive of what words should mean. I feel that ArtLex should point out some of the problems some words can get us into. This note presents an instance of such a tangle.
The clarity lost by the art world's clinging to its use of the word "value" instead of "luminance" is plainly problematic. The great advantage to shifting this paradigm is that whereas most English speakers understand "value" to mean worth, "luminance" has no other meanings at variance to the one we have intended to communicate when we have used the word "value."
Let me know what your experince has been, and how you think about these issues!
Also see chiaroscuro, deep, feather, gradation, gray scale, inpaint, positive, shadow, and value scale.
ArtLex Art Dictionary
Copyright © 1996-current year
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Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Marine Botany
Pseudo-nitzschia Raphe
line5.gif (2424 bytes)
What is a Raphe?
Raphes are commonly found in pennate diatoms, including those diatoms within the Pseudo-nitzschia genus. It is visualed as two longitudinal slits that appear on the face of the valve. In this genus, the raphe can be seen as two slits near the median of the valve and does not contain silica like the other parts of the frustule. Between the two slits, there is a bridge of silica called the "central nodule."
What is the purpose of a Raphe?
The raphe is thought to serve a few purposes for this diatom. It is thought that transmembrane proteins, attached to both motors and mucopolysaccharides, move within the raphe in order to aid in cell movement (see Motility ). The slits are also hypothesized to confer flexibility to the cell, guarding against splitting of the valve under stress.
How Does a Raphe Form in Pseudo-nitzschia ?
After the cell cycle has been completed, raphe formation takes place along with valve formation. One side of the raphe forms first and is thus designated the primary raphe. Arms are then laid down at the poles and at the center of the primary raphe. Since arm formation occurs at the center of the primary raphe, the central nodule is formed. The arms extend towards each other and, upon fusion, form a raphe devoid of silica. See figure below.
scan6.gif (16260 bytes)
Figure: Formation of the Raphe
Primary Raphe
Creation of arms extending from the poles and the center
Growth of the arms towards each other
Fusion of the arms and formation of valve
line5.gif (2424 bytes)
Back to the Morphology & Anatomy page...
copyright Jennifer Shin 1999.
Last updated: Feb. 05, 2009
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Mesa Verde
National Park Colorado
Enrichment Package: Activity 5 -- On Your Way To The Park
This activity focuses on basic math and observational skills in relation to your trip to the park and reinforces the use of mathematics for gaining information that is relevant to everyday life.
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Separator bar with triangles
Follow the directions and answer the questions below.
Before your trip, ask the bus driver to give you the beginning mileage on the bus odometer.
Record the time you left for Mesa Verde.
Using a map, determine the distance to Mesa Verde.
What general direction must you travel to reach Mesa Verde?
What is the most common use of land along the way to Mesa Verde?
Just beyond the entrance to the park, there is a sign listing the fire danger for the day. What is the fire danger today?
Name three mountain groups you see from the Montezuma Overlook (mile 6.2).
Name the most common broadleaf tree you find in the park.
Keep a tally of the number of birds and animals you see and identify them if you can.
Birds ____________________ Animals ___________________
Stop at Park Point, the highest location in Mesa Verde (mile 10.1). What is the elevation?
Record the time you arrive at the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum at Mesa Verde.
Note the time you started your trip (see your answer for #2). How long did it take to get to Mesa Verde?
Ask your bus driver to give you the ending mileage on the bus odometer while at the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum.
Calculate the number of miles you have traveled from your school to the park?
How does your answer compare with the number of miles you obtained from the map? (see your answer for #3.)
Can you figure out the average miles per hour you traveled during your trip to Mesa Verde? (Hint: Total number of miles traveled divided by total time traveled.)
«Answers to Activity 5: On Your Way To The Park»
Did You Know?
View of mesas
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Phrases in motion, and one at rest
Middle of the road
Before the Civil War, most roads, including highways between major cities, were narrow and poorly maintained. The wheels of carriages and wagons tended to rut the edges. After a heavy rain, travelers walking along the roads stayed away from the sides and held to the center as much as they could. By the late 1800s, the state of America's roads had made its way into politics. Populists who wanted to avoid extreme positions on the issues of the day were called "middle of the roaders" for their cautiousness. The label is still used today for anyone who adopts a moderate stand.
Mill about
According to word historian Webb Garrison, one of civilized man's first major achievements was the invention of a mechanical way to crush grain - the mill. Many of our expressions today still come from it. "To be put through the mill" means to be tested - and usually it's a grinding test. (Imagine the rough treatment a grain of wheat endures in a mill.) A less common expression is "to draw water to your own mill," meaning to take unfair advantage of a situation or person.
Finally, the circular motion of the mill wheel inspired the more common phrase "to mill about," meaning to move about in a circle in a confused and aimless way, around and around and around.
Show a leg
This naval wake-up call that later became "Shake a leg!" meant "Jump out of bed and be quick about it!" On 19th-century sailing vessels, the ship's crew would have to show a leg over the side of their hammocks to acknowledge that they'd heard the mate's call. Within minutes, though, their feet had better hit the deck.
Apple-pie order
This expression, meaning "neat and orderly," was first attributed to New England cooks who carefully arranged their sliced apples in rows in a pie crust. But according to scholars, the term was commonly used in England in the early 17th century, long before it began to be used in America. These scholars say its source is a corruption of the French phrase nappes-pliés, or "folded linen." Back then, dinner napkins were neatly folded after a meal and placed tidily away in a drawer. And arranged in a precise pattern just like ... apple slices in a pie.
SOURCES: 'The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology,' by Robert Barnhart; 'The Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins,' by Robert Hendrickson; 'Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins,' by W. and M. Morris; 'Why You Say It,' by Webb Garrison; 'Have a Nice Day!' by Christine Ammer, 'Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable,' by Ivor Evans; 'A Browser's Dictionary,' by John Ciardi
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Precautionary principle
Uit Kust Wiki
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Definition of Precautionary Principle:
The principle of taking action now to avoid possible environmental damage when the scientific evidence for acting is inconclusive but the potential damage could be great.[1].
This is the common definition for Precautionary Principle, other definitions can be discussed in the article
The Maastricht Treaty adopted the Precautionary Principle as a fundamental element of environmental policy. (Article III-233 of the draft Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe.)
1. Planning portal, UK.
See also
1. Application of precautionary approach
2. Climate change effects
3. Climate change effects - Gaps in scientific knowledge
4. Development of the European Marine Strategy
5. The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
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Arabian Nights - Medieval Islam for Kids
The Arabian Nights
Persian miniature
Princess (ca. 1540 AD)
People in India and Persia have been telling these stories for a long time - nobody knows how long. Around 850 AD, a Persian writer in the Abbasid Empire collected a bunch of stories into a book called "Alf Layla wa Layla", or the Thousand and One Nights - which we also call the Arabian Nights. The book is about a Sassanian king, Shahryar, who decides to make sure his wife is always faithful to him by marrying a new girl every night and killing her in the morning.
King Shahryar's vizier is in charge of finding a new girl every day to marry the king. One day, the vizier's own daughter Scheherazade comes to him and insists that she should marry the king. Scheherazade (shuh-HAIR-ah-zadd) explains that she has a plan to stop the king from killing all these women, so the vizier unhappily agrees to let her marry the king.
So Scheherazade marries King Shahryar. That night at bedtime, she offers to tell her new husband a story. She tells a great story, but just at the most exciting part she stops because the sun is coming up and it's time for her to be killed. But King Shahryar wants to hear the end of the story, so he agrees to let Scheherazade live another day.
Scheherazade continues her story that night, and again she ends at the most exciting part, and again the king lets her live. She does that every night, for a thousand and one nights, and finally King Shahryar sees that this was a dumb idea and lets Scheherazade live as his queen.
Here are some of the stories Scheherazade told the king:
To find out more about the Arabian Nights and Scheherazade, check out these books from Amazon or from your library:
Islamic poetry
African stories
Medieval stories
Greek mythology
Islamic Empire
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Brush rabbit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Brush rabbit[1]
Sylvilagus bachmani 01035t.JPG
Brush rabbit (Finley National Wildlife Refuge)
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Genus: Sylvilagus
Species: S. bachmani
Binomial name
Sylvilagus bachmani
(Waterhouse, 1839)
Brush Rabbit area.png
Brush rabbit range
The brush rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani), or western brush rabbit, is a species of cottontail rabbit found in western coastal regions of North America, from the Columbia River in Oregon to the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula. Its range extends as far east as the eastern sides of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges.[2]
The brush rabbit inhabits dense, brushy cover, most commonly in chaparral vegetation. It also occurs in oak and conifer habitats and it will live in brush or grassland, and form networks of runways through the vegetation. The brush rabbit does not dig its own burrow or den, but uses the burrow of other species, brush piles, or forms. In the San Francisco Bay Area, it was found that the brush rabbit concentrates its activities at the edge of brush and exhibits much less use of grassy areas. It uses the interior brush of the wilderness and it was also found that this may be a better environment for it than the chaparral one. Studies done on the brush rabbit in Oregon also showed that it rarely left the brushy areas it inhabits. Brush may be used more in the drier seasons while grasses are used in the wetter seasons in relation to growth of annual vegetation. Use of habitat also probably is related to the breeding season.
Physical description[edit]
Brush rabbit
The brush rabbit is smaller than many of the other cottontails, and unlike most of them, the underside of its tail is grey rather than white (which may be why its common name does not include the word "cottontail"). The upperside of the brush rabbit's fur varies from light brown to gray in color, while the underside is usually always white. Adult rabbits measure anywhere from 10–14 inches long and rarely weigh over two pounds.
Large numbers of geographically defined subspecies have been proposed, including in Oregon, ubericolor; in California, cinerascens, mariposae, riparius, tehamae and trowbridgii; and in Baja California, cerrosensis, exiguus, howelli, peninsularis and rosaphagus. Subspecies bachmani, macrorhinus and virgulti are less geographically restricted. Sylvilagus bachmani riparius, the riparian brush rabbit, is highly endangered; formerly numerous along the San Joaquin River and Stanislaus River, it is now reduced to a population of a few hundred in the Caswell Memorial State Park. Of the various proposed subspecies, only the following are currently recognized; the others are synonyms: S. b. ubericolor, S. b. cinerascens, S. b. bachmani, S. b. exiguus, S. b. howelli, S. b. cerrosensis.[1]
It has been noted that numbers of the eastern cottontail were brought west to reproduce and provide a food source for the settlers. The interbreeding of the two species has occurred where the Brush Rabbit has in parts of Oregon developed the white cottontail although retaining its smaller size.
Brush rabbit mating, as with other rabbits, may occur year-round but peak breeding seasons are between February and August. The gestation period of the brush rabbit female is about 22 days. A female brush rabbit can have as many as five litters per year but two to three is more common. One to seven young are born per litter and they are altricial. The average number born per litter is three.
A trapping study[which?] of the brush rabbit in the Berkeley Hills in northern California indicated that males had larger home ranges than females at all times of the year, and especially in May when females were moving the least. It is estimated the home ranges of the Brush Rabbit average just under 1-acre (4,000 m2) for males and just under 0.5 acres (2,000 m2) for females. The shape of these home ranges are usually circular but depending on the vegetation can be different in size and shape. Range use probably is not circular in shape or uniform, but rather consists of a series of runways that directly connect high use areas within brush habitat. Intraspecific socio-spatial behavior appears to be variable and may reflect local resource conditions. Several rabbits have been observed to feed in the same area simultaneously, but maintained inter-individual distances of one to 24 feet (7.3 m) before aggressive chases occurred. It has been shown that females tended to not overlap while males showed relatively extensive overlapping and this may indicate that females are territorial. Groups of brush rabbits may serve social purposes, such as predator detection, but this has not been proven.
The brush rabbit feeds mainly on grasses and forbs, especially green clover, though it will also take berries and browse from bushes.
Predators and survival techniques[edit]
Its predators include the cougar, the coyote, foxes, the bobcat, weasels, and various raptors and snakes. Its survival strategies include remaining immobile, when in brushy areas, and zig-zag running when found and/or in open spaces.
Human interaction and impact[edit]
The brush rabbit is not hunted as are many other cottontail species, probably because of its small size. It is not a major cause of damage to crops or other human developments in its habitat. Certain subspecies of the brush rabbit are considered endangered and are protected by state and federal laws.
1. ^ a b Hoffman, R. S.; Smith, A. T. (2005). "Order Lagomorpha". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
2. ^ a b Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H. & Williams, D.F. (2008). "Sylvilagus bachmani". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
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Was Kimberella a Precambrian Mollusk?
Friday, September 4, 2020
We will now take a closer look at the famous fossil organism Kimberella, which is a typical member of the Ediacara-type biota (Muscente et al. 2019), especially from the White Sea assemblage (Gehling & Droser 2013Droser et al. 2017). It provides the widest range of morphological detail for any Precambrian organism. Even though it was initially described as a jellyfish, it was later identified, by Fedonkin & Waggoner (1997), as a mollusk-like bilaterian animal. This reinterpretation has been widely adopted and is found in most subsequent publications.
Kimberella indeed represents the strongest case for a bilaterian animal from the Ediacaran era. This is important because it would not only provide a minimum age for the earliest origin of Bilateria but would also predate the Cambrian explosion of bilaterian animal phyla as a kind of “advance guard” (Fedonkin & Waggoner 1997Fedonkin et al. 2007bStearley 2013).
A Calibration Point
Some scientists even considered the identification of Kimberella as a mollusk-like bilaterian animal sufficiently secure to use it as a calibration point for the minimum age of the crown groups of Metazoa, Eumetazoa, Bilateria / Nephrozoa, Protostomia, and Lophotrochozoa in molecular clock analyses (Fedonkin et al. 2007bBenton et al. 2015). Based on the work of Benton the influential Palaeontologia Electronica’s Fossil Calibration Database even has Kimberella as calibration point in the mollusk clade.
Because of the enormous importance of this crucial taxon for evolutionary biology, I reviewed for this article series every single paper that was ever published on it or even only discussed it, so that this synopsis and bibliography should even prove to be useful for experts, as nothing comparably comprehensive and up to date exists anywhere else.
The Prevailing Hypothesis
The hypothesis of a molluscan affinity of Kimberella is still prevailing in the technical and popular literature on Ediacaran biota (e.g., Bottjer 2002Fedonkin 2003Fedonkin et al. 2007bSeilacher 2007Trusler et al. 2007Stöger et al. 2013Schrödl & Stöger 2014Vinther 2015).
Peter Godfrey-Smith (2016), who wrote about Kimberella as the possible earliest mollusk in his bestselling book Other Minds: The Octopus, the Sea, and the Deep Origins of Consciousness, is quoted by McMenamin (2018) with the following remarkable statement: “One of my correspondents expressed concern that I was perpetuating a dubious interpretation of Kimberella as a mollusk; for another, Kimberella-as-mollusk is crucial to the interpretation of early bilaterian evolution.”
In addition, eminent intelligent design theorist Stephen C. Meyer has acknowledged in his seminal book Darwin’s Doubt (Meyer 2013) that Kimberella could be an Ediacaran bilaterian animal and maybe even a mollusk. This was considered by other ID proponents as maybe too generous (Evolution News 2016). Let’s see what the published evidence says and follow the evidence wherever it leads.
Source: https://evolutionnews.org/
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ancient rite
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Taurobolium, bull sacrifice practiced from about ad 160 in the Mediterranean cult of the Great Mother of the Gods. Celebrated primarily among the Romans, the ceremony enjoyed much popularity and may have been introduced by the Roman emperor. The nature and purpose of the ceremony seems to have gradually changed during the late 2nd and 3rd centuries. At the beginning it apparently resembled similar sacrifices performed in the cults of other deities, such as Mithra. By about 300, however, the ceremony had changed drastically. The person dedicating the sacrifice lay in a pit with a perforated board placed over the pit’s opening. A bull was slaughtered above him, and the person in the pit bathed in the blood streaming down. Thus the ceremony, perhaps influenced by Christianity, gradually took on the elements of moral purification.
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Tag Archives: Tonadas trinitarias
Cuba’s tonadas trinitarias
The tonada trinitaria is an Afro-Cuban musical genre native to the town of Trinidad de Cuba.
The city became one of the Caribbean’s foremost sugar exporters in the early 19th century, and thousands of African slaves were brought to work in the neighboring Valle de los Ingenios. It was here that the local musical practices of African slaves, their descendants, and white peasants meshed, producing an environment conducive to the creation of creole musical forms, of which the tonada trinitaria is a prime example.
The tradition took shape among the Black urban population following the collapse of the city’s sugar-based economy in the late 1840s. The first tonada groups appeared during the first war of Cuban independence (1868–78), propagated by musicians of the Cabildo de San Antonio de Congos Reales. a cultural and religious center of Bantu-derived Christian traditions.
The tonada groups consist of a chorus, a lead singer, three small drums, a güiro (gourd-scraper), and a hoe blade struck with an iron beater. The guía, or lead singer, begins by introducing the tonada (a two-to-four-line text). The percussion joins in, providing a steady rhythmic accompaniment, followed by the chorus, which repeats the tonada. In call-and-response style, the guía improvises his text based on the theme of the tonada. These themes include love, social commentary, patriotism, and puyas, which poke fun at a certain person or situation.
The tonada groups represented certain barrios (marginal neighborhoods) and performed during all-night transits through the city streets, stopping to give serenades at homes or meet with each other in competition. The tradition evolved as new generations took over and elders retired.
This according to History and evolution of the tonadas trinitarias of Trinidad de Cuba by Johnny Frías (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2010; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2010-50525).
Above and below, the contemporary group Tonadas Trinitarias.
Comments Off on Cuba’s tonadas trinitarias
Filed under Black studies, West Indies
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