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stepping stones of maritime history
Discovered in 1900 by sponge divers of point Glyphadia Antikythera. The Roman wreck produced statues dating back to the 4th century BC, as well as the world's oldest known analog computer, the Antikythera mechanism.
Antikythera wreck
The Antikythera mechanism.
Spoils of war
The most famous statue is the Antikythera Ephebe. Two other Epheboi were retrieved, one Kore, a philosophers head, two statues of Herakles, four Apollo's, one Odyseus, one Achilleus and one Philoktetes. The remains of 4 horses, 1 quadriga and many more fragments were also found. The rich cargo suggest that, like the Mahdia wreck off shore Tunisia the Antikythera wreck was used by the Romans to ship spoils from Greece to Italy.
The date of sinking suggests a war around 80 BC. Maybe the 1st or 2nd Mithridatic war. Pontus was sacked and numerous statues and other spoils shipped to Italy after the conquest by Licinius Lucullus.
Mithridates VI of Pontus (120-63 BC)
Mithridates VI was king of Pontus and expanded his kingdom from 88 BC into the Roman sphere of influence. He conquered Asia minor and even a part of Greece with Athens (88-85 BC first Mithridatic war). He was very successful because the Roman occupation was considered very harsh. The first Mithridatic war ended with a Roman victory in 85 BC.
The Ephebe of Antikythera
The Ephebe, dated by its style to about 340 BC, is one of the most brilliant products of Peloponnesan bronze sculpture; the individuality and character it displays have encouraged speculation on its possible sculptor: perhaps it is the work of the famous sculptor Euphranor in the Polycleitan tradition, who did make a sculpture of Paris, according to Pliny major. It was the first of the series of Greek bronze sculptures that the Aegean and Mediterranean yielded up in the twentieth century which have fundamentally altered the modern view of Ancient Greek sculpture.
Antikythera wreck
The Ephebe of Antikythera.
Roman cargo vessel probably a corbita. ca. 300 tons.
The ship yielded remains of the hull planks. The hull was made using mortise and tenon joints and the planks were pinned with copper nails. This proved that the shiphad been built by Romans.
At least one plank of the ship dated to 220 BC + / - 43.
Wether the ship itself was also built in this period or the sample comes from a reused plank is unclear.
A Roman corbita.
Down on 28 October
New in MaSS
Wrecks of Flevoland
Burgzand Noord
13 Provinces
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In the mid-twentieth century, modern art and design represented the liberalism, individualism, dynamic activity, and creative risk possible in a free society. Jackson Pollock’s gestural style, for instance, drew an effective counterpoint to Nazi, and then Soviet, oppression. Modernism, in fact, became a weapon of the Cold War. Both the State Department and the CIA supported exhibitions of American art all over the world.
The preeminent Cultural Cold Warrior, Thomas W. Braden, who served as MoMA’s executive secretary from 1948-1949, later joined the CIA in 1950 to supervise its cultural activities. Braden noted, in a Saturday Evening Post article titled “I’m glad the CIA is ‘immoral’” that American art “won more acclaim for the U.S. …than John Foster Dulles or Dwight D. Eisenhower could have bought with a hundred speeches.”
The relationship between Modern Art and American diplomacy began during WWII, when the Museum of Modern Art was mobilized for the war effort. MoMA was founded in 1929 by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller. A decade later, her son Nelson Rockefeller became president of the Museum. In 1940, while he was still President of MoMA, Rockefeller was appointed the Roosevelt Administration’s Coordinator of Inter-American affairs. He also served as Roosevelt’s Assistant Secretary of State in Latin America.
The Museum followed suit. MoMA fulfilled 38 government contracts for cultural materials during the Second World War, and mounted 19 exhibitions of contemporary American painting for the Coordinator’s office, which were exhibited throughout Latin America. (This direct relationship between the avant-garde and the war effort was well suited: The term avant-garde actually began as a French military term to describe vanguard troops advancing into battle.)
In the battle for “hearts and minds,” modern art was particularly effective. John Hay Whitney, both a president of MoMA and a member of the Whitney Family, which founded the Whitney Museum of American Art, explained that art stood out as a line of national defense, because it could “educate, inspire, and strengthen the hearts and wills of free men.”
Whitney succeeded Rockefeller as President of the Museum of Modern Art in January 1941, so that Nelson could turn his entire attention to his Coordinator duties. Under Whitney, MoMA served as “A Weapon of National Defense.” According to a Museum press release dated February 28, 1941, MoMA would “inaugurate a new program to speed the interchange of the art and culture of this hemisphere among all the twenty-one American republics.” The goal was “Pan-Americanism.” A “Traveling Art Caravan” through Latin America “would do more to bring us together as friends than ten years of commercial and political work.”
When the War ended, Nelson Rockefeller returned to the Museum, and his Inter-American-Affairs staffers assumed responsibilities for MoMA’s international exhibition program: René d’Harnoncourt, who had headed Inter-American’s art division, became the Museum’s vice president in charge of foreign activities. Fellow staffer Porter McCray became the Director of the Museum’s International Program.
Modern art was so well aligned with American Cold War foreign policy that McCray took a leave of absence from the Museum in 1951 to work on the Marshall Plan. In 1957, Whitney resigned his position as MoMA’s Chairman of the Board of Trustees to become United States Ambassador to Great Britain. Whitney remained a trustee of the Museum while he was Ambassador, and his successor as Chairman was… Nelson Rockefeller, who had served as Special Assistant to President Eisenhower for Foreign Affairs until 1955.
A model of the CIA headquarters in front of a Georgia O'Keefe painting
Georgia O’Keefe colors the landscape around a model of CIA headquarters
Even though Modern art and American diplomacy were of a piece, Soviet propaganda asserted that the United States was a “culturally barren” capitalist wasteland. To make the case for American cultural dynamism, the State Department in 1946 spent $49,000 to purchase seventy-nine paintings directly from American Modern artists, and mounted them in a traveling exhibition called “Advancing American Art.” That exhibition, which made stops in Europe and Latin America, included work from artists such as Georgia O’Keeffe and Jacob Lawrence.
Despite positive reviews from Paris to Port au Prince, the exhibition stopped short in Czechoslovakia in 1947, because Americans themselves were indignant. Look Magazine fired off an article entitled “Your Money Bought These Paintings.” The Look piece questioned why U.S. tax dollars were being spent on such confusing pieces of art—and wondered if these were paintings even art. Harry Truman took one look at Yasuo Kuniyoshi’s painting Circus Girl Resting, which was included in the exhibit, and said, “If this is art, I’m a Hottentot.”
In Congress, Republican Representatives John Taber of New York, and Fred Busbey of Illinois worried that some of the artists were held Communist sympathies, or engaged in “Un-American Activities.”
The American public’s fear of the Red Menace brought “Advancing American Art” home early, but it was precisely because Modern art was not universally popular, and was created by artists who openly disdained orthodoxy, that it was such an effective tool in showcasing the fruits of American cultural freedom to anyone looking in from abroad. President Truman personally considered Modern art, “merely the vaporings of half-baked lazy people.” But he did not declare it degenerate and expel its practitioners to gulags in Siberia. Not only that, abstract expressionism in particular was a direct repudiation of Soviet Socialist Realism. Nelson Rockefeller liked to call it “Free Enterprise Painting.”
In contrast to the Soviet Union’s “Popular Front,” the New Yorker magazine wonderfully, and perfectly, referred to the political role of American Modernism as “The Unpopular Front.” The very existence of American Modern Art proved to the world that its creators were free to create, whether you liked their work or not.
If Advancing American Art proved the nation’s artists were free because they could splatter as much paint as they wanted, it also proved that Congress could not always be induced to spend tax dollars supporting it. Braden later wrote, “the idea that Congress would have approved many of our projects was about as likely as the John Birch Society’s approving Medicare.” Clearly the State Department wasn’t the right patron for Modern Art. Which brings us to the CIA.
In 1947, at the very moment that the Advancing American Art show was being recalled, and the United States Government was selling its O’Keeffe’s for fifty bucks a-piece (all seventy-nine pieces in the show together brought in $5,544), the CIA was being created. The CIA grew out of “Wild” Bill Donovan’s Office of Strategic Services (OSS), which was the U.S.’s wartime intelligence apparatus. MoMA’s John Hay Whitney and Thomas W. Braden had both been members of the OSS.
Their fellow operatives included the poet and Librarian of Congress Archibald MacLeish, the historian and public intellectual Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., and the Hollywood director John Ford. By the time the CIA was codified in 1947, clandestine affairs had long been the arena of America’s cultural elite. Now, as museum staffers like Braden joined, the cultural cognoscenti and the CIA fought the Cultural Cold War side by side, with the Whitney Trust acting as a funding conduit.
Speaking of front organizations, in 1954, MoMA took over (from the State Department) the U.S. Pavilion at the Venice Biennale, so that the U.S. could continue to exhibit Modern art abroad without appropriating public funds. (MoMA owned the U.S. pavilion at Venice from 1954 to 1962. It was the only national pavilion at the show that was privately owned.)
Eisenhower made MoMA’s role as a government proxy clear in 1954, speaking at the Museum’s twenty-fifth anniversary celebration. Eisenhower called Modern art a “Pillar of Liberty,” saying:
As long as our artists are free to create with sincerity and conviction, there will be healthy controversy and progress in art. How different it is in tyranny. When artists are made the slaves and tools of the state; when artists become the chief propagandists of a cause, progress is arrested and creation and genius are destroyed.
It was MoMA’s job, concurred United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union, to demonstrate to the rest of the world “both that we have a cultural life and that we care about it.”
The CIA not only helped finance MoMA’s international exhibitions, it made cultural forays across Europe. In 1950, the Agency created the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF), headquartered in Paris. Though it appeared to be an “autonomous association of artists, musicians and writers,” it was in fact a CIA funded project to “propagate the virtues of western democratic culture.” The CCF operated for 17 years, and, at its peak, “had offices in thirty-five countries, employed dozens of personnel, published over twenty prestige magazines, held art exhibitions, owned a news and features service, organized high-profile international conferences, and rewarded musicians and artists with prizes and public performances.”
Braden, writing about his role in the CCF as director of the CIA’s cultural activities, explained in 1967, “in much of Europe in the 1950’s, socialists, people who called themselves ‘left’—the very people whom many Americans thought no better than Communists—were the only people who gave a damn about fighting Communism.” When the CIA made its bid to the European intelligentsia, the Agency was waging what Braden called “the battle for Picasso’s mind,” via Jackson Pollock’s art.
Accordingly, the CIA bankrolled the Partisan Review, which was the center of the American non-Communist left, carrying enormous cultural prestige in both the U.S. and Europe because of its association with writers like T.S. Eliot and George Orwell. Unsurprisingly, the editor of the Partisan Review was the art critic Clement Greenberg, the most influential arbiter of taste, and the strongest proponent of abstract expressionism in post-war New York.
The CCF worked with MoMA to mount 1952’s “Masterpieces of the Twentieth Century” Festival in Paris. The works for the show came from MoMA’s Collection, and “established the CCF as a major presence in European cultural life,” as the historian Hugh Wilford wrote in his book The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America.
Curator James Johnson Sweeney made sure to note that the works included in the show “could not have been created . . . by such totalitarian regimes as Nazi Germany or present-day Soviet Russia.” Distilling this message even further in 1954, MoMA’s August Heckscher declared that the museum’s work was “related to the central struggle of the age—the struggle of freedom against tyranny.”
Editors’ Note: An earlier version of this article misquoted President Truman. He considered Modern art “merely the vaporings of half-baked lazy people,” not “the vaporizings.”
Oxford Art Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1 (1988), pp. 40-50
Oxford University Press
Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, Vol. 21, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1996), pp. 393-418
Sage Publications, Inc.
International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Vol. 14, No. 3 (Spring, 2001), pp. 571-619
Diplomatic History, Vol. 1, No. 3 (SUMMER 1977), pp. 215-237
Oxford University Press
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What is Eudibamus?
Updated July 21, with new skull images based on higher resolution pix.
Eudibamus cursoris (Berman et al. 2000) was a long-legged reptile from the Early Permian of Germany described as the earliest biped and originally considered a bolosaurid. The discovery of Eudibamus prompted a certain amount of excitement because previously bolosaurids (Bolosaurus and Belebey) were known principally by skulls only.
Figure 1. Eudibamus reconstruted.
Figure 1. Eudibamus reconstruted.
Why Bolosaurids?
Berman et al. (2000) originally considered Eudibamus a bolosaurid based on the rounded shape of its very small teeth. They may have also seen the lateral temporal fenestra, but they never published a skull reconstruction, perhaps because it was badly crushed. In overall shape, the skull of Eudibamus does indeed resemble that of Bolosaurus.
Figure 2. Compare Eudibamus to bolosaurids on the left and diapsids on the right.
Why Not Diapsids?
Even without the skull, Eudibamus nested here close to the diapsids, but the skull has a diapsid temporal region, quite similar in configuration to Spinoaequalis and Petrolacosaurus (Figure 2), both of which predated Eudibamus by less than 10 million years. Moreover, the rest of the anatomy also closely matches that of other diapsids. There is no large coronoid process, only a gentle rise in the posterior jaw. The teeth did not resemble the strange crushers of bolosaurids so much. Here they appear to be merely short and blunt.
Eudibamus foot
Figure 3. Eudibamus foot compared to diapsids (in pink) and bolosaurid sister taxa (in yellow).
If we take a look at the feet, for instance (Figure 3), there is a closer match to Petrolacosaurus and Spinoaequalis than to bolosaurid sister taxa, Casea and Eunotosaurus. Digit 1 is very tiny, unlike the robust digit 1 of bolosaurid sisters. Digit 4 included at least two phalanges beyond the ungual of digit 3, unlike digit 4 in bolosaurid sisters. Digit 5 did not extend beyond p4.1, unlike digit 5 in bolosaurid sisters.
Unfortunately few to no other sister taxa of bolosaurids are known that preserve the post-crania and feet. From the list of sister taxa, such as Milleretta, we can surmise that bolosaurids had a short neck, bulky body (perhaps with expanded dorsal ribs), short legs and short robust toes, like those of Casea and Eunotosaurus. The skull of Eudibamus was preserved curled back, facing posteriorly, which means the neck was long enough to do this. Some cervicals are missing, but the elongated ones that remain resemble those in Petrolacosaurus more the shorter ones in Milleretta.
Berman, DS, Reisz RR, Scott D, Henrici AC, Sumida SS and Martens T 2000. Early Permian bipedal reptile. Science 290: 969-972.
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Atlantean figures explained
Atlantean figures are four anthropomorphic statues belonging to the Toltec culture in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. These figures are "massive statues of Toltec warriors".[1] They take their post-Columbian name from the European tradition of similar Atlas or Atalante figures in classical architecture.
Though the most famous Atlantean figures reside in Tula, the Olmecs were the first to use Atlantean figures on a relief discovered in Potrero Nuevo.[2] Mayan sculptors also created "Atlantean" figures in Chichen Itza. Furthermore, the Aztecs also created warrior statues strongly inspired by these Atlantean figures in Tula.
The Atlantean figures in Tula are hand-carved statues made from the available stone in the area: limestone, sandstone, and volcanic rock. To carve them, sculptors would have used stone tools, such as chisels for fine sculpting, scrapers of various sizes, and stone hammers. Additional smaller and softer stones were used for smoothing. The process of creating these figures would have been very time-consuming, which is an indication to the importance of these figures to its civilization.
Earliest example of Atlantes in Mesoamerica
At Potrero Nuevo near San Lorenzo, part of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, there is an altar supported by two Atlantean figures created by The Olmecs. It is believed to be the "oldest Mesoamerican example of the themes of atlantes holding up altars or ceilings" The atlantes at this site are also unique compared to those found at other sites. The atlantes are not carved in the round like they are at later sites, rather they are carved as a relief.
Toltec Atlantean figures from Tula
Tula has long been considered the capital for the Toltec people. At Tula one can find the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli ('House of the Morning Star' or 'The Temple of the Lord in the Dawn'), where there are four Atlantean figures standing over 15feet tall. The figures here are depicted as wearing "stylized butterfly breastplates, sun-shaped shields on their backs, feathered headdresses and carry spear throwers and a supply of spears".[3]
The exact dates for when Atlantean figures in Tula were carved is unknown. However, rough estimates can be made by dating the sites. The construction of the Toltec empire has been dated to approximately A.D. 750. [4] This dates mark the earliest time that the figures could have been carved.
Other sites
Mayan Atlantean figures from Chichen Itza
Built by the Maya people, Chichen Itza is a site located on the northern center of the Yucatan Peninsula and contains what is known as the Temple of Warriors. At the top of the temple, used as support for the roof, run columns of the carved warriors, each wearing a feathered headdress, a butterfly-shaped pectoral, and holding a dart thrower and darts. Like the Atlantean figures in Tula, the figures from Chichen Itza have not been dated exactly. The construction of Chichen Itza took place between A.D.100-250.
Aztec Atlantean figures from Tenochtitlan
Aztec sculptors built warrior sculptures with great resemblance to those created by the Toltecs. The Aztecs created some of these warrior statues in a group of five that resided in the Aztec capital. This group contained four male statues and one female statue. One bearded male warrior originally stood in the center of the group, while one male soldier stood North, East and South. The fifth sculpture, a female warrior, stood West. These warriors marked the center and four directions of the universe, and were meant to guard the sun.[5] The Aztec Atlantean figures have characteristics of a warrior. They hold spears and have clay nose bars which indicate military prowess. Like a Tula Atlantean figure, the typical Aztec Atlantean figure has a butterfly symbol on his chest. However, the typical Atlantean Aztec figure also has the butterfly symbol on his head. Aztec Atlantean figures are currently displayed at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.[6]
Toltec influence
Tula, the ancient Toltec capital, collapsed in the 12th century, before the Aztecs established their own city-states.[6] The Aztec people originally migrated from Aztlan across the central highlands before they reached the valley of Mexico, where they established Tenochtitlan. During their migration, they passed through the ruins of Tula.
The Aztecs regarded their predecessors, the Toltecs, as great warriors. The Toltecs conquered nearby peoples and then were paid tribute at Tula.[7] Similar to the Toltecs, the Aztecs utilized tribute-towns to pay maize and other goods to Tenochtitlan.[8] Toltecayotl, which translates in Nahuatl to "to have a Toltec heart", was a term that indicated greatness, displaying the Aztecs' reverence of the Toltecs. According to Richard Townsend,
"[Toltecayotl] was to excel, to be worthy, to possess extraordinary qualities in the manner of the ancients."[9]
Therefore, by imitating Toltec Atlantean figures, the Aztecs associated themselves with the fearless warriors of an ancient nation regarded as great and powerful.[10] The Atlantean figures of Tenochtitlan were not the only sculptures that showed resemblance to the sculpture of Tula. Aztec standard-bearer statues, seating figures with flagpoles, are very similar to those found in Tula. Furthermore, the Aztecs created chacmools, reclining figures used for rituals, based on those that they encountered in Tula.[6]
Continuity or disjunction?
Richard Townsend has said that "the Aztecs drew on ancient artistic themes to associate themselves with the great traditions of Mesoamerican antiquary."[11] In "State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan", Townsend explores whether Aztec sculpture maintains continuity with or diverges from sculpture of the past. Townsend:
"The Mexica formed an art that would help to integrate their realm ideologically, and that would simultaneously serve to affirm the Mexica as legitimate successors to the great nations of the past."[10]
Townsend explores the dichotomy between continuity and disjunction by comparing Aztec warrior figures to Toltec Atlantean figures. He argues the some Aztecs figures possess characteristics especially similar to those of the Atlanteans from Tula. For example, he identifies one figure whose body is more contained within a planar, monolithic space.[6] The expression is less defined and the carved lines are less vivid. According to Townsend, this figure displays continuity. Townsend then observes another Aztec Atlantean figure that to him represents disjunction. The figure shows influence of more common Mexica style. Townsend points out greater detail, bold lines, deeper relief, and swelling of the face.[6] By looking closely at specific Aztec Atlantean figures, Townsend proves that the Aztecs imitated Toltec Atlantean figures but also integrated their own style and traditions.
There is indication that Atlantean figures "express the rise of new kind of military order and associated types of behaviour ".[12] Between A.D. 850 and A.D. 900, archaeological evidence in the form of an increased number of emblems found throughout Mesoamerica support the idea that there was a "shift in leadership from the traditional one of paramount lord supported by lesser nobles (reflected in the radial stable networks and outlying elite complexes) to one that recast these supporting groups in the form of military orders".[13] Mesoamerican Atlantean figures are seen to be the representation of this shift in political thinking.
See also
Notes and References
1. Book: Evans, Susan. Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archaeology and Culture History. 2008. Thames & Hudson Ltd.. London. 42.
2. Book: Bernal, Ignacio. The Olmec World. registration. University of California Press. 1969. California. 58.
3. Web site: Tula . Ancient-Wisdom . 2 October 2011.
4. Web site: Chichen Itza . Sacred Sites . 29 September 2011.
5. Book: Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel. Handbook to Life in the Aztec world. 2006. Oxford University Press. 978-0816056736. Oxford. 202. 58468201.
6. Townsend. Richard Fraser. 1979. State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology. 20. 16. 41263442.
7. Book: Townsend, Richard . The Aztecs . 2009 . Thames & Hudson . 9780500287910 . 3rd . London . 49 . 286447216.
8. Book: Townsend, Richard . The Aztecs . 2009 . Thames & Hudson . 9780500287910 . 3rd . London . 216 . 286447216.
9. Book: Townsend, Richard . The Aztecs . 2009 . Thames & Hudson . 9780500287910 . 3rd . London . 44 . 286447216.
10. Townsend . Richard Fraser . 1979. State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology. 20. 15. 41263442 .
11. Book: Townsend, Richard . The Aztecs . 2009 . Thames & Hudson . 9780500287910 . 3rd . London . 46 . 286447216.
12. Book: Fash, William. The Art of Urbanism: How Mesoamerican Kingdoms Represented Themselves in Architecture and Imagery. 2009. Dumbarton Oak Publishing. USA. 371.
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How Flowers Marvelously Evolved Resilience
Blossoms contort and twist back into optimal pollination position after getting bumped and battered
Trigger plant
Delicate blossoms might get knocked down, but they get up again. Photo by Mick Stanic via Wikimedia Commons under CC BY 2.0
Plants and pollinators have evolved together to be specifically matched to each other’s needs. When Charles Darwin discovered an orchid with a nearly foot-deep well from its petals to its nectar, he theorized that there must be an insect to match. About 21 years later, the African hawkmoth was discovered with a foot-long, straw-like mouth called a proboscis. It wasn’t observed sipping from the orchid until 1992.
Coevolved pairs like these rely on each other. The animal gets food, and the plant gets pollinated. But many flowers, especially those with one line of symmetry like orchids, need to hold a particular position in order for pollinators to land safely. So, what happens if the flower gets knocked over? According to research published on April 6 in the journal New Phytologist, the fragile-looking plants bounce back, reorienting their blossoms back to the best pollinating position.
Certain flowers’ need for careful positioning is described in 200 years of botanical writing, ecologists Scott Armbruster and Nathan Muchhala write in their paper, but little attention has been paid to how flowers recover from accidents. What first caught Armbruster’s attention was a trigger plant, which normally stands vertically with flowers covering the stem facing outward, that had been knocked over by a fallen branch.
As Armbruster tells Brian Resnick at Vox, the plant didn’t give up—instead, Armbruster noticed, the healthy blossoms had begun to rotate back to their proper orientation, despite the state of their stem. The observation started a decade-long side project, artificially holding down the stems of 23 cultivated flower species from Australia, North America, South America and the United Kingdom, and tracking how the flowers recover.
"The common spotted orchid does it largely by just bending the main stem," Armbruster tells BBC News’s Matt McGrath. "It's pretty quick. Within a day or two, it's reoriented its main stem so that now all the flowers are in the right position.”
"The slightly more interesting ones were where each individual flower re-orients on its own, by the sub stem,” which branches off from the main stem to reach the blossom, Armbruster continues. “That's what you see with aconitum,” also known as wolf’s bane or monkshood.
The researchers tested three radially symmetrical flowers from Australia, called Clematis, Stackhousia, and Mandevilla, none of which reoriented to their original position when they were knocked over. But 95 percent of the bilaterally symmetrical flowers the ecologists studied were able to return to their original state, according to a statement.
To Vox, Armbruster clarifies that this doesn’t mean the flowers have “memory” of their initial state: “This is not fully known,” he says. Some plants also moved their leaves to better absorb sunlight.
“What I like most about this study is that they did very simple manipulations — just bending the flowers down,” Michigan State University evolutionary biologist Eric LoPresti, who was not involved in this study, tells Vox. “The simpler the manipulation is, the easier it is, often, to interpret.”
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System 176
System Report
System 176 is astrophysically very interesting. It consists of a close binary of white dwarfs surrounded by gas and dust ejected from the stars. this material has formed a disk close to the binary where new planets are beginning to form from it, clearing out their orbits to form ring-like gaps in the disk. The more massive white dwarf is the smaller, as we would expect from degenerate matter that is not supported by thermal pressure. Indeed, the more massive white dwarf has a mass of 1.43 solar masses which makes it one of the most massive white dwarfs known. It must be very close to its stable limit (the Chandrasekhar mass).
System 176 binary white dwarf
When the stars were still on the main sequence, the more massive of the two would have entered the red giant phase first, overflowing its Roche lobe and causing material to stream away from the older star onto its younger companion. This would have reduced the distance between the two stars in order to conserve angular momentum (since the flowing material would have been moving away from the system's center of mass). This reduction in separation would have further reduced the Roche lobe, accelerating the overflow and increasing the rate of mass transfer. This runaway positive feedback would have led to rapid transfer that would have been complete after just a few years. This would have been too rapid for the smaller companion to assimilate the material and the Roche lobes of both stars would have overflowed, resulting in a common envelope phase in which the two stellar cores orbited within a common atmospheric envelope. The core of the older star would at this point be a white dwarf essentially, orbiting within its now red giant companion.
The drag of the envelope on the stellar cores would have drained the orbital energy and the two stars would have approached one another even more closely. The system likely became a propeller system, propelling the envelope outwards. The younger star would then have been reduced to a red dwarf, orbiting close to its white dwarf companion. our models suggest that the red dwarf, overflowing its Roche lobe, transferred matter to its white dwarf companion. This time, in order to conserve angular momentum (since the material was now flowing towards the system's center of mass) the separation between the two stars would have increased until mass transfer ceased. The red dwarf would transition into a hot degenerate white dwarf due to the loss of material. The loss of mass would have led to its radius increasing and we propose that the lighter white dwarf in this system (with a mass of 0.6 solar masses) with the larger radius would be this red dwarf remnant and that the mass of the heavier white dwarf can be explained in part by the accretion of mass from its companion.
This raises several questions. Did the mode of accretion enable the more massive white dwarf to approach its Chandrasekhar limit without detonating in a supernova explosion? Models place the Chandrasekhar limit at around 0.44 solar masses, but this depends on the model and perhaps on the mode of formation.
The further loss of angular momentum from the binary, in the form of strong gravitational waves due to the intense gravitational fields and closeness of the two stars to one-another, is expected to result eventually in a white dwarf merger. The more massive white dwarf is so close to its limit of stability that it would likely detonate at this point in a type Ia supernova - a type of supernova which lacks hydrogen lines in its spectrum since the outer hydrogen-rich layers of both stars have already been ejected. This could destroy or expel planets beginning to form in the dust disk. Alternatively, however, the merger might transition into a more compact neutron star, preserving the surrounding planets. The fate of this system could be as little as a century away and probably no further than a few thousand years.
This rare system provides an excellent opportunity to refine our mathematical models of white dwarf physics, from predictions of the maximum mass, to equations of state, to atmospheric phenomena.
System 176 binary white dwarf
System 176 planetary nebula
Above: a remote view of system 176 taken at a distance of 2365 ly, showing the system as it appeared 2365 ly ago. The nebula of hot gas has been expelled, likely by the propeller action of the binary at its center. The nebula rapidly faded but some of the material remains as a central protoplanetary disk.
Release a probe to take measurements to refine current models of white dwarf physics and planet formation; leave the probe behind to carry out long-term observations over the coming decades before setting a course for a new target system.
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Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Transmission, Incybation Period, Risk Factors, Complications, Prevention
What is Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
This is a medical condition caused by a virus where the patient experiences a multitude of symptoms including hemorrhage (bleeding). Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever is caused by Flavivirus, a virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family.
What is Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
Why is it Named Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever was discovered in Omsk, Russia; hence its name.
What is the Cause of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
The cause of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever is a virus named Flavivirus that belongs to the Flaviviridae family.
Who are at Risk for Developing Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
• People living in areas where tick species and rodent reservoirs are prevalent.
• People having occupational or recreational exposure to outdoor/ rural outdoor settings. Examples include campers, hunters, farmers, forest workers etc. are at increased risk for coming in contact with infected ticks or other animals.
• People living in Omsk, Siberia who trap and hunt muskrats are especially at an increased risk for contracting the virus of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever.
How is Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever Transmitted?
Rodents are the chief carriers for Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever and the rodents get this virus when an infected tick bites them. Human beings get infected with this virus via tick bites or when they come in contact with the feces, blood or urine of a sick, infected or dead animal; primarily rodents. Transmission of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever can also occur without any direct exposure to rodent/tick and from other animals; or can also be passed to humans via milk of infected sheep goats. Some of the tick carriers are Dermacentor marginatus, Dermacentor reticulates and Ixodes persulcatus. Some of the rodent carriers are water vole, muskrat and narrow-skulled voles.
Can Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever Get Transmitted From One Person To Another?
Till now, there is no evidence of transmission of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever virus from one person to another. However, this infection has known to develop through lab contamination.
Incubation Period & Symptoms of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever
The incubation period of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever is about 3 to 8 days. The initial symptoms of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever consist of fever, chills, headache, intense pain in the muscles, a rash on the soft palate, swelling of the neck glands, conjunctival suffusion. Patient also has vomiting along with other gastrointestinal symptoms. Problems with bleeding or hemorrhage start to develop 3 to 4 days after the onset on the symptoms. Patient can further develop localized hemorrhage in mucosa of lungs, gums and uterus. Patients with Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever also can have extremely low blood pressure; and low red blood cell, platelet and white blood cell counts.
After 1 to 2 weeks of development of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever symptoms, patients can achieve recovery without suffering any complications. However, Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever is biphasic for patients who suffer from a second rush of symptoms at the start of the third week into Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever. These second set of symptoms of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever consist of encephalitis and fever. If the patient does not recover from these second symptoms, then death is likely to occur.
What is the Mortality Rate of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
The mortality rate of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever is low.
How is Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever Diagnosed?
The virus of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever can be microscopically detected in blood samples. Other than this, blood samples of the patient can also be tested for presence of antibody in ELISA test.
What is the Treatment of Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
As of now, there is no specific treatment for Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever; however, patient is given supportive therapy, such as intravenous fluids to maintain hydration, bed rest, blood transfusions if needed, antibiotic coverage to prevent secondary bacterial infection and other standard precautions for patients having bleeding disorders.
Are there any Complications after Recovering from Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever?
In rare cases, patients who have recovered from Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever can have hair loss, loss of hearing, and psychological or behavioral problems related to neurological conditions.
Can Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever be Prevented?
As of now, there is no vaccine for preventing Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever. However, there are vaccines for tick-borne encephalitis disease, which can provide some measure of immunity, especially to the high-risk individuals. Other than this, preventative steps include wearing protective clothing and using insect repellents in the high risk regions.
Also Read:
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Assignment: The Roaring Twenties
One of the central facets of the Roaring Twenties was Prohibition – the banning of alcohol. Read Percy Andreae, “A Glimpse Behind the Mask” and Richmond Hobson speech supporting Prohibition, then write a paragraph that addresses the following:
In a paragraph for each, answer the following:
• What did each person see as the motivation behind Prohibition?
• Can you think of a current issue that looks similar to Prohibition? Compare and contrast the current issue you picked with Prohibition. How are they similar, how are they different?
• Be prepared to discuss this in class.
CC Licensed content, original
• Authored by: Chris Thomas. Provided by: Reynolds Community College. LicenseCC BY: Attribution
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3D model illustrates how COVID-19 spreads indoors
A 3D model is helping to illustrate how COVID-19 can spread indoors.
The model was created by researchers in Finland, and was designed to represent a grocery store with shelving and ventilation.
Researchers say the model shows that when someone coughs, their particles can spread outside of the immediate area and can take several minutes to dilute.
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Renaissance and Reformation William Tell
Marc H. Lerner
• LAST MODIFIED: 28 October 2020
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195399301-0457
William Tell (Wilhelm, Guillaume) is the name of a legendary Swiss hero from Canton Uri in the present-day Swiss Confederation. From the first recorded appearances of Tell in the late 15th century until the Revolutionary Era of the late 18th century, the symbol of William Tell has been used in a variety of ways to shape the cultural mythology of Switzerland, Europe, and the Atlantic world. According to a variety of Swiss foundation myths, Tell stood up to tyranny in the late 13th or early 14th century and helped secure Swiss liberty by defeating (or helping to defeat) the tyrant known as Gessler. Most of the tales present Tell as a humble, virtuous citizen of the canton who refused to bow down to the arbitrary symbols of a tyrant’s authority. In reaction to Tell’s defiance, the tyrant forced Tell to shoot an apple off Tell’s son’s head, promising both father and son their freedom if Tell were successful. However, upon discovering a second arrow hidden on Tell’s person, which threatened the tyrant, Gessler tried to imprison Tell. A sudden storm, possibly divinely inspired, allowed Tell to escape the ship with his life and kill Gessler in revenge, while a Swiss uprising overthrew the tyrannical government. Differences in content and interpretation of the various Tell stories result from the answers to several questions: Did Tell plan and lead the revolt? Did he take part in the foundational oath at the Rütli Meadow, the mythical birthplace of the Swiss Republics? Did the revolt target local aristocrats or a foreign tyrant? Usually the Tell story broke into two camps: one supporting the elite leadership of the Swiss republics, and the other demanding more popular sovereignty. In this breakdown, Tell either acted in defense of his family against the foreign tyrant or sought to overthrow local, aristocratic rule, signaling a more popular rebellion. Eventually, these interpretations were easily expanded beyond Swiss boundaries and were used to support or challenge elite-led governments outside the Swiss Republics. During the Revolutionary Era, the figure of Tell evolved into a transnational proxy in an ongoing battle between those who saw true liberty as self-rule, free from the intervention of foreigners, and those who saw liberty as an egalitarian principle, available to the entire male citizenry.
General Overviews
A wide variety of works are available that offer a general introductory overview of the William Tell legend from the first recorded appearance of the story in historical chronicle, song, and play form from the late-15th- and early-16th-century songs and chronicles. De Capitani 2013 gives an introduction to the topic in the online Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz (HLS). Bergier 1988 (published in German in 1990) has a worthwhile bibliography reflecting the state of the field at the time and aims for a general audience. Labhardt 1947 gives a summary of the early development of the Tell legend before delving into the Swiss and French events of the Revolutionary Era. Morerod and Näf 2010, an edited volume, provides excerpts from some of the primary texts from 15th and 16th centuries, and contributions also provide historical analysis. Heinemann 1902, Stunzi 1973, and Heuser and Wirtz 2007 introduce the massive number of graphic representations of the Tell story. Lily Stunzi’s volume provides a more general overview as well. Kreis 2004 (cited under Historical Origins) provides essential context by providing background on a linked foundational tale about the Rütli Meadow. Marchal 1990 (cited under Historical Origins) gives essential context to understanding the period in which the Tell stories were first written down. Blatter and Groebner 2016 includes a wide-ranging introduction to the topic, which is informed by the latest research and is quite accessible to the general reader. Berchtold 2004 gives a 19th- and 20th-century overview. Tschan 2000 is also a useful introduction.
• Berchtold, Alfred. Guillaume Tell: Résistant et Citoyen du Monde. Geneva, Switzerland: Editions Zoé, 2004.
Berchtold has a short introduction of the Tell legend before Friedrich Schiller but focuses most of his attention on how Schiller’s version changed the uses of William Tell and how later versions of the story evolved.
• Bergier, Jean-François. Guillaume Tell. Paris: Fayard, 1988.
This “biography” of William Tell is about the memory of a hero, whose actual existence cannot be verified. Bergier attempts to discuss the context from which the William Tell stories arise. There are three parts: the context of the origins of the Tell story, the testing of the legend, and the transformation of Tell. Bergier allows for the possibility of Tell having existed, though not in the same form as the retellings of the tale.
• Blatter, Michael, and Valentin Groebner. Wilhelm Tell Import-Export: Ein Held unterwegs. Baden, Switzerland: Hier und Jetzt, 2016.
This accessible book, based on recent research, provides historical background and discusses the chronicles’ development in their own political context, the different versions of the tale in content and medium (chronicles, songs, plays), and the international spread of the story over time.
• De Capitani, François. “Wilhelm Tell.” In Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz. Bern, Switzerland: HLS, 2013.
The introductory entry in the premier online historical dictionary of Swiss history, written by qualified experts. De Capitani was a leading commentator on early modern Swiss cultural history and popular symbols. He covers the historical origins of the tale, the evolving cultural representation of the hero, the international spread, and the critical response to the stories.
• Heinemann, Franz. Tell-Iconographie: Wilhelm Tell und sein Apfelschuss im Lichte der Bildenden Kunst eines halben Jahrtausends (15.–20. Jahrhundert). Lucerne, Switzerland: Geschwister Daleschal’s Buchhandlung, 1902.
Introduction of the iconography side of Tell research. An older book, but covers much of the early iconography and symbolic importance of the William Tell image and character.
• Heuser, Mechthild, and Irmgard M. Wirtz, eds. Tell im Visier. Bern, Switzerland: Verlag Scheidegger & Spiess, 2007.
Catalogue of an exhibition held at the Schweizerische Nationalbibliothek, Bern, 16 November 2007–30 March 2008.
• Labhardt, Ricco. Wilhelm Tell als Patriot und Revolutionär 1700–1800: Wandlungen der Tell-Tradition im Zeitalter des Absolutismus and der französischen Revolution. Basler Beiträge zur Geschichtswissenschaft 27. Basel, Switzerland: Verlag von Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 1947.
Labhardt provides background on the first recordings of the Tell legend in song and chronicle form. He traces these recordings through the 17th century before focusing on the 18th century in Switzerland and France. It is an in-depth work, which includes important details on the spread of Tell to France and the expansion and high point of the Tell cult in the French Revolutionary arena, but it does not go beyond Switzerland and France.
• Morerod, Jean-Daniel, and Anton Näf, eds. Guillaume Tell et la libération des Suisses. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Société d’Histoire de la Suisse Romande, 2010.
This is an explicit attempt to bring the Tell discussion to the French-speaking public. It provides an overview of the early Swiss liberation stories from 1420 to 1525 and provides excerpts of sixteen of the texts of the liberation stories. The editors see a narrow version of the Liberation myth that does not involve Tell and a later, inclusive version that includes the figure of William Tell.
• Stunzi, Lily, ed. Tell: Werden und Wandern eines Mythos. Bern, Switzerland, and Stuttgart: Hallwag Verlag, 1973.
Broad-ranging and accessible introduction to many different aspects of Tell scholarship: the debate over origins, the international spread of the tale in the 18th century, and a presentation of many images of Tell in all of his varieties. This was an outgrowth of a Du magazine issue from August 1971 (see Stunzi 1971, cited under Global Turn).
• Tschan, Reto. “The Re-Appropriation and Transformation of a National Symbol: Wilhelm Tell 1789-1895.” Masters Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2000.
Tschan's work is a useful general introduction and specifically useful for Schiller's relationship with Müller and the initial, uneven reception of Schiller's Tell in Switzerland.
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Concepts II - Pannatti
The Atthasalini uses different synonyms for nama pannatti (concepts that are names). It is an interpretation, an expression that renders the meaning of something in language (nirutti). A name is a distinctive sign that shows the meaning of something (vyancana). There are sounds which people utter, letters combined as words which express the meaning of something (abhilapa). These synonyms explain the meaning of nama pannatti, a name or term. A term makes the meaning of something known. The idea or notion that is made known can also be called a concept. Thus, there are, generally speaking, two kinds of pannatti:
1. That which is made known (pannapiyatta or atthapannatti).
2. That which makes known (pannapanato), the name or term (sadda pannatti or namapannatti) which makes known the meaning of things. If we remember these two classes of concepts it will be easier to understand what a concept is. There are many kinds of concepts and they can be classified in different ways. One way of classifying them is the following (see Abhidhammattha Sangaha Ch. VIII, section 4, on pannattis):
i) concept of continuity: (santana pannatti), corresponding to the continuity of things, such as land, mountain or tree, which concept is based on the rapid succession of the elements.
ii) collective concept: (samuha pannatti), corresponding to modes of construction of materials, to a collection of things, such as a vehicle or a chariot.
iii) conventional concept: (sammutti pannatti), such as person or individual, which is derived from the five khandhas.
iv) local concept: (disa pannatti), a notion or idea derived from the revolving of the moon, such as the directions of east or west.
v) concept of time: (kala pannatti), such as morning, evening.
vi) concept of season: (masa pannatti), notions corresponding to seasons and months. The months are designated by names, such as Vesakha.
vii) concept of space: (akasa), such as a well or a cave. It is derived from space that is not contacted by the four Great Elements.
viii) nimitta pannatti: the mental image which is acquired through the development of samatha, such as the nimitta of a kasina.
We read in the Abhidhammattha Sangaha:
All such different things, although they do not exist in the ultimate sense,
become objects of thought in the form of shadows of ultimate things.
They are called pannatti
because they are thought of, reckoned, understood, expressed,
and made known on account of, in consideration of,
and with respect to, this or that mode.
This 'pannatti' is so called because it is made known.
As it makes known, it is called 'pannatti'.
It is described as 'name', 'name-made', etc.
Topic 289
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An Inside View on a topic involves making predictions based on your understanding of the details of the process. An Outside View involves ignoring these details and using an estimate based on a class of roughly similar previous cases (alternatively, this is called reference class forecasting), though it has been pointed out that the possible meaning has expanded beyond that.
For example, someone working on a project may estimate that they can reasonably get 20% of it done per day, so they will get it done in five days (inside view). Or they might consider that all of their previous projects were completed just before the deadline, so since the deadline for this project is in 30 days, that's when it will get done (outside view).
The terms were originally developed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. An early use is in Timid Choices and Bold Forecasts: A Cognitive Perspective on Risk Taking (Kahneman & Lovallo, 1993) and the terms were popularised in Thinking, Fast and Slow (Kahneman, 2011; relevant excerpt). The planning example is discussed in The Planning Fallacy...
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John Mattingly: Socratic Rancher 2-4-13 |
John Mattingly: Socratic Rancher 2-4-13
During the great buffalo slaughter of the 1800s, tens of millions of buffalo were massacred at an astounding rate, often as many as 250-300 head per day by a single buffalo hunter, whose primary economic motivation was the hides. This resulted in a brisk trade in buffalo hides — in the tens of tons per day — moving back East. Most people know about the buffalo hide trade, but few know the somewhat startling extent of the trade that developed in buffalo bones.
The buffalo bone trade of the 1870s and 1880s in the U.S. generated revenues equal to that of a large, modern-day corporation. In Buffalo Bone Days (M.I. McCreight, Nupp Printing CO., 1939) described as a “short history of the buffalo trade,” claims that at least two million tons of buffalo bones were shipped out of Kansas Territory alone in the three years 1883-1885 with a value of over $40 million, fob St. Louis Carbon Works.
The Great Plains were home to an estimated peak population of 100 million buffalo. Colonel R.I. Dodge wrote that he witnessed “herds 25 miles in width and of equal or far greater length,” an obvious problem for the new railroads and homesteaders in an unfenced West. When the slaughter was over, the Kansas Territory became “a wilderness of whitened skeletons.”
Enterprising bone pickers made a fortune. There are photos of bone piles as large as three football fields and 30- to 40-feet high that were moved East by railcar and barge. In an ironic twist, tribes were hired to gather bones for $2 a ton. Buffalo bones then sold for a low of $8 and a high of $18 a ton between 1868 and 1881. Buffalo were slaughtered from the Canadian border to south Texas. The value and volume of bones removed from the West is staggering.
An estimated 112 million tons of buffalo bones were shipped from the Great Plains to fertilizer processing plants in the East during the heydays of the buffalo bone trade with an estimated grand value of over a billion dollars, which, in those days, was on the scale of the captains of industry. It is somewhat astounding that this slice of history has been overlooked by historians.
Perhaps more pertinent, is that the buffalo bones removed from the Great Plains of the U.S. also removed a lot of phosphorus, a critical element for plant growth that is already scarce in the parent material of the soils of the Great Plains. The buffalo bones were shipped mostly to St. Louis, Philadelphia, and New York and processed into bonemeal fertilizer, which is a balance of calcium and phosphorus.
To make an educated guess as to how much phosphorus was removed, we know that 85 percent of the phosphorus in a buffalo is in the bones and teeth, so most of the phosphorus left with the bones. The bones themselves are 12-15 percent phosphorus, so from the estimated 112 million tons of bones, about 1.5 million tons of phosphorus were shipped from West to East. In today’s market, that would have a value of nearly $300 million and would fertilizer about 120 million acres.
It isn’t a stretch to conclude that the great buffalo slaughter, followed by the export of the buffalo bones, contributed to the chronic phosphorus deficiency in the arid West. ❖
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Oracle Bones: the Most Ancient Writing
Oracle bones inscriptions were some of the earliest forms of Chinese writing. Ancient Chinese characters were carved onto animal bones or tortoise shells before the advent of paper and ink writing systems. Oracle bones were generally used for religious purposes, such as spiritual divination, or for record keeping.
Oracle bone inscriptions date to the Shang Dynasty (1300 – 1046 B.C.). Little is known about this early period aside from what has been gleaned from bone inscriptions. In fact, some scholars even debated whether the Shang Dynasty had existed at all until bone inscriptions were found with Shang Dynasty ancestral records carved onto them, proving its existence. So, oracle bones have been extremely important in learning about this ancient era.
Wang Yirong was the first scholar to discover oracle bone inscriptions in 1899, although farmers had been unearthing them for decades prior. Before that time, inscribed bones were said to have healing powers and were bought and sold in traditional markets as “dragon bones”. They were crushed or powdered and used as oral treatment for ailments like malaria, which is how Wang Yirong came to find them at the turn of the century.
He was being treated for a severe case of malaria when he realized that some of his medicines were actually inscribed bones. As the first person to recognize the value in these bones, Wang is credited for their discovery.
To create the inscriptions, bones or shells were first cleaned, and then scraped and polished until smooth. Since most of the bones were used for divination purposes, the inscription process was part of a special ceremony that was performed at the request of the Shang rulers.
First, the bones were heated and then inscribed by carving relevant information, such as the date, diviner’s name, and the topics, which were usually related to calls for healing. Once heated, the bones cracked and the diviner interpreted the number, location and shape of the cracks. After the ceremony, the inscribed bones were thrown together into large pits and buried, where they were preserved for centuries until unearthing.
The rulers of the Shang Dynasty were very superstitious, so divination was a normal part of everyday life at that time. Hence, thousands or possibly millions of oracle bones were created and buried. It is probable that many of these bones perished as crushed medicines in the stomachs sick people before the turn of the century. Thankfully, this unfortunate loss has not deterred us from learning more about the elusive Shang Dynasty from the bones that have been found.
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What Does The Die is Cast Mean?
The Die is Cast Meaning
Definition: The act is done; the action is irreversible.
People often use this expression to emphasize that what is done is done, and nothing can change what has already started.
Origin of The Die is Cast
This expression became popular from its Latin form, Alea iacta est. A Roman historian, Suetonius, attributed this quote to Julius Caesar in the year 49 B.C.
According to Suetonius, Caesar said this sentence as he entered Italy with his army. As a result of the invasion, he stated a civil war.
When he said the die is cast, he meant that it was too late to stop the war from beginning at that point. He had already disobeyed orders, and he must win the war if he wanted to keep his life.
Nowadays, people use it as a synonym for past the point of no return.
Examples of The Die is Cast
the die is cast meaning Here is an example of two family members using the expression while at home.
Grandmother: Our Thanksgiving meal is almost finished!
Granddaughter: You didn’t make turkey, did you? Didn’t you remember that I’m allergic to turkey?
Grandmother: You’re not allergic to turkey. You just don’t like the taste. Anyway, if you wanted something different, you should have told me earlier or helped prepare something different. Dinner is in five minutes, so the die has been cast. There’s no way to change the meal now.
when the die is cast The second dialogue shows a daughter explaining why she thinks her entire life is doomed.
Father: Why are you upset?
Daughter: I failed my biology test. Now I can never be a doctor.
Father: It’s just one bad grade. You got A’s on all your other tests and assignments. This grade should have a small or completely insignificant impact on your ability to get into a good university and eventually become a doctor.
Daughter: No, I made the decision to get more sleep and study less, and this is the result. The die is cast. Nothing can change the outcome of my poor decision.
More Examples
This excerpt is about a public-private partnership.
• For Detroit, the die is cast. As a result of its Chapter 9 filing, the Motor City will have to sell some of its non-core assets to cover $18 billion in liabilities. –Reuter
This excerpt is about a baseball player who hasn’t had much luck.
• Maybe a contender will lose an outfielder to injury this month and liberate Bruce, via a waivers trade, from meaningless September games at Citi Field. Regardless, the die is cast for him, his strong 2017 performance notwithstanding, when he hits the open market this winter. –New York Post
The phrase the die is cast means events are already in motion and cannot be stopped.
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Today’s Wonder of the Day was inspired by rebekah. rebekah Wonders, “who invented the revolving door” Thanks for WONDERing with us, rebekah!
The wheels on the bus aren’t the only things that go around and around! The doors to some buildings do the same thing. What are we talking about? Revolving doors, of course!
Chances are you’ve been through a few revolving doors in your lifetime. They’re very common in large buildings and other places with a lot of foot traffic. You may have seen them at an office building or a shopping mall.
We’ll even bet that the first time you used a revolving door you went around a couple of times before passing into or out of the building. Didn’t you? Admit it!
And why not? Revolving doors are different and kind of fun. Would you like to have a revolving door in your house? What about your school?
Revolving doors consist of three or four doors called wings or leaves. They are spaced an equal distance from each other around a center shaft. They rotate in a circle inside of a cylinder. The cylinder can be small, with just enough space for one person between wings, or it can be large enough to allow several people or even strollers or luggage racks to fit between wings.
The revolving door was invented in 1888. Its creator was Theophilus van Kannel from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. An old urban legend holds that revolving doors were invented to prevent horses from entering buildings. Although that’s funny, it’s not true.
Revolving doors were invented because they have many advantages over traditional hinged doors. For example, revolving doors are more energy efficient than regular doors. When you open a regular door, a large amount of air can escape. Revolving doors limit the amount of air that escapes as the wings rotate through the cylinder. In this way, drafts are reduced. That minimizes heating and cooling costs.
Revolving doors also allow more people to enter and exit buildings faster. Using a revolving door, people can enter and exit a building at the same time. Regular doors force one person to wait while the other passes through.
Have you ever used a revolving door? If you could have one in your home, would you? They certainly have many benefits. What other interesting doors would you like to know about?
Wonder What's Next?
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This is on display in the Louvre, Paris. As the foremost sculptor of the period, Bernini was a prominent figure in the Baroque style of sculpture. In 1640, Bernini received a commission to produce a full-size statue of the Cardinal de Richelieu, Louis XIII's chief minister.
In commissioning the figure, the cardinal needed to have the agreement of not just Bernini but also his select patrons. Bernini's patrons were Cardinal Antonio Barberini and his uncle, Pope Urban VIII. The Pope expressed a lack of enthusiasm for a full-size statue. As a result, Bernini suggested instead that he work on a bust of Cardinal Richelieu. In the end, work on a full-sized statue did not happen.
Bernini began work on the life-size bust in November 1640 and completed it in January 1641. Produced in Marble, the bust shows the cardinal as a prelate, displaying the Order of the Saint-Esprit. Bernini has provided the figure with a suitably grave and noble air that befits the cardinal's role.
Rather than travel to France, he undertook the work in Rome. In producing the bust, he did not have the benefit of Cardinal Richelieu sitting for him. Instead, Bernini worked from images sent to him from France. One of those pictures used for the sculpture may have been the Triple Portrait of Cardinal de Richelieu by Philippe de Champaigne. In August 1641, the completed work arrived back in Paris. While there was praise for Bernini and his work, the bust may not have been as well-liked as thought. This may account for why Richelieu had the French sculptor, Jean Warin create another bust.
By the end of the 1600s, the whereabouts of the bust were unknown. It remained this way until 1786 when the bust again resurfaced. Records show that it was, at that time, listed as being at Notre-Dame. Despite its listing, there was no name for the creator of the work. It was seven years later when the sculpture reappeared in the Musée des Monuments Français. The listings for the sculpture showed it as being one by Coysevox. It wasn't until 1910 when research re-established that the bust was by the sculptor, Bernini.
The Bust of Cardinal Richelieu is modelled in the Baroque style. The baroque style of sculpture takes its inspiration from the statues of ancient Rome. Bernini was a leading figure in sculptures of this style. As a result of the patronage of Pope Urban VIII, Bernini produced a series of notable statues for the Vatican. In line with the baroque style, his works show faces and gestures that strongly express their emotions. Many consider his works to be exceptionally realistic and highly decorative.
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Methuen Agreement
Treaty of Methuen (1703), an agreement between Portugal (represented by the Marquess of Alegrete) and Great Britain (represented by John Methuen), which formalized the existing trade patterns between the two countries and laid the foundations for Portugal`s economic dependence on Britain for the rest of the 18th century. On 27 December 1703, Portugal agreed to buy British wheat, textiles and manufactured goods for preferential tariffs on Portuguese products such as olive oil and wine. The Treaty of Methuen between England and Portugal, signed in 1703, was a military and trade agreement born of the continuation of the Spanish War of Succession. Three essential elements were entrusted to the Methuen Treaties. The first was the construction of the war goals of the Great Alliance. Second, the agreement meant that Spain would become a new theatre of war. Finally, it regulated the establishment of trade relations, particularly between England and Portugal. The contract provided that Portuguese wines (but see below), exported to England, may not be subject to a tax greater than the tax for an equal amount of French wines (see below) exported to England and that no English textile exported to Portugal is collected regardless of the geopolitical situation in each of the two nations (to ensure that England would accept Portuguese wine at a time when it is not at war with France). The Treaty of Methuen (1703) with England had strengthened the trade in port at the expense of the Portuguese rag; Subsequently, further attempts were made to improve the value of port exports. He was also helped in the manufacture of wool, linen, paper, porcelain and cutlery… The results of the agreement have been mixed.
On the negative side, the country would not develop its industrial infrastructure (and it could therefore be said that it has lost the industrial race) [citation necessary] and other types of agricultural products, but this is debatable [by whom?], since this period saw the emergence of other industries in Portugal [citation necessary], such as the production of porcelain. Some of the factories that appeared in this time still exist. Your email address will not be published. The Treaty of Methuen was a military and trade agreement between England and Portugal, signed in 1703 as part of the Spanish War of Succession. Are you interested in being a guest blogger or SWE host? Click here for more information! In accordance with the provisions of the treaty, the application for the English language would be admitted duty-free in Portugal.
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The History of Bogota, Colombia
aerial view of Bogota
GlobalVision Communication/GlobalVision 360/Getty Images
Santa Fe de Bogotá is the capital of Colombia. The city was founded by the Muisca people long before the arrival of the Spanish, who established their own city there. An important city during the colonial era, it was the seat of the Viceroy of New Granada. After independence, Bogota was the capital of first the Republic of New Granada and then Colombia. The city has occupied a central place in Colombia's long and turbulent history.
The Pre-Colombian Era
Before the arrival of the Spanish into the region, the Muisca people lived on the plateau where modern-day Bogotá is located. The Muisca capital was a prosperous town called Muequetá. From there, the King, referred to as the zipa, ruled the Muisca civilization in an uneasy alliance with the zaque, ruler of a nearby city on the site of present-day Tunja. The zaque was nominally subordinate to the zipa, but in fact the two rulers often clashed. At the time of the arrival of the Spanish in 1537 in the form of the Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada expedition, the zipa of Muequetá was named Bogotá and the zaque was Tunja: both men would give their names to the cities the Spanish founded on the ruins of their homes.
The Conquest of the Muisca
Quesada, who had been exploring overland from Santa Marta since 1536, arrived in January of 1537 at the head of 166 conquistadors. The invaders were able to take the zaque Tunja by surprise and easily made off with the treasures of that half of the kingdom of the Muisca. Zipa Bogotá proved more troublesome. The Muisca chief fought the Spanish for months, never accepting any of Quesada's offers to surrender. When Bogotá was killed in battle by a Spanish crossbow, the conquest of the Muisca was not long in coming. Quesada founded the city of Santa Fé on the ruins of Muequetá on August 6, 1538.
Bogotá in the Colonial Era
For a number of reasons, Bogotá quickly became an important city in the region, which the Spanish referred to as New Granada. There was already some infrastructure in the city and plateau, the climate agreed with the Spanish and there were plenty of natives who could be forced to do all the work. On April 7, 1550, the city became a "Real Audiencia," or "Royal Audience:" this means that it became an official outpost of the Spanish Empire and citizens could resolve legal disputes there. In 1553 the city became home to its first Archbishop. In 1717, New Granada - and Bogotá in particular - had grown enough that it was named a Viceroyalty, putting it on a par with Peru and Mexico. This was a big deal, as the Viceroy acted with all of the authority of the King himself and could make very important decisions alone without consulting Spain.
Independence and the Patria Boba
On July 20, 1810, patriots in Bogotá declared their independence by taking to the streets and demanding the Viceroy step down. This date is still celebrated as Colombia's Independence Day. For the next five years or so, Creole patriots fought mainly among themselves, giving the era its nickname "Patria Boba," or "Foolish Homeland." Bogotá was retaken by the Spanish and a new Viceroy was installed, who initiated a reign of terror, tracking down and executing suspected patriots. Among them was Policarpa Salavarrieta, a young woman who passed information to the patriots. She was captured and executed in Bogotá in November 1817. Bogotá remained in Spanish hands until 1819, when Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander liberated the city following the decisive Battle of Boyacá.
Bolivar and Gran Colombia
Following liberation in 1819, creoles set up a government for the "Republic of Colombia." It would later be known as "Gran Colombia" to distinguish it politically from present-day Colombia. The capital moved from Angostura to Cúcuta and, in 1821, to Bogotá. The nation included present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Panama and Ecuador. The nation was unwieldy, however: geographical obstacles made communication extremely difficult and by 1825 the republic began to fall apart. In 1828, Bolívar narrowly escaped an assassination attempt in Bogotá: Santander himself was implicated. Venezuela and Ecuador separated from Colombia. In 1830, Antonio José de Sucre and Simón Bolívar, the only two men who might have saved the republic, both died, essentially putting an end to Gran Colombia.
Republic of New Granada
Bogotá became the capital of the Republic of New Granada, and Santander became its first president. The young republic was plagued by a number of serious problems. Due to the wars of independence and failure of Gran Colombia, the Republic of New Granada began its life deep in debt. Unemployment was high and a major bank crash in 1841 only made things worse. Civil strife was common: in 1833 the government was nearly toppled by a rebellion led by General José Sardá. In 1840 an all-out civil war broke out when General José María Obando tried to take over the government. Not all was bad: the people of Bogotá began printing books and newspapers with materials produced locally, the first Daguerreotypes in Bogotá were taken and a law unifying the currency used in the nation helped end confusion and uncertainty.
The Thousand Days' War
Colombia was torn apart by a Civil War referred to as the "Thousand Days' War" from 1899 to 1902. The war pitted liberals, who felt they had unfairly lost an election, against conservatives. During the war, Bogotá was firmly in the hands of the conservative government and although the fighting got close, Bogotá itself did not see any strife. Still, the people suffered as the country was in tatters after the war.
The Bogotazo and La Violencia
On April 9, 1948, presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán was gunned down outside of his office in Bogotá. The people of Bogotá, many of whom had seen him as a savior, went berserk, kicking off one of the worst riots in history. The "Bogotazo," as it is known, lasted into the night, and government buildings, schools, churches, and businesses were destroyed. Some 3,000 people were killed. Informal markets sprung up outside of town where people bought and sold stolen items. When the dust had finally settled, the city was in ruins. The Bogotazo is also the informal beginning of the period known as "La Violencia," a ten-year reign of terror which saw paramilitary organizations sponsored by political parties and ideologies take to the streets at night, murdering and torturing their rivals.
Bogotá and the Drug Lords
During the 1970s and 1980s, Colombia was plagued by the twin evils of drug trafficking and revolutionaries. In Medellín, legendary drug lord Pablo Escobar was by far the most powerful man in the country, running a billion-dollar industry. He had rivals in the Cali Cartel, however, and Bogotá was often the battleground as these cartels fought the government, the press and one another. In Bogotá, journalists, policemen, politicians, judges, and ordinary citizens were murdered on a nearly daily basis. Among the dead in Bogotá: Rodrigo Lara Bonilla, Minister of Justice (April 1984), Hernando Baquero Borda, Supreme Court Judge (August 1986) and Guillermo Cano, journalist (December 1986).
The M-19 Attacks
The 19th of April Movement, known as the M-19, was a Colombian socialist revolutionary movement determined to overthrow the Colombian government. They were responsible for two infamous attacks in Bogotá in the 1980s. On February 27, 1980, the M-19 stormed the Embassy of the Dominican Republic, where a cocktail party was being held. Among those in attendance was the Ambassador of the United States. They held the diplomats hostage for 61 days before the standoff was settled. On November 6, 1985, 35 rebels of the M-19 assaulted the Palace of Justice, taking 300 hostages including judges, lawyers and others who worked there. The government decided to storm the palace: in a bloody shootout, more than 100 people were killed, including 11 of 21 Supreme Court Justices. The M-19 eventually disarmed and became a political party.
Bogotá Today
Today, Bogotá is a large, bustling, thriving city. Although it still suffers from many ills such as crime, it is much safer than in recent history: traffic is probably a worse daily problem for many of the city's seven million inhabitants. The city is a great place to visit, as it has a little of everything: shopping, fine dining, adventure sports and more. History buffs will want to check out the July 20 Independence Museum and Colombia's National Museum.
• Bushnell, David. The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself. University of California Press, 1993.
• Santos Molano, Enrique. Colombia día a día: una cronología de 15,000 años. Bogota: Planeta, 2009.
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Your Citation
Minster, Christopher. "The History of Bogota, Colombia." ThoughtCo, Feb. 16, 2021, Minster, Christopher. (2021, February 16). The History of Bogota, Colombia. Retrieved from Minster, Christopher. "The History of Bogota, Colombia." ThoughtCo. (accessed October 18, 2021).
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Introduction to Oracle
Introduction to Oracle
In this article, I am going to give you a brief introduction to Oracle. Please read our previous article where we discussed Client-Server (Database Server) Technology.
Introduction to Oracle:
Oracle is a DataBase software / DB Tool / Backend Tool / RDBMS (O RDBMS) product from “Oracle corporation” in 1979 which is used to store data (or) information permanently i.e. in hard disk along with security.
Oracle is a platform-independent RDBMS product. It means it can be deployed (install) in any OS like Windows, Linux, Unix, Mac, etc.
It is a combination of an operating system and microprocessor. These are again classified into two types.
1. Platform Independent: It supports any OS with the combination of any microprocessor. Example: Oracle, MySQL, Java, .net, etc.
2. Platform Dependent: It supports only one OS with the combination of any microprocessor. Example: C – language.
Versions of Oracle:
In 1977 Larry Ellison, Bob Miner, Ed Oates started the consultancy Software Development Lab that is called Relational Software Inc. (RSI). Later after few years, it was renamed “Oracle Corporation”. In 1977 as they started, they release different versions and the first version of the oracle did not come with the 1.0 then it came with the 2.0 that is the 1st version of the oracle database came in June 1979 after 2 years of establishment of the RSI, after that 3.0 came into the market in march 1983, then 4.0 in Oct 1985 and so on are given in below chart.
1979Oracle 1.0Not Public released
1980Oracle 2.0First Public released,
Basic SQL functionalities.
1982Oracle 3.0First Portable DB.
1984Oracle 4.0Introduced read consistency.
1986Oracle 5.0Introduced client-server architecture.
1988Oracle 6.0Introduced PL/SQL
1992Oracle 7.0Integrity Constraints introduced,
Varchar data type changed into Varchar2, Stored procedures, functions, and triggers
1997Oracle 8.0Object-Oriented Features, Table partitioning, Instead Triggers
1998Oracle 8i(Internet)Rollup, cube methods, Columns increased per table up to 1000
2001Oracle 9iRenaming Column, ANSI Joins
2004Oracle 10g(grid technologies)Introduced Admin side operations, flashback query, Indicate of clauses, regular expressions
2007Oracle 11gRead-only tables, virtual tables, integer data type, using sequence, enables and disables triggers.
(Cloud technology)
Truncate table cascade, multiple indexes, Invisible column, sequence session, new auto-increment by using Identity.
2018Oracle18cPolymorphic Table Functions, Active Directory Integration
2019Oracle19cActive Data Guard DML Redirection, Automatic Index Creation, SQL Queries on Object Stores
Oracle Corporation Products:
Oracle is one of the largest software company in the world. Most of us use oracle products every day whether knowingly or unknowingly. It is most commonly known as the company providing database solutions through its customized software and other DBMS product solutions but the scope of Oracle is not limited to that field only. Oracle is one of the most influential companies on the planet, it was the 3rd largest software company in terms of revenue in the year 2018, coming just after Microsoft and Alphabet-the parent company of Google.
Oracle was started in 1977 but the Larry Ellison, the famous entrepreneur along with Edward Oates and Robert Nimrod –at that time the name of the company was software development laboratories after further changes in the name the company finally changes its name to oracle corporation in 1995. The initial inspiration for the company came when Larry Ellison, the inspiration from a paper written by Edgar F Codd in 1970 on relational database management systems. The paper was entitled a relational model of data for large shared databases. Allison also heard about the IBM system is the database from an article in the IBM research general provided by olds at that time Allison wanted to make a system from the oracle that would be compatible with the IBM system R but he was not successful in that attempt because IBM kept the error codes of their DBMS as a secret. On 12th March 1986, the company had its initial public offering was a hugely successful IPO but it was overshadowed by the IPO of the Microsoft Corporation on the next day, one of the key factors in oracle’s got success was the use of C language in the implementation of the Oracle product. Most of the operating systems support C, this helped the company as the core team of the products of the company was easy between different operating systems at the time of a starting of oracle many experts believe that the RDBMS was not that useful and the system was to week that seriously considered. However, as it is common in the tech world the experts proved wrong by Larry Ellison and his company.
Oracle’s RDBMS-based system soon dominated the market and oracle was set a long ride to success that continues to this day. After the initial release of the first commercial SQL DBMS, the oracle has never looked back and has diversified into a much wider range of products and services.
At first, we will take a look at the different kinds of the product and the services it offers. These include the design manufacturing and sales of both software and hardware products. It offers complimentary services alongside its products such as financing consulting costing and training services.
The most famous of all oracle products are the oracle database with the most important being the oracle database its range of database also includes the Berkeley Devi, oracle rdb times 10, oracle Essbase, MySQL and the oracle no sequel database and its other types of software products include the middle wave which is the software that runs between the applications and the operating system on the computer.
it also offers oracle secure enterprise search and the oracle behave which is a type of collaborative software providing teamwork places besides these oracle has a number of other applications for social engagement and monitoring system enterprise management software for development purposes and so on, it’s NetBeans is well known are well known as a Java-based development platform its product also includes a file management system is known as ZFS it combines file system and logical volume management functionality and this might be an unknown fact for many but oracle also develops and supports two operating systems are known as the Oracle Solaris and the oracle Linux, java one of the most popular computer programming is supported and developed by oracle it was initially developed by James Gosling at the Sun Microsystems which was later on acquired by oracle.
Besides all these software products oracle has one range of hardware products as well, for example, the oracle T-series server and M-series mainframe computers which were developed and released after the acquisition of Sun Microsystems the pre engineer are preassembled hardware-software bundles for enterprise use are well known in the industry these include Exadata database machine the x illogical cloud the exa Latics in-memory machine oracle database appliance and big data plants on the service side of the things oracle offers most importantly the oracle cloud services which focused on basically 3 types of services which are known as software as a service platform as a service and infrastructure as a service it has to develop and maintains a wide variety of applications for its cloud infrastructure to provide these kinds of services, it also offers services like oracle consulting which provides technical and business advisory services. Oracle financing oracle support which includes product updates and configuration management and oracle certification program the next suet social program is a program of oracle that assists the non-profit’s with moving their operations to the oracle cloud it expanded to include product donation and online community building on October 2018.
Since it’s starting oracle has expanded to include many products through development by itself or by acquiring the other companies and then further developing the products they acquired the most notable was that of the Sun Microsystems valued at 7 billion US Dollars at the time which were completed on 27 January 2010 the acquisition of the Sun Microsystems transformed oracle from a sole software company to a company that provides both the hardware and the software it has faced many competitors on its journey and has dealt with many lawsuits the most recent one being that one with the Google but it has always come out of the difficulties and has continued on its path as mentioned earlier it was a third largest software maker in the year 2018 one of the key factors to success is leadership Larry Ellison the co-founder of oracle and who is now the executive chairman and the CTO of oracle has been providing great leadership to the company since its humble beginnings with the RDBMS that no one believed in yet the company defied the expert opinions and achieved the status that it now enjoys Larry Ellison is a tech hero not just for oracle and the silicon valley but he is known as a great entrepreneur throughout the world oracle enjoys a wide range of influence on our society and is one of the most recognizable brands on the planet.
SQL (Structured Query Language):
Data is all around us, we use to store data on paper in big filing cabinets but eventually, we store them online in what we call databases. How do we easily pull the data we want to look at it? That’s what SQL is for, it is a language that communicates with databases.
SQL stands for Structured Query Language people call it SQL. In short, SQL is the name for a language that is used to communicate with databases, if we want to pull, edit, add information to a database we can use the language of SQL to do that but how does SQL works? Think of a database like a warehouse data table like filing cabinets and data like files, this warehouse or database stores data. The warehouse database was built using coding languages like C++ or C or Java, now, imagine regular Lego people need to access the files how do they do that? The first option we could have a storefront built to the warehouse so that customers can ask for files, add files, delete files, but eventually, this means we are building something that takes a lot of time and money. In the real world, this is the equivalent of building a whole app just to access the files in the database as to all comes in, which is the second option, SQL this is like we are hiring a specialized delivery translator her name is Sally Sequel she knows how to talk to the database and she knows how to speak in the language of SQL. So, if we learn to speak SQL then we can ask her to get files for us, now how do we speak Sally’s SQL Language? Here, are the requests we can make if we are a Lego Mayor and we want to know the name of our citizens we’ll ask Sally SQL select name from lego_people, the request we select name, that column from lego_people, which is the name of the table or if we’re a Lego doctor and want to know the name of citizens that are higher than three centimeters we would ask Sally Sequel, she returned two Loge people Sarah and Craig because their centimeter is greater than three and she pulled from the name column within the table called lego_height or if we’re a statistician and we want to know both the height and age combination of citizens but this data is stored in two separate tables, here is what you’d say to Sally Sequel, not all tables are found together. Sally join the Two tables because what both two tables had in common, the names column, she was able to join the two matchings by the names in each table but we can also do other things we can add data if we want to add ‘Joe’, whose age is 12 or we can update data make Joe’s age is 13 we can also delete Joe altogether from creating tables to joining tables to altering tables Sally SQL could do it all.
So, there are three things we need to remember about SQL:
1. SQL is a language that we should learn Regardless of the domain, knowing how to get data means we can use more data in our job.
2. The way SQL Commands are written Varies Slightly. So, it is the equivalent of having a different Sally SQL Barbie with different accents.
3. SQL is a language that speaks only to Relational Databases, which is essentially a database that has a tabular schema. So, it’s a lot like a data table with rows and columns.
SQL*Plus is a command-line tool that provides access to the Oracle RDBMS. SQL*Plus enables you to: Enter SQL*Plus commands to configure the SQL*Plus environment. Understanding SQL Command Syntax, dividing a SQL Command into Separate Lines, we can divide our SQL command into separate lines at any points we wish, as long as individual words are not split, we can create function, PL SQL blocks, etc. we can run.
It is used by Oracle Database Systems to provide a command-line utility that allows writing SQL and PL/SQL commands. In the next article, I am going to discuss Oracle Database Architecture. Here, in this article, I try to give a brief introduction to Oracle. I hope you enjoy this introduction to the Oracle article.
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Rvfo-Rakko, “Big Winter”
The ancient Mvskoke calendar is grounded in astronomical observations. Each new year, for example, begins with posketv, the ceremony known in English as Green Corn, traditionally held around summer solstice. And the sequence of twelve hvse approximates the number of lunar months occurring in an annual period.
So cokv-walv Mvskoke is structured by the sun’s yearly migration between north and south and the moon’s monthly passage through fractional phases. But its months are named for vital aspects of the earth’s seasonal ecology, those subsistence foods and weather patterns that sustained our Mvskoke ancestors. They understood natural cycles both celestial and terrestrial, and their time-honored calendar synthesizes the astronomical and ecological knowledge they found to be useful.
The first five months of the Mvskoke year name pursuits and perceptions that signify traditional Mvskoke life: harvest, chestnut-thrashing, glistening (frost). The sixth month, on the other hand, refers to a season familiar in most temperate climates: Rvfo-Rakko, “Big Winter.” The name was formed by modifying the word rvfo, “winter,” with the augmentative suffix –rakko, “big.”
Several later months also are based on common seasonal terminology. These references to seasons in the names of months made me curious about Mvskoke knowledge of seasonal divisions.
The most recent Mvskoke-English dictionary includes entries for rvfo, “winter”; tasahcē, “spring”; and meskē, “summer.” (The Koasati language—another member of the Muskogean family—has a very similar word for “winter,” so rvfo is probably very old.) But “there is no fixed expression for ‘autumn’ in Creek,” the authors note, “though rvfo hakof, ‘when it becomes winter,’ may be used.” The same entries can be found in an earlier Mvskoke-English dictionary published in the late nineteenth century.
No Mvskoke term for “autumn”? If your language lacks a word for a basic element of worldview, it’s a good bet that particular idea is not a native concept. Of course, every living language is always changing; rvfo hakof may be analogous to the descriptive terms for days of the week coined by Mvskokes after European colonists imported their seven-day cycle.
Could it be that our agrarian forebears recognized only three seasons per year?
The dominant culture in North America would have you think that astronomical phenomena—solstices and equinoxes—are the only basis for seasonal distinctions. But many factors influence seasonal variation, and there are other ways to conceptualize the seasons.
Meteorological seasons are determined by weather conditions. In Sweden and Finland, for example, seasonal change is noted when the daily averaged temperature remains above or below a certain threshold for a week.
Ecological seasons are defined by the physiology of plants and animals as they respond to environmental variation over the course of a year. Some ecologists use six seasons to describe temperate climes, with the two additional seasons falling between winter and spring (pre-vernal) and between summer and fall (seritonal).
Many indigenous peoples around the world still observe their own traditional seasons. In Australia, various Aboriginal calendars have as few as two and as many as six named seasonal periods, depending on local climate and subsistence practices.
So there is nothing unusual, unnatural, or unscientific about a three-season calendar for Mvskoke country. And Muskogean oral tradition bears at least one compelling piece of evidence in support of this hypothesis.
A hundred years ago, anthropologist John R. Swanton visited the Koasati communities in Louisiana and Texas, transcribing dozens of oral narratives. This English-language collection of nature myths and trickster tales opens with a short story titled “The Ordering of the Months and Seasons,” a creation account in very condensed form.
“All things were made at the same time,” it begins. “The earth, sun, moon—all things—got ripe and were left to man.” The animals, however, took charge of organizing the calendar. “The creatures having assembled, any who liked a certain month took it and ran off,” then “threw it down on the ground as he ran and it started a new moon.” And so things went for the seasons as well. “When it was summer,” for example, “the Humming Bird said, ‘I will stay about and kiss the flowers.'” When all was said and done, “winter, spring, and summer were made together.”
Winter, spring, and summer—no sign of autumn, here or anywhere else in Swanton’s book of Creek, Hitchiti, Alabama, Koasati, and Natchez stories, just those three seasons preserved in the Mvskoke language since time immemorial: rvfo, tasahcē, and meskē. They demarcate seasonal boundaries ideally suited for an agricultural society, incorporating both astronomical and ecological intelligence.
Recovering this wisdom, thinking critically about the ways we mark time in space, can help us understand our environmental crisis and the industrial civilization that produced it.
Muscogee Nation News, December 2010
Koasati Dictionary, by Geoffrey D. Kimball
“Season,” Wikipedia
“Indigenous Weather Knowledge,” Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology
“The Lost Seasons,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s Gateway to Science
Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians, by John R. Swanton
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9465808272361755,
"url": "https://mvskokecountry.online/tag/rvfo-hakof/"
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Using modules
For the purpose of this tutorial, we are going to use the example module bio/seq. The module implements some very basic mechanisms for dealing with DNA sequences (= character strings consisting of the letters A, C, G and T).
First, we load the module:
The function box::use accepts a list of unquoted, qualified module names. Each of these module names will load a single module and make it available to the caller in some form. In the code above, we’ve loaded a single module, seq/seq. bio serves as a parent module that may group several submodules. Since the module name inside box::use starts with ./, the module location is resolved locally, i.e. relative to the path of the currently running code.
In the above, seq is the module’s proper name. bio/seq is its fully qualified name. And ./bio/seq is its use declaration.
To see the effect of this use declaration, let’s inspect our workspace:
## [1] "seq"
## <module: ./bio/seq>
We have used the module’s fully qualified name to load it. But, as shown by ls, loading the module this way only introduces a single new name into the current scope, the module itself, identified by its proper (non-qualified) name.
To see which names a module exports, we use ls again, this time on the module itself:
## [1] "is_valid" "revcomp" "seq" "table"
It appears that seq exports 4 different names. To access exported names, we use the $ operator: seq$is_valid allows us to use the first function in the list of exported names. We can also display the interactive help for individual names using the box::help function, e.g.:
Now let’s actually use the module. The seq function inside the dna/seq module constructs a set of (optionally named) biological sequences:
s = seq$seq(
## [1] TRUE
## 2 DNA sequences:
## >gene1
## >gene2
Note how we automatically get pretty-printed (FASTA) output because the print method (which gets called implicitly here) is specialised for the 'bio/seq' S3 class in the bio/seq module (prefixing S3 classes inside modules with the full module name is a convention to avoid name clashes of S3 classes):
getS3method('print', 'bio/seq')
## function (x) {
## box::use(stringr[str_trunc])
## if (is.null(names(x))) names(x) = paste('seq', seq_along(x))
## cat(
## sprintf('%d DNA sequence%s:\n', length(x), if (length(x) == 1L) '' else 's'),
## sprintf(' >%s\n %s\n', names(x), str_trunc(x, 30L)),
## sep = ''
## )
## invisible(x)
## }
## <environment: 0x7f90e148cf88>
The source code for contains an interesting use declaration. It show-cases an alternative way of invoking box::use, which we’ll explore now.
Attaching modules
Let’s have a look at alternative ways of using modules.
To start, let’s unload the bio/seq module …
… and load it again, via a different route:
options(box.path = getwd())
box::use(bio/seq[revcomp, is_valid])
After unloading the already loaded module, options(box.path = …) sets the module search path: this is where box::use searches for modules. If more than one path is given, box::use searches them all until a module of matching name is found. This works analogously to how .libPaths operates on R packages.
The box::use directive can now use bio/seq instead of ./bio/seq as the module name: rather than a relative name we specify a global name. In this example we set the search path to the current working directory but in normal usage it would be a global library location, e.g. (following the XDG base directory specification) ~/.local/R/modules on Linux.
Note that non-local module names must be fully qualified, nested modules: box::use(foo/bar) works, box::use(bar) does not (instead, it is assumed that bar refers to a package)!
In the declaration above we use [revcomp] to specify that the revcomp name from the bio/seq module should be attached in the calling environment. The […] part is an attach specification: a comma-separated list of names inside the parentheses specifies which names to attach. The special symbol ... specifies that all exported names should be attached. This has an effect similar to conventional package loading via library (or attaching an environment): all the attached names are now available for direct use without necessitating the seq$ qualifier:
## [1] TRUE
## 2 DNA sequences:
## >gene1
## >gene2
However, unlike the attach function, module attachment happens in the current, local scope only.
Since the above code was executed in the global environment, there’s no distinction between local and global scope:
## [1] ".GlobalEnv" "mod:bio/seq" "mod:./source_file"
## [4] "devtools_shims" "package:testthat" "package:stats"
## [7] "package:graphics" "package:grDevices" "package:datasets"
## [10] "renv:shims" "package:utils" "package:methods"
## [13] "Autoloads" "tools:callr" "package:base"
Note the second item, which reads “mod:bio/seq”. But let’s now undo that, to attach (and use) the module locally instead:
seq_table = function (s) {
## $gene1
## A C G T
## 13 12 6 7
## $gene2
## A C G T
## 8 7 4 3
Unlike above, we are now attaching all exported names instead of specifying individual names. The subsequent line of code uses the seq$table function rather than base::table (which would have a different output). And note that the seq module’s table function is not attached outside the local scope:
## [1] ".GlobalEnv" "mod:./source_file" "devtools_shims"
## [4] "package:testthat" "package:stats" "package:graphics"
## [7] "package:grDevices" "package:datasets" "renv:shims"
## [10] "package:utils" "package:methods" "Autoloads"
## [13] "tools:callr" "package:base"
## s
## 1 1
This is very powerful, as it isolates separate scopes more effectively than the attach function. What is more, modules which are used and attached inside another module remain inside that module and are not visible outside the module by default.
Nevertheless, the normal, recommended usage of a module is without an attach specification, as this makes it clearer which names are being referring to.
Writing modules
The module bio/seq, which we have used in the previous section, is implemented in the file bio/seq.r. The file seq.r is, by and large, a normal R source file, which happens to live in a directory named bio.
In fact, there are only three things worth mentioning:
1. Documentation. Functions in the module file can be documented using ‘roxygen2’ syntax. It works the same as for packages. The ‘box’ package parses the documentation and makes it available via box::help. Displaying module help requires that ‘roxygen2’ is installed.
2. Export declarations. Similar to packages, modules explicitly need to declare which names they export; they do this using the annotation comment #' @export in front of the name. Again, this works similarly to ‘roxygen2’ (but does not require having that package installed).
3. The module exports S3 functions. The ‘box’ package takes care to register such functions automatically but this only works for user generics that are defined inside the same module. When overriding “known generics” (such as print), we need to register these manually via register_S3_method (this is necessary since these functions are inherently ambiguous and there is no automatic way of finding them).
Nesting modules
Modules can also form nested hierarchies. In fact, here is the implementation of bio (in bio/__init__.r: since bio is a directory rather than a file, the module implementation resides in the nested file __init__.r):
#' @export
The submodule is specified as ./seq rather than seq: the explicitly provided relative path prevents lookup in the import search path (that we set via options(box.path = …)); instead, only the current directory (that is, the directory containing the bio module) is considered.
We can now use the bio module:
options(box.path = NULL) # Reset search path
## [1] "seq"
## 1 DNA sequence:
## >seq 1
## ATG
We could also have implemented bio as follows:
#' @export
This would have made all of seq’s definitions immediately available in bio, without having to always write seq$…. This is sometimes useful, but should be employed with care: being explicit about namespaces generally increases code robustness and readability.
Code execution on loading
Modules define functions and values. To execute code when a module is loaded, put it inside a function with the name .on_load. This function is similar to the hook for the .onLoad package namespace event.
This function is executed the first time the module is loaded in an R session. Subsequent calls to box::use for that module, regardless of whether they occur in a different scope, will refer to the already loaded, cached module, and will not reload the module.
We can illustrate this by loading a module which has side-effects, info.
.on_load = function (ns) {
'Loading module "', box::name(), '"\n',
'Module path: "', basename(box::file()), '"'
box::export() # Mark as a ‘box’ module.
Let’s use it:
## Loading module "info"
## Module path: "vignettes"
We have imported the module, and get the diagnostic messages. Let’s re-use the module:
… no messages are displayed. However, we can explicitly reload a module. This clears the cache, and loads the module again. This can be useful during development and debugging:
## Loading module "info"
## Module path: "vignettes"
And this displays the messages again. The reload function is a shortcut for unload followed by import (using the exact same arguments as used on the original import call).
Module helper functions
This info module also show-cases two important helper functions:
1. box::name returns the name of the module with which it was loaded. This is especially handy because, when called outside of a module, box::name is NULL. This allows testing whether a piece of code was loaded as a module, or invoked directly (e.g. via Rscript on the command line).
2. box::file is similar to system.file: it returns the full path to any file within the directory where a module is stored. This is useful when distributing data files with modules, which are loaded from within the module. When invoked without arguments, box::file returns the full path to the directory containing the module source file.
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.84375,
"fasttext_score": 0.11265474557876587,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7839583158493042,
"url": "https://klmr.me/box/articles/box.html"
}
|
Glorious Bhartiya Heritage – Part 3
Glorious heritage of Bharat
24 जून 2020
Dr. Gauri Shankar Gupta
Glorious heritage of Bharat
Historical Timelines of our History:
In most cases history is a matter of conjecture. When we travel back in time, timelines get blurred. In most cases enough physical evidences are not available. Those available, are fragmented and leave the jigsaw puzzle incomplete. Moreover, the dating process is full of gaps and suffer from individual biases.
In the past, many timelines have been shifted by millions even billions of years. In the 16th century the western scientists due to some Biblical reference considered the Earth and the universe to be only 6000 years old (genesis 1). Now it is considered 4.3 billion years old. In case of India, while the written historical texts are limited, oral traditions have been very strong since the time immemorial. The Vedas for instance, are known to have existed and transmitted in oral form for over several millenniums before they were committed to writing in the form we know them today. Chaturvedi, Trivedi and Dwivedi are titles given to those who could transmit 4, 3 and 2 Vedas orally. Similarly, the Namboodaris in Kerala followed this tradition of oral transmission for thousands of years.
Unfortunately, the history of Bharatha’s been either deliberately distorted by the invaders and the colonial powers to suit their strategic interest by creating a feeling of inferiority complex amongst the citizens or became the victim of their pre-conceived notions based on the Biblical references completely ignoring the ancient Indian writings and the tradition of oral transmission.
The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in the state of Madhya Pradesh in central Bharat that spans several prehistoric periods. Bhimbetka is a UNESCO world heritage site that consists of seven hills and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 kilometres. Experts hold the view that at least some of the shelters in this area were inhabited more than 1,00,000 years ago. Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings which are considered at least 10,000 years old. In Tamil Nadu, ancient paleolithic cave paintings are found in Padiyendhal, Alampadi, Kombaikadu, Kilvalai, Settavarai Nehanurpatti. The paintings are estimated to be somewhere between 30,000 to 10,000 years old. Incidentally their art form is similar to Bhimbetka rock shelters in Bhopal. Before the above-mentioned discoveries, many scholars believed that settled life which involves transition from foraging to farming and pastoralism, began in South Asia around 7000 BCE. From the above it is clear that the timelines of India’s history are still unsettled and could range anywhere between 7000 BCE to nearly 1,00,000 years ago. Moreover, this range could also change depending on new discoveries in the future.
The Puranic chronology also provides an estimated timeline of India’s history. Two central dates are the Mahabharat War, which according to this chronology happened at 3138 BCE (or 5158 years ago), and the commencement of the Kali Yug which started on 17-18thFebruary, 3102 BCE (or 5122 years ago). These dates are considered very precise based on astronomical calculations. The period of Ramayana was certainly much before Mahabharata since there are many references to Rama and Hanuman in the Mahabharata. Since the Vedic Period precedes Ramayana, it is quite reasonable to assume that the Vedas were written at least 8000 to 10000 years back in time. A systematic study of Ikshvaku and Kuru Dynasties given in detail in our scriptures would also confirm these timelines. MS Golvalkar in his 1939 publication we or our nationhood defined stated that “Undoubtedly […] we — Hindus — have been in undisputed and undisturbed possession of this land for over eight or even ten thousand years before the land was invaded by any foreign race”. According to Subhash Kak, “the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati tradition (7000 or 8000 BC)”. According to Sudhir Bhargava, the Vedas were composed about 10000 years ago. From the above one can surmise that Bhartiya civilization has an unbroken history of at least 7000 to 10000 years. Many other scholars who have intensely studied and analyzed many ancient Indian writings hold a similar view.
The western view dates the Vedic period around 2000 BCE. Given the precise dates of the Mahabharata war, this timeline is obviously false. None of the western scholars have given any supporting data to substantiate their view point. It is possible that based on the belief of Christian theologists, most western scientist could not have thought that anything could have existed before 4000 BCE. They have simply quoted one another making cross connections without any scientific study. These very scholars also put Mahabharata period around 500 BCE which is contrary to the fact as the Mahabharata war preceded thousands of years before Buddha’s birth. According to the Buddhist tradition and the modern academic consensus, Gautama Buddha was born sometime between 563–483 BCE in Lumbini near Kapilavastu, Kosala kingdom, presently in Nepal. Obviously, the dates circulating in the western literature have no foundation to stand on.
The Aryan Invasion Theory invented by the western scholars has also been demolished by recent studies based on the analysis of DNA samples extracted from the skeleton of a woman buried in Rakhigarhi (Harappan Ruins) four to five millennia ago. Similar DNA tests have been carried out on some other skeletons of that time. The ancient DNA results completely reject the theory of Steppe pastoral or ancient Iranian farmers as a source of ancestry to the Harappan population. The recent research clearly showed that the Vedic culture was developed by indigenous people of Bharat living between the Himalayas in the north, the Indian Ocean in the South, the Hindukush Mountains in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east.The word Arya which is of Sanskrit origin basically means a cultured and well-educated individual. The ladies in ancient Bharat used to call their husbands as Arya-Putra. The word has nothing to do with race or ethnicity.
During the colonial period the history books taught in Bharat used these timelines and Aryan Migration Theories to systematically undermine our history and our confidence. It is unfortunate that even after 70 years of independence we continue to use the same timelines and theories in our history books completely ignoring our own ancient writings. Most of our so-called intellectuals also use these timelines without any research and thought. These lies have been repeated generation after generations making them look like the truth. Even the current government that swears allegiance to the India’s heritage, has failed to correct this and many other gross inaccuracies in our history. The history lessons taught in our schools need complete overhaul if we want our younger generation to have an accurate and scientific view of our history. A panel of distinguished scholars who are also well-versed with our ancient scriptures should be entrusted this task so that we can accurately rewrite our history.
(Writer is Former Ambassador/High Commissioner of Bharat)
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<urn:uuid:848da134-36af-4140-9371-0b7e22a2ee41>
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{
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"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06437236070632935,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.955068826675415,
"url": "https://patheykan.com/glorious-bhartiya-heritage-part-3/"
}
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I was solving a math problem which said that "the wind is blowing due north."
This could be interpreted in two different ways and I don't know which one is correct:
1. "the wind is blowing from due north."
2. "the wind is blowing to/towards due north."
It could mean that the wind comes from north towards south (#1). Or it comes from south towards north (#2).
My questions are:
• Which meaning is the correct one?
• and, Are there any other ways to tell others the direction of the wind?
The word ‘due’ in this context would means a person or thing was traveling in the direction indicated. So a person traveling to the north from the south is heading due north, and a wind blowing due north is blowing from south to north.
Normally, winds are named for the direction they come from. So a north wind is blowing from north to south, and is expected to be cold. An east wind blows from east to west, and a south wind from the south.
While the language usage is saying the wind is blowing south to north, the more common English language convention is that a wind is described with the direction it is coming from. If you have access to the question writer, I’d ask them which they meant, because it is easy for a native speaker to mix this up. Otherwise, assume that ‘due north’ means the wind is coming from the south.
The wind is blowing due north.
There's no ambiguity in the sentence. Almost all the dictionaries give a clear-cut explanation of the words "due" and "north".
First, let's be clear that the "due" is also used as an adverb, which means "directly, exactly, or straight".
Second, north (or south/east/west) can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. A few examples are given below:
*The wind was blowing to the north, which means south to north. (used as a noun)
*The wind was blowing from the north, which means north to south.(used as a noun)
*We are faced with a north/northerly wind. When used as an adjecive, it means the direction it blows from. Here, it means north to south).
*The wind is blowing north. When used as an adverb, it means the direction it blows to. Here, it means south to north. Other examples are We traveled east. The stream flows west.
We use the phrase "due north/south/east/west" to mean the direction that is directly or straight towards the north/south/east/west accordingly.
So the sentence, without any ambiguity, means that the wind is blowing directly towards the north (south to north). Please see a few other examples. Please go two miles due east. The village lies five miles due south.
Your Answer
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"fasttext_score": 0.9981340765953064,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.974554181098938,
"url": "https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/47825/what-does-it-mean-for-wind-to-blow-due-north"
}
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The American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) is in general decline across its North American distribution. In contrast to widespread patterns of decline, kestrel populations appear stable in the southern Great Plains region. Historically, this region had a very low occurrence of kestrels, and their current abundance is highly likely due to vegetation and structures associated with settlement by people of European descent. To determine prey use by breeding kestrels, we placed motion-activated video cameras at preexisting kestrel nest boxes located in the Southern High Plains in 2017. We recorded over 4200 prey deliveries during 1748 hr of observation at five nests over the 4-wk brood-rearing period. On basis of frequency, these deliveries were dominated by reptiles (74.8%), with invertebrates (18.2%), mammals (4.4%), birds (2.9%), and unidentified (1.2%) prey used to lesser extents. Prey delivery rates were high relative to other studies; across the brood-rearing period we recorded an average of 2.3 deliveries/hr, equating to an average of 0.49 deliveries and 3.85 g of prey/nestling/hr. Because invertebrates dominate the diet reported in most kestrel food habit studies, the volume of reptiles captured as prey was unexpected. Even more unanticipated was the number of large prey captured, including juvenile eastern cottontails (Sylvilagus floridanus) and ground squirrels (Ictidomys tridecemlineatus, Xerospermophilus spilosoma). We suspect the proportion of vertebrate prey captured during the nesting season may explain the local high rates of nesting success and number of young fledged.
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"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.022605538368225098,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.942618191242218,
"url": "https://meridian.allenpress.com/rapt/article-abstract/doi/10.3356/JRR-20-75/468454/Food-Habits-of-American-Kestrels-In-the-Southern?redirectedFrom=PDF"
}
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Moritz Daniel Oppenheim
Jan 7, 1800 - Feb 26, 1882
Moritz Daniel Oppenheim was a German painter who is often regarded as the first Jewish painter of the modern era. His work was informed by his cultural and religious roots at a time when many of his German Jewish contemporaries chose to convert to Christianity. Oppenheim is considered by the scholar Ismar Schorsch to be in sympathy with the ideals of the Wissenschaft des Judentums movement, because he remained "fair to the present" without denying his past.
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<urn:uuid:d23512f4-d7e1-4e68-bea2-0475ab5f5b34>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.19528520107269287,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9730373024940491,
"url": "https://artsandculture.google.com/entity/m0cf7y2?categoryId=artist"
}
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About Seesaw Sign Up
Teachers, save “Appositives” to assign it to your class.
Ryan Hagen
Student Instructions
1. Highlight the appositive in the sentence. 2. Draw an arrow from the appositive to the noun that the appositive renames. 3. Record your voice explaining what is an appositive.
7th Grade, 6th Grade, 8th Grade, English Language Arts
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Students will edit this template:
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.875,
"fasttext_score": 0.05108827352523804,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7940959334373474,
"url": "https://app.seesaw.me/activities/yrspe2/appositives"
}
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Don't Know Jack"
“You Don’t Know Jack”
complete the following questions. Remember that you will be graded on content, English/grammar, and the identification of scholarly resources to support your thinking. You should aim to find a scholarly resource or personal experience for each question.
1) In the movie “You Don’t Know Jack”, Kevorkian and his sister had issues about something to do with the first patient.
(1a) What was that issue and the two sides?
(1b) What was the disease the first patient suffered from?
(1c) Do your thoughts on physician assisted suicide (PAS)differ for illnesses? If so, what are acceptable diagnoses for consideration of physician assisted suicide?
(1d) Going back to Peter Singer, does his description of “being a person”, like the Alzheimer’s, patient fit your requirements for PAS?
(1e) What was your position on PAS and Dr. Kevorkian prior to the movie? Did your position on those two things change? If so, how?
(1f) What was the most significant thing that you took from the movie “You Don’t Know Jack” and why?
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Fan worm eyes
What are fan worms? Fan worms are polychaetes belonging to families Sabellidae and Serpulidae and primarily occur in marine environments. There are currently around 400 described species of sabellids and over 500 serpulids. They are sessile, living amongst the benthos within tubes built from secreted compounds and/or collected particles. The majority of the fan worm’s body never leaves the safety of the tube, and they project their eponymous fans up into the water column to collect food particles and aid in respiration. The fans are composed of two sets of tentacles, called radioles, composed of vascularized branchial tissue. The radioles are covered with minute cilia that pass food down to a mouth on the head at the base of the fan. In order to protect this useful organ from hungry fish, fan worms employ a withdrawal response by rapidly leveraging hooks on their body segments against the tube walls. This response can be triggered by touch or visual stimulation.
Where are their eyes? Despite their seemingly-dull lifestyle, sifting through passing water and almost never leaving their protective tubes, fan worms abound with eyes. In their head, they have a few pairs of cerebral ocelli. These ocelli are possibly homologous to the main eyes of errant polychaetes like Platynereis, but in fan worms they are reduced to a single photoreceptor and a pigment cup cell, without lenses and buried in the brain, well below the body surface. Similar simple ocelli are also found on the body segments and on the tip of the tail. The cerebral and segmental ocelli spend most of their time shielded from the outside lightscape by the tube and are likely responsible for little more than general luminance assessment related to biological rhythms, though they may warn the worm that it has over-extended from the tube. The ocelli on the tail may actually be involved in shelter-seeking in the event that a worm is removed from, or abandons, its tube.
But all of these eyes on their head, body and tail avail them little in their day to day life, when their chief concern is spotting approaching predators. For that task, many fan worms have developed unique and very prominent eyes on their radiolar tentacles.
What is special about their radiolar eyes? The radiolar eyes of fan worms are perhaps the most unusual visual system in nature. The primary units of the radiolar eyes are ocelli, containing a single photoreceptor cell and up to three supporting cells that form the lens and pigment cup. These ocelli occur in a great diversity of arrangements among different species, from dispersed single ocelli to ocellar clusters or even compound eyes resembling those of arthropods. The compound eyes of some sabellids like Megalomma interrupta can be composed of hundreds of ocelli, while the serpulid Christmas tree worm, Spirobranchus corniculatus, has over a thousand. Some species have consolidated their radiolar visual system down to two large compound eyes on a pair of tentacles, while others have small compound eyes scattered all over the outsides of every radiole (Figure 1, top).
Figure thumbnail gr1
Figure 1Fan worm radiolar eyes.
Top: Three species of sabellids (left to right: Anamobaea sp., Bispira sp., and Megalomma interrupta) detailing general arrangements of radiolar eyes (arrowheads). The picture of M. interrupta includes a diagram of the anterior end of the worm’s body within the tube. Bottom: Images of radiolar eyes from eight species of sabellids organized by increasing sophistication from no eyes, to ocellar clusters, to compound eyes. Scale bar = 200 μm.
The photoreceptors in the radiolar eyes are also very unusual. Their elaborated sensory membrane, into which light-sensitive visual pigments are packed, is derived from cilia, and light stimulation results in a hyperpolarizing response. Both of these characteristics are in opposition with the canonical main eyes of most invertebrates, and indeed with the other photoreceptors on the bodies of the fan worms, all of which use microvillar (rhabdomeric) membrane elaborations. Instead, these features more closely resemble those of vertebrate primary eye photoreceptors, such as our rods and cones. Historically, this division between invertebrate rhabdomeric and vertebrate ciliary photoreceptors has been considered fairly absolute; however, following the discovery of ciliary photoreceptors in fan worms and other invertebrates, as well as the realization that some vertebrate photoreceptors, including our own retinal ganglion cells, are apparently derived from rhabdomeric precursors, the current view is that multiple photoreceptor types were present in early bilaterians.
Why are these eyes so diverse? One of the most striking features of the fan worm radiolar eyes is their diversity. These unassuming tentacles are nature’s eye factories, with eye types almost as numerous as individual genera within these families. It is not clear why these eyes display so many extant forms, but just as Darwin famously referenced a complexity gradient of extant eyes to demonstrate a plausible evolutionary progression leading to sophisticated camera-type eyes in The Origin of Species, so too can we arrange fan worm radiolar eyes in order of increasing complexity starting with single scattered ocelli and culminating with elaborate compound eyes (Figure 1, bottom).
Could it be that many fan worm species simply branched off at various points of the progression towards what we consider the best: the most complex eyes? The evidence so far suggests that it wasn’t so simple, however. Differences in fundamental ocellar structure suggest that the radiolar eyes may have arisen more than once and then elaborated in certain clades. It may have been that the diversity of the radiolar eyes is more a case of evolutionary pragmatism, harnessing whichever sensory cells and neural pathways were available in the radioles and independently fashioning them into eyes that suited the need of protecting the fans from predation.
How do these eyes function? Here we are still short of answers. We know that they have an unorthodox type of photoreceptor cell, that they send their information along neural pathways that were not originally evolved for vision, and that they do a pretty good job triggering the rapid withdrawal response. But we do not know how they process information: whether it is a simple shadow response or more advanced motion detection. And we are equally ignorant about the transduction cascade and the developmental origin of the unusual photoreceptors. Fan worms in fact offer unique opportunities to study de novo evolution of eyes and visual systems devoted to a single and very straightforward visual task. It is a mystery vision in fan worms has not already attracted crowds of evolutionary neurobiologists.
Where can I find out more?
• Bok M.J.
• Capa M.
• Nilsson D.-E.
Here, there and everywhere: The radiolar eyes of fan worms (Annelida, Sabellidae).
Integr. Comp. Biol. 2016; (in press)
1. Capa, M., Giangrande, A., Nogueira, J.M.M., and Tovar-Hernández, M.A. (2014). Sabellidae Latreille, 1825. In The Handbook of Zoology, W. Westheide and G. Purschke (eds).
• Lawrence P.A.
• Krasne F.B.
Annelid ciliary photoreceptors.
Science. 1965; 148: 965-966
• Leutscher-Hazelhoff J.T.
Ciliary cells evolved for vision hyperpolarize—Why?.
Naturwissenschaften. 1984; 71: 213-214
• Nilsson D.-E.
Eyes as optical alarm systems in fan worms and ark clams.
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. 1994; 346: 195-212
• Nilsson D.-E.
Eye evolution and its functional basis.
Vis. Neurosci. 2013; 30: 5-20
Current Biology
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Structure, Classification, And Characteristics Of Stentor
Scientists study microorganisms such as stentors because of their regenerative properties that help to contribute and improve modern medicine. They are truly amazing microorganisms to study and learn from.
Structure, Classification, and Characteristics of Stentor
This article will help you gain a better understanding of Stentor, including the habitats, behaviours and structures, as well as the classification, characteristics, and more!
So, if you want to know more then you are in the right place and you had better keep reading.
Definition Of Stentor
Stentor is the term used for a sedentary trumpet-shaped single-celled animal. It is widespread in freshwater and is found either free-swimming or attached to submerged vegetation.
Scientifically, they are contractile and uniformly ciliated protozoans of the order Heterotrichida.
What Is Stentor?
Stentor is a genus of trumpet-shaped ciliates. They are found usually in stagnant fresh water and there are 22 known species.
It is likely however that there are many more that haven’t yet been discovered by scientists.
They are the largest known unicellular microorganisms and reach a length of up to two millimeters, meaning they can be seen by the naked human eye.
They are capable of swimming on their own however they often prefer to attach to a substrate. They do this by using its holdfast, which acts as an anchor and extends and retracts.
Stentors are perfect for scientific study and inquiry due to their ability to regenerate themselves. This can help with the improvement and production of human medicine.
The Structure Of Stentor
Structure, Classification, and Characteristics of Stentor
Stentors consist of only one large cell, meaning they are unicellular. This cell is capable of carrying out all the functions necessary for living such as eating, digesting, excreting, breathing, and even reproducing.
The organism has hair-like structures called cilia that help with the critical functions needed to survive.
Found all over the body, cilia provide two main functions, the first of which is the ability to move in unison which helps the Stentor to swim in the water.
In addition to helping the organism swim, it also helps the organism to feed. It does this by moving and vibrating in a circular manner which attracts water and food into the mouth area.
Inside its gullet, the Stentor filters and digests food sources such as bacteria.
Stentors tend to change in pigmentation (color) depending on the type of algae they ingest.
Typically, the algae aren’t eaten by Stentor but instead, they work together in symbiosis. This relationship benefits both parties because the Stentor has a food source whereas the algae gain safety.
Additionally, the algae will eat the excrement from the Stentor and then use it for its photosynthetic process. In turn, this produces nutrients essential for the Stentor.
Another key feature of the Stentor is its use of a contractile vacuole. This vacuole fills with water, contracts,s and squeezes it back out of the cell.
This helps to keep the Stentor balanced, which is necessary because the salinity content within freshwater environments (where Stentorlivese) is higher than that of its surrounding environments.
Because of this, osmosis must take place to keep an equilibrium.
We are now going to explain the Stentor’s physical structure, which is as follows:
Oral Cilia
The oral ciliares located at the anterior end of the cell. It pulses constantly, creating a vortex of water that pulls food towards the organism.
The cilia then aid with filtering in and out and help to grab food sources, such as bacteria, as that passes by. Cilia are hair-like organelles that protrude and are either motile or non-motile.
The latter serves primarily as sensory organelles whereas motile cilia can help the body of the cell in moving.
Contractile Vacuole
This is a specialized organelle that is found in protists such as the Stentor. The contractile vacuole helps organisms to move by expelling water, propelling the organism forwards through the water – almost acting as though it is a jet.
In the Stentor, the contractile vacuole is found beneath the cell’s membrane – this is what the scar-like features are: vacuole pores.
Buccal Cavity
This is the scientific name for the mouth of the organism. Referring to the cheek cavity structure of an organism, the buccal cavities’ primary focus is to store and pass food into the digestive system.
The Stentor, in particular, has a large and prominent buccal cavity which is located at the bell of the trumpet-shaped structure.
This is the larger nucleus that is located in ciliates. It stretches the entire length of the Stentor’s body and symbolizes a strand of beans within the cell body.
Macronuclei are polypoids which means that they do not use mitosis to divide cells like a lot of other microorganisms. It is responsible for all of the non-reproductive functions of the organism, such as its metabolism.
The macronucleus disintegrates when a new one is formed during conjugation. Scientists consider the Macronucleus a mystery because it contains thousands of chromosomes yet cannot partition itself during division.
Cortical Stripes
This is the term for the stripes visible on the Stentor. They are fibers that contain pigment granules. When the wide stripes intersect with the narrow ones, a feature known as the locus of stripe contrast is formed.
The color of said pigment again depends on the type of algae that is being eaten or living alongside the Stentor symbiotically.
This is the part of the Stentor that acts as the ‘anchor’. It allows the organism to attach to its substrate of choice.
This anchor is strong enough to hold the large body of the stentor but not strong enough to withstand a significant flow of water.
This is the reason that Stentors are found mainly in only stagnant or low-flowing bodies of water.
The Classification Of Stentor
Structure, Classification, and Characteristics of Stentor
Classified as a Genus, the full classifications of Stentor are listed below:
Domain: Eukaryota
Each organism within this Domain Possesses eukaryotic cells and a genome compartmentalized within a nucleus.
This type of domain consists of the majority of observable life that you are most familiar with, such as plants, animals, fungi, alga,e, and protists.
Kingdom: Protista
There are five Kingdoms and Protista is one of them. More commonly classified as an infrakingdom called the Alveolata and a subkingdom known as the SAR supergroup, both of which we will discuss in more detail below.
Subkingdom: SAR
SAR is an acronym for a clade of Stramenopiles, Alveolata and Rhizaria.
Infrakingdom: Alveolata
This is a clade of alveolates which represent a group of protists with body cavities.
The exclusive group has only two phyla beneath and is defined by their characteristics of flattened vesicles. These are layered on top of each other just beneath the membrane.
It creates support and thin skin that can form an armor-like plate. Ciliates are some of the most common alveolata.
Phylum Ciliophora
This is a group of protozoans that are known for their hair-like organelles, which are also known as cilia. They have a very similar structure to the flagella but are usually more short and occur in great numbers.
Class: Heterotrichea
This is a class of ciliates that have a distinctive membrane that surrounds the mouth which is used in either locomotion or during feeding.
The rest of the body is usually lined with much shorter cilia. Within this class are organisms that are contractile and spend most of their time compressed in a conical sha[e.
They contain some of the largest protozoa, including the Stentor and Spirostomum. Within this species, they are usually pigmented with the blue Stentor coeruleus and the red blepharisma.
Order: Heterotrichida
These are best known for their very large-sized protists. They are also highly contractile and widely distributed.
This means that the organisms are free-living for the most part. The undulating membranes are present due to the dense rows of cilia.
Family: Stentoridae
The large size and free-moving ability of the stentoridae family are what make it so recognizable. They have a trumpet-shaped buccal cavity region and can elongate and retract themselves.
In addition, they are often pigmented and can be symbiotic by nature.
Genus: Stentor
Stentors are horn-shaped organisms and have a ring of cilia around their bell. They filter feed and spend the majority of their time attached to a substrate, but do have the ability to swim on their own thanks to their cilia.
They are one of the largest single-celled organisms on Earth and there are currently just 22 known species of Stentor.
The Most Common Types Of Stentor
Structure, Classification, and Characteristics of Stentor
To this day, there are only 22 known species of Stentor on the planet. The most common are listed below, along with their characteristics:
Stentor Amethystinus
This species is found in freshwater ponds and lakes, and grows up to 1 millimeter in length. They are usually found living symbiotically with algae which provide food for them.
In turn, the Stentorprotectsr the algae. These species give off a red or violet color due to a chemical called amethyst, unlike many other species of Stentor.
Stentor Coeruleus
This species is characterized by how large it is. When fully extended it can reach a length of up to 2 millimeters. It is most known for processing the largest ‘trumpet’ out of all species of Stentor.
Themacronucleuss within this Stentorcano contract into a ball and can swim while fully extended or in its contracted ball shape.
The Stentor is blue or bluish-green. This species of Stentor is one of the most studied because of its ability to regenerate.
When cut in half, the species can regenerate the other half of itself so effectively, that it is impossible to find and recognize where the original incision was made.
Stentor Muelleri
This species of Stentor is mainly found within freshwater bodies but can be found in estuaries as well. Additionally, they are exceptionally long, with some reaching up to 3 millimeters in length!
Stentor Roselii
This is the most common species of Stentor in the world, and also the most abundant. They are free-living and colorless, with no pigmentation within their cortex. Cilia are organized longitudinally in rows of 40 to 80 on the body.
All known species of Stentor: amethystinus, coeruleus, muelleri, roselii, araucanus, baicalius, barrette, caudatus, cornutus, elegans, fuligiinosus, igneus, introversus, katashimai, loricatus, magnus, multiformis, multimicronucleatus, niger, polymorphus, pyriformis and albus.
What Does Stentor Eat?
Because of how big the Stentor is, it can feed on near enough any organism that is smaller than itself.
It has a large trumpet-shaped mouth that allows for it to fit any organism that is smaller than it. They have even been observed eating multicellular organisms such as rotifers and water fleas, despite being a single celled organism itself.
This is purely due to the large size of the species.
In order to feed, Stentors use the cilia around its mouth to capture and filter the food. Water enters through the mouth and passes through the cell, undergoing osmosis and lastly exiting back out of the vacuole.
The Stentor can even detach and move itself to a new location to filter feed on something new, should it not enjoy the food in its original surroundings.
Stentors have the ability to eat multicellular organisms due to their size, although they mainly feed on bacteria and other smaller organisms such as protozoans.
Stentors have even been known to be cannibalistic to their own species, although this has never been captured on film.
Where Do Stentors Live?
The Stentor habitat is mainly within bodies of freshwater such as lakes, ponds, puddles and slow-moving creeks.
Because of their odd shape, they avoid living in places with flowing water such as streams. This is because flowing water can easily wash away the organism, again due to the shape.
The safest type of water for them to thrive in is still or stagnant water for this reason.
Stentors prefer to live in stagnant water for more reasons than just the above. Because they feed mostly on bacteria, stagnant water is a fantastic resource for their food supply.
In stagnant water, bacteria are often found feeding on decomposing organic matter such as leaf litter.
Even if Stentor could hang on and stay attached while in flowing or moving water, they’d still probably choose to live in stagnant water because of the bacteria’s food source.
Flowing water is also an issue for bacteria to live and thrive because it washes away any decomposing matter too quickly.
The stentor always chooses to live closest to its food source, which means they are most commonly found in stagnant water.
They can also be found near light sources in shallow water, because of their symbiotic relationship with algae. Algae needs to photosynthesize and so need to be near a light source in order to create their own energy.
How Does Stentor Reproduce?
Structure, Classification, and Characteristics of Stentor
Stentor can reproduce in two different ways which are conjugation and binary fission. Stentor will prefer to reproduce by binary fission unless the conditions do not allow them to.
The Stentor has a macronucleus where its genetic information is stored, however is not capable of aiding during the reproduction process. The Stentor instead relies on its micronucleus for that.
When two Stentors meet, the micronucleus replicates itself and the genetic information of both organisms is exchanged. This information is recognized and creates a new macronuclei.
The Stentor undergo asexual reproduction multiple times throughout the course of its life before it is ready for sexual reproduction once again.
Below are the two types of Stentor reproduction in more detail:
This is a complex form of isogamy reproduction, which means it is a form of sexual reproduction that is unique to unicellular organisms alone.
Unicellular organisms are virtually identical in structure which means they cannot actually be classified as either male or female.
Instead, they are referred to regarding whether they express + or – strains of DNA. Fertalization takes place and gametes of two separate organisms to form a zygote.
Theoretically, isogamy is ancestral to sexual reproduction as we know today.
Binary Fission
Fission is the division of a single organism into two or more equal organisms. They are either identical or resemble the parent organism.
This is the preferred and more common form of reproduction amongst organisms, especially the Stentor species. DNA replicates itself within a micronucleus because the Stentor’s macronucleus does not assist in the cell division.
The replicates then scatter throughout the cell’s membrane and begin to tear apart. As this happens, half of the genetic material that is replicated, and the half that is original, is separated. New cells are now genetically identical thanks to this process.
Observing Stentor Under A Microscope
The distinctive trumpet-like shape of Stentor makes them very easy to see, especially when considering the fact that they are huge in terms of organisms!
They can be found near large accumulations of algae, and so that is the best place to try and find a Stentor sample. Sometimes, Stentors can be so large that they can be seen without a microscope, especially when they are fully elongated.
Stentors usually move very slowly but are usually found anchored to the microscopic debris.
Because of this they are very easy to observe under high magnifications. You are able to observe even the smallest of details. Their cyan color makes them an incredibly beautiful microorganism to look at!
The Origins Of Stentor – When Were They Discovered?
The name ‘Stentor’ comes from the shape of the organism – the trumpet. It also comes from the herald in Greek Mythology that was known for possessing a loud and booming voice – like the noise of a trumpet.
The Stentor species was first documented back in 1744 by Abraham Trembley who was a Genevan naturalist.
He was known for his work related to the hydra and is often credited as the father of zoology. He has even been called the father of biology by some.
Although Trembley thought he’d found a new species within the hydra, it was actually first written about in 1702 by Leeuwenhoek.
In 1744, his most groundbreaking book, Mémoires Pour Servir a L’histoire d’un genre de polypes d’eau douce, was published and included the most detailed descriptions, drawings, and explanations of hydra that had been seen at the time.
The novel features an excerpt about a large, trumpet-shaped ciliate that was thought to have been a hydra at the time. Trembley was however describing the Stentor. Finally, in 1815, the Stentor was revisited by German naturalist Lorenz Oken.
Oken was a botanist, biologist, and ornithologist who specialized in natural history and medicine.
He established himself as leader of a German movement called ‘Naturephilospie’ where he began his work. Oken was particularly interested in Stentor due to its background in the field of medicine.
Stentor, much like a hydra, has regenerative properties that fascinated Oken. He realized that the Stentor should not be classified as hydra based purely on sensory organs.
He helped to have them reclassified and pushed into mainstream science where we learn from and study them to this day.
Final Thoughts
In conclusion, there is a lot that can be learned from the different species of stentors.
Their regenerative properties can offer a lot to science and modern medicine and will hopefully one day help us to understand their anatomy and how they can regenerate themselves.
This will hopefully lead to a future where humans can restore their bodies for example, as well as replace cells that may be causing us harm and illness.
Stentor is a beautiful type of organism that can be seen sometimes by the naked eye due to its size. They live amongst algae in stagnant water, providing them with protection while they feed on them.
Hopefully, this article has helped guide you to understand more about this fascinating species. There are many different types with different characteristics that make them unique.
The trumpet-shaped organelles are often found in vibrant colors making them incredibly beautiful to look at when given the chance.
Jennifer Dawkins
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The Pope’s Cellar
These two cellars lay one on top of the other and were carved into the bedrock. The walls have niches carved into them to hold barrels. According to tradition, this cellar was part of the palace of Cardinal Aubert.
The upper cellar has a barrel arch reinforced by three arches and superimposed on the lower cellar. At the back, on the opposite side from the door, is the stairway which led to the lower cellar. Above the stairway is a shaft which used to lead to a small pavilion. This shaft was used to bring the wine up to the pavilion, and also served to aerate the cellars. This upper cellar had four rows of barrels. The barrels were filled with wine through tin piping which also went through the vaults to reach the lower cellar.
The lower cellar is divided by the load-bearing structures in the north-south direction which hold up four arches. The fourth arch is deviated to avoid the staircase. This cellar has two barrel-arched naves each nave has five niches.
The ground is slightly sloped with drainage which leads to a small trench, to channel any wine which dripped or leaked.
The two middle arches were each filled with two huge barrels. The end arches were not filled with barrels, to leave room for movement. There was one row of barrels up against each of the big barrels, and in each nave there were ten barrels in the niches.
This cellar has aeration on the south side, through the shaft above the stairway. On the north side there are two very long, sharply-angled air vents which were closed with glass, and opened during good weather and during south winds. The air vents were on either side of the cellar door.
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How does a vacuum diode work?
A vacuum diode consists of a glass bottle from which air is evacuated. Anode and cathode are located inside the balloon. The anode looks like a cylinder. Inside this cylinder is the cathode, which is a slip-on metal tube.
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7.7 Basketry and Scots language
Largely because of its long history and its geographical universality, basket weaving has a hugely rich and diverse association with Scots language. The aforementioned website Woven Communities gives a tremendous insight through its glossary of the importance and complexity of basketry throughout Scotland.
The site details the change in language used as basketry travels across Scotland, particularly up to the Northern Isles where a basket called a kishie in Shetland, or caisie in Orkney, “is used in a similar way that the back creel is used by crofters in the Highlands and Islands off the west coast of Scotland.” (Dawn, 2013).
Woven Communities also has a detailed step-by-step set of instructions [Tip: hold Ctrl and click a link to open it in a new tab. (Hide tip)] by Ewan Balfour, a Shetlander, whose skill in making a kishie features numerous words such as dockans, simmens, hjogs and gloy.
Activity 11
Part 1
In this penultimate activity you will work some more with the Scots vocabulary linked to basketry using the knowledge you have gained studying this section.
Match the words below to the correct definitions.
1. dockan
2. hjog
3. simmens
4. gloy
5. kishie
6. cassie/caissie
7. creel
• a.A deep wicker basket carried on the back by means of a strap passing round the breast or (more rarely) the forehead, used for carrying fish, peats, potatoes
• b.A basket made of straw, or of woven heather, coarse grass, reeds, “or dried dockstalks”
• c.A straw basket
• d.A coarse weed of temperate regions, with inconspicuous greenish or reddish flowers. The leaves are used to relieve nettle stings
• e.Straw; cleaned, unbroken carefully selected and “bound up in little sheaves four or five inches in diameter”, used for making baskets, straw-ropes, bee-hives, thatching, etc.
• f.A rope made of heather, grass, rushes, or esp. straw
• g.The loops of straw of which a basket is made
The correct answers are:
• 1 = d
• 2 = g
• 3 = f
• 4 = e
• 5 = c
• 6 = b
• 7 = a
Part 2
You can explore the impressive variety of baskets produced in Scotland on the Woven Communities website, which features information about basketmaking communities in Scotland. When exploring the Basket types section, pay attention to the names of baskets, which often are Scots words, such as creel or cassie.
7.6 Basketry or Basket Weaving
7.8 What I have learned
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Java KeyPairGenerator
Jakob Jenkov
Last update: 2018-01-24
The Java KeyPairGenerator class (java.security.KeyPairGenerator) is used to generate asymmetric encryption / decryption key pairs. An asymmetric key pair consists of two keys. The first key is typically used to encrypt data. The second key which is used to decrypt data encrypted with the first key.
Public Key, Private Key Type Key Pairs
The most commonly known type of asymmetric key pair is the public key, private key type of key pair. The private key is used to encrypt data, and the public key can be used to decrypt the data again. Actually, you could also encrypt data using the public key and decrypt it using the private key.
The private key is normally kept secret, and the public key can be made publicly available. Thus, if Jack encrypts some data with his private key, everyone in possession of Jack's public key can decrypt it.
Creating a KeyPairGenerator Instance
To use the Java KeyPairGenerator you must first create a KeyPairGenerator instance. Creating a KeyPairGenerator instance is done by calling the method getInstance() method. Here is an example of creating a Java KeyPairGenerator instance:
KeyPairGenerator keyPairGenerator = KeyPairGenerator.getInstance("RSA");
The getInstance() method takes the name of the encryption algorithm to generate the key pair for. In this example we use the name RSA.
Initializing the KeyPairGenerator
Depending on the algorithm the key pair is generated for, you may have to initialize the KeyPairGenerator instance. Initializing the KeyPairGenerator is done by calling its initialize() method. Here is an example of initializing a Java KeyPairGenerator instance:
This example initializes the KeyPairGenerator to generate keys of 2048 bits in size.
Generating a Key Pair
To generate a KeyPair with a KeyPairGenerator you call the generateKeyPair() method. Here is an example of generating a KeyPair with the KeyPairGenerator:
KeyPair keyPair = keyPairGenerator.generateKeyPair();
Jakob Jenkov
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Let in the Light: Ancient Roman Fort Designed for Celestial Show
Hardknott Roman Fort
The fort was constructed during the rule of Roman Emperor Hadrian (reign A.D. 117-138). It was part of a system of fortifications that protected the frontier of Roman Britain. (Image credit: (Richard Semik) |
The gateways of an ancient Roman fort in Britain are roughly aligned with the light from the sun during the summer and winter solstices — a design that would have resulted in a striking scene on the shortest and longest days of the year, a researcher says.
During the winter solstice, the sun would rise in line with the fort's southeastern and northwestern gates, and set in line with the fort's southwestern and northeastern gates. [In Photos: Amazing Ruins of the Ancient World]
"Moreover, the four towers of the garrison seem aligned to cardinal directions," Amelia Carolina Sparavigna, a physics professor at the Politecnico di Torino (Polytechnic University of Turin) in Italy, wrote in the study, published Dec. 17 in the journal Philica.
The ruins of the Roman fort in Britain by Hardknott Pass are roughly aligned with the light of the solstice sun. (Image credit: Satellite image copyright Infoterra Ltd & Bluesky, courtesy Amelia Carolina Sparavigna)
The fort's ruins are located near Hardknott Pass in Cumbria, England, and offer a commanding view of the sprawling Eskdale Valley. Built during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, who ruled from A.D. 117 to 138, the structure was part of a series of fortifications that once guarded the Roman frontier in Britain.
Sparavigna used online software to calculate the angles at which the solstice sun rises and sets at the fort. She then used satellite maps available on Google Earth to determine how the rising and setting solstice sun compares to the fort's features.
"This image is very interesting, because we can easily imagine the sun passing through the four gates on solstices," Sparavigna said.
The summer solstice (which last occurred on June 21, 2014) represents the longest day of the year, when the sun appears at its highest point in the sky. The winter solstice (which last occurred on Dec. 21, 2014) represents the shortest day of the year, when the sun appears at its lowest point in the sky.
High-resolution images of the fort and its topography are available through Google Earth. These images were used along with the solstice sunrise/sunset calculations to discover the alignments. (Image credit: Satellite image copyright Infoterra Ltd & Bluesky, copyright Google)
Sun gods?
But the reason for the fort's celestial alignment remains unclear. In her paper, and in an email to Live Science, Sparavigna noted that she is not an expert on Roman religion. However, she did offer some ideas that might help to explain the alignment.
"An orientation of sacred places to sun and sky is common to several religions," Sparavigna told Live Science in an email. It is "quite possible that the Hardknott fort has a symbolic homage to the sun," she said. "The god could be Sol, the ancient Roman god of the sun, which evolved [into] Sol Invictus (a deity whose name means "unconquered sun")."
Another possible link could be with Mithra, a god of light, "whose mysteries were a religion popular in the Roman army," Sparavigna wrote in the study. The worship of Mithra originated in Persia but became popular throughout the Roman Empire.
Sparavigna also noted that there are several Roman towns in Italy that have alignments with the solstice sun. Additionally, the town of Timgad, in northern Africa, is aligned with the direction of the sunrise on the birthday of the Roman Emperor Trajan, who reigned from A.D. 98 to 117.
Owen Jarus
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mountain goat, mountain goats, flipfact, flipfacts, flipscience
FlipFact of the Day: A caprine species endemic to North America, mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) possess the uncanny, seemingly physics-defying ability to scale high cliffs. Slopes angled above 60 degrees don’t bother it, and ledges and gaps don’t faze it. This talent has proven to be invaluable when they hunt for food or escape from predators. More often than not, these sure-footed climbers have been photographed in situations that would be dangerous to ordinary humans. But how, exactly, do they pull off these incredible feats that would turn any mountaineer green with envy?
Simply put, mountain goats are pretty much built to climb. For starters, their convex-shaped hooves are a combination of hard, bony outer casings (letting them dig into the tiniest ledges) and soft pads underneath (that follow the texture and contours of mountain surfaces). They’re also capable of bringing their front toes together and wiggling them apart, depending on what they need to improve their surface grip.
Mountain goats are also powerful jumpers; in a single bound, they can jump to 12 feet. Additionally, their muscular shoulders and thick necks enable them to pull themselves up without much difficulty.
And then there’s the way they leap and climb: Though we haven’t really observed many of them during actual climbs (due to their generally inaccessible locations), experts note that mountain goats tend to keep their elbows close to their center of mass when climbing, giving themselves a bit of a boost when they leap and extend their elbows. Thus, when it comes to mountaineering, mountain goats truly are the G.O.A.T.
Cover photo: Francesco L./Flickr
Author: Mikael Angelo Francisco
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Online Welsh language course
Ask Dr Gramadeg Sqwar8.jpg
croeseiriau cymraeg.jpg
Os - If
• os - if ( conjunctions / cysyllteiriau )
sample sentence: Os wyt ti'n dda byddi di'n cael un am Nadolig . - If you're good you'll get one for Christmas
Image: Nadolig
Note: Os or Pe?
Os is used when there is no doubt that something will occur e.g. Os yw'r trên yn hwyr, bydden ni'n colli'r ffilm. - If the train is late, we would miss the film.
Pe is used when there is a doubt or when an occurrence is improbable e.g. Pe byddwn i'n ennill y loteri, byddwn i'n prynu car newydd. - If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.
Conjunctions are linking words e.g. and , but , because , or. They are used to connect clauses or sentences to form more complex sentences. e.g. 'I want to go out tomorrow but it is going to rain all day.' Many Welsh conjunctions take a particular construction ( ' i' or ' bod' ) to link them with what follows in the sentence.
Os takes neither the 'i' or 'bod' constructions.
see: How do conjunctions work in Welsh? for more details.
mutant.jpg In the sample sentence above on this page you will observe that the spelling of one word ( dda ) differs from the spelling on the relevant Geiriadur listing page ( Da - Good ). Be not alarmed!
This happens because:-
The three types of mutation are:-
Soft Mutation
Nasal Mutation
Aspirate Mutation
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Honey program
The honey program is a price support program provided by the United States Department of Agriculture to American honey producers. Federal subsidies to the honey industry began in 1950, when demand for honey decreased following the end of World War II. The program was eliminated in 1993, and re-instated in 2002.
In the United States, non-recourse marketing loans had long been available to support honey prices until FY1994, when the funding was suspended by provisions in annual appropriations legislation. During World War II, the United States government encouraged the production of honey, which was used as an alternative sweetener to sugar, which was strictly rationed. After the sugar rations were lifted and demand for honey fell, honey producers turned to the federal government for support. Subsidies for honey producers were included in the Agricultural Act of 1949.[1]
In the 1980s, the Reagan administration and the United States Senate unsuccessfully moved to eliminate the program. A report by the General Accountability Office found that the subsidies to beekeepers were no longer necessary to ensure the pollination of American crops.[1] President Bill Clinton proposed ending the honey program as part of his plan to reduce the national deficit. By 1991, over half of honey program subsidies went to fewer than 10% of participating beekeepers.[2] The United States Congress ended the honey program in the 1993 agricultural appropriations bill.[3]
The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) repealed the statutory authority for the honey program. A Honey Recourse Loan Program was made available for the 1998 crop only through broader emergency spending authority in the FY1999 agriculture appropriations act (P.L. 105-277).
In 2002, president George W. Bush signed an agricultural appropriations bill reinstating the honey program.[4] The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 1201) made honey eligible for marketing assistance loans (and loan deficiency payments, LDPs) from 2002 through 2007.
1. Risen, James (March 21, 1993). "Is U.S. Stuck With Honey Subsidies?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 16, 2019.
2. Brasher, Philip (April 6, 1993). "Small Number of Beekeepers Share Government's Honey Subsidies With PM". Associated Press. Retrieved June 16, 2019.
3. LaFraniere, Sharon (October 16, 1993). "Senate Sting Fatal to Honey Program". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 16, 2019.
4. Rauch, Jonathan (May 1, 2002). "The Farm Bill Is a Bad Joke With a Good Punch Line". The Atlantic. Retrieved June 16, 2019.
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Quarky Science https://quarkyscience.ca Best little science store on the Web! Fri, 15 Jan 2021 08:12:11 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=3.7.35 An Astronomer in World War II https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/an-astronomer-in-world-war-ii/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/an-astronomer-in-world-war-ii/#comments Thu, 10 Nov 2016 21:23:12 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=5041 It’s the day before Remembrance Day, when we look back to remember the sacrifices of our ancestors in the two World Wars and by those in more recent operations overseas in our uncertain world. In the modern world, we know about the role of scientists in total war mainly from the dramatic results of the Manhattan Project. Decades of work towards nuclear power were lost, as all efforts were redirected towards getting the atomic bomb before Germany. During these global conflicts of the twentieth century, many scientists were thrown at the problems created by modern warfare.
Walter Roberts was the astronomer in charge of the Climax Observatory (later renamed the High Altitude Observatory) in Colorado, 1940-45. He made daily observations of the Sun, using a coronagraph, a solar observing devise that had only been discovered by a Frenchman (Bernard Lyot) nine years before he took over operations at the Colorado observatory. Essentially, the coronagraph filters out the unwanted glare of the Sun so astronomers can view the much fainter edge (corona), to observe solar flares and prominences. Before the invention of the coronagraph, observers would have to wait for a total eclipse of the Sun to be able to do this and even then they would only have a couple minutes of viewing time, if the weather cooperated.
Making use of this new instrument, at the Climax Observatory, Walter Roberts discovered that there was a link between radio interference on Earth and solar activity. The importance of this discovery, during World War II, caused it to be immediately classified and for the rest of the war Roberts reported his daily observations directly to the US Navy. Because of the critical importance of radios to coordinate military operations, his reports on solar activity were transmitted to Allied Command in various theatres to ensure no major operations were launched when they would be disrupted by solar activity, effectively jamming their communications. In the lead up to D-Day, Roberts’ reports were transmitted daily to nervous planners in England, to ensure that one of the largest amphibious landings of the war didn’t become a complete fiasco.
Because of the quality of the work by Walter Roberts, during and after the war, Colorado has become a world headquarters of solar astronomy. Straddling the sciences of astronomy and meteorology, his work pushed the boundaries of our understanding, about the relationship between the Sun and our terrestrial weather. Walter Roberts spent the last decades of his life applying his scientific knowledge and will against a new threat to humanity: Climate Change.
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2016 Summer Science Reading List https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/2016-summer-science-reading-list/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/2016-summer-science-reading-list/#comments Thu, 07 Jul 2016 22:23:18 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=4989 It’s time for a scientific summer reading list to get the neurons firing. There are times when you want to read something that might profoundly change how you think about the world around you. These are eight recent reads, but not necessarily recently published books, on subjects ranging from material science and astronomy, to psychology and linguistic archaeology. These are eight books that will challenge or enhance your understanding on the subjects they cover or they might be just the thing to help make up your mind about what field you want to go into.
1) Why Things Break, by Mark E. Eberhart; Harmony Books (2003)
A self-described theoretical chemist, the author takes us on a journey through the history of material science and the scientific reasons why things break. Eberhart is a talented and personable writer, providing an excellent introduction to material science. He takes us through his career, in a fledgling science that at the time made other scientist have a hard time figuring out how to classify what he was doing. It’s the kind of book that can inspire you to choose material science as a career.
2) Stuff, by Ivan Amato; Basic Books (1997)
Stuff is another strongly written book on material science. It tackles a lot of the nuts and bolts issues, whether you’re a distant ancestor standing on the Serengeti Plains or a modern scientist manipulating molecular to create materials that have never existed before. Stuff puts you in the shoes of the earliest man, making sense of his surroundings as the earliest material scientist making the most of what is on hand and improvising from there. Amato shows us the motivations of material scientists as they do their best to keep up with the needs of industry, while at the same time drag us kicking and screaming into the future.
3) The Horse, the Wheel, and Language, by David W. Anthony; Princeton (2007)
The Horse, the Wheel, and Language won the 2010 book award from the Society for American Archaeology and it’s easy to see why. Anthony delves deep into the past of archaeological linguistics in search of the Proto-Indo-European language. He shows in great detail how languages shift over time and allows us to witness the migrations of our earliest linguistic ancestors through his writings. It’s also long hard look at the archaeology of the people who spoke these languages, who have often been overlooked in the West as our cultural ancestors. It’s an amazing read.
4) Britain AD, by Francis Pryor; Harper Perennial (2004)
Britain AD picks up where Britain BC leaves us, with the Celts and Romans staking their claims to England. It also deals with the coming of the Anglo-Saxons that created a whole new level of upheaval in the already fragmented British cultural landscape. Britain BC does its best to look at the often murky time when a historical Arthur would have laid the foundation for his timeless and confusing legacy. For anyone interested in archaeology and English history it’s a must read.
5) First Man, by James R. Hansen, Simon & Schuster (2005)
If you’ve ever felt inspired by the Apollo astronauts, then the only authorized biography of the late Neil Armstrong is what you should be reading right now. It chronicles the life of the most famous astronaut from childhood to retirement, with a lot of details about the fascinating work he did along the way, as an aerospace pioneer. When he was chosen by the Gemini program he wasn’t just a test pilot, he was a research pilot, who worked closely with the engineers to prepare jets for the test pilots. In the Apollo program he was the astronaut chosen to head up the team running the simulators. He published multiple engineering papers a year, with new technology being developed all around him, all while training hard for his chance to go into space with the Apollo program. There’s an amazing amount of detail about the man and the missions he took part in that make this book an essential part of the collection of anyone interested in space exploration.
6) Mirror Mirror, by Mark Pendergrast; Basic Books (2003)
At first you might wonder what a book about mirrors has to do with science, until you pause to think about the primary instruments used in microscopy and astronomy. A good portion of the work is dedicated to the early development of mirrors. The rest is all about the use of mirrors in science, including the development of microscopes. It also covers the aperture race, where optical technicians and engineers vied to build the biggest mirrors to examine the universe with. Mirror Mirror takes an in depth look into the advances of technology that made amateur astronomy something more than a hobby for the very rich, with the introduction of new materials and telescope designs. This is a great read for anyone interested in the history of engineering and science.
7) The Third Man, by John Geiger; Penguin (2009)
The Third Man examines the seldom discussed phenomenon of people under high stress visualizing an additional person in their company. From the darkest hours of the Shackleton expedition to desperate climbing parties on Mount Everest, there are many incidents of the “third man effect”, where a ‘shadow person‘ appears to join a lone traveler or small group under great duress and provide them with comfort. This book delves into the psychology and neurology of what is behind this phenomenon, with many references to Reflections on the Dawn of Consciousness: Julian Jayness’s Bicameral Mind Theory, which is in and of itself a great read. It’s a very interesting book on a tough to tackle subject.
8) Rust, Jonathon Waldman; Simon & Schuster (2015)
Jonathon Waldman brings us a compelling book on what many would find hard to believe to be a compelling subject. As a civilization that’s built on metal, the long fight against rust is well documented but overlooked by most people in a modern consumer society. It’s a fascinating look at how rust attacks the infrastructure of our modern world, how we’ve gone horribly wrong fighting it, and where we’ve got it right. Waldman also gives us a view into our industrial world that many running that world would rather you not look too closely at: like the metal cans a lot of our food is stored in. Given the amount of metal all around us in our daily lives, Rust is an essential read to help make sense of how to understand and protect the basis of our industrial world. Given the sheer amount of metal out there, a career as an engineer specializing in corrosion has a lot of job security.
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Lunar Eclipse! Sunday, Sept. 27th, 2015 https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/lunar-eclipse-sunday-sept-27th-2015/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/lunar-eclipse-sunday-sept-27th-2015/#comments Sun, 27 Sep 2015 01:35:21 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=4814
One of the things that make a lunar eclipse special for amateur astronomers is that it can be enjoyed with minimal or no gear at all. Whether you’re just looking up at the sky or using a pair of binoculars, you can take in events like this. You can see a lot more when you’re looking through a telescope, but anyone looking up at the moon can watch as it gets covered by the Earth’s shadow, before temporarily turning red. All you need is a clear sky and because it’s the moon, you can even watch it happen in a light polluted city.
The lunar eclipse this Sunday, September 27th is a special one for a few reasons. For the last couple of years, we’ve been spoiled with having two lunar eclipses a year. After Sunday’s event that changes. This lunar eclipse will be the last one we get until January 31st, 2018.
This eclipse also happens to be a perigee-syzygy or super moon event. This means that the moon is slightly closer in its orbit than it usually is when the moon is full. The moon has an egg-like, elliptical orbit. When the moon is at the furthest distance in its orbit from our planet it’s referred to as being at apogee. At its closest, like tomorrow, it’s referred to as being at perigee. This means that to observers on Earth, the moon will appear to be big bigger and a bit brighter, but nothing like some of the exaggerated, Photoshopped pictures you sometimes see online. The media really loves the term supermoon, when referring to the full moons at perigee, but you’ll never hear the media get excited about micromoons, when the full moon is at apogee.
For observers on the west coast, the moon will rise in the east, minutes away from the actual eclipse event. You’ll want to get to a place with an unobstructed view of the east and south-east to get the best view. Moon rise here in Victoria is at about 7pm (PST) and the total eclipse begins at 7:11pm. The eclipse will last until 8:23pm and then the shadow of the Earth on the Moon will slowly recede until the full moon resets at 9:27pm (PST). For local moon rise and eclipse timings elsewhere, check your planetarium software or search online.
For viewing the moon, you don’t need any equipment but a pair of binoculars will give you a better view than not having a pair of binoculars. For telescopes, you don’t need a large telescope to observe the moon. On Sunday night, I’ll actually be using a focal reducer-flattener, to reduce the power of my 203mm (8”) aperture telescope, so I can have a wide field view of the whole moon through a low power eyepiece.
If you’re photographing the lunar eclipse, you’ll want a tripod and a telephoto lens, using either a timer or remote shutter trigger to minimize camera shake. The bigger the lens, the closer view you’ll get, and the less cropping you’ll have to do later. Make sure you use point metering on the Moon or the brightness of the moon will wash out the picture, as the camera attempts to compensate for the darker sky. If you’re not certain take a lot of shots at various exposures to see what works (use your manual modes). Don’t use infinity as a focus, but set it manually through your live view (or viewer). You don’t need a lot of depth of field (F/stop) to shoot the moon, so keep that number on the low end (whatever your lens allows for). You need to understand that you will need to regularly adjust the shutter speed as the moon darkens, from the Earth’s shadow, and when it begins to brighten. As the shutter speed gets slower, unless you have a camera on a tracking mount, you’ll probably also need to increase the ISO at some point, so that the movement of the moon doesn’t blur the shot. Above all take a lot of shots and experiment, since this is your last chance until 2018 to see a lunar eclipse!
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Summer Reading List https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/summer-reading-list/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/summer-reading-list/#comments Tue, 08 Jul 2014 10:34:35 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=4291 I thought it would be a good idea to do a summer science reading list. There are a lot of books that have changed me profoundly after reading them. All of these science books are that kind of book; the ones that make you go ‘wow’ more than a few times before you finally put them down. Some of these books have been around a while, but the science remains relevant today. They’re also all books that have a permanent spot on my book shelf.
1) The Trouble with Physics, by Lee Smolin; Mariner Books (2006).
For anyone interested in String Theory, M Theory, or cosmology this is a must read. It’s not a light read, by any means. I found myself often going back and forth to keep up, but it remains one of my favourite books written about physics.
2) 13 Things That Don’t Make Sense, by Michael Brooks; Doubleday (2008)
Tackling subjects from cold fusion to the placebo effect, this book is a roller-coaster of scientific head scratchers that make you realize what an incredible universe we all live in. It also addresses the problems dealing with the missing mass of the universe we all live in.
3) Chaos: Making a New Science, by James Gleick; Penguin Books (1987)
Chaos is a classic, but the content discussed is germane to current science. This was the first book ever written about Chaos Theory that grabbed the public consciousness. It’s the story of the development of Chaos Science and the story of how a science developed that had a profound effect on every other field of science. If you’ve ever wanted to learn about the butterfly effect or fractals, this is a great introduction.
4) Britain BC, by Francis Pryor; Harper Perennial (2003)
I’ve read a lot of books on British history and archaeology, about the pre-Roman period. This is by far my favourite book on this subject. Francis Pryor is an engaging author and an archaeologist with a fresh perspective in his field. Whether you’re a history buff, have an interest in the archaeology of the British Isles, or are fascinated by the period, this is a must read. And yes, there is considerable discussion in this book about Stonehenge and other well-known stone monuments.
5) Oxygen: the Molecule that made the World, by Nick Lane; Oxford University Press (2002)
You’ll never think about oxygen with the same casual regard after reading this book. In the examination of this chemical compound, the author takes us on a journey through Earth’s geography, chemistry, and biological evolution, before giving us a glimpse into the future of medicine. This book gives an incredibly detailed account of how oxygen has shaped our biological evolution. It also explains how while oxygen has driven evolution it’s resulted in more than a few design flaws that plague our current existence. Regardless of your scientific field of interest, you’re doing yourself a disfavour if you haven’t read this book.
6) Coming of Age in the Milky Way, by Timothy Ferris; William Morrow & Company (1988)
If you were going to pick one book about the history of cosmology, this would be that book. It takes us through the earliest recorded thoughts about night sky, then forward to the greatest shapers of our own modern cosmology (Kepler, Newton, and Einstein) and finally to modern physics and the construction of CERN. One of the things I loved about this book is the attention to detail and how it dedicates so much time to the science of astronomy as practiced by the ancients. Considering how few shoulders the earliest astronomers had to stand on and the tools they had, it’s truly amazing to read about how they calculated the size of our solar system and the distance to the stars.
7) The Black Swan: the Impact of the Highly Improbable, by Nassim Nicholas Taleb; Random House (2007)
Nassim Nicholas Taleb is a well-blended mixture of chaos theory, economics, and philosophy. He’s also one of the few economists who didn’t get surprised during the crash in 2008 and had a lot of grateful clients in the aftermath. After watching him do a couple of interviews on economics, it was abundantly clear that this was someone with an amazing mind and not just someone spouting other people’s catch phrases. The Black Swan is an engaging read about the probabilities of the improbable. If you weren’t already warmed up to chaos theory, this book will have you treating the improbable not as a shocking surprise, but as something to be expected in your day to day life.
8) Reflections on the Dawn of Consciousness: Julian Jayness’s Bicameral Mind Theory Revisited, edited by Marcel Kuijsten; Julian Jaynes Society (2006)
This revised edition is a series of later writings by several authors, along with the original writings about Bicameral Mind Theory by Julian Jaynes. This is the theory that our brains have evolved since ancient times, when our minds were more like those of schizophrenics (the bicameral mind). Over time we have evolved into our current state of consciousness. I discovered this book after coming across numerous other books that quoted extensively from it. When enough good books do this, it’s a good indication that this is a book worth reading. It’s a theory that shakes the foundations of what we know about the ancient world and human evolution.
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Astrophotography: Barlow T-Adapter https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/astrophotography-barlow-t-adapter/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/astrophotography-barlow-t-adapter/#comments Thu, 05 Jun 2014 20:14:25 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=4210 A lot of doing successful astrophotography is having the right tools for the right job. When you’re swapping views, through a telescope, between your eyepiece and your DSLR, you’ll notice a huge loss in magnification. When you attach your camera to your telescope, you’re using the telescope as a camera lens. You will get some magnification from the camera’s image sensor chip, but never enough to compensate for the magnification that comes from using a medium or high power eyepiece. This is especially important when you’re imaging a planet or globular star cluster. When you’re using a telescope as a lens for your DSLR there are three ways to regain your magnification of the target.
Cropping the picture in post production is the easiest and the worst solution. Every time you crop a picture you’re sacrificing resolution for the sake of making the subject bigger in the frame. Your pictures will be less sharp and less satisfying. If you find yourself constantly doing lots of cropping to make the subjects the size you want, you’re going to have to consider getting a more expensive camera so you have more pixels to sacrifice.
Tele-extenders, like the Celestron Deluxe Tele-Extender, give you a way to connect your camera and look through the eyepiece at the same time. To attach your DSLR to the tele-extender you’ll need a brand specific Camera T-Ring, either Canon or Nikon. When it works, it’s a great solution. Problems can arise though when the length of the tele-extenders’s metal tube is too long to clear some mounts, when observing objects that are high in the sky. Tele-extenders work fine with most Plossl eyepieces, but many of the wider eyepiece body designs won’t fit inside the tele-extender sleeve. There can also be issues with the screws holding the tele-extender in place. They can get loosened during use and are all that is holding your expensive DSLR camera from hitting the ground. Some telescopes will only allow you to use one of the two screws provided! A lot of users will add additional straps to secure their camera. Some also put a thick elastic around the tele-extender tube, to help keep the screws underneath from moving. When things work well, a tele-extender is great way to get up close to your subject when doing astrophotography. You just need to make sure you have eyepieces that will fit inside the metal sleeve of the tele-extender, you’re not fighting the mount, and are mindful of how well secured your camera and tele-extender are to the telescope.
What I find myself using most for astrophotography is the Celestron Barlow T-Adapter. It’s a Barlow lens and T-Adapter in one! The Barlow lens doubles your magnification, offsetting a lot of the loss of magnification from removing the eyepiece. To attach your DSLR to the Barlow T-Adapter you’ll need a brand specific Camera T-Ring, either Canon or Nikon. Unless you’re using a solar telescope, remove the diagonal and attach the Barlow T-Adapter to the visual back of the telescope. Depending on the telescope that you’re using, you may have problems reaching focus. At that point you’ll need something like Sky-Watcher’s Adjustable Camera Adapter or similar extension tube. What makes me rely on the the Barlow T-Adapter is that it’s very easy to use and requires a lot less fussing around than a tele-extender.
Another feature I really like about the Barlow T-Adapter is the same threads that attach the Barlow to the T-Adapter can be used for eyepiece filters. That means I can take any of my eyepiece filters, designed to attach to 1.25″ (31.7 mm) barreled eyepieces, and use them with this T-Adapter.
Barlow T-Adapter with Celestron Filter Kit (left) and Moon Filter (right)
A few months ago, I used this feature to take a series of pictures of the Orion Nebula, using different filters. You just unscrew the Barlow on the end of the T-Adapter and screw on filters (stacking them if I want to).
T-Adapter with Barlow removed and Moon Filter attached
T-Adapter with Barlow removed and Moon Filter attached
I can also screw on a filter and then re-attach the Barlow to the end of the filter, but this means you’ll need to re-adjust the telescope’s focus. Unfortunately, you can’t attach filters to the end of the Barlow, because there are no threads available.
The most important thing to remember, when you’re doing astrophotography with a telescope, is to get the focus right. The focus of your telescope, when you’re looking through an eyepiece, will always be different from how your telescope is focused for the camera. To focus my camera I aim the telescope at the brightest star I can find, adjust the ISO setting on my camera to maximum, and the exposure set to BULB. I use the LCD screen and maximize the image to get the star as big in the screen as I can to get the best focusing results. After that I don’t touch the focus. This means if you’re swapping between observing and astrophotography, you’ll also have to change the telescope focus each time you do so. Also, always use a remote shutter trigger for taking pictures to minimize camera shake.
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Joining an Astronomy Club https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/joining-an-amateur-astronomy-club/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/joining-an-amateur-astronomy-club/#comments Fri, 30 May 2014 17:15:38 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=4199 Some people might think the idea, of organizing a group of people to get together for the solitary activity of looking through a telescope, to be a bit of a contradiction. But when you’re involved in a hobby, with a technical aspect and a learning curve, it’s never a bad idea to put yourself in the company of people with experiences in what you’re interested in.
There are a lot of reasons for amateur astronomers to join an astronomy club of like-minded individuals. For a lot of people, it’s getting some advice and ideas to help them through their new hobby’s learning curve. It answers that question some people have after getting a telescope: now what? It’s also a chance to help promote science in your community, by volunteering at events organized by your astronomy club. Then there’s the social aspect; the opportunity to mix with a variety of people who share an interest in astronomy. For most amateur astronomers it’s a mixture of all three.
For me, joining an astronomy club was a mixture of all three reasons. I started out as a solo amateur astronomer, but that changed, after attending a weekend star party put on by the local astronomy club. I joined the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (Victoria Centre) and by doing so got a lot more out of being an amateur astronomer. RASC has 29 centres across Canada and there are numerous other astronomy clubs (like the Cowichan Starfinders on Vancouver Island). Each of these local groups provides members with the chance to learn more about their hobby, social events, and volunteering opportunities to give back to the community. If you live in an area, where urban light pollution is a problem, these are also the people who can give you advice about the best places to go for stargazing.
As a member of the RASC Victoria Centre, I’m looking forward to doing some observing this weekend, with other observers, to take advantage of the clear skies. On Saturday, I’ll be joining a lot of other volunteers to do astronomy public outreach for a Beaver Scout event. We just wrapped up our last Astronomy Cafe for the season, with the Monday social gatherings returning again in September. Friday after this (June 6th), weather permitting, we’ll be out with our telescopes at Cattle Point, one of only two urban star parks in Canada. Our monthly club meeting will be happening in a couple of weeks, with a guest speaker to educate and inform on the subject of astronomy. On the July 25-27 weekend we’ll be hosting the annual RASCals Star Party in Metchosin, for people who want to drop by or camp for the weekend under the stars. On the August 22-24th weekend, the Cowichan Starfinders astronomy club will be putting on a star party of their own, near Duncan.
It’s the 100th Anniversary of RASC Victoria Centre and to honour the occasion Victoria is hosting the 2014 RASC General Assembly. This is a conference for astronomers from across Canada, taking place at the University of Victoria, from June 26-30th. There will be lots to do, food, and numerous speakers, including the host of Quirks and Quarks: Bob McDonald. For members of RASC and people thinking about joining RASC, there’s still time to register for the General Assembly.
Photograph of the heart of the Orion Nebula, taken with Canon T3i, using a Hydrogen-Alpha Filter, through a 127mm apochromatic refractor.
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International Dark Sky Week https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/international-night-sky-week/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/international-night-sky-week/#comments Sat, 26 Apr 2014 18:23:57 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=4070 I’m lucky. In a world with a growing trend towards urbanization, I grew up in a small, rural community without a lot of light pollution. I’d sometimes sneak outside after bedtime at night, just to gaze up at the Milky Way, in those crystal clear night skies of my childhood. I read what books on astronomy I could find at the small, school library. There weren’t many. I sometimes wonder how much sooner I could have gotten to where I am now as an amateur astronomer, if I’d had access to a telescope and some star charts.
I never lost the wonder at looking up at the night sky, but opportunities for star gazing were pretty limited, under the light polluted skies of the downtown core where I lived, after moving away from home. The city lights and busy streets have a way of making you forget about looking up at the stars. Years later and I’m pulled over on the side of the road, on highway 93, somewhere between Jasper and Banff. It’s dark and I’m laying down on the hood of the old Mustang, looking up at Mars. It’s a bright red point of light in the night sky, in opposition (the closest that Earth and Mars get to each other in their individual orbits).
That time I spent on the hood of a car, looking up at Mars, was the moment that brought me back to the night sky. I bought a copy of Night Watch, by Terence Dickinson, and saved up enough money to get myself a telescope. The next time Mars was in opposition, over two years later, I have a telescope and I’m set up at Cattle Point, one of the better dark sky observing spots in Greater Victoria. After camping out for the weekend under the night sky for my first star party, it was only a matter of time before I joined the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Right now, International Dark Sky Week is coming to a close and Mars is once more burning bright in the sky. The opposition of Mars for 2014 started in the middle of April. Mars is clearly visible in the south-eastern sky, after sunset*, currently in the constellation of Virgo. During May, the red planet will begin to dim. You can make out the sphere shape of the planet with a pair of binoculars, but a telescope is better. It’s also the last chance to get a look at the Orion Nebula, in the west at sunset*, before it slips under the horizon for the summer. The Orion Nebula can be seen through a pair of binoculars, but is best appreciated through a telescope.
International Dark Sky Week is as much about observing and appreciation, as it is about conservation. Take some time to look up at the night sky and think about what you can do to reduce light pollution in your area. Too many children today grow up never seeing the stars in a dark night sky.
*Observations are based on current night sky as seen from Greater Victoria region. Night sky will differ depending on the observer’s latitude and longitude.
The picture above is of the Orion Nebula, I shot this January, using a Canon T3i through a 5″ apochromatic refractor, for 600 seconds at ISO 100 (single exposure-no stacking).
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Shooting the Moon https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/shooting-the-moon/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/shooting-the-moon/#comments Sun, 23 Jun 2013 01:24:29 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=3188 A lot of you will have heard of the super moon on Sunday. It’s when the moon appears larger in the night sky because it’s actually closer to Earth than normal. This particular super moon is the best of the three super moon events of 2013, because it will be closer than the other two. People will be seeing links to this in their social networks and news they look at. There will be many nice pictures of the moon to look at. At some point, if you do a bit of photography already, you’ll think about taking a picture of the moon yourself.
Unlike other night sky subjects, the moon and planets don’t require tracking to take pictures of them. This is because the sunlight is reflected so brightly off of them that you’ll be using a fast shutter speed to fight through the glare to get any detail of their surface. Unlike the planets, when you’re photographing the moon you won’t need the magnifying power of a telescope to see surface detail. You can see a lot of detail with just a pair of binoculars or a telephoto lens. Also, unlike the planets, you can take a picture of the moon during the daytime. Your best choice of camera is a DSLR. There are also good point-and-shoot cameras, but a lot of them don’t process light as well as a DSLR, so they’re not the best choice for night shoots.
The most important thing is not to use automatic camera settings when taking a picture of the moon! If you shoot on automatic camera settings, your camera will look at the dark night sky and assume it has to open up the shutter for longer. The result is a picture of a bright, white blob. Another important thing is to ensure you charged your battery before you head out and carry an extra one if you have it. It’s never fun to show up somewhere to do photography with dead batteries.
If you know how to change your camera’s metering, change it from evaluative metering (default on most DSLR’s) to spot metering. That way when you do your metering, it will be based on the moon and not the entire sky. If you don’t know anything about metering you can still take a decent shot.
I like to use my lowest ISO; ISO 100 in the case of my camera. A higher ISO will give it a grainy look and while the moon does move, it’s not moving fast enough relative to the movement of the Earth and the shutter speed I’ll be using to make me want to use a higher ISO factor. Depending on cloud cover (or pollution) and what phase the moon is in, you’ll want to use a shutter speed somewhere between 1/60 and 1/300 of a second. 1/125 is a good shutter speed to start shooting a full moon. If it’s your first or fifth time out taking pictures of the moon, I recommend you take multiple pictures at different shutter speeds to find out what works best in the conditions you’re shooting in, and what balance between detail and lighting you like best as a photographer. You’ve taken the time to go out and take pictures of the moon, so why not take a few and use it as an opportunity to learn more about how your camera works? For your depth of field, it depends on your composition. If you’re just shooting the moon against the night sky, F11 will work fine. If you’re shooting the moon as it rises over a hill, you might want to shoot at F16 to get more detail of the hill (which means you need lower your shutter speed to compensate for closing the lens). If you lower your depth of field number too much, one part of the moon will be in good focus and the rest blurry (plus you’ll need to increase your shutter speed to keep the light from being too bright). If you put it up too high, it will require you to drastically lower your shutter speed to the point where you need a tracking mount to keep the moon’s motion from affecting your picture. F11 is generally where you want to set your depth of field for lunar photography.
For lunar photography, if you want any surface details without having to over-crop in post-production, you’re going to need at least a 300mm lens. Bigger is really better in this case. When you crop an image in post-production, you’re losing the pixel resolution you paid for. However, if you’re using a telescope as a lens, this is one time that bigger might not be better. This is because once you get to around 2000mm (8”) of aperture you can’t see the entire moon in the picture anymore without ‘dumbing’ down your aperture with a focal reducer. Something more like the 102mm (4″) BK 1025 refractor would work fine. In short, you don’t need a big telescope to look at the moon. You could also use a digital camera adapter or adapter to connect your camera to a spotting scope. Again, with the moon, you won’t need anything with tracking to keep it in focus while you shoot because of the high shutter speeds you’ll be using.
Getting perfect focus can be difficult when you’re squinting through the viewer at distant objects at night, be it city lights or objects in the night sky. If your camera has a “Live View” or equivalent function, where you can view your subject on a screen in real time, you can use the “+” buttons to magnify details and get a much cleaner focus. Always focus manually, or the camera will focus on whatever it wants and not what you want.
If you want a good picture you should always shoot with a tripod and remote trigger (or timer). If you feel that hauling a huge tripod is too much of a chore, there are some very small, portable tripods out there that work well for this type of photography. Anytime your shutter speed is slower than 1/mm of your lens you shouldn’t be doing handheld photography. When you use a tripod, always remember to turn off the stabilizer on your lens (if it has one). If it’s on when the camera is perfectly still, the lens will introduce artificial shaking because it just assumes you’re using it handheld if it’s on and you couldn’t possibly be holding it that steady. Timers are acceptable, although the button mashing will mean that for a few seconds, depending on how sturdy your tripod is, the tripod will be still shaking. You should be fine if you wait ten seconds, but if there are clouds moving around the moon and you have everything timed perfectly, a remote shutter trigger is always the best option for photography (unless you’re wanting the time delay to give you a chance to get into the shot). Use a remote trigger and tripod to get the least vibrations. If there are people walking around the tripod or you’re next to a busy road, you might also want to put vibration suppression pads under the legs of your tripod. This is even more important for longer duration exposure night shots. If you get caught without a tripod and remote trigger, in a pinch you can crumple up a jacket to form a supportive nest around your camera and use the timer. It’s probably best not to ask for someone else’s coat though, if you want to be well thought of. You’re the one who forgot the tripod.
A lot of people forget about composition when they photograph the moon. If you’re shooting it between the branches of a prominent tree or as it rises over a majestic hill, it can really add to the shot. Sometimes it’s just being in the right place at the right time. If you want the perfect shot though, you may want to carefully observe the movements of the moon across the night sky a few nights in advance and then wait for it to get into position on picture day. Another option is to use planetarium software and a compass to plan your shot location well in advance. A fun thing to do is to have a model (friends are less expensive) interact with the moon – such as pretending to hold it in their hand, balance it on their head, or any other pose you can think of.
Another technique to consider is paint the foreground with a flashlight or a detachable flash. Because the moon is so bright compared to the dark ground, this extra light will help to provide some detail to the ground so that it appears to be more than just a dark shape. Practice this technique beforehand, especially if you don’t have a lot of time when you’re doing your photograph of the moon.
If you really want to get fancy, take two photographs, one of the moon and one of the foreground, and then combine them in post-production. Or do what some astrophotographers do: take a series of pictures and use software to stack them into a single image.
Most importantly, while you’re out there taking pictures of the moon, don’t forget to take a moment and have a long look at it. It’s an amazing feature in our night sky that is often taken for granted.
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51 Piece T-Rex Skeleton https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/51-piece-t-rex-skeleton/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/51-piece-t-rex-skeleton/#comments Tue, 18 Dec 2012 09:56:37 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=3019 Nothing quite says Christmas like a Tyrannosaurus Rex skeleton! The 51 piece T-Rex Skeleton is just the thing to capture the excitement of any junior paleontologist. For a lot of parents, who want something that their kid won’t assemble in under two minutes, this model kit has 51 pieces. One of the things I liked the most was that there was no need to glue the pieces together. You can put it together and take it apart, and then put it together again. The large colour piece map, shows you where everything goes and includes a description of the Tyrannosaurus Rex.
I like look of the mottled, fossil-look plastic. The metal pole frame that you slide the spinal column pieces onto makes assembly easy. The box itself is stunning, but the assembled dinosaur is huge! The claims of this T-Rex Skeleton being over 91cm (36?) long are not exaggerated. It’s really big. Designed for ages 8 and up, if you have a child with an interest (0r obsession) with dinosaurs then this is the perfect gift.
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Staying Warm Under the Stars https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/staying-warm-under-the-stars/ https://quarkyscience.ca/uncategorized/staying-warm-under-the-stars/#comments Fri, 16 Nov 2012 21:29:34 +0000 http://quarkyscience.ca/?p=2850 With winter nearly upon us, the days are getting shorter. For amateur astronomers this means that you won’t have to stay up until after midnight to get dark skies for observing. On the downside, it also means that it’s going to be a lot colder out at night. An important factor to consider, when dressing up for astronomy, is that you won’t be moving around a lot when you’re stargazing. It’s dark and you’ll be looking up a lot. Because you’ll be observing on nights with clear skies, it will also be much colder than if it was cloudy.
Whether you’re a night photographer, amateur astronomer, or both, often the difference between an enjoyable and miserable experience will be how comfortable you are in your environment. Something to cover your head is a good start. While it’s a myth that most of your body heat in the cold is lost through your head, any uncovered area of your body results in faster heat loss and your head is often uncovered. You should be careful when considering a hat though, because you could easily find your hat brim pecking at your carefully targeted telescope when you lean in for a look through your eyepiece. A toque is a better choice. A balaclava might seem the ideal head-wear, right up until your neighbours start putting 911 on speed dial every time you go out into the backyard. Similarly, operating in the dark of a city park, wearing a ski mask, could result in unwanted consequences with the police. So unless you’re at a star party or very remote location, leave the balaclava at home.
Wear thermal long underwear when you’re observing at night. I’d recommend even wearing them observing in the summer. It’s an easy thing to throw on an extra upper body layer, but once you’ve left home, it’s too late to change into your long johns. You’ll want to stay away from useless cotton long underwear and stick to wool or high tech materials, like polypropylene. The best thermal long underwear I’ve ever owned were military issue and you can buy new ones at most military surplus stores. They’re about ten times better than the best civilian grade long johns for about one third of the cost. I had a lot of time to compare the merits of different types of thermal wear when I worked in a warehouse freezer, while operating heavy equipment for hours at a time.
Even during the summer, when I’m out at night, I keep a pair of light gloves on hand, because uncovered skin gets cold fast. I use what are sometimes called “minute” gloves, probably because when performing hard labour they’ll only be good for a few minutes. They often have tiny rubber beads on either one or both sides, for better grip, and are very inexpensive cloth gloves that you can find in any hardware store. You won’t want heavy gloves when you’re observing because you will lose too much sense of touch to use your equipment when you’re wearing them. Wools socks and scarfs are also a good idea.
Make sure you don’t wear any clothes that are too constricting, because cutting off your circulation isn’t going to help you stay warm. That goes for your footwear too. Dress in layers and stay away from cotton. High tech fibers and wool are better. You’ll want a hard shell jacket as your outside layer, to keep the wind from robbing you of your warmth. I tend to get most of the clothes I use for astronomy from outdoor adventure or military surplus stores. Keep at least one more layer of clothing on hand than you think you’re going to use, but don’t leave unworn clothes exposed to the elements or they might be soaked with dew by the time you need them. Keep clothes in a sealed bag until needed.
Eating and drinking are also important factors to determine if you’ll stay warm outside at night. You’ll want to eat a good meal before you go out, but try not to eat a big meal minutes before leaving or at least in the short term you’ll be even colder than if you hadn’t eaten, as your body diverts energy from keeping you warm to digesting your food. Hydration is a tricky issue for amateur astronomers. While you’re bundled up against the winter night, there might not be washrooms available or you might not be in a place where you feel comfortable abandoning your expensive equipment. You want to drink enough that you’re not dehydrated, but not so much that you’re running to the bathroom all night instead of observing. In cold weather, our sense of thirst is dulled, so just because you’re not thirsty doesn’t mean you’re not dehydrated. Also, make sure to go to the bathroom before you leave, because your body will divert energy to keeping human waste products warm that could be better used keeping the rest of you warm.
Some amateur astronomers use chemical hot packets for heating and while they’re nice for short term use, they create a lot of garbage and the money you spend on them over the long haul can be better put to use buying a new eyepiece. I like pocket charcoal hand warmers. They consist of a felt covered metal case that you burn inexpensive sticks of charcoal inside of. You can either put the case in your chest pocket, to warm your body core, or use it to warm your hands. I’ve used these charcoal burners for wilderness winter camping and they can really take the edge off the cold weather. There are amateur astronomers who choose to escape the cold by operating their telescopes remotely with a laptop, from within the confines of their own home, but for the rest of us it’s time to bundle up against the cold.
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Superposition and the Stern-Gerlach Experiment
Michael Groves
California State University-Fullerton, Chemistry and Biochemistry
Author Profile
This activity is designed to explore the idea of superposition of basis functions used to describe quantum system using the Stern-Gerlach experiment and light as examples.
Used this activity? Share your experiences and modifications
Learning Goals
The goal of the activity is to illustrate how quantum systems are built from a superposition of quantum states. This is illustrated by using the polarization of light. The MATLAB code animates student inputted light polarizations so they can get a sense as to how choosing certain basis sets can explain confusing results from the Stern-Gerlach experiment.
Context for Use
This is meant to be an in-class activity using the provided MATLAB file to animate the results of light polarization experiments. The student won't need much experience with MATLAB, however, they should understand vector notation and have learned about the Stern-Gerlach experiment.
Description and Teaching Materials
Included is activity questions and MATLAB file for students to edit and run.
Superposition Student Handout (Acrobat (PDF) 169kB Aug16 18)
Polarized Light MATLAB File (Matlab File 2kB Aug16 18)
Teaching Notes and Tips
Help students with matrix multiplication will be helpful.
Use an assessment tool like the one outlined in:
References and Resources demonstration video of the Stern-Gerlach experiment:
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How to Read the Fletcher Munson Curve in 3 Easy Steps
How to Read the Fletcher Munson Curve in 3 Easy Steps
Fletcher Munson curves are sets of contours on a graph used to explain how humans hear across different frequency curves. Reading values from the contours are straight forward and are described below in 3 easy steps.
So, how do you interpret the contours on a Fletcher Munson graph?
1. Pick one-phon curve running down the page, from left to right.
2. Pick a frequency on the x-axis, and follow the line up until it intersects with the phon contour.
3. Follow that intersecting point back to the y-axis. The value located is the perceived sound pressure level for that phon.
Fletcher Munson Contours
Figure 1: Fletcher Munson Equal Loudness Contours
Some Actual Examples
Let’s now look at some examples:
Example 1
1. Pick the 80-phon curve.
2. Pick the frequency 150Hz and follow the line up until it intersects with the 80-phon contour.
3. Follow the intersecting point to the left. The SPL level is 80dB.
Read Fletcher Munson Example 1
Figure 2: Example 1
So, for a loudness level of 80-phons, a human perceives a frequency of 150Hz as having an SPL of 80dB.
Example 2
1. Pick the 20-phon curve.
2. Pick the frequency 90Hz, again follow the line upwards.
3. Follow the intersecting point to the left. The SPL level is 40dB.
Read Fletcher Munson Example 2
Figure 3: Example 2
So, for a loudness level of 20-phons, a human perceives a frequency of 90Hz as having an SPL of 40dB.
Here are some other examples to look up:
40 6000 40
100 150 100
60 20 100
Table 1: More Examples of Equal Loudness Contour Look-Ups
And, the lookup can work the other way too:
Example 3
1. Pick the 60-phon curve.
2. Pick an SPL of 60dB, on the y-axis, and follow the line to the right until it intersects with the 60-phon contour.
3. This time, follow the intersecting point down. The frequency is 200Hz.
Read Fletcher Munson Example 3
Figure 4: Example 3
Again, for a loudness level of 60-phons, a human perceives a frequency of 200Hz as having an SPL of 60dB.
Example 4
1. Pick the 80-phon curve.
2. Pick an SPL of 80dB, on the y-axis, and follow the line to the right until it intersects with the 80-phon contour.
3. Again, follow the intersecting point down. The frequency is 6.2kHz.
Read Fletcher Munson Example 4
Figure 5: Example 4
So, for a loudness level of 80-phons, a human perceives a frequency of 6.2kHz as having an SPL of 80dB.
You now know how to read values off a Fletcher Munson graph, so next, we’ll discuss the contours in more detail, and figure out what use they are to us in the real world. And especially how they can help us with our mixing.
Contour Shapes and What they Show Us
The actual value plotted on the Fletcher Munson curves is generally not much use to home studio mixers like you and I. However understanding the principal and acoustic nature of how humans perceive frequencies at different pressure levels is very important when mixing music.
We are going to start with the general shape of each contour. Actually, although each phon curve is in a different place on the graph, the form of each one is pretty much the same. If you need to memorize the curves, it could be useful to imagine it like this:
You are watching skate-TV, and Tony Hawk is going to launch down a wave ramp. The TV camera shows Tony at the top of the ramp on the left of the screen, it’s a steep drop down with a very cornered top edge. Tony launches down the ramp picking up speed as he goes before the wave ramp rises gently before it takes a dramatic dip.
In Tony’s final part of the ride, with the remainder of his momentum, the ramp rises one last time, and Tony makes it to the summit. Gnarly! (Disclaimer: This post is not endorsed by Birdhouse or Red Bull). Take a look at the diagram right at the top of the page again, you will get the idea.
What do the Contours Mean in Practical terms?
Curves have a higher ‘range’ (on the SPL axis) at lower phon levels, therefore, mixing at more moderate volumes means that we should be able to distinguish frequencies in our mixing more comfortably. If you don’t already mix using the K-20 setup, look into it – it is a huge step forward for home mixing.
At low frequencies, the curves are all bunched up together. This shows us that perceived volume changes at the low end are difficult to distinguish. For the same perceived volume level at low frequencies, a higher SPL (amount of energy is required. It is one reason why an excellent low-end reproduction is needed to mix bass instruments.
One way around low-end mixing is to get a good pair of headphones or augment your listening with some graphical frequency analysis. The low-end SPLs are also high compared to mid-range frequencies, illustrating that we hear low-end frequencies more easily.
At high frequencies, especially around the 10kHz bump, the curves rise dramatically. The curves show us that we hear, or more correctly perceive to hear, high-end frequencies more easily.
Compared to the lows and highs, the mid-frequency range is relatively flat (except for that dip at 4kHz). This indicates that listeners can distinguish mid-range well and is why mixing music requires us to make sure mid-range frequency instruments fight for space in the mix. Mixing engineers often tell you ‘Music Lives In the Mid Range’ and is why the Aurotone Mix Cube can be a great help in mixing at home.
Why Does My Mix Sound Better When I Crank Up the Volume?
From the Fletcher-Munson Contours, we can see differences in dynamic range – the distance from the most lower part of the curve to the highest - between the 20-phon curve and the 100-phon curve. The 100-phon range is much less than the 20-phon range and therefore has a ‘flatter’ contour.
Fletcher Munson Phon Ranges
Figure 5: Fletcher Munson Phon Ranges
So, the 100-phon equal loudness contour has less variation in SPL for low, medium, and high frequencies meaning that as humans, we can hear more of the ‘music’ at higher volumes, compared to lower volumes. Therefore, music at higher volumes appears to have a fuller frequency range, which as humans we can really appreciate. That’s why music in your home studio, on headphones or driving around in the car sounds better when it is blasting out.
On the flip-side, mixing music at high volume is not a good idea as it is much more challenging to judge the differences between frequency bands and values. Mix using the K-20 system and set your nominal volume to about 82dB.
What is Phon?
As we have seen, the Fletcher Munson graph has several phon, or equal loudness, curves. The first thing to note is that each phon contour passes through its own value at 1000Hz. For example, the 40-phon contour intersects the 1000Hz frequency at an SPL of 50dB. The 60-phon at 60dB, 80 at 80, 100 at 100, and so on. The phon can always be referred back to a curve that passes through 1000Hz.
The academic definition of a phon states that a phone is a unit of perceived loudness. This definition is important because of the word ‘perceived’. Our mixing needs to consider the ‘perceived’ loudness of frequencies in our mix – it’s the main reason why our own ears are always the best judge of what sounds good.
Will and Dio Title
Will and Dio Fletcher Munson 1
Will and Dio Fletcher Munson 2
Will and Dio Fletcher Munson 3
Related Questions
What is ISO 226? ISO 226 is the International Organization for Standards (ISO), acoustics standard for Normal equal-loudness-level-contours. The ISO standard follows on from the pioneering 1933 research of Fletcher and Munson, 1937 work of Churcher and King, and 1956 work of Robinson and Dadson. In 2003 the ISO standardized the analysis of the early pioneers and brought it up-to-date with additional studies that had been carried out around the world. The research to produce the curves in ISO 226 is based on human listeners between 18 and 25 years old being exposed to pure frequency tones, and their subjective, comparative responses to loudness levels.
How are Fletcher Munson Contour curves put together? The human listeners are subjected to a sound source, in front of them, of a set of continuous frequency tones, at rising and falling Sound Pressure Levels (SPL). The listeners are asked to judge when Tone A and Tone B are of equal loudness, and the comparisons are used to generate the data points to construct the curves for each phon.
About Me
Hello! I’m Tim Williams.
Back in 2009, I bought myself a copy of Pro Tools and recorded some home made music. It was challenging to start with, as I had no idea what I was doing. I made many mistakes on my journey - some fun, some expensive, and many time-consuming! I find running a Home Music Studio a fascinating and rewarding hobby and still enjoy it every day. This website is where I’d like to share everything that I’ve learned.
Legal Information
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Britannica’s new platform provides content designed and written specifically for early learners.
Creating a more engaging and fun learning experience for students, the activities in Britannica Fundamentals align with the content areas children learn in the classroom. From language and literacy to geography and mathematics, Britannica Fundamentals supports classroom curriculum while also building digital literacy.
Explore Fundamentals
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What’s the Difference Between Veins and Arteries?
Veins and arteries are major players in the circulatory system of all vertebrates. They work together to transport blood throughout the body, helping to oxygenate and remove waste from every cell with each heartbeat. Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart, while veins carry oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart.
See also: vein, artery
On This Day
The Windy City
In 1837 Chicago, Illinois, was incorporated as a city with a population of about 4,200, and it grew to become the dominant metropolis of the Midwest and home to some three million people.
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The origins of the Officer’s Whistle
Detail of whistle from Napoleonic cross belt
Detail of whistle from a Royal Irish Rifles cross belt
The whistle was first used by the Light Infantry or Rifles regiments of the British Army from the 19th century. The whistle was used to communicate to soldiers in the noise and heat of battle and there were different whistle calls for different orders in the same way that the infantry used different bugle calls, such as Reveille and Last Post.
The cross belt with whistle attached has been retained as a part of the uniform of today's Royal Irish Regiment, linking the Regiment of today to its antecedent Rifles regiment.
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Environment Panama , Panamá, Friday, October 30 of 2020, 11:25
How the ability to clone itself may empower a mystery globetrotter
It always pays to think outside of the box. Rachel Collin decided to look further afield to find the adult form that matched a larvae from a plankton sample in Panama and was surprised by the result
STRI/DICYT For decades biologists have captured tiny sea star larvae in their nets that did not match with the adults of any known species. A Smithsonian team just discovered what these larvae grow up to be and how a special superpower may help them move around the world. Their results are published online in the Biological Bulletin.
“Thirty years ago, people noticed that these asteroid starfish larvae could clone themselves,” said staff scientist Rachel Collin at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), “and they wondered what the adult form was. They assumed that because the larvae were in the Caribbean, that the adults must also be from the Caribbean.”
Scientists monitor the larvae because the larvae can be more sensitive to physical conditions and larval dispersal has a large influence on the dispersal of the adult fishes and invertebrates. Collin’s team uses a technique called DNA barcoding to identify plankton. They determine the DNA sequence of an organism, and then they look for matches with a sequence from a known animal in a data base.
“This mystery species was one of the most common in our samples from Almirante Bay in Panama,” Collin said. “We knew from people’s studies that the DNA matched sequences from similar larvae across the Caribbean and it matched unidentified juvenile starfish caught in the Gulf of Mexico—but no one had found a match to any known adult organism in the Caribbean. So we decided to see if the DNA matched anything in the global “Barcode of Life” data base.
“That’s when we got a match with Valvaster striatus, a starfish that was thought to be found only in the Indo West Pacific,” Collin said. “The is the first-ever report of this species in the Atlantic Ocean. We would never have been able to identify it if Gustav Paulay from the University of Florida had not collected and sequenced DNA from invertebrates on the other side of the world.”
But why are the larvae common in the Caribbean if adult Valvaster starfish have never been found here? Are the adult starfish hidden inside Caribbean reefs, or are the larvae arriving from the other side of the world?
Valvaster striatus is widespread but rare in the western Pacific. The few reports from collectors and the confirmed photos on iNaturalist range from the Indian Ocean to Guam and Hawaii. These starfish live deep in the reef matrix, only coming out at night. So, it is possible that there are adults in the Caribbean that have never been seen. But the other possibility, that the ability to clone themselves may allow them to spread around the world, is also intriguing.
“It’s possible that the ability of the larvae to clone themselves is not just a clever way to stay forever young,” Collin said. There’s a natural barrier that keeps organisms from the western Pacific and the Indian ocean from crossing the Atlantic to the Caribbean. After they make it around the tip of Africa they are met by a cold current that presumably kills this tropical species.”
“Just how cloning could help them get through the barrier is still not known,” Collin said, “but it’s intriguing that another sea star species from the Indo West Pacific that was collected for the first time in the Caribbean in the 1980’s also has cloning larvae.”
This study was done thanks to collecting permits from Panama’s MiAmbiente and ARAP, molecular analysis in the Laboratories of Analytical Biology at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC, with funds from the Smithsonian, Mr. Paul Peck, an anonymous donor, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation and the Sloan Foundation.
Collin, R., Venera-Pontón, D.E., Paulay, G., Boyle, M.J. 2020 World travelers: DNA Barcoding unmasks the origin of cloning Asteroid larvae from the Caribbean. Bio Bull. Doi:10.1086/710796
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Math worksheets - Primary 1 (Numbers to 10)
Numbers to 10
Show your working clearly and write your answers in the spaces provided.
1 Use the numbers in the box to answer the questions below.
7 5 10 9
a) The smallest number is .
b) The biggest number is .
c) and are smaller than 10 but greater than 5.
2 Mary has 7 strawberries.
Janet has 9 strawberries.
Nancy has 5 strawberries.
a) has the least number of stawberries.
b) has the most number of stawberries.
c) Mary has more strawberries than but fewer stawberries than .
(a) How many soccer balls are there?
There are soccer balls.
(b) How many basketballs are there?
There are basketballs.
(c) How many balls are there altogether?
There are balls altogether.
(d) Are there fewer soccer balls or basketballs? How many fewer?
There is/are fewer than .
a) How many girls are there?
There are girls.
b) How many boys are there?
There are boys.
c) How many children are there?
There are children.
d) Are there more girls or boys? How many more?
There are more .
Watch the video for the solution and the answer.
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Military History
As World War II began to boil over in Europe, the War Department needed a safe location away from the eastern seaboard to house munitions as America would soon enter the war. The ‘land between the lakes,” between Seneca and Cayuga Lakes, was chosen. This area represented a low population, bedrock close to the surface (important to absorb explosions) and a cheap cost to buy at about $1.50 an acre.
The military arrived in June of 1941, giving the residents an ultimatum to move and harvest any crops in just a few weeks. By July, the Army moved in and over 130 farm families left their farms. While most of the existing structures were either demolished or burned, some were actually moved off site and exist today in various locations surrounding the Depot.
Soon the Depot was a beehive of activity as thousands of men and women became actively engaged in building the hundreds of igloos, roadways and the 24 miles of fencing which made up the Depot. In only seven months, 519 igloos, 140 miles of roadways and 40 miles of rail were built! A tremendous feat, but typical of American ingenuity and hard work. All together, about 10,500 acres of land were to become part of the Depot with the headquarters, warehouses and NCO housing located on the southeast side of the property. Officers were house in a separate location overlooking Seneca Lake while the enlisted men were barracked in the northwest corner of the Depot.
Soon munitions of all types, i.e. bombs, hand grenades, rockets, ammunition, etc, began arriving to be stored inside the igloos. The first mission of the Depot was for storage and dispersal of munitions to the European war front, but after the war was over, unused munitions were returned to the Depot and its role expanded to not only include storage, but also demolition and defusing of old and unstable muntions.
See also:
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Saturday, October 2, 2010
Scotts Bluff National Monument In Nebraska.
Scottsbluff_ Nebraska -
Ogallala, NE to Scottsbluff, NE
Along the North Platte River in western Nebraska, Scotts Bluff stands out on the landscape - a landmark for the early settlers traveling the Oregon Trail.
Scotts Bluff Monument actually contains five rock formations - Crown Rock, Dome Rock, Eagle Rock, Saddle Rock, and Sentinel Rock, but Scotts Bluff is the most prominent bluff. It was named after Hiram Scott, a fur trader, who died near the bluff in 1828.
The 3000 acre Scotts Bluff National Monument, 5 miles southwest of Scottsbluff, Nebraska, encompasses the escarpment that rise 800 feet above the North Platte River, 4659 feet above sea level, and was a prominent landmark on the Oregon and California Trails. Pioneers abandoned the riverbank and cut through Mitchell Pass to avoid the rough terrain. The wind-sculpted bluff, an extension of the wildcat range, is composed of Arikaree sandstone, siltstone, and volcanic ash. It is the hard caprock that has prevented erosion from leveling the bluff to the height of the surrounding plain.
Wagon trains used the bluff as a major landmark
for navigation. The Oregon Trail itself passed through Mitchell Pass, a gap in the bluffs flanked by two large cliffs. The North Platte River Valley, chiseled through the grassy plains of Nebraska and Wyoming, had been a prairie pathway for at least 10,000 years. This corridor led Indians to places on the river where wandering buffalo herds stopped to drink. At one spot along the way, a huge bluff towered 800 feet above the valley floor. Its imposing size and adjacent badlands inspired the Indian name Me-a-pa-te, or "hill that is hard to go around." The first whites to reach Ma-a-pa-te were John Jacob Astor's men, fur traders, on their way back east from the Pacific. They reached the bluff on Christmas Day 1812. By the next decade, the bluff was a familiar sight to traders in caravans heading toward the Rockies, where they exchanged supplies for furs for substantial profits. According to legend, Hiram Scott, a fur company clerk, died near Ma-a-pa-te in 1828 and from then on, the bluff had a new name. Besides supplying fashionable consumers with furs, the traders blazed a trail through the mountains to the far West. Their old caravan route became the Oregon Trail, a 2000-mile roadway to the Pacific Northwest. In the early 1860's, emigrants shared the Oregon Trail with freight and mail carriers, military expeditions, stage coaches, and Pony Express riders.
Saddle Rock.
Shot from the car.
Brother Hawthorne, feel free to correct me about the wagons.
Between 250,000 and 500,000 people made their way west from approximately 1841 until 1869 and the covered wagon was one of the main methods of transportation. Wagons utilized by the emigrants in the 19th century varied depending on what purpose they were used for. The wagon on the right is a Murphy wagon, produced by Joseph Murphy for traders headed west from Missouri to Santa Fe and later for overland emigration. Murphy's wagons became some of the best known on the western trails. The wagon consisted of wheels, running gear, a box, and a cover. Usually they were nine feet high with a twelve foot long bed. The bed had a straight box. The Murphy could comfortably haul between 1800 and 2200 pounds. Mules and oxen were most often used for pulling this type of wagon. It usually required two yoke of oxen, a yoke consisting of 2 oxen. A spare yoke often trailed behind so the livestock could be rotated and rested. Horses were rarely if ever used. They lacked the strength and endurance needed to pull a wagon 2000 miles, plus they required costly supplemental feed. The Conestoga Wagon on the left is probably the most familiar pioneer wagons to us as it is often used in films. This wagon was the primary choice for freight companies to ship goods to the western frontier. The name Conestoga came from the Conestoga River Valley in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The average size was 17 feet long and 11 feet high, reflecting the freighter's need for space in hauling. In addition to a longer bed, it had a curved box much like that on a boat. This kept the freight from shifting and moving around, keeping the cargo in the center during transit. The Conestoga wagon required a double cover. Usually made of canvas, cotton sailcloth, or homespun hemp. It cantilevered out slightly more than that of a typical emigrant wagon to help protect the cargo from weather. The front and rear gates angled up higher to prevent freight from sliding out on steep inclines. A Conestoga could likely haul a load of 3 tons. A load this size may have required as many as eight yoke or more of oxen. The wagon on the right is a Studebaker Wagon. The Studebaker name was a recognizable as Murphy on the trail. The Studebaker brothers began their enterprise in South Bend, Indiana. As blacksmiths, they provided the hardware for many of the early wagon manufacturers. Nearly every wagon making the journey westward had their components and spare parts. Later on, they expanded into manufacturing ring wagons for emigrants and freighting companies. The influence of the family and their adaptive skills would extend into the modern era with the design and production of the Studebaker automobile.
Scotts Bluff is a remnant of the ancestral high plains - hundreds of feet higher than the present Great Plains - that formed in the continent's interior after uplifting of the Rocky Mountains. Examining the 10-million-year timeline of Eagle Rock, geologists have determined the origin of the various materials deposited on the ancient plains by wind, water, and the occasional volcanic eruptions, as well as the approximate age of each layer. Scientists have also studied the disappearance of the high plains. Four or five million years ago, the land began to erode faster than new strata were deposited. Some limestone concretions in isolated patches near the surface happened to be more durable than the surrounding material. Known as cap rock, this stone roof has protected Scotts Bluff so far from the same fate as the adjacent badlands. The caprock (22 million years ago) is at the very top. Sandstone is beneath the caprock. The horizontal bands are volcanic ash. The bottom is siltstone (31 million years ago).
It takes a real man to wear a skirt in the West.
Now, we start our ascent. You can drive right up to the top.
A 1.6 mile long paved road passes from the visitor center headquarters through 3 tunnels to the summit of Scotts Bluff.
Views from the top.
Overlooks on the summit offer a panoramic view of the North Platte Valley and distant Chimney Rock and Laramie Peak.
Click on the photos above and below to enlarge. Way in the background you can see Chimney Rock.
Rosie, taking it all in.
From left to right: Dome Rock Behind that Wildcat Hills Crown Rock in the center South Bluff (Souther section of Scotts Bluff) Sentinel Rock Eagle Rock At the base, the Route of the Oregon Trail (1851 - 1869)
This felt like being on top of the world. The view from an airplane.
Mr. Hawthorne and Rosie.
Might this be lavender?
Anonymous said...
There is no place like Nebraska! I may be biased, but my homeland is BEAUTIFUL! Wish I knew you were going to be in Scottsbluff, my parents would have loved to see you. Enjoy!
Liza A.
Kathy said...
Very interesting history of the wagons. And the big sky pics are gorgeous.
Anonymous said...
great pixs of our own personal landscape....glad you enjoyed your trip to western ne....give us a call the next time you are here for a more personal historic tour. Your new kitchen is awesome!!!
Billie Schneider
Liza's mom
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Definition of: patch
A modification (noun) of software or to modify (verb) software. In the past, a patch used to mean changing actual executable, machine instructions, but today more often than not, it means replacing an executable module in its entirety such as an .EXE or .DLL file. A profusion of patches to an application implies that its logic was poorly designed in the first place.
Although the term typically refers to fixing a problem, a patch may also refer to a general enhancement because the two scenarios have become blurred. For example, a security "enhancement" is often a fix for a vulnerability in the program. In addition, software vendors like to announce something new in an update other than just fixing problems. Therefore, applying patches often refers to both fixes and new features. See patch management and spaghetti code. See also MIDI patch.
Encyclopedia Banner
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Tartaglia was one of the most colourful characters in the History of Mathematics.
Born Niccolò Fontana in the northern Italian town of Brescia in around 1499, he was given the name Tartaglia
(which means ‘stammerer’ in Italian) following an incident in 1512 that left him with a lifetime imperfection of speech.
In 1512 Brescia was invaded by the French. Niccolò and other inhabitants of Brescia sought sanctuary in the
cathedral, but the French soldiers pursued them and many of the people were massacred. Over 45,000 residents
of Brescia were killed. Niccolò’s father, Michele Fontana, was one of those killed, and the boy was badly injured with
a split skull and a sabre cut that passed through his jaw and palate. This resulted in the speech impediment that led
to his name Tartaglia.
With the death of Michele, the family became impoverished. Tartaglia’s mother sent him to school for a few days,
but could not afford to pay for regular schooling. So the boy stole a book, from which he taught himself to read and
That Tartaglia taught himself not only to read and write, but how to use and apply mathematics, is a mark of his
He lectured at Verona before being appointed to the chair of mathematics at Venice in 1535.
Among Tartaglia’s most significant achievements were his translations into Italian of works of Archimedes and
Euclid; in particular the 1543 translation of Book V of Euclid’s
Elements. Tartaglia used a Latin translation of the
original Greek, rather than the commonly used Arabic translations that contained some inaccuracies, especially in
relation to the Eudoxus’ Theory of proportions. Tartaglia’s commentary on this theory was later used by Galileo.
Tartaglia’s works include
Nova Scienza (1537) in which he investigated the fall of bodies under gravity, Inventioni
(1546) which contains among other things his solution of the cubic equation, an arithmetic treatise
Trattato de
numeri e misuri
(1556), and a two volume treatise on arithmetic, published in 1560. In this he developed a method
to obtain binomial coefficients using a triangle similar to Pascal's Triangle,
Tartaglia also applied mathematics to the science of artillery fire, and adapted Heron’s formula for the area of a
triangle to give an expression for the volume of a tetrahedron given the lengths of its sides - Tartaglia’s Formula.
By Tartaglia’s time, the solution to the general quadratic equation ax^2+bx+c=0 was well known. In modern notation
we give the solutions in the form of the Quadratic Equation Formula:
x= (-b±√(b^2-4ac))/2a
Tartaglia’s most memorable achievement was his contribution to the solution of the general cubic equation
As stepping stones on the way to solving the general cubic equation, mathematicians tacked two simpler cases:
Case 1: x^3+mx=n where the coefficient of x^2 is zero and
Case 2: x^3+px^2=n where the coefficient of x is zero.
Case 1 was successfully solved in 1515 by Scipione del Ferro, professor of mathematics at Bologna University. Del
Ferro did not publish his result, but shared his discovery with his pupil Antonio Fior.
In 1535 Tartaglia announced that he had solved Case 2. However, Fior did not believe Tartaglia had a solution and
challenged him to a public contest to solve cubic equations. Taking up the challenge, Tartaglia set himself the task
of solving Case 1 also, which he did before the contest. Having solved both types, Tartaglia easily won the contest
against Fior.
Later Tartaglia shared his solutions with Girolamo Cardano who promised not to publish. However, when Cardano
learned of del Ferro’s earlier solution of Case 1, he decided to publish the solutions in his famous treatise Ars
Magna, including Tartaglia’s solution of Case 2. This was followed by an acrimonious dispute between Tartaglia
and Cardano.
Tartaglia died in Venice in 1557.
A contribution of Tartaglia to mathematics
In modern notation, Tartaglia gave the following solution to a cubic equation of the type
x^3+mx=n (Case 1 above):
x=∛(n/2+√((n/2)^2+(m/3)^3 )) -∛(-n/2+√((n/2)^2+(m/3)^3 ))
Example Solve the cubic equation x^3+9x=6
In this case m = 9 and n = 6
x=∛(6/2+√((6/2)^2+(9/3)^3 )) -∛(-6/2+√((6/2)^2+(9/3)^3 ))
=∛(3+√(3^2+3^3 )) -∛(-3+√(3^2+3^3 ))
=∛(3+√(9+27)) -∛(-3+√(9+27))
=∛(3+√36) -∛(-3+√36)
=∛(3+6) -∛(-3+6)
=∛9 -∛3
= 2.08008 - 1.44225
= 0.6378 correct to 4 decimal places
Of course a cubic equation always has three solutions, but in this case the other two solutions are complex
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Non-Western Literature
Reading Journals for Barefoot Gen
click on the journal question that intrigues you the most.
This will pull up a form for you to fill out responding to that journal.
1. Compare and contrast how the Japanese sense of honor is shown in this novel and Mishima’s story “Patriotism.” click to answer
2. The introduction by noted cartoonist Art Spiegelman references how Nakazawa uses the image of the sun as a visual symbol in this work. Explore and explain exactly how he does use the sun or any other visual symbolism in this graphic novel/manga combination of visual and textual information. click to answer
3. Also in the introduction, Spiegelman claims “Ultimately, Gen is a very optimistic work.” Explain how a story set in Hiroshima during the atomic bombing, that shows the effects of that bombing, could be seen as an optimistic book. click to answer
4. Another theme that seems to run throughout the work is sacrifice – in many different ways. The Japanese people sacrifice – they are sacrificed – they offer sacrifices – etc. Explore and explain how this theme is used and what it tells us about Nakazawa’s view of Japanese culture at this point in their history. click to answer
5. Compare and contrast the patriotism of Barefoot Gen and the short story “Patriotism.” Which one strikes you as being the most patriotic? Is it a positive trait? Mishima prided himself on being a great nationalist and patriot – so did Gen/Nakazawa’s father. Which one was right? Could both be right? click to answer
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Surveyor's compass)
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Drawing of a circumferentor from the Cyclopaedia
A circumferentor, or surveyor's compass, is an instrument used in surveying to measure horizontal angles. It was superseded by the theodolite in the early 19th century.[1]
A circumferentor consists of a circular brass box containing a magnetic needle, which moves freely over a brass circle, or compass divided into 360 degrees.[1][2] The needle is protected by a glass covering. [2] A pair of sights is located on the North-South axis of the compass.[1] Circumferentors were typically mounted on tripods and rotated on ball-and-socket joints.[2]
Circumferentors were made throughout Europe, including in England, France, Italy, and Holland. By the early 19th century, Europeans preferred theodolites to circumferentors. However, the circumferentor remained in common use in mines and in wooded or uncleared areas, such as in America.[1][2]
Figure 1: Angle EKG
Figure 2: Region ABCDEFGHK
Measuring angles[edit]
To measure an angle with a circumferentor, such as angle EKG (Figure 1), place the instrument at K, with the fleur-de-lis in the card towards you. Then direct the sights, until through them you see E; and note the degree pointed at by the south end of the needle, such as 296°. Then, turn the instrument around, with the fleur-de-lis still towards you, and direct the sights to G; note the degree at which the south end of the needle point, such as 182°. Finally, subtract the lesser number, 182, from the greater, 296°; the remainder, 114°, is the number of degrees in the angle EKG.
If the remainder is more than 180 degrees, it must be subtracted from 360 degrees.
Surveying a region[edit]
To take the plot of a field, forest, park, etc., with a circumferentor, consider region ABCDEFGHK in Figure 2, an area to be surveyed.
1. Placing the instrument at A, the fleur-de-lis towards you, direct the sights to B; where suppose the south end of the needle cuts 191°; and the ditch, wall, or hedge, measuring with a Gunter's chain, contains 10 chains, 75 links.
2. Placing the instrument at B, direct the sights as before to C; the south end of the needle, e.g. will cut 279°; and the line BC contains 6 chains and 83 links.
Then move the instrument to C; turn the sights to measure D, and measure CD as before. In the same manner, proceed to D, E, F, G, H, and lastly to K; still noting the degrees of every bearing, or angle, and the distances of every side. This will result in a table of the following form:
Station Degrees Min. Chains Link
A 191 00 10 75
B 297 00 6 83
C 216 30 7 82
From this table, the field is to be plotted, or protracted.
Alternative plotting method:
An alternative way to plot the area in Figure 2 is to use several angles and only a few measurements and calculate their positions.
This could be done by starting at the center point in Figure 2 which is not labeled, but which will be referred to as "Center." Assume each point can be seen from each other point. From the "center" point, sight and record the angle to each point using the sights as described above. Then move to, and measure the distance to, one of the other points referenced, such as point B. At point B, measure the angles to all the other points. Then, move to an additional point such as point F. Again, measure the distance from the center to the point chosen (F). At that point, measure and record the angles to each of the other points as was done at point B. Chose a scale (a ratio between the size of the area to be plotted and the size of the paper on which you will draw the plot) that will allow the plot to fit on your paper and plot the angles and distances.
The advantage of this method over the first one above is that there are fewer distance measurements and any errors in angles or distances will not be cumulative; that is, if you use the first survey method, any angle that is slightly off will distort the remainder of the plot. The second method can also be used when it is not possible to measure some of the distances, for example, if there is a water barrier between two of the points. Also, if there are any inaccuracies in the measurements, they will be revealed in the plot because the points plotted from various angles will not coincide.
Additional considerations include the number of times the circumferentor must be set up and aligned. With the first method, the instrument must be set up at each point with a compass. With the second method, the initial set up is at "center." After that, for example at point B, the instrument can be set up by aligning the sight with the reciprocal of the angle between "center" and B. Thus, any local change in the magnetic field that would affect the compass would be nullified.
Surveyor's double prism[edit]
Double prism as used in surveying.
A double prism is a device to measure right angles, consisting of two five sided prisms stacked on top of each other and a plumb-bob. It is used to stake out right angles, for example on a construction site.
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b c d Turner (1998). Scientific Instruments, 1500-1900: An Introduction. University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-520-21728-7. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
2. ^ a b c d Nesbit, Anthony; Baker, Thomas (1855). A complete Treatise on practical Land-Surveying, etc. With an engraved "Field-Book," being the notes on an estate in the Parish of Preston. pp. 343–344. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
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During the Civil War northern forces blocked a number of Confederate ports. One of the consequences of the blockade was a dire shortage of cinchona bark imported from South America. The bark was in great demand, being the first substance ever found to be an effective treatment for malaria. Quinine, first isolated in 1820 was the active ingredient. Because of a lack of quinine, word went out from the surgeon general of the Confederate army asking that a search be launched for any native plants that might have fever reducing properties similar to cinchona. An obvious starting point for such a search was plants that had been used by native North Americans for their supposed medicinal properties. One of these was goldenseal, long used as a snake bite remedy and health tonic by natives. Like quinine, goldenseal tasted very bitter, so it seemed a good candidate for testing against malaria. Unfortunately it didn’t work, but doctors noted that when they used goldenseal in combination with quinine, less quinine was needed. They didn’t understand why this was the case, but today we can offer an explanation thanks to ourknowledge about how drugs are metabolized. Our body regards drugs as foreign intruders and attempts to eliminate them. One common method is through the action of the Cytochrome P450 enzymes that have the ability to break down small molecules. Like any plant, goldenseal contains numerous compounds, but two, namely berberine and hydrastine, bind to these enzymes and inhibit their activity. The result is that drugs are not broken down, they stay in the bloodstream longer and therefore become more potent. This can be a problem. Many medications are metabolized by the Cytochrome P-450 enzymes meaning that inactivation of these enzymes leads to higher than desired blood levels of the drug. Some of the drugs that fall into this category include Prozac, Lopressor, Zyprexa, Halcion, Viagra along with many others. The best bet is not to use goldenseal in combination with any prescription drug, especially given the lack of evidence for any of goldenseal’s supposed benefits. The ailments it purportedly benefits include the common cold, digestive problems, diarrhea, constipation, hemorrhoids, flatulence, acne, dandruff, eye inflammation, chronic fatigue, gonorrhea and fever. In general, when such a cacophony of benefits are attributed to a substance, it is unlikely that any of them will pass scientific muster. One of the popular myths about goldenseal is that it can mask the presence of illegal drugs in the urine. This idea can be traced back to “Stringtown on the Pike,” a novel written by chemist John Uri Lloyd in 1901 in which a boy is convicted for poisoning his uncle with strychnine. The tragedy is that the chemist who testified about the strychnine poisoning made a mistake. Goldenseal root taken in the uncle’s morning tonic produced a false positive for strychnine and the uncle’s death was actually from natural causes. Utterly devastated, the chemist takes his life with “too dangerous a drug to be known through science to the public.” Lyoyd came up with this plot after having noted the “remarkable correspondence” between the actions of strychnine and the goldenseal compound hydrastis in his research. Somehow this gave rise to the myth that goldenseal can mask drugs in the urine. It can’t.
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From Mule to Machines
In the 1800’s the canal system changed the way freight was moved in our country. Learn more about how mules played an integral role in the canals and were later replaced by machines.
• Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
• Multiple Lesson Periods
• Directions
1. A mule is an animal that is part horse and part donkey. Mules are bigger and stronger than a donkey and hardier than a horse. They are ideal animals to pull heavy loads. Have students look at pictures of horses, donkeys and mules. How do their appearances differ?
2. Mules were used to tow or pull boats through the canals. The mules were attached to the boats by ropes. They would walk on a tow path and pull the boats through the canal at about 4 miles per hour. The boats could only travel as fast as the mules could walk. Share pictures of mules from the canal era and discuss their role with students.
3. As the canal system was modernized, mules were replaced by machines. Ask students what types of machines replaced these animals? If the machines are an improvement to the canals? What are some of the benefits of using machines?
4. Students commemorate the role that mules played in the canals by creating a sculpture of a mule out of Model Magic®. Make two egg-shaped pieces of modeling compound, a smaller one for the head and a larger one for the body. Roll 5 logs of Model Magic to create a neck and four legs. Model Magic that is fresh from the pack will stick to itself. Dried pieces can be glued together. Attach the legs to the body. Use additional pieces of modeling compound add details and features to bring the mule to life!
• Standards
• Adaptations
Set up a classroom learning center focused on The National Canal Museum, located in Easton, PA. The museum can be toured virtually at
Encourage student groups to create a timeline illustrating the technological progression of transportation. Add illustrations to highlight the timeline text. Display timelines in the classroom.
Today hydraulic powered machines are used to move boats through canals. Invite students to sketch a drawing showing how the machines are engineered. Provide an explanation of the process to accompany the illustration.
A mule is an animal hybrid. Challenge students to research other hybrids in the animal kingdom. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of creating hybrids.
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It sometimes happened that a solemn decree of parliament would violate the sanctuary, and reconsign the condemned into the hands of the executioner; but this was of rare occurrence. The parliaments stood in great awe of the bishops, and if it did come to a brush between the two robes, the gown generally had the worst of it against the cassock. Occasionally, however, as in the case of the assassination of Petit-Jean, the executioner of Paris, and in that of Emery Rousseau, the murderer of Jean Valleret, justice would overleap the barriers of the Church, and pass on to the execution of its sentence. But, except armed with a decree of parliament, woe betide him who forcibly violated a place of sanctuary! We know what befell Robert de Clermont, Marshal of France, and Jean de Chalons, Marshal of Champagne; and yet it was only about a certain Perrin Marc, a moneychanger’s assistant and a vile assassin; but the two marshals had forced the doors of the Church of Saint-Méry—therein lay the enormity of the transgression.
-Victor Marie Hugo (1802–1885). Humpbacked, One-Eyed, Lame (1917).
Moneychangers are referred to only in the account of Jesus’ assault on merchants in the Temple of Jerusalem which according to the synoptic Gospels occurred shortly before he was apprehended, but is placed by John at the start of Jesus’ ministry. 1 2 Exodus 30 says that every adult male was to pay half a shekel every year to the sanctuary. 3 4 In the period of the Second Temple the tax was paid during Passover to help the pilgrims that had arrived in Jerusalem. Moneychangers seemed to have provided these services surrounded by the big open area known as the Court of Gentiles or in the porticoes that framed the Temple enclosure. They converted the coins from the diverse currencies as well as those that were religiously offensive because of the portraits on coins.
As a medium of exchange, it was precious metals like silver that was initially used, according to fixed weights, such as the talent, the mina, and the shekel, which later became units of currency. Minted coins appeared to have begun in Asia Minor around the 7th century BCE and was spread quickly by the Greeks and Persians. The earliest coins found in Palestine are a Macedonian coin from Shechem and an Athenian coin from Jerusalem, both dated to the 6th century BCE. By the 5th century BCE coins had become more frequently used as payment for various occupations and were in widespread use by the 4th century BCE. Consequently coins have become a very important way of dating for archeologists. Coins are also indicators of international trade patterns and political control. They also offer important information about scripts and artistic motifs.
Units of currency in biblical and nonbiblical sources and coins discovered in the course of excavations are typically foreign, chiefly Persian, Greek, Tyrian, and Roman, although in some periods evidence shows that there may have been local mints in places such as Gaza and Ashkelon in the Persian period. Additionally there were a number of comparatively short phases when individual local money was created.
While Judah was a province of the Persian empire during the 4th century BCE a succession of coins were made with the inscription “Judah” (yehud) in Aramaic script on them. Some of the archeologists say that they appear to have been made in Jerusalem with some giving the title and at times the name of the Persian appointed governor. Some say that they may have been the earliest Jewish coins. Exclusive coins were also minted by the Hasmoneans starting with Alexander Janneus near the end of the 2nd century BCE. Herod the Great and his heirs issued their own coins too, as did Pilate and some of the other Roman procurators.
From 66-70 CE the rebels of the First Jewish Revolt issued their our currency as an expression of political sovereignty. The coins were made in several denominations including shekels and half-shekels. Made of silver they date from the first to the fifth years of the revolt. As an additional expression of national sentiment the words inscribed in them are in Hebrew and contain sayings like “Jerusalem is holy,” “the freedom of Zion,” and “the redemption of Zion.” The coins depict chalices, a triple pomegranate and palm as well as other branches. There is a deliberate absence of animals and human figures in adherence to the commandment prohibiting graven images. These coins are in stark contrast to the Greek and Roman currencies.
Similar coins were issued again in the Second Jewish Revolt from 132-135 CE. Many include the name of the leader of the rebels Simeon. “In poignant contrast to these numismaticaly expressed patriotic hopes,” says theologian Michael D. Coogan, “are the Roman coins issues by Vespasian and Titus to commemorate their defeat of the First Revolt; some show a mourning figure and have the inscription “Judea captured” in Greek or Latin.”
Several rabbinic sources offer some proof for the complaints about profiteering by the moneychangers at the Temple saying that they charged as much as eight percent for their services. “The reaction of Jesus seems exaggerated,” adds Coogan,” especially in its fullest form in Mark 11: 15-19. It’s furthermore unlikely that one person would control all activity within the vast Temple courtyard; the Gospel narratives, written after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, are making a theological point about Jesus, depicting him as a prophet in the tradition of Jeremiah and Isaiah, both of whom are quoted directly. 5
Holy Bible (NRSV)
II. Humpbacked, One-Eyed, Lame. Book IX. Hugo, Victor Marie. 1917. Notre Dame de Paris. Vol. XII. Harvard Classics Shelf of Fiction:
Accessed July 22,2005.
Oxford Companion to the Bible, Russell Fuller and Bruce Metzger, author; Michael D. Coogan, edited by Bruce Metzger and Michael Coogan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993, p .523-524.
In my days as a "freethinking agnostic" I often used the story of Jesus and the Temple moneychangers as an example of a glaring contradiction in the story of the New Testament. Now, as a heretic who prefers to look at these stories without getting bogged down by two thousand years of reinterpretations, I've had pause to study it again.
The contradiction I wrote about some twenty years ago had to do with the sudden change in the Nazarene's behavior, from one who embraced and loved all to one who suddenly had a complete mental fit and started throwing tables and money all over the place. After all, this is the dude who embraces and welcomes a hated tax collector into his circle of friends. How are these moneychangers any different than Levi the tax collector?
Levi, later renamed Matthew, was a government tax collector. He worked for the government and part of the functioning of the government involved the collection of taxes. Regardless of the fairness and equity of Levi's actions and whether he was involved in self-serving corruption or not was not important. It relates to the "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's" business, which has nothing to do with Caesar specifically but the workings of the temporal world.
The machinations of the temporal world are not of concern to the Nazarene, only the well being of the souls of those who are consigned to the temporal world. The temporal world offers temptation, easy paths to sin and opportunities to do wrong by one's brothers and sisters. The Nazarene accepts this to be true. What he takes issue with is the corruption of the spiritual world by the temporal world through the elements of the Temple of Jerusalem, held in regard by the people as the House of God.
The Nazarene's quest to go to Jerusalem has little to do with taking a "seat of power" as some kind of king. It has to do with his sorrow over the heart of the law being overshadowed by the word of the law and the consolidation of temporal power by those who claim to be representatives of the spiritual world. In a sense, the Temple itself has become no more than another political manifestation that sets laws and passes judgment on people as good, devout Jews or sinners to be cast out.
--Matthew 7:1
(New International Version)
Instead of offering comfort and acceptance to a people living under a difficult occupation, the Temple has become a place of judgement and of opulence in a time of suffering. The moneychangers exist because the temple priests insist on following the letter of the law regarding graven images on money. It follows with the Nazarene's cries of hypocrisy, the ignorance of the heart of the law overshadowed by the pomp and circumstance of following the letter of the law.
--Matthew 23:23
(New International Version)
The people, who are already heavily taxed by the Romans, travel to Jerusalem to follow the letter of the law, but in order to do so they are asked to exchange their money before paying the tithe. Here they are again taxed, this time essentially, although indirectly, by the Temple itself for the moneychangers charge them a variety of exchange rates. They are indirect representatives of the Temple, which is supposed to be representative of the spiritual world. Profit is being made by the requirements of the spiritual law. Profit is a machination of the temporal world which has taken hold within a symbolic representation of the spiritual world. This is what sets off the Nazarene. It is also the point at which he establishes himself as standing apart from the religious hierarchy of the time. In essence, it is where he proves himself to be a heretic. To question the laws, rules and regulations of the Temple itself is open heresy.
Those things which are of the temporal world, such as the Temple of Jerusalem, are merely symbolic. When the Nazarene says he could tear down down the Temple and rebuild it in three days he is mocking the high value placed on the Temple over what it is meant to represent. The opulence and riches of the Temple mean nothing. The overwhelming focus on the value and importance of the Temple have come to overshadow what it is supposed to stand for. This is why the symbolic mental fit of the Nazarene is important. In following his teachings you find, time and again, that the true temple is within the heart and soul of the individual and that such majestic symbols as the Temple of Jerusalem can fall and be destroyed without it meaning anything in a spiritual sense. The destruction of the Temple only matters in a temporal sense.
--Matthew 7:7
(New International Version)
The Kingdom of Heaven is inside you
No structure, no construct of the temporal world, means more than that.
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Statistics Predicted a Healthier Medieval London Following the Black Death
The Black Death, a pandemic at its height in Europe during the mid-14th century, was a virulent killer. It was so effective that it wiped out approximately one third of Europe’s population. Recent studies have shown that the elderly and the sick were most susceptible. But was the Black Death a “smart” killer?
A recent PLOS ONE study indicates that the Black Death’s virulence might have affected genetic variation in the surviving human population by reducing frailty, resulting in less virulent subsequent outbreaks of the plague. By examining the differences in survival rates and mortality risks in both pre-Black Death and post-Black Death samples of a London population—in combination with other, extrinsic factors, like differences in diet between the two groups—the researcher found that in London, on average, people lived longer following the plague than they did before it, despite repeated plague outbreaks. In other words, in terms of genetic variation, the Black Death positively affected the health of the surviving population.
To uncover differences in the health of medieval Londoners, Dr. Sharon DeWitte of the University of South Carolina examined 464 pre-Black Death individuals from three cemeteries and 133 post-Black Death individuals from one. She chose a diverse range of samples for a comprehensive view of the population, including both the rich and the poor, and women and children, but targeted one geographic location: London.
The ages-at-death of the samples were determined by calculating best estimates—in statistics these are called point estimates—based on particular indicators of age found on the skeletons’ hip and skull bones. Individuals’ ages were then evaluated against those in the Anthropological Database of Odense University, a pre-existing database comprising the Smithsonian’s Terry Collection and prior age-at-death data from 17th-century Danish parish records.
After estimating how old these individuals were when they died and comparing the age indicators against the Odense reference tool, the author conducted statistical analyses on the data to examine what the ages-at-death could tell us about the proportion of pre- and post- Black Death medieval Londoners who lived to a ripe old age, as well as the likelihood of death.
Survivorship was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier Estimator, a function used to indicate a quantity based on known data; in this case the function evaluated how long people lived in a given time period (pre-Black Death or post-Black Death). The calculated differences were significant: In particular, the proportion of adults who lived beyond the age of 50 from the post-Black Death group was much greater than those from the pre-Black Death group.
Age-at-death Distributions
Age-at-death Distributions
In the pre-Black Death group, death was most likely to occur between the ages of 10 and 19, as seen above.
The Kaplan-Meier survival plot shows how the chances of survival, which decrease with age, differ for Pre-Black Death and Post-Black Death groups, as seen below.
Survival Functions
Survival Functions
As the survival plot indicates, post-Black Death Londoners lived longer than there Pre-Black Death predecessors.
Finally, Dr. DeWitte estimated the risk of mortality by applying the age data to the statistical model known as the Gompertz hazard, which shows the typical pattern of increased risk in mortality with age. She found that overall post-Black Death Londoners faced lower risks of mortality than their pre-Black Death counterparts.
To make long and complicated methodology short, these analyses indicate that post-Black Death Londoners appear to have lived longer than pre-Black Death Londoners. The author estimates that the general population of London enjoyed a period of about 200 years of improved survivorship, based on these results.
The virulent killer, the Black Death, may have helped select for a healthier London by influencing genetic variation, at least in the short term. However, to better understand the improved quality of life of post-Black Death London, the author suggests further study to disentangle two major factors: the selectivity of the Black Death, coupled with improvements in lifestyle for post-Black Death individuals. For example, the massive depopulation in Europe resulted in increased wages for workers and improvements to diet following the plague, which also likely improved health for medieval Londoners. By unraveling intrinsic, biological changes in genetic variation from outside extrinsic factors like improvements in diet, it may be possible to better understand the aftermath of one of the most devastating killers in infectious disease history.
The EveryONE blog has more on the medieval killer here.
Citation: DeWitte SN (2014) Mortality Risk and Survival in the Aftermath of the Medieval Black Death. PLoS ONE 9(5): e96513. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096513
Image 1: The Black Death from Simple Wikipedia
Image 2: pone.0096513
Image 3: pone.0096513
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3 Responses to Statistics Predicted a Healthier Medieval London Following the Black Death
1. if the death was most likely to occur between the ages of 10 and 19 I think it means that the sample is biased, since mostly death should be younger. The most young could be unobserved due to lack of baptism. But their inclusion could change the result.
2. Pingback: Statistics predicted a healthier medieval londo...
3. Pingback: Reporte Ciencia UANL » Statistics Predicted a Healthier Medieval London Following the Black Death
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War Trauma History
Culture of War – Warrior Hero to PTSD
Christel B. D’Agostino, MSW, LCSW-R, CtH
Warrior Hero – Universal Archetypes
History is filled with tales of the warrior, one of the universal archetypes: The young man goes to war to prove himself and returns a hero, worshiped and honored as one of the future leaders of his tribe. He will use his acquired experience wisely and protect his clan.
Cleansing Rituals – Early Tribes
The custom of certain indigenous tribes has been handed down to us: Outside the village members of the clan would expect their fighters return from war and lead them directly to the river. There, rites would be performed to chase the ghosts of war away and cleanse their heroes. Only then, the warriors would be allowed back into the village.
In the Native American Indian tradition, healing ceremonies used to be held in sweat lodges. In other cultures, warriors would dance around the fire to scorch evil energies from the war.
Culture of War – Values
The Greeks and Romans used to celebrate their victorious warriors as men of character and power. Uncontrollable bursts of hate after battle seemed more culturally acceptable than signs of weakness or illness on the battle field. A fearful warrior was considered a coward and would be ostracized by his clan. Suicide often appeared the only solution.
In 490 BC, the Greek historian Herodotus described an Athenian warrior who became permanently blind after having witnessed a comrade’s death.
After glorious victories Alexander the Great is said to have suffered from battle fatigue. At one point, his soldiers were too exhausted and refused to march any further. Were they justified or judged as cowards?
Emperor Ashoka of India became depressed after his Kalinga War. He renounced violence and became a Buddhist. Conqueror Tamerlane became obsessed, had pyramids built of human skulls. Napoleon Bonaparte became seriously depressed after his final defeat.
World War I – Shell Shock Controversy
In more recent history we’ve learned how soldiers fared during or after battle. During World War I soldiers with combat stress would be called Shell Shocked. The army would rather accuse soldiers of cowardice and disobedience, punished them severely, even with death.
Shell Shock or Psychoneurosis was indicated when soldiers relived scenes of horror and developed physical conditions. Cardiac hypertrophy would also be diagnosed caused by the extreme physical effort, heavy marching and weight of heavy packs. The army did not favor this diagnosis.
Shell Shock was also called a Soldier’s Heart and attributed to overwhelming mental fatigue. Railway Spine or Railway Hysteria, the syndrome which many people had acquired after a catastrophic railway accident, seemed to be quite similar to Shell Shock.
British soldiers would be hospitalized, treated with rest, massage, proper diet, electro-shock. When it became known that after accomplished hospital treatment, only four-fifth of the British soldiers were able to return to the battle field, the British Army shifted the focus from an ‘organic’ condition, i.e. “nerves” to “cowards”, “lack of masculinity”. The Army would rather accuse soldiers of cowardice and disobedience, punished them severely, even with death.
World War II – Soldier’s Moral Obligation – Redefined
During World War II one situation deserves to be mentioned where so-called cowards were considered heroes, albeit years later. It happened in Stalingrad where one of the bloodiest battles in history took nearly two million lives.
Over 100,000 of Hitler’s soldiers realized they had lost and surrendered to the Russians in February 1943. Years later after they had returned from Russian prison camps, they had a chance to explain in public hearings why they had deserted:
Their intent had been to force Hitler to end the war so their families back home would no longer sacrificed through aerial bomb attacks the way they had been sacrificed on the battle field. They had encouraged their comrades to follow their example. They had not.
The war and carpet bombing over civilian cities would continue for more than two years. For many years the families of these courageous men had endured hardship and ill repute. After public hearings the German Bundestag had ruled that a soldier has the moral obligation to disobey orders if given by a criminal mind.
First considered cowards, then declared heroes. Honor reinstated. A crucial judicial precedence for future generations had been set.
WWII Survivors – PTSD in Elderly
Recent studies of German WWII survivors and Jewish holocaust survivors have found that in old age PTSD was still prevalent. War trauma and certain symptoms of PTSD may also traverse generations.
U.S. Wars Abroad – Additional Stress Factors
The wars of World War I and II, Spanish Civil War, Korea, Vietnam, Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, Iraq and other places transplanted U.S. soldiers into uncharted territory, with unacquainted culture, customs, language. These variables may account for a rather high stress level before even considering combat stress.
Physical Reality of PTSD
While PTSD has been firmly embraced by the American Psychiatric Association in 1987 as primary diagnosis for a psychological condition, potential physical ailments of veterans are of as much concern as mental aspects.
Already during the Civil War Dr. Jacob Mendez Da Costa had observed a “Soldier’s Irritable Heart”, a state of hyper-arousal, in Union soldiers.
In this connection, the University of California undertook a research study about the “Soldier’s Heart” and compared military and medical records of 15,000 Union soldiers from the time of enlistment until death years later.
It was found that the youngest soldiers exposed to most brutality and bloodiest battles experienced the highest percentage of combat stress. They also had the shortest life span. War horrors experienced were linked to increased signs of cardiac, gastrointestinal, nervous diseases and emotional difficulties during the veteran’s life.
While the researchers drew many conclusions, they suspected short-term resilience which helps humans cope with traumatic stress may have detrimental long-term health effects.
They concluded that the lessons learned from their research may also apply to today’s veterans.
Studies, research and treatment modalities have been branching out into different directions to find ideal ways to heal our veterans’ post traumatic stress caused by the brutality of war in different country and culture.
Our National Responsibility
It is our obligation to facilitate our veterans’ healing from war trauma with compassion. They have put their lives on the line in patriotic duty. Their noble ideals may have been destroyed. Their intent to carve out a better future for themselves and the world may have been crushed in a split second.
Can we become the facilitators for our veterans to turn tragedy into human achievement and triumph?
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Why must a robin tug so hard to get a worm out of the ground? A worm's anatomy is the clue to the answer:
A worm's body has hair-like bristles called setae that help the worm crawl and also to grip and anchor itself firmly in the ground. Worms can grip and anchor so firmly that robins must tug to get them out of the soil.
Image: Wayne Kryduba
Robin pulling up a worm
Copyright 1997-2016 Journey North ( All Rights Reserved. Search
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Two seals appear to kiss.
Photo Credit: Peter Rejcek
Scientists on the long-term population and mass dynamics study of Weddell seals say that "supermoms" appear to be more successful in breeding and may be key to sustaining the colony in lean times.
But even after more than 40 years of study, there is much about the Weddell seals that scientists don’t know. For example, last decade, when large icebergs choked off McMurdo Sound, allowing sea ice to build in both thickness and extent, few seals returned to Erebus Bay to breed.
That was especially the case in 2004 when the sea ice edge was more than 90 kilometers from McMurdo Station.
A few animals did successfully breed: the supermoms. But why? Are they so super that they could have navigated from open water in the Ross Sea, where researchers believe they overwinter, to Erebus Bay?
Garrott is doubtful. Perhaps they never left, he suggested, remaining in McMurdo Sound where there are fewer predators and less competition when most of the seal population moves out to sea.
“If you could make a living back here against the fast ice, because you were just better, more apt to be able do that, you wouldn’t have nearly the competition because most of the things that eats the fish that you eat, can’t live in solid ice like this,” he said.
People hold a pole on their shoulders.
Photo Credit: Lorem Ipsum
Chambert, left, and DeVoe weight a seal pup.
Person walks away from ice-covered rock wall.
Photo Credit: Peter Rejcek
Scientist Thierry Chambert hikes away from the Hutton Cliffs.
People spread out equipment.
Photo Credit: Peter Rejcek
DeVoe, left, and Chambert spread out their tagging equipment.
“The only way to understand how all of these variations are going to affect an ecosystem is that you have to have a study going on for a long time to capture good years, bad years and a bunch of average years, and you have to do it with the same methodology,” Garrott added.
The program’s current five-year grant from the National Science Foundation’s Office of Polar Program External U.S. government site is coming to an end. The team’s next proposal will continue the population and mass dynamics study, but with a focus on individual variation within the Erebus Bay colonies.
In other words, the ecologists want to understand what makes one animal more successful than another. What makes a supermom?
“Now that we’re focusing in on individual variations, we’re focusing on our sampling. We’re still going to do the mass dynamics study, but now we’re focusing on the same individuals every year,” Garrott said.
Individual variation is apparent in behaviors right at the surface. Most Weddell seal moms seem unperturbed by Chambert and DeVoe as they handle the pups. But the pair cautiously approaches one long, sleek Weddell mom whose pup lies close by. As they get closer, she suddenly (for a seal) rears up and opens her mouth wide, showing sharp teeth. She spears her head in their direction, an obvious warning.
“It’s really aggressive behavior for a Weddell seal,” said Chambert, giving the pup’s tag a quick glance and then checking his field notebook. Fortunately, it’s already been weighed.
The overprotective mother is obviously a supermom, according to Chambert, with a long life history of breeding. She is 21 years old, not much younger than most of the field team.
“We have some moms in the dataset that have produced upwards of 20 pups in their life,” Chambert noted.
Eventually, the team hopes to link the life histories of individuals against their genetic makeup. They’ve already collected biological samples for collaborators at Harvard Medical School External Non-U.S. government site, who will sequence the entire Weddell seal genome. The Harvard team is led by Dr. Warren Zapol, who conducted research on the physiology of Weddell seals between the 1970s and 1990s.
Weddell seals are capable of holding their breath of upwards to an hour. There are many possible medical applications if researchers can identify and isolate the specific genes that allow the animals to dive and function without fresh oxygen for so long.
“If you can understand how Weddell seals can keep their brains functioning without oxygen, whatever those physiological processes are, you might have a way to administer a medicine to stroke victims immediately after a stroke to minimize brain damage from oxygen loss,” Garrott said.
“That will be a big jump for us,” he said of the genetics study. “We’re thinking long term.”
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© 2015 Shmoop University, Inc. All rights reserved.
Common Core Standards: Math
High School: Number and Quantity
Quantities HSN-Q.A.3
3. Choose a level of accuracy appropriate to the limitations on measurement when reporting quantities.
Timmy and Teddy are in kindergarten. They're best friends, which means, of course, that they sometimes argue like worst enemies. At the moment, they're arguing over who is the number one fan of the Chicago Bulls. Their conversation goes something like this:
Timmy: I'm the best fan. I'm a hundred times better than you.
Teddy: No, I'm the best fan. I'm a hundred million times better than you.
Timmy: Oh yeah? I'm a bazillion times better than you.
Teddy: Oh yeah, I'm infinity times better than you.
Let's not even address the fact that infinity, since it isn't a number, can't multiply anything. But let's talk about how either boy could prove his point. They're five. Neither one has season tickets or has even actually been to a game. Neither one is part of the Chicago Bulls' official fan site. Neither one could tell you the difference between a lay-up and a foul shot. Neither one could tell you any significant statistics. Neither one knows Dennis Rodman from Dennis the Menace.
In short, the odds are good that neither one has a very accurate appraisal of what it means to be "the number one fan of the Chicago Bulls," because neither has an accurate way to measure it.
It's the same in the world of real measurement. A measurement is only as accurate as its weakest part—its "weakest link" in a manner of speaking. The level of accuracy in any measurement depends on both the methods used to obtain that measurement and the units being provided.
1. Kenny has a jar full of coins he's been saving, just like he's been doing every year. Which would provide Kenny with the most accurate idea of the amount of money he has in the jar?
Correct Answer:
Setting up a proportion between the height of the jar and the amount that last year's height yielded
Answer Explanation:
Of course, the most accurate way to determine the amount of money is to either count it or to let a machine at the bank count it. But if Kenny wants an approximation, choice (D) will give him the most accurate picture. All the other methods fail to differentiate between a jar that's mostly pennies and one that's mostly quarters. If Kenny's savings habits haven't changed, he can assume that the same amount of space in the jar yields about the same amount of money from year to year.
2. Charlie Brown has decided to run for Student Body President. Before he invests a lot of money in a campaign, he wants to determine what percent of the student body would vote for him over his rival, Peppermint Patty. Which would give him the most accurate idea?
Correct Answer:
Asking every third kid who enters the building one morning
Answer Explanation:
Both choices (A) and (B) represent a sample which might logically be skewed in favor of one or the other candidates. (Though, knowing Charlie Brown, we're guessing we know which candidate.) As far as choice (C) goes, Charlie Brown has 6 or 7 teachers. We aren't convinced that 6 or 7 teachers can accurately speak on behalf of the hundreds of kids involved in this election. But if Charlie Brown were to randomly survey a third of the student body, it should give him a pretty accurate idea of his chances.
3. In December, Phineas is trying to predict the cost of gasoline in his hometown for the summer. Which will give him the most accurate prediction?
Correct Answer:
Finding the cost on every Memorial Day in the past fifteen years
Answer Explanation:
To be honest, he should probably just guess "high" and then double it. But if he wants to predict the future, his best bet is to look at the past 15 years. Choices (A) and (C) are too limited, and choice (D) presumes that the attendant has any control or knowledge over the price.
4. Ferb is using a standard ruler to measure his height, to see if he's tall enough for the Sickenator Roller Coaster at his local amusement park. Which is the unit of measurement to which he can expect to be accurate?
Correct Answer:
Answer Explanation:
Assuming he doesn't count the height added on by his hair, most rulers are accurate to the nearest centimeter. A foot doesn't tell him much, and a yard will tell him even less. A normal ruler probably wouldn't be accurate enough to the nearest millimeter, but centimeters are a good bet.
5. Candace is on a diet, trying to impress her boyfriend with her healthy eating habits. She has a list of the number of Calories in each component of her meal. Which will probably be about the same as one of Candace's meals, Calorie-wise?
Correct Answer:
A quarter-pound burger without a bun
Answer Explanation:
An apple is hardly enough for a meal, and a diet soda should have zero calories. (If it doesn't, a serious complaint should be filed with the soda companies.) An order of fries could contain anywhere from five to five hundred fries. It's not specific enough to get a good estimate. A quarter-pounder without a bun gives a more accurate guess as to the Calorie-content of an actual meal.
6. Victor claims to have measured the thickness of a penny with a ruler. Which of the following is most likely the value Victor measured?
Correct Answer:
1.5 mm
Answer Explanation:
While (A) and (B) are both the correct measurements for the thickness of a penny, a simple ruler wouldn't be able to deliver that kind of precision. Typically, rulers have markings for each millimeter and each eighth or sixteenth of an inch. That means the most precise Victor can get is (C) or (D). Since (C) is clearly not the correct measurement, our answer (and Victor's answer, too) is (D).
7. Sandra has been practicing piano for years, and she's finally decided to buy one. Since it's such a big investment, she wants to find the average price of a piano to make sure she's not being overcharged. Which of the following would give Sandra the most accurate average?
Correct Answer:
Averaging the prices on Craigslist and the piano store down the street
Answer Explanation:
The first prices Sandra sees on Craigslist might not be an accurate representation of the many different kinds and prices of pianos available. Just the same, the piano store and manufacturing companies might be more expensive than some of the used pianos on Craigslist. The best solution is to average the used pianos on Craigslist with the newer ones in the store, or (B).
8. Olivia is training to run a marathon. She's pretty intense. If a marathon is about 26.2 miles and there are 63,360 inches in a mile, how many inches will Olivia be running?
Correct Answer:
1,660,000 in
Answer Explanation:
The key in this problem is the little word "about" before 26.2 miles. We can calculate the total number of inches and we'll end up with (A), so that's the answer, right? Nope. We only know the precision up to 0.1 or 0.2 miles. That's about 10,000 inches. That means that we can only be precise up to the 10,000-inch point. Answer (A) is too specific, and (B) and (D) are too general. Answer (C) is just right.
9. Alex weighs 168 pounds exactly. (Sure, it fluctuates from time to time, but as of this very moment, that's how much he weighs.) If 1 pound equals 2.2 kilograms, how many kilograms does Alex weigh right now?
Correct Answer:
369.6 kg
Answer Explanation:
When we multiply numbers, we have to consider how accurate we are. Since the problem tells us that Alex weighs exactly 168 pounds, we can assume it means 168.0 or 168.00 or 168.0000000 pounds. You can add as many zeros as you want after the decimal point for Alex's weight. It won't change it. When we multiply 168 by 2.2, we can take the answer to one number past the decimal place. (We're still limited by 2.2 kg per pound.) That means (A) is our most accurate answer.
10. Zoe is about 5 feet and 6 inches tall. There are 12 inches in a foot and 2.54 centimeters in an inch. How tall is Zoe in centimeters?
Correct Answer:
168 cm
Answer Explanation:
Since we know that Zoe is about 66 inches tall, the most precise we can be is up to the nearest inch. In other words, that means Zoe is about 167.64 cm, but we can't be that certain in our answer. The most certain we can be is within a range of about 5 centimeters. Answer (A) is a bit too general, and even (C) is too specific, so our best bet is (B).
Aligned Resources
More standards from High School: Number and Quantity - Quantities
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Example Problem: Level 3
from Problems: A Key Factor in PBL Barbara Duch,
(page 1)
Sharon and Stanley are building their dreamhouse. They have already designed the layout of all the rooms, with the help of Stan's father who is an architect. You are good friends with Sharon and Stan and since you've just studied circuits in your physics class, you are interested in the wiring plans for the new home. Sharon tells you that the house will have 4 bedrooms, a family room, living room, dining room, 2 bathrooms, a utility/wash room, and a combination kitchen/breakfast area. Stan tells you that he doesn't know how many circuits his house needs in order to be safe. In fact, Stan isn't even sure he knows what a circuit is, or how a circuit breaker works. Does he need some 240 V lines as well as 120 V ? What voltage are the electrical lines coming into the house? How are the ratings on the circuit breakers determined? How are houses wired?
Using your knowledge of physics, answer Stan's questions. If you don't know the answer, where can you find the information you need? What questions should you ask Sharon and Stan in order to determine their wiring needs?
(When finished with these questions, ask your instructor for page 2.)
(page 2)
Sharon tells you that they will have many appliances in the kitchen. A microwave, refrigerator, blender, toaster oven, toaster, can opener, electric fry pan, electric wok, mixer, clock radio, clock, crock pot, and dishwasher. Stan says that his computer and printer, and Sharon's ironing and sewing "stuff" will be in the same bedroom. Stan uses an electric razor, while Sharon uses a blow dryer and curling iron in the main bath.
They also inform you that in the morning, Stan cooks breakfast while Sharon does her hair in the bathroom. And in the evening, while Sharon cooks dinner, Stan works on his computer or watches TV in the living room. Sharon likes to sew or iron while Stan does the budget on the computer.
They show you a sketch of the floor plans for the house. The dimensions of the rooms are as follows: kitchen: 12'x15', living room: 15'x25', spare bedroom: 10'x12'.
Is there a minimum number of outlets that must be wired for each room? How are overhead light switches wired into the circuit?
Sketch the wiring diagram for the kitchen. Do you need more than one circuit breaker for the kitchen? Design the wiring so that no circuit breaker opens while Sharon is using several of her appliances cooking dinner. Be sure to give several examples of multiple appliance use.
When you have answered these questions and sketched the wiring diagram, check with your instructor before doing the final activity.
Construct a wiring plan for the kitchen, main bathroom, spare bedroom, and living room in the new house with the minimum number of circuits which will still suit Stan's and Sharon's mode of living. Your design should insure that no circuit breakers will trip during the busy mornings or evenings. Be sure to include the normal items in rooms (lights, stereo, VCR, etc.) as you plan your wiring diagram.
Written by Barbara J. Duch
May, 1995; Revised January 1996
Last updated Feb. 20, 1997.
Copyright Barbara Duch, Univ. of Delaware, 1996.
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Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Marine Botany
Mazzaella flaccida
Another Unfinished Chapter:
Forces of Drag and Acceleration on Mazzaella or Iridaea flaccida
In order to understand how the mechanical properties of the thallus are affected by wave forces, it is necessary to determine how much force a thallus will experience. The thallus experiences drag, acceleration, and lift, which all exert forces on the plant which may rip it of the rocks or tear its thallus. Using a flow tank I measured drag on the thallus, but recent research by the Denny lab here at Hopkins indicates that this is not the most important force the algae experiences. The acceleration reaction has more influence on species distributions, and only by looking at both drag and acceleration can one form an accurate picture of the forces experienced by an algae. Unfortunately, I could only measure drag, not acceleration, with the equipment available.
The drag coefficient,, can be calculated from the measured force of drag, the algae's projected area A, the water velocity u, and the density of the medium (for seawater = 1024 kg/ m2).
This equation works for a nondeforming, uniform body. Of course, Iridaea is too smart to keep displaying so much area for force to act on, and deforms in flow. The Vogel number (E) is a good measure of how well an alga has reconfigured its shape to reduce drag.
A smart and reconforming alga like Iridaea has a negative Vogel number. The force of drag on Iridaea increases with less than the square of velocity.
Using a drag coefficient we can determine what sort of force an alga will suffer when the water around it is moving at a certain speed. Tests of the thallus material and holdfast strength will indicate what sort of force an alga can survive. When we combine this knowledge with an idea of the size (and thus speed) and frequency of the largest waves arriving at a certain coastline, we can predict how often our species will likely be ripped off the rocks or torn to pieces by the surf. This information about survivorship will help us predict community composition and structure in the surf zone, as well as optimal thallus size. An alga with a high drag coefficient (velocities produce large forces on the plant) and high Vogel number (a very inflexible alga) will not do very well in the intertidal and may not occur in the surf zone unless it is made of unusually tough material and has an unusually strong holdfast.
The force of lift due to differential pressure in front of, above, and behind the alga also acts to pull an alga off the rocks, as does the acceleration reaction from the constant accelerations and decelerations from waves passing over algae living in the surf zone. We did not measure these forces, but the acceleration reaction seems to play an important role in defining the force an alga experiences (Gaylord et al., 1994). An algal thallus is often intricate and traps much water against its surface. This water must all be accelerated when the force of a wave passes over the thallus, and this large volume of added mass gives algae high inertia coefficients. This ensures that the plant experiences large accelerational forces despite a small thallus. Acceleration is much harder to measure than drag, so the impact of acceleration on algae is still being investigated.
Research here at Hopkins Marine Station by the Denny Lab (Gaylord et al., 1994) showed that the optimal size predicted for Iridaea flaccida matches the mean observed size only when both drag and acceleration are taken into account. Looking only at drag, predicted size is 7-11 times that actually observed on wave exposed shore (A optimal = 0.0595 - 0.0915 m2 and mean A = .0083) and 40-70 times the observed size on protected shores so Òdrag alone is not a primary factor in determining algal sizeÓ. Taking acceleration into account, A optimum for I. flaccida is .0072-.0078 m2, close to the mean size observed of A = .0083 m2. This assumed a = 250m/s2, a value hopefully appropriate for an exposed site; acceleration has not yet been measured. They found Vogel numbers of Iridaea flaccida, E = -.76 at .5-4 m/s and -1.01 at .5-3 m/s. Their average measured CD was .22 in 15 m/s water.
For flow speeds of 80 cm/ s, my data on I flaccida, I found a drag coefficient for the nonreproductive blade of .138. The reproductive blade had a coefficient of .191, not surprising considering that it is tougher because it is a winter blade while theirs was a summer blade, so it deforms less easily in flow to present minimum surface area to the force). In addition, it has surface inconsistencies (cystocarps) which would disturb flow. These values are both somewhat smaller than that measured by the Denny lab. Although it would make sense that the toughening of the blade in the winter would increase CD, my lower values of CD are not hugely different from the values they measured, so the difference may not be significant. My Vogel number, E, for the nonreproductive plant was -.135, while the reproductive specimen had an E of -.413. These values are much less negative than the values found for the Denny lab specimens. Once again some of this worsening of index could be due to reduced ability to conform to flow because of winter blade toughening; however, the degree of decrease is very surprising. Just compare these figures with those of other materials. A plastic sheet, which conforms very well to flow and would probably have properties similar to Iridaea's thallus, has an E of -1.05, while a nonconforming whiffle ball has an E of -.02 (Gaylord et al, 1994). Thus the thallus would appear in my tests to have properties closer to that of a whiffle ball than a plastic sheet, which does not make sense. Moreover, in this test I had a more negative (better) E for the reproductive specimen, while we would expect it to be less conforming due to winter toughening of the blade.
Although my data proved inconclusive, the Denny lab's work would indicates that drag is not the controlling factor in species distribution anyways. I would be better served in further investigations by looking at the acceleration reaction.
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Capitol vs. capital? What's the difference?
Olbers' paradox
[ohl-berz] /ˈoʊl bərz/
noun, Astronomy
the paradox that if the universe consisted of an infinite number of stars equally distributed through space, then every line of sight would come from a star and the night sky would glow uniformly, which is observationally not true.
Origin of Olbers' paradox
1950-55; after H.W.M. Olbers Unabridged
Cite This Source
Word Origin and History for Olbers' paradox
"if stars are uniformly distributed through the sky, their number should counterbalance their faintness and the night sky should be as bright as the day;" named for German astronomer H.W.M. Olbers (1758-1840), who propounded it in 1826.
Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
Cite This Source
Word of the Day
Difficulty index for Olbers' paradox
Few English speakers likely know this word
Word Value for Olbers
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Wondering Why?
Why Was Vicksburg Important?
Why Was Vicksburg Important?
Vicksburg in history is considered the waterloo of the Second World War in the USA. We know for a fact that this was the one and only channel during that time that once captured and held by the opponents, then the battle will be finally won. This was totally important to the enemies during the war because of the fact that this channel is where everyone practically uses it as a passage if they would like to travel from one place from Memphis or Mississippi. The essential role played by Vicksburg channel was something that embedded a mark in the history of American battle.
For some considerations, Vicksburg was turned into a historic spot after the essential role that it played in the wars that afflicted the American nation. For these Americans who have a great deal of history, paying tribute to Vicksburg would be the least thing that they can do to acknowledge and commend the efforts and great part that this channel served for them. They all believe that paying tribute and being grateful to this channel will eventually make them a truly united nation, a nation which knows how to give credit where it is due.
If Vicksburg channel could only feel and see the warmth that these American people have for her, by all means she cannot but cry a river. Metaphorically speaking, Vicksburg will surely be happy for all the commendations she is getting from these Americans. Indeed, it is but fitting and proper to make Vicksburg a historical spot so that the in coming generation will also find it necessary to honour her due to the good things she did for the American nation. Vicksburg will indeed be forever remembered not only in the books and documents of the American nation but more so in the hearts and tradition of the entire American people.
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how (adv.) Look up how at
Old English hu "how," from Proto-Germanic *hwo (source also of Old Saxon hwo, Old Frisian, Middle Dutch hu, Dutch hoe, German wie, Gothic hvaiwa "how"), an adverbial form from the PIE interrogative pronominal root *kwo- (see who). Practically a doublet of why, differentiated in form and use.
How come? for "why?" is recorded from 1848 [Bartlett]. Emphatic phrase and how! is recorded from 1865. The formulation was common in book and article titles ("The National Debt, and How to Pay It"), but Pennsylvania writer Bayard Taylor, in whom it is first recorded, seems to have regarded it as a German or German-American expression.
how (interj.) Look up how at
Native American greeting, Siouxan (Dakota hao, Omaha hau), first recorded 1817 in English. But according to OED, the same word was noted early 17c. by French missionary Jean de Brebeuf among Hurons as an expression of approval (1636).
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Logo for the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library-Museum
Home Exhibits Hoover
Students Educators Laura Ingalls
Laura Ingalls Wilder
Pioneering Journeys of the Ingalls Family
Walnut Grove, Minnesota
covered wagon Pioneering Introduction covered wagon Pepin covered wagon Montgomery County, Kansas covered wagonWalnut Grovecovered wagon Burr Oak covered wagon
De Smet covered wagon Vinton covered wagonMansfield covered wagon
decorative bar
a creek
A Creek
--Photo courtesy of Joshua James Evans
After selling their farm near Pepin , Wisconsin in 1874, the Ingalls family crossed the Mississippi River and traveled to western Minnesota where Pa and Ma bought 172 acres of land near the town of Walnut Grove. Built into the banks of Plum Creek was a dugout that became their home until Pa built a two-story frame house from lumber that he had bought on credit at the lumberyard.
a dugout house
A dugout house
--Photo courtesy of the Nebraska State Historical Society, 1500 R. Street, P.O. Box 82554, Lincoln, NE 68501-2554 http://nebraskahistory.org
Look closely at the old photograph of a dugout in Nebraska . How many family members posed for this photograph? What might the family have done with the tree branches scattered on the ground? How might they have used the barrels and boxes? The small door on the left may have led to a root cellar where the family stored garden vegetables such as potatoes, turnips and carrots for the winter. The family might also have gone there during a storm. What else can you see in this old photograph?
Plum tree
A plum tree
--Photo courtesy of Joshua James Evans
Mary and Laura picked plums in the plum tree thicket that grew along the creek. Then they laid them on cloths to dry in the sun. When Pa let Mary and Laura wade in the creek, Laura got into trouble when she went into deep water. She almost drowned after a rainstorm when she tried to cross the footbridge when the creek was high. Pa, Ma, Mary, Laura and baby Carrie attended the Congregational Church in town, and Pa gave the money he had saved to buy a badly-needed pair of boots to help purchase a new bell for the church. Mary and Laura attended a one-room school in town.
a wheat field
A wheat field
After the Ingalls family moved into their new frame house, they watched the new wheat growing in the field. Then a plague of grasshoppers invaded western Minnesota , completely destroying their wheat crop. In 1937, Laura remembered the grasshopper invasion in a Book Fair Speech she presented in Detroit , Michigan . "I saw their bodies choke the waters in Plum Creek. I saw them destroy every green thing on the face of the earth." A cloud that glittered covered the noonday sun and soon the grasshoppers hit the ground like hail, devouring the wheat, the garden, the grass and even the leaves from the trees. In order to pay off the family's debts, Pa walked over two hundred miles to the east to find work.
For more information, please contact:
Laura Ingalls Wilder Museum
330 Eighth Street
Walnut Grove, MN 56180
507-859-2358 or toll free 800-528-7280
www.walnutgrove.org or e-mail: lauramuseum@walnutgrove.org
Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum
P.O. Box 488
210 Parkside Drive
West Branch, IA 52358 | 319-643-5301
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Intro to the Gifts
The Froebel® Gifts are educational materials developed for Friedrich Froebel's original Kindergarten. Perhaps the world's most intricately conceived playthings, these materials appear deceptively simple, but represent a sophisticated approach to child development. The Gifts are arguably the first educational toys.
Froebel developed Spielgabe ("play gifts") for his Kindergarten schools. They were so named because they were both given the the child (to be properly respected as gifts) and also function as tools for adults to observe the innate human "gifts" each child posseses from birth. One observes the remarkable qualities and innovative ideas that make each child unique when they have the opportunity to explore and create according to Froebel's method. The materials are known in a variety of terms, including Eunmul (South Korea), Gabe (Asia) and Spielgabe (Germany).
The materials were not some accidental creation, as some modern historians assume. Froebel spent a great deal of time observing children and refining the design of the Gifts. He numbered Gifts 1-6 (the only materials to identified as spielgabe in Froebel's writing) in part because it simplifies referring to them. Later materials can be described succinctly as tablets (Gift 7), sticks (Gift 8), rings (Gift 8 or 9), points (Gift 9 or 10). For example, Gift 2 is a set of wood solids (sphere, cylinder, cube) with a hanging apparatus. Eight one-inch wood cubes is known more simply as Gift 3, etc.
Gifts have one primary difference from other materials used in the Kindergarten — they are able to be returned to their original form when play is finished. An important part of Gift play, the presentation of the Gift is always as a whole form (e.g. Gift 3 removed from the box as a cube form of 8 cubes), and when play is done parts are combined before being placed into the box as a whole. There are only two other rules for Gift play; (1) all parts must be incorporated and (2) a creation is always changed through modification, not destoyed and rebuilt. In this way unity is maintained and subtle lessons about the nature of change are learned.
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The Great Leap Forward took place in 1958. The Great Leap Forward was Mao’s attempt to moderniseChina’s economy so that by 1988, China would have an economy that rivalled America.
Card issued to celebrate the Great Leap Forward
Mao had toured China and concluded that the Chinese people were capable of anything and the two primary tasks that he felt they should target was industry and agriculture. Mao announced a second Five Year Plan to last from 1958 to 1963. This plan was called the Great Leap Forward.
The Great Leap Forward planned to develop agriculture and industry. Mao believed that both had to grow to allow the other to grow. Industry could only prosper if the work force was well fed, while the agricultural workers needed industry to produce the modern tools needed for modernisation. To allow for this, China was reformed into a series of communes.
The geographical size of a commune varied but most contained about 5000 families. People in a commune gave up their ownership of tools, animals etc so that everything was owned by the commune. People now worked for the commune and not for themselves. The life of an individual was controlled by the commune. Schools and nurseries were provided by the communes so that all adults could work. Health care was provided and the elderly were moved into “houses of happiness” so that they could be looked after and also so that families could work and not have to worry about leaving their elderly relatives at home.
The commune provided all that was needed – including entertainment. Soldiers worked alongside people. The population in a commune was sub-divided. Twelve families formed a work team. Twelve work terms formed a brigade. Each sub-division was given specific work to do. Party members oversaw the work of a commune to ensure that decisions followed the correct party line.
By the end of 1958, 700 million people had been placed into 26,578 communes. The speed with which this was achieved was astounding. However, the government did all that it could to whip up enthusiasm for the communes. Propaganda was everywhere – including in the fields where the workers could listen to political speeches as they worked as the communes provided public address systems. Everybody involved in communes was urged not only to meet set targets but to beat them. If the communes lacked machinery, the workers used their bare hands. Major constructions were built in record time – though the quality of some was dubious.
The Great Leap Forward also encouraged communes to set up “back-yard” production plants. The most famous were 600,000backyard furnaces which produced steel for the communes. When all of these furnaces were working, they added a considerable amount of steel to China’s annual total – 11 million tonnes.
The figures for steel, coal, chemicals, timber, cement etc all showed huge rises though the figures started at in 1958 were low. Grain and cotton production also showed major increases in production.
Mao had introduced the Great Leap Forward with the phrase “it is possible to accomplish any task whatsoever.” By the end of 1958, it seemed as if his claim was true.
The consequences of the Great Leap Forward
However, in 1959, things started to go wrong. Political decisions/beliefs took precedence over commonsense and communes faced the task of doing things which they were incapable of achieving. Party officials would order the impossible and commune leaders, who knew what their commune was capable of doing or not, could be charged with being a “bourgeois reactionary” if he complained. Such a charge would lead to prison.
Quickly produced farm machinery produced in factories fell to pieces when used. Many thousands of workers were injured after working long hours and falling asleep at their jobs. Steel produced by the backyard furnaces was frequently too weak to be of any use and could not be used in construction – it’s original purpose. Buildings constructed by this substandard steel did not last long.
Also the backyard production method had taken many workers away from their fields – so desperately needed food was not being harvested. Ironically, one of the key factors in food production in China was the weather and 1958 had particularly good weather for growing food. Party leaders claimed that the harvest for 1958 was a record 260 million tons – which was not true.
The excellent growing weather of 1958 was followed by a very poor growing year in 1959. Some parts of China were hit by floods. In other growing areas, drought was a major problem. The harvest for 1959 was 170 million tons of grain – well below what China needed at the most basic level. In parts of China, starvation occurred.
1960 had even worse weather than 1959. The harvest of 1960 was 144 million tons. 9 million people are thought to have starved to death in 1960 alone; many millions were left desperately ill as a result of a lack of food. The government had to introduce rationing. This put people on the most minimal of food and between 1959 and 1962, it is thought that 20 million people died of starvation or diseases related to starvation.
The backyard furnaces also used too much coal and China’s rail system, which depended on coal driven trains, suffered accordingly.
By 1959, it was obvious that the Great Leap Forward had been a failure and even Mao admitted this. He called on the Communist Party to take him to task over his failures but also asked his own party members to look at themselves and their performance.
“The chaos caused was on a grand scale, and I take responsibility. Comrades, you must all analyse your own responsibility. If you have to fart, fart. You will feel much better for it.”
Some party members put the blame of the failure of the Great Leap Forward on Mao. He was popular with the people but he still had to resign from his position as Head of State (though he remained in the powerful Party Chairman position).
The day-to-day running of China was left to three moderates: Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping. In late 1960, they abandoned the Great Leap Forward. Private ownership of land was reinstated and communes were cut down to a manageable size. Peasants also had the incentive to produce as much spare food as was possible as they could sell any spare that they had a market.
These three moderates had restricted Mao’s power but his standing among the ordinary Chinese people was still high as he was seen as the leader of the revolution. He was to use this popularity with the people to resurrect his authority at the expense of the moderates. This was in the so-called Cultural Revolution.
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Early Chicago: Ida B. Wells
Ida B. Wells
(Source: Chicago History Museum)
Journalist and speaker Ida B. Wells was forcibly driven out of Memphis, Tennessee, due to her verbal and written condemnation of lynching. She came to Chicago to encourage blacks to boycott the 1893 Columbian Exhibition and to use the international reach of the fair to present a positive portrayal of African Americans to the world.
Wells felt urgency in her mission. In the year before the Exhibition opened, she lectured across England. The negative opinions she heard about African Americans strengthened her belief that something needed to be done.
While there I was more struck than ever with the necessity of having some literature to correct the prevailing opinions of people abroad about the mental and social capacities of the colored people in the United States. Persons with whom I conversed in England and Scotland were surprised that I was possessed of sufficient intelligence to talk lucidly. "Why," they would say, "I thought all colored persons were ignorant and incapable of education. Is it possible that any of them are capable of being more than menials?" So I was filled with a determination to do something. It shall not be thought, as it is abroad, that the colored people are brutes and that these murderous lynchings are justified.
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FAO Home>Fisheries & Aquaculture
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationsfor a world without hunger
1. Identity
1. Biological features
2. Images gallery
2. Profile
1. Historical background
2. Main producer countries
3. Habitat and biology
3. Production
1. Production cycle
2. Production systems
3. Diseases and control measures
4. Statistics
1. Production statistics
2. Market and trade
1. Status and trends
1. Main issues
1. Responsible aquaculture practices
2. References
1. Related links
Mercenaria mercenaria Linnaeus, 1758 [Veneridae]
FAO Names: En - Northern quahog(=Hard clam), Fr - Praire, Es - Chirla mercenaria
Biological features
Shell solid, equivalve; inequilateral, beaks in the front half of the shell; broadly oval in outline. Ligament a deeply inset, dark brown elliptical band, behind the beaks reaching half-way to the posterior margin. Lunule well defined, broad, heart-shaped. Escutcheon indistinct. Sculpture of concentric lines, raised here and there into ridges, and fine radiating lines. In young specimens the ridges are present all over the shell but in the adult they persist, after wear and tear, only near the anterior and posterior margins. Growth stages prominent. Both valves with three cardinal teeth; in addition there is present in each valve a rough tooth-like area behind the beaks and immediately below the ligament; this area has the appearance of a supplementary posterior cardinal tooth which has been broken off. No laterals. Pallial sinus not deep, triangular. Margin grenulate. Colour a dirty white, light varnish-brown, dull grey or grey-brown. Inside of shell white, sometimes deep violet about the adductor muscle scars.
Images gallery
hard clam in basketPhoto: LeRoy Creswellhard clamPhoto: Randy Newman
Historical background
There are two important factors that make the hard clam relatively unique as a farmed bivalve mollusc. The first is that it is more valuable at a small size; it stays in this size range for a relatively short period of time, after which the value decreases. The second aspect is related to hard clam biology, and makes it distinct from most other bivalves currently in large scale aquaculture; the hard clam does not typically produce concentrated sources of seed that can be collected from wild sets. The lack of seed necessitated the development of hatchery and nursery technology before critical experiments on field grow-out could take place. The development of relatively low-cost unicellular algal production techniques made production of large numbers of seed economically viable.
Experiments started in the late 1940s and the hatchery technology was developed in the early 1950s. By the end of that decade a number of individuals were attempting to grow the species commercially. Most of these early attempts were failures because predators consumed the seed, but limited numbers of clams were sold. In the 1970s a series of size-specific plantings of clam seed with a variety of protection techniques were instituted. The resulting data provided the science-based criteria for the further development of the nursery systems that needed to produce the size of seed for field operations.
Once large quantities of seed at the critical size of about 10 mm could be produced, several entrepreneurs learned the protection techniques (in the late 1970s and early 1980s) and, by the late 1970s, significant hard clam production through aquaculture had begun in the states of Massachusetts, New Jersey and North Carolina, United States of America. These pioneers spread the technology throughout the US east coast and modifications were made to the protection devices. By the late 1980s, hard clam aquaculture was being practiced from Massachusetts through Florida, but the bulk of production was in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, South Carolina and Florida. These states have continued to be the largest producers, with Florida and Virginia becoming increasingly important in recent years.
Main producer countries
Main producer countries of Mercenaria mercenaria (FAO Fishery Statistics, 2006)
Habitat and biology
The native range of the species is from the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada through the northern Gulf of Mexico to Texas. It has been introduced to the west coast of the United States (Washington and California), the island of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean region, the United Kingdom, France, Holland and Belgium in Europe, and Taiwan Province of China in Asia. Some individuals are also being reared in Wenzhou and Yantai in China.
Hard clams can be found in coastal lagoons and estuaries from about 12-30‰ but most large populations occur at >15‰. They grow from 10-30 °C, but most growth occurs from 18-25 °C; below 5 °C clams become dormant. Clams burrow from just below the surface to about 15 cm in all sediment types, near oyster reefs, and in sea grass beds, but prefer sediments that are a mixture of sand and mud with some coarse material. They range from the intertidal zone to 15 m. Hard clams filter the water to obtain phytoplankton and other suspended particles that they use as food.
The hard clam has a typical bivalve life history. The sexes are separate, sperm and eggs are released into the water, and fertilization is external. The free swimming larvae feed on phytoplankton and other organic materials in the water for 7-21 days and then metamorphose into benthic organisms. These newly settled organisms attach to sediment with a byssal thread and develop a calcified shell within a day or so. The seed reach approximately 10-15 mm in year 0, and approximately 25-30 mm shell length (SL) by the end of year 1, but there is a large variability in growth. Individuals may develop sperm in year 0, but sexual maturation typically occurs by the end of year 2 or 3. Mature females typically spawn 1- 5 million eggs per spawning event, but may produce 40 million or more eggs per year.
Commercial size is reached at the end of the second year of life, or earlier in southern waters, but may take four or five years in the northern parts of the range. During the first year of life the animals are subject to high losses from invertebrate and vertebrate predators, chiefly crabs. They become less susceptible to predators when they reach 20-25 mm SL, and only large crustaceans (lobsters), large snails, a few fish and birds can consume mature hard clams. The average life span has been estimated to be between 12-20 years, but clams older than 50 years have been reported.
The major difference in the life history of hard clams compared to most bivalves is that large quantities of seed are not typically found in nature. This has caused hard clam aquaculture to rely entirely on hatcheries for seed. Much of the farming of this species is conducted in habitats with a significant mud component, both because of the availability of such sites and because this habitat eliminates some predators.
Production cycle
Production cycle of Mercenaria mercenaria
Production systems
Hard clam production systems range from intensive (hatchery, nursery and some grow-out) to extensive (some grow-out).
Seed supply
All hard clam seed are produced in hatcheries. The production cycle begins with adult organisms with well-developed gonads. The conditioning of these adults relies on a number of techniques. For early spawning, adults may be conditioned in the hatchery facility by increasing water temperature while providing sufficient food in the form of unicellular algae. Conditioning takes 4 to 10 weeks depending on the starting point. Clams may also be placed in high growth areas and allowed to condition naturally for spawning later in the season.
Typically, conditioned adults are mass spawned by placing them in a seawater bath in which temperature can be adjusted. Sperm, microalgae, or serotonin may be used to provide a stimulus for gamete release. Fertilized eggs are retained on a screen, then counted and distributed into tanks for development. After two days the larvae have reached the straight hinge stage and are removed from the tank, redistributed into another tank, and supplied with unicellular algal food. This process is repeated for 7 to 14 days until settling (setting), when clams are typically held at about 1/ml. Clams are removed from the larval tanks and placed in containers with mesh bottoms in which water with unicellular algae enters from the top (downwellers) or placed directly on raceways and supplied with very low flow. The clams remain in downwellers or with limited flow for one to two weeks. Clams in downwellers are then placed in mesh bottom containers with the water flowing up through the seed (upwellers).
There is no definitive moment at which the hatchery system ceases and the nursery ensues. However, most people consider the point at which unicellular algae are no longer supplied as the end of the hatchery part of the cycle. At this point the clams feed exclusively on materials in the natural water being pumped from a nearby estuary. Clams usually remain in upwellers until they reach from 2-5 mm SL and then they are distributed into raceways, mesh bags in the field, or kept in upwellers where they grow to planting size (8-15 mm SL).
Ongrowing techniques
Clams are planted in plots in the intertidal or shallow subtidal zones. In most areas these are covered with a plastic mesh (6.4 or 12.7 mm square mesh) to prevent predation losses. In some locations clams are planted in mesh bags which are staked to the bottom. Plot maintenance involves regular (at least weekly) monitoring to check the mesh for damage and to remove fouling. Clams reach market size in 1-1.5 years in southern waters and 2-4 years in more northern locations.
Harvesting techniques
Clams are harvested from the bags by picking up the bag, or removed from the plots by digging with a rake or by hand. All clams are size-graded, either by hand or with mechanical grader/counter machines, and those individuals that are too small to market are returned to a separate plot for additional growth.
Handling and processing
Almost all farmed clams are sold live in the shell.
Production costs
Hard clam seed (10-12 mm size) typically cost from USD 25-30/1 000. The supply can be variable and many growers buy from multiple sources to hedge delivery times and supplies. Others buy smaller seed and operate their own nursery systems to grow the seed to planting size. Other costs are nominal, but include the cost of the mesh, any hold-down devices and ancillary field gear. The main costs other than the seed are the boat, its engine, and the labour required to tend the plots. Typically, survival to market in the plots averages 50-70 percent. Below 50 percent it becomes unprofitable to grow clams. Occasionally, survival exceeds 70 percent, but that cannot be expected as routine.
Diseases and control measures
VibriosisVibrio anguillarum; V. alginolyticusBacteriaSystemic infection of larval soft-tissues, resulting in tissue necrosis (due to production of exotoxin by the bacteria) & deathGood husbandry; sterilization of water used in algal and batch culture
Quahog Parasite Unknown Disease (QPX Disease); Chytrid-like DiseaseSwellings and round yellow-tan nodules (1-5 mm in diameter) in mantle, often at edge & close to or directly adjacent to the siphon or adductor muscle; gills may also be infected; decrease in new shell growth; swollen, retracted, tan-coloured mantle edges; mucus & sand granules caught between swollen mantle & shell edges & high degree of chipping of the shell edge; can cause severe mortalityNo control measure known, except planting resistant stocks
Suppliers of pathology expertise
Expertise in clam pathology is similar to that for oysters, and exists primarily in academic institutions or governmental laboratories.
Production statistics
Significant commercial production in the United States of America did not begin until the middle to late 1970s. There is little data available on production or sales from the early years because these were mixed with general landings from wild stocks. Taiwanese production of a species of Meretrix is recorded back to 1950 (750 tonnes) in FAO data as a hard clam. Farmed hard clam production data from the United States of America first appear in this data source in 1984 (1 982 tonnes). In that same year, Taiwan Province of China reported an output of 17 115 tonnes of Meretrix. By 1993, production in Taiwan Province of China had not expanded much since 1984 (17 438 tonnes) but US production of Mercenaria had risen to 8 856 tonnes. During the decade 1993-2002, the annual average growth rate of cultured hard clam has expanded faster in the USA (9.9 percent/yr) than in Taiwan Province of China (6.5 percent/yr). However, Taiwan Province of China is still the major producer (30 711 tonnes in 2002). Commercial output from France (a third species - the introduced Manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) was not reported until 2002 (250 tonnes).
Market and trade
The prime market for cultured hard clams is live in the shell. The product is used either fresh on the half shell, or steamed. The primary market for the half shell is as an appetizer in up-scale restaurants. Most clams are sold along the east coast of the United States, but some are sold throughout the US into the mid-west. Very little of this product is sold outside the US. There have been attempts to produce a frozen in-the-shell product for home use as an ingredient in sauces used over pasta. This has been hindered by size regulations imposed on the harvest of wild clams by some states (see below).
Prices vary seasonally and according to the state of the economy. In recent years the price for the prime size (littleneck) clams has varied from USD 0.12-0.25. In US the primary market information is collected by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency, National Marine Fisheries Service. Daily summaries of prices by size are provided through a market service, but do not separate out aquaculture product from wild harvested hard clams. In addition, many of the cultured clams are sold outside these channels and are thus not captured by the official price or quantity statistics.
The only US Federal market regulations are those that are used to assure the health of the human consumers. These are enforced at the state level and are based on monitoring and classification of the growing waters. The only other regulations that apply to hard clams are those that limit the sale of small clams to protect the wild stocks. These regulations vary from state to state, but most frequently regulate the size based on the thickness of the clams to 1 inch (2.54 cm) and larger. The exception to this is for seed sales for aquaculture purposes.
China has recently imported a number of hard clams and there are at least two groups in that country experimenting with the culture of this species. It is highly likely that they will succeed with the culture aspects, but the nature of the prime hard clam market (live in the shell) may make exports to the US very difficult.
Status and trends
As noted above, the price of hard clams is very sensitive to the state of the economy; currently US markets are depressed relative to a few years ago. It is likely that hard clam production will continue to increase at a modest rate in the future. The primary impediments to continued expansion are government regulations, the shallow water requirement for most production practices and constraints on seed production. The shallow water habitat required for most techniques places hard clam culture in a highly visible location and in a zone where there can be interactions with sea grasses. This combination greatly reduces the potential locations available for expansion. There are a few companies that are primarily seed producers, but there are a substantial number of producers that operate their own hatcheries. This scenario results in spot shortages of the prime sizes of seed in some years. While this trend will probably continue in the future, there have been companies in locations that can produce seed year around vying for market share. In spite of these difficulties, as the US economy improves there will be a general increase in prices and production. In addition, there will numerous small producers and the emergence of a number of large producers who can supply supermarket chains with a constant stream of products.
Current research has focused on the links between QPX (see above) and various genetic strains. Additional research is being conducted on the development of tetraploid animals to provide genetic stocks for the development of triploid individuals. A limited number of small studies are ongoing to improve hatchery production, nursery efficiency and predator and fouling control.
Development prospects
The primary impediments to greater production in the US are:
• Price sensitivity to general economic forces.
• Local or annual spot shortages of larger seed.
• Most importantly, the difficulty in finding sites for new farms. This is primarily due to the requirement for shallow water that is dictated by current culture techniques. If an economical means of production could be developed for deep water sites, significantly more areas would be available for culture.
Market prospects
There is a need to develop a rigid size classification that is linked to named market sizes (littleneck, cherrystone, chowder, etc.) At present, when insufficient numbers of small sizes are available, the US market moves larger individuals into the smaller size class. This practice confuses the customer and lowers the price that could be charged in times of shortages.
Research is needed to increase the reliability of seed production. Efforts should be directed toward increasing survivorship of newly set individuals and developing methods to enhance growth rates. In the field, more research is needed to examine optimum plot sizes, planting densities, predator protection devices, and methods to grow seed and market individuals in deeper water.
As more and more of the smaller sizes become available through aquaculture activities, the differentiation noted above may be less important than opening new markets. There is appreciable room for research on market acceptance and market expansion but, because most growers are small enterprises, there is little incentive for the industry to fund such studies.
Main issues
There are few negative environmental impacts of hard clam aquaculture. The operations are typically in shallow water and occupy limited space within this heavily utilized zone. Leases are usually neither granted for areas that produce significant commercial quantities of wild clams nor allowed in areas of rooted vascular grass (seagrass) beds. There have been instances of conflict with seagrasses invading the area of clam farms. This apparently is because the mesh and clams stabilize the bottom, and the filtration activity of the clams increases water clarity. This combination allows for invasion of the farm by seagrasses. The filtration activity of the clams also deposits faecal and pseudofaecal materials on the bottom and may speed up the remineralization processes; this has been considered a positive impact of bivalve culture because it serves to remove nitrogen from the system.
Clearly the area occupied by clam farms is modified, compared to the surrounding sediments and may support a slightly different infaunal assemblage. While the numbers of individuals of particular species in this assemblage may differ from the nearby sediments, species composition is often not significantly altered. Clam farms typically have minimal sediment build up because large accumulations would cover the mesh and suffocate the clams. The accumulating sediments are typically dispersed over a large area because the intertidal nature of the planted sites makes them very susceptible to wind driven waves.
Responsible aquaculture practices
The meshes or bags used to protect the clams serve as a substrate and may develop extensive macroalgal or macrofaunal fouling communities. These may serve to increase species diversity in an otherwise apparently barren mud or sand flat. These fouling communities are periodically removed to prevent them stunting clam growth rate. In addition, harvesting the clams obviously completely disturbs the bottom. However, the farming activity is concentrated in small areas; the unit area disturbed per clam is therefore much less in aquaculture than in wild harvesting.
Carriker, M.R. 2001. Embryogenesis and organogenesis of veligers and early juveniles. In J.N. Kraeuter & M. Castagna (eds.), Biology of the hard clam. pp 77-112. Elsevier, New York, USA.
Castagna, M. & Kraeuter, J.N. 1981. Manual for Growing the Hard Clam Mercenaria. Special Report in Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering No. 249. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA. 110 pp.
Chanley, P. & Andrews J.D. 1971. Aids for identification of bivalve larvae in Virginia. Malacologia 11:45-119.
Hadley, N.H., Manzi, J.J., Eversole, A.G., Dillon, R.T., Battey, C.E. & Peacock, N. 1997. A Manual for the Culture of the Hard Clam Mercenaria spp. in South Carolina. South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium, Charleston, South Carolina, USA. 135 pp.
Kraeuter, J.N. & Castagna, M. 2001. Biology of the Hard Clam. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science 31. Elsevier, New York, USA 751 pp.
Malinowski, S. 1986. Small-scale Farming of the Hard Clam on Long Island, New York. New York State Urban Development Corporation, New York, New York, USA. 60 pp.
Manzi, J.J. & Castagna, M. 1989. Clam Mariculture in North America. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science 19. Elsevier, New York, USA. 461 pp.
Spencer, B.E. 2002. Molluscan Shellfish Farming. Fishing News Books, Blackwell Science, Malden, MA, USA. 274 pp.
Related links
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Nepotism is the act of favoring one's own relatives over other applicants in inappropriate contexts. This generally means preferential hiring in business, or political appointments and awarding government contracts in politics. These practices are heavily restricted in most developed countries, but continues to be a grey area in many situations. It is generally held that 'bad' nepotism is when you favor a family member over a more qualified candidate, and that favoring a family member who is equal or greater in qualification to other applicants is a bit of a grey area.
The word nepotism comes from the same root as 'nephew', the Latin nepos, and originally referred specifically to the practice of the Catholic church granting favors, particularly positions in the cardinality, to members of the pope's family. This was particularly common in the case of a pope's nephews; as the pope could have no sons, his nephews were seen as a fitting substitute for continuing his male line. It was also common to refer to an illegitimate son of the pope as his 'nephew', although this was not, apparently, an attempt to deceive but rather a polite, and often transparent, social nicety.
The term was first recorded in 1660, probably because the familial favoritism in the church was becoming a political issue. The practice was officially ended just thirty years later, in 1692, when Pope Innocent XII issued the papal bull Romanum decet Pontificem, prohibiting popes from bestowing estates, offices, or revenues to any relative, with the exception that one (and only one) qualified relative could be made a cardinal.
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PROMPT: The Triggering Town
This week’s exercise is adapted from Richard Hugo’s The Triggering Town.
First, imagine a fictitious town. Visualize it and jot down notes about what you can see, hear, smell, etc.
Now, show this town to someone you trust (Hugo suggests a friend or lover). Use this to begin a piece of writing. Hugo points out, in his example, that he uses the word that over the (that silo instead of the silo), as you are on the scene and pointing.
Hugo discusses the challenges of using real-world places. If we set a poem or piece of fiction in our actual hometown, for example, we might not be able to let go of the factual details. He writes, “Your hometown often provides so many knowns… that the imagination cannot free itself to seek the unknowns.” What unknowns did you discover in this exercise?
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"url": "http://www.wordswithoutwalls.com/blog/2015/1/21/prompt-the-triggering-town"
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Mountaintop Removal Has Real Mental Health Effects
Solastalgia is a new concept developed to give greater meaning and clarity to environmentally induced distress. As opposed to nostalgia–the melancholia or homesickness experienced by individuals when separated from a loved home–solastalgia is the distress that is produced by environmental change impacting on people while they are directly connected to their home environment. The paper will focus on two contexts where collaborative research teams have found solastalgia to be evident: the experiences of persistent drought in rural NSW and the impact of large-scale open-cut coal mining on individuals in the Upper Hunter Valley of NSW. In both cases, people exposed to environmental change experienced negative affect that is exacerbated by a sense of powerlessness or lack of control over the unfolding change process.
Qualitative (interviews and focus groups) and quantitative (community-based surveys) research has been conducted on the lived experience of drought and mining, and the findings relevant to solastalgia are presented.
The authors are exploring the potential uses and applications of the concept of solastalgia for understanding the psychological impact of the increasing incidence of environmental change worldwide.
Worldwide, there is an increase in ecosystem distress syndromes matched by a corresponding increase in human distress syndromes. The specific role played by global-scale environmental challenges to ‘sense of place’ and identity will be explored in the future development of the concept of solastalgia.
Mountaintop removal is a horrifically destructive form of mining used across Appalachia to access valuable coal seams buried deep beneath the surface of its majestic slopes.
Ample research demonstrates that the extraction process has profound environmental effects– it clogs streams, destroys habitat, and reduces biodiversity. Mountaintop removal also has significant health implications including increased risk of asthma, cancer, kidney disease, and reproductive health problems.
Now research is uncovering yet another problem for residents of regions that are being ravaged by mountaintop removal: solastalgia.
The condition is a form of anxiety and depression brought about in response to environmental changes. Thanks to climate change, the phenomenon is showing up in more and more places around the world. But what makes solastagia especially alarming in Appalachia is its connection to the entirely human-controlled process of mountaintop removal.
A recent study found that 17 percent of Appalachians living in mining counties experience symptoms of depression, in contrast with 10 percent of residents in other counties. Even after controlling for contributing factors like socioeconomic class, access to education, and other known influences on mental health, these numbers remain surprisingly constant.
Mountaintop removal, in a sense, breaks minds as well as mountains by creating environmental stress and a sense of loss among people who identify deeply with their landscape. A separate study confirmed these findings, noting that proximity to mountaintop removal sites had an adverse effect on mental health.
These disparities are quite significant, for two closely interrelated reasons.
First, residents of Appalachia already tend to experience mental health conditions and substance abuse at a high rate. Some of this is closely linked with poverty, a stressor that often exacerbates underlying mental health issues or risk factors for addiction.
People in poverty might turn to alcohol and drugs for self-medication and a form of escape, for example, while those who are already at risk for depression and anxiety will likely suffer more when their living conditions are extremely stressful. Poverty also impacts everything from nutrition to education, all of which can have a profound effect on physical and mental health, even on an intergenerational level: Poverty can actually change your genes, passing a legacy on to the next generation.
Another contributing factor of equally grave concern is the lack of access to comprehensive mental health services in the region. Poverty, stigma, and the rural nature of Appalachian communities makes it difficult to deliver reliable mental health services. When people with symptoms of mental illness and substance abuse can’t easily receive counseling and treatment, a ripple effect can result.
Low-income communities struggling to survive are not well-positioned for self-advocacy, so they find it difficult to speak up when it comes to discussions about allocating health funds. Many regions lack even basic clinics for physical health care, let alone mental health services, exacerbating profound social disparities.
When ecologists discuss the human impacts of mountaintop removal, they usually consider the subject in a physical health context. But the recent evidence of solastalgia in Appalachia provides a strong incentive to explore the mental health implications of climate change and unsafe environmental practices.
We could certainly stand to learn more about how extractive activities like fracking affect the mental health of surrounding communities. Such information is critical for providing immediate support to people in need. It should also be treated as part of the growing body of evidence supporting the ban of destructive environmental practices. New data will likely show that the harmful effects of resource extraction are much bigger than previously understood.
Appalachian people at risk of losing their homes and sense of place experience the devastation of mountaintop removal on a spectrum of physical and mental levels. Solastalgia is a term that’s likely to arise more and more in the coming years as researchers learn more about how human emotions interact with the landscape. It’s also a reminder that environmentalists should consider mental health in their advocacy work, particularly as the nascent field of ecopsychology gains its footing.
As we’ve seen here, that feeling of happiness associated with a sunny day in a beautiful place has a dark counterpart.
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<urn:uuid:1d80e480-397c-4629-98ab-e0e457c90fe8>
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"url": "https://fatherteresablog.wordpress.com/2016/02/22/mountaintop-removal-has-real-mental-health-effects/"
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Understanding the Structure of Sentences
One of 7th grade Language standards is learning the different sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
We’ve been working on this a lot, but some students are still not seeing the pattern. I created this flowchart for them, and it seems to be helping.
Sometimes students can figure this out by following formulas:
Ind. = Simple
Ind + Ind = Compound
Ind + Dep = Complex
Ind + Ind + Dep = Compound- Complex
This flowchart provides a visual and a series of choices and steps for students to follow. We made a small copy for each student to paste in their journal. Now the trick is to get them to reference them!
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"url": "https://allaccesspassblog.com/2015/02/25/understanding-the-structure-of-sentences/"
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Definitions of under
1. into unconsciousness; " this will put the patient under"
2. Lower in rank or degree; subordinate; to knock under, to yield; to submit.
3. further down; " see under for further discussion"
4. In a place lower than.
5. Less than.
6. A prefix signifying " that which is less than right or ordinary"; that which is inferior or subordinate to something else; lower in rank or degree. Note.- All the possible compounds of under are not given, but only those which are most common. The roots of the compounds of under may be ascertained by consulting the dictionary for the separate parts. Under is not usually separated by a hyphen, and is sometimes prepositional, as underground, and sometimes adverbial, as underdone.
7. In a lower or subordinate condition; in subjection.
8. In a lower, subject, or subordinate condition; in subjection; - used chiefly in a few idiomatic phrases; as, to bring under, to reduce to subjection; to subdue; to keep under, to keep in subjection; to control; to go under, to be unsuccessful; to fail.
9. In a lower degree or condition: in subjection: below: less.
10. Subordinate.
11. Lower in degree, rank, or position: usually in compound words, as under- officer, etc.
12. Beneath or below, so as to have something over or above; in a state of subjection to; less than; by the show or pretence of, as under the disguise of a friend; denoting rank or order of precedence, as, none were present under the rank of a baron; in a state of oppression by; in the state of being known by; in the state of; attested by, as under his own hand.
14. Below; in a lower state or position.
15. In a lower position or inferior degree.
16. in or into a state of subordination or subjugation; " we must keep our disappointment under"
17. Beneath; covered by.
18. In a lower position than: beneath: below: less than: in subjection, subordination, oppression, liability, etc.: during the time of: undergoing.
19. through a range downward; " children six and under will be admitted free"
20. Lower in degree; subordinate. To keep under, to hold in subjection. Under way, in a condition to make progress.
21. Below or lower, in place or position, with the idea of being covered; lower than; beneath; - opposed to over; as, he stood under a tree; the carriage is under cover; a cellar extends under the whole house.
22. located below or beneath something else; " nether garments"; " the under parts of a machine"
23. lower in rank, power, or authority; " an under secretary"
25. Beneath; below; in a state of pupilage or subjection to; less than; for less than; in a degree inferior to; with the pretence of; in a state of oppression; during the time of; attested or signed by; in subordination to.
26. By virtue of; in conformity to; in accordance with; authorized, attested, or warranted by.
27. below the horizon; " the sun went under"
28. below some quantity or limit; " fifty dollars or under"
30. Lower in position, intensity, rank, or degree; subject; subordinate; - generally in composition with a noun, and written with or without the hyphen; as, an undercurrent; undertone; underdose; under- garment; underofficer; undersheriff.
32. Lower in position, rank, or degree: subject: subordinate.
33. Beneath or below; oppressed or weighed down by; beneath, as acted upon by something; as, to be under treatment for a disease; inferior to; for less than; as, to sell goods under the market price.
34. down to defeat, death, or ruin; " their competitors went under"
35. Lower or lowermost.
36. Lower in position or degree; subordinate; inferior.
37. down below; " get under quickly!"
38. Subject to.
39. Beneath; below; less than; during the time of.
40. In a lower degree; below; less.
Quotes of under
4. I believe that people who do not vote in this country have no right to complain about the government that we are now living under By the same token, if you don't really vote in television, you're never going to have your way. Write a letter to the president of the network. – Bill Bixby
5. But to have a friend, and to be true under any and all trials, is the mark of a man! – Charles Eastman
7. Under no stretch of imagination can war be regarded as an ethical process; yet war, force, terror, and propaganda were the evolutionary means employed to weld the German people into a tribal whole. – Arthur Keith
8. Media companies, under the guise of piracy, are asking congress to give them more control over fair use. Hollywood wants to control innovation. – Joe Krauss
13. True virtue is life under the direction of reason. – Baruch Spinoza
14. It is wrong to try to avoid the struggle against imperialism under the pretext that independence and revolution are important, but that peace is still more precious. – Kim Il Sung
Usage examples for under
1. He lived like the old Bradlaugh, and he went under – Reminiscences of Charles Bradlaugh by George W. Foote
2. “ I saw him go down just before I went under – The Boy Allies Under the Sea by Robert L. Drake
3. And under what circumstances were they written? ” – Love Conquers All by Robert C. Benchley
4. At five the sun went under – The Complete PG Edition of The Works of Winston Churchill by Winston Churchill
5. Under such circumstances, what was such a man as Sir John Ball to do? ” – Miss Mackenzie by Anthony Trollope
6. “ " Mind you, I've seen my grandfather and father both go under it. ” – Fortitude by Hugh Walpole
7. “ I know they does come from under the earth, becauth Miss Falkner told me. ” – Jill's Red Bag by Amy Le Feuvre
8. He is a very good man- what there is o' him," added she, under her breath. ” – Janet's Love and Service by Margaret M Robertson
9. “ I told them I should get to that tree if I were lost in the crowd, and that they would be sure to find me under it after six o'clock. ” – Checkmate by Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu
10. But how and under what circumstances? ” – Paris From the "Three Cities" by Emile Zola
11. “ I think- I really think- under the circumstances I ought to kiss you! ” – Innocent Her Fancy and His Fact by Marie Corelli
12. “ " I am under contract with the Interstate people," replied Dave. ” – Dave Dashaway and his Hydroplane by Roy Rockwood
13. We must learn to carry arms, and to stand under them. ” – La Vendée An Historical Romance by Anthony Trollope
14. “ " I bain't going under – Furze the Cruel by John Trevena
15. You're not under notice to leave your present place? ” – Anthony Lyveden by Dornford Yates
16. Under the bank was a spring. ” – The Young Forester by Zane Grey
17. “ " I saw your light under the door," Lady Dauntrey said, " and I thought maybe you wouldn't mind my sitting with you for a bit. ” – The Guests Of Hercules by C. N. Williamson and A. M. Williamson
18. “ I thought you would be glad to know that we expect to be under way again early in the morning. ” – Bring Me His Ears by Clarence E. Mulford
19. Play up and down, under and all around. ” – The Mayflower, January, 1905 by Various
20. “ I took it under my arm and went home. ” – Hunger by Knut Hamsun
Rhymes for under
Idioms for under
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Thursday, July 11, 2013
Get It Right: Bear, Bear, Bear, And Bare
In our ongoing mission to inform everyone of how to correctly use the English language, today we're looking at bear, bear, bear, and bare, and no, that's not a typo. Just like Goldilocks, we have three "bears" and then bare, just for good measure.
The reason we have three bears is because they are homonyms, words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. Two of the meanings are verbs and the other is a noun. However, all four of today's terms are homophones, words that are pronounced the same.
A grizzly bear enjoying a lovely mountain view.
As a noun, the word bear refers to the large mammal, often represented in popular culture as either a cute bear cub or a "teddy" bear, named after the American president who couldn't bring himself to shoot such an adorable creature.
The second variant of bear is a verb that refers to carrying, holding, or displaying something. The American flag bears fifty stars and thirteen stripes, while the Second Amendment to its accompanying Constitution permits citizens, when part of an organised militia, the right to bear arms.
The final of our three homonyms refers to tolerating, enduring, or generally putting up with something, as in: "I can't bear it any longer!" or "sometimes you just have to grin and bear it".
The final word in our list for today can be both a noun and a verb. The noun form refers to something that is uncovered or empty, such as bare arms or a bare cupboard. The verb refers to the uncovering of something, so you can technically both bear arms and bare arms, though we'd recommend that you do neither of these things.
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"url": "http://www.thelinguafile.com/2013/07/get-it-right-bear-bear-bear-and-bare.html"
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Time point.
An Aymara man gestures downward (top) and then back over his shoulder (bottom) as he uses an expression meaning "from this year to next year."
Back to the Future
California News Correspondent
Every language has metaphors that express time in terms of space. An English speaker, for instance, might look forward to a date next week or look back on last year's office party with embarrassment and regret. But now, researchers report the first known example of a language that puts the past ahead and the future behind.
In Aymara, a tongue spoken by about 2 million indigenous people of the same name in the Andean highlands of Bolivia, Peru, and Chile, the word "nayra" can refer both to objects that are physically in front of the speaker and to events in the past. "Nayra mara,” for example, means "last year,” explains Rafael Núñez, a cognitive scientist at the University of California (UC), San Diego. "Qhipa mara," on the other hand, indicates "next year." "Qhipa" means back or behind and is incorporated into other future-oriented expressions such as "qhipüru" (a future day) and "akata qhiparu" (from now on).
This concept of time extends to gestures as well as words. Speakers point backward or wave over their shoulders when talking about a future event and extend their hands and arms forward to indicate a past event--reaching farther out for events that happened long ago. The past-is-forward concept is most ingrained in older individuals: Younger Aymara with more formal education often use expressions and gestures that put the future in front, especially when talking with outsiders, Núñez says.
Núñez first noticed peculiarities in spoken Aymara when backpacking through the Andes as an undergraduate student in the 1980s. He eventually returned and collected 20 hours of videotaped conversation with 30 Aymara volunteers and presents an analysis of the tapes with UC Berkeley linguist Eve Sweetser in the current issue of Cognitive Science.
The work has fascinating implications for understanding how the Aymara conceptualize time, says David McNeill, a linguist at the University of Chicago in Illinois. "The Aymara seem to equate time with sources of knowledge," he says. For the Aymara, the forward direction is the source of what's known: what's seen by the eyes, what's happened in the past. Behind, where they can't see, lies the future.
Related sites
Posted in Brain & Behavior
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"url": "http://news.sciencemag.org/2006/06/back-future"
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General Question
IBERnineD's avatar
Can anyone explain Truth Tables?
Asked by IBERnineD (7269 points ) February 15th, 2009
I’m having difficulty learning how to create a truth table in math and also understand them! So any tips or help would be great!
Observing members: 0 Composing members: 0
4 Answers
Jayne's avatar
I’m not sure how complicated the tables you are dealing with are, so I’ll try to explain the basics, and you can feel free to ask me if you are looking for more.
A logical statement is just that, a statement. Whether this statement is true depends on the facts, in the same way that my statement that your cat is blue and mean depends on the blueness and meanness of your cat. The relevant facts are the inputs, and they are themselves statements that may be either true or false; the statement ’ your cat is blue’ is one imput, and it is either true or (hopefully) false. What a truth table does is list, usually in a systematic fashion, all the possible combinations of values of these inputs. Then, these values are plugged into the logical statement, and the table records whether or not the statement is true in each case. If the statement is simple, such as ‘A and B’, then the table only needs three columns;
A B (A and B)
If the statement is more complicated, more columns are useful to break down the elements of the statement, although they are not strictly necessary. For example: “A and not (B XOR C)” (XOR means exclusive or; only one or the other)
A B C (B XOR C) (not B XOR C) A and not (B XOR C)
T T T——F——————T—————-T
T F T —-T——————-F—————F
T F F —-F——————T—————-T
T T F——T——————-F—————F
F T T——F——————- T—————F
F F T——T——————- F—————F
F F F——F——————- T—————F
F T F——-T——————- F————-F
So here the first three columns are the possible values of the inputs A, B, and C, the second column is the logical result of these inputs (although it depends only on B and C of course), the third column is simply the negation of that, and the final column is the value of the statement: whether or not A and (not B XOR C). So while you could have simply plugged each combination of values into the initial statement, this might be confusing, and the table breaks it into bite sized chunks.
My apologies if I missed something, or if I totally underestimated your level of understanding. Agin, feel free to ask for further explanation.
Baloo72's avatar
The closest I can do for you is google it: truth tables
Perchik's avatar
Just as a clarification for @IBERnineD , XOR is basically how the english language uses the word “OR.” In English, if you tell someone they can have a piece of cake or a piece of pie, you mean that that can either have cake, or pie, but not both. In mathematics, if you tell someone they can have a piece of cake or a piece of pie, that means they could have a piece of cake, or a piece of pie, or both. which is why I love math. Cake and pie!
That being said, if you are given the option [in math] to have cake xor pie, then you can only have cake, or pie, not both.
majamin's avatar
My hope is to explain AND well… and for you to fill in the blanks, per se.
Consider these two statements (fill in the blank for the first one)
(A) My favourite food is ________.
(B) I had my favourite food for supper last night.
Now, if (A) is true (which it probably is) then we assign it a value of 1.
if (A) is false, then we assign it a value of 0. The same goes for (B).
(A) AND (B)
If (A) and (B) are both true then this statement is true:
My favourite food is pizza and I had it for supper last night
If only one of the statements is true and the other false then the statement (A) and (B) is false (because either pizza is not your favourite or you did not have it for supper last night). If both (A) and (B) are false, then, of course, the statement that both are true is definitely false.
This is usually summarized in a table as follows:
|......A…...|......B…...|...A and B….|
Of course, you won’t usually see “false” and “true”, but 0 and 1, respectivelly. I hope this helps a little bit :-)
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<urn:uuid:8979dac6-873b-40a7-8076-f7a4854013a1>
|
{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.9375,
"fasttext_score": 0.9673940539360046,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8838214874267578,
"url": "http://www.fluther.com/35032/can-anyone-explain-truth-tables/"
}
|
Turning a molehill into a mountain is easy. All you need to do is go for a long run or bike ride. The further you run the taller the hill grows, until it becomes so steep as to appear impossible to climb. But even when you perceive that hill as a mountain, your feet still correctly respond to the tiny molehill.
People consistently overestimate how steep hills are – an interesting perceptual problem studied by Dennis Proffitt and his colleagues. Here’s the first cool finding: Hills appear steeper from the top than from the bottom. Although people generally overestimate how steep hills are (often by 20 to 30 degrees!), they make larger errors when looking down. Proffitt, Bhala, Gossweiler, and Midgett (1995) argued that this reflects the effort and risks associated with climbing and descending. Going down a hill is simply riskier than climbing up. You can walk up a 30-degree hill (although it isn’t much fun), but walking down that slope just isn’t safe.
Even toddlers can see the difference in steepness and risk from the top and bottom. Adolph, Eppler, and Gibson (1993) found that many toddlers would try to walk up all sorts of slopes – even when the slopes were so steep (30 to 40 degrees) that the toddlers ended up falling. But when those same toddlers were at the top and looking down, they were much more cautious. Even with low slopes that they had walked up successfully, they would sit and find a way to slide down. Smart kids. Early in development as toddlers are learning to guide their walking, slopes appear riskier from the top.
Proffitt and colleagues suggested that your perception of the hill reflects how much effort will be required to traverse it. From the bottom, the effort to climb is less that the effort to descend from the top. Your perception of steepness is a combination of how steep the hill really is plus an indication of how much work the hill will take. Perception is telling you just how hard and risky that climb or descent is.
Proffitt and his colleagues tested this idea by making the hill feel like it would be harder to climb. In a clever experiment, they asked people to judge how steep a hill was and then sent the people out for a run. They asked the participants to choose a length that would be challenging and told them where to meet immediately after the run. After the run, Proffitt and colleagues asked the exhausted runners to judge how steep a different hill was. For both shallow (5 degrees) and steep (30 degrees) hills, people saw the hills as steeper after the run when they were tired. In other words, taking a long run turned even the 5-degree molehill into a 25-degree mountain! As a regular bicycle commuter, I am intimately familiar with this effect. Hills look really ugly at the end of a long ride.
In other research, Proffitt and his colleagues have looked at how a variety of manipulations change the effort required to climb a hill and thus the perception of slope. For example, hills appear steeper when people wear a heavy backpack. In addition, Bhalla and Proffitt (1999) found that both physical fitness and age affect these judgments. People who are out-of-shape see the hills as more steep than people who are fit. And those molehills turn into mountains as we age as well. Proffitt and his colleagues have clearly demonstrated the slope perception is guided by affordances, that is the action potential of the individual (see my earlier post on desire making objects appear closer for another example of action potential biasing perception).
Two different methods of judging hill steepness
But here is the interesting and surprising past: If people misperceive how steep hills are, why don’t they constantly fall down? We look at the molehill and think it is a 25-degree mountain in front of us instead of the 5-degrees it really is. We should lift our feet high enough for climbing a 25-degree slope and stumble as we find the ground further below our feet than we anticipated. We should be constantly stumbling and tumbling our way up and down hills. But we don’t. Generally we climb hills without falling.
Through their explorations of this interesting conundrum, Proffitt and his colleagues have argued that there two distinct perceptual systems. One systems leads to conscious awareness and the other directly guides action. The estimates of hill slant reflect the conscious awareness pathway. Proffitt has people name the slant and visually display the slant with an adjustable disk (see part A of the picture). Both the verbal and visual measures lead to large and consistent overestimates, particularly if you are tired, carrying that heavy backpack, or out of shape.
But Proffitt also had people make a behavioral judgment, using the tilt board in part B of the picture. To do this, people place their hands on the tilt board and match the board to the hill slant, without looking. When using this behavioral judgment, people more correctly assess the slope. The perceptual system that guides action gets the slope right. Even when you are tired and the molehill looks like a mountain, your feet know the truth.
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<urn:uuid:7c2e26f3-43da-4adb-8586-945375b51d0d>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.828125,
"fasttext_score": 0.023695051670074463,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.962954044342041,
"url": "https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mental-mishaps/201206/turning-molehills-mountains"
}
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Critical Context
Contemporary Japanese fiction is preoccupied with the relationship between tradition and the modern world. From a hierarchical society in which behavior was governed by a strict and unchanging code, Japan has changed to a Westernized culture in which for many people there are no moral and social guides. Some novelists now emphasize the need for retaining traditional Japanese values and customs even in a changing society. Others, such as Kenzabur e, accepting the loss of the old society, follow their characters in a search for individual standards.
The winner of both the Akutagawa Prize, while he was still a student, and later of the prestigious Tanizaki Prize, e has been critically praised for his work in various genres, including essays, short stories, and novels. His first significant work, the short story “Shiiku” (“The Catch”), published in 1958, revealed a sympathy with the outcast: The story deals with a black American airman whose plane crashes near a Japanese village during World War II. In 1963, e’s first child was born with a severe disability requiring surgery not unlike that described in A Personal Matter. Images of estrangement and deformity recur throughout his fiction, often in connection with the threat of nuclear annihilation—a foretaste of which e had when he went to Hiroshima in the early 1960’s to write about survivors of the atom bomb. Because he addresses problems which affect young people throughout the world, it is not surprising that e is becoming increasingly well-known in the West.
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<urn:uuid:5209f62e-9099-4748-98e5-962a5dd3c2d3>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.08635997772216797,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9784960746765137,
"url": "http://www.enotes.com/topics/personal-matter/critical-essays"
}
|
© 2016 Shmoop University, Inc. All rights reserved.
Franz Kafka Introduction
What Franz Kafka did... and why you should care
Who is Franz Kafka? Kafka himself tried to answer that question through his writing.
Kafka, who died in 1924 at the age of 40, was Jewish in an anti-Semitic Europe. He was a German speaker in Prague. (Point of information: Prague was then part of Bohemia, which is now known as the Czech Republic.)
He was a writer stuck in a boring day job.
He was a stranger, no matter where he was. "I am away from home and must always write home," he wrote two years before his death, "even if any home of mine has long since floated away into eternity."1
Like George Orwell, another visionary writer who died early of tuberculosis, Kafka's distinctive style and perspective have evolved into an adjective. "Kafkaesque" is used (and mis-used) to describe bleak and harrowing scenarios. The ominous characters and scenes in his stories seem to have predicted by decades the rise of totalitarianism in Eastern Europe and the horror of the Holocaust. All three of Kafka's younger sisters were eventually murdered in concentration camps. Had Kafka lived, he would likely have met a similar fate.
Yet Kafka was not so much a chronicler of the world's ills as he was of the psyche's struggle. The real conflict in Kafka's works is not between the individual and the world but that of the soul attempting to find a place for itself. Franz Kafka was always searching - searching for his identity, searching for love, searching for meaning in a world that seemed intolerably random and cruel.
He chose writing as his antidote to a senseless world. "If the book does not shake us awake like a blow to the skull, why bother reading it in the first place?" Kafka wrote to a friend when he was still just a college student. "A book must be the axe for the frozen sea within us."2 Little did he know that his own books would break the frozen seas inside millions of people.
People who Shmooped this also Shmooped...
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<urn:uuid:0789305b-d449-4a61-bcab-a17f26523a80>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.796875,
"fasttext_score": 0.3882873058319092,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9806506037712097,
"url": "https://www.shmoop.com/franz-kafka/"
}
|
Wien bridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Wien bridge schematic, Uwy- sinusoidal power supply voltage, Uwe- measured voltage
The Wien bridge is a type of bridge circuit that was developed by Max Wien in 1891.[1] The bridge comprises four resistors and two capacitors.
The Wien bridge is one of many common bridges.[2] Wien's bridge is used for precision measurement of capacitance in terms of resistance and frequency.[3] It was also used to measure audio frequencies.
The Wien bridge does not require equal values of R or C. At some frequency, the reactance of the series R2C2 arm will be an exact multiple of the shunt RxCx arm. If the two R3 and R4 arms are adjusted to the same ratio, then the bridge is balanced.
The bridge is balanced when:[4]
The equations simplify if one chooses R2 = Rx and C2 = Cx; the result is R4 = 2R3.
In practice, the values of R and C will never be exactly equal, but the equations above show that for fixed values in the 2 and x arms, the bridge will balance at some ω and some ratio of R4/R3.
See also[edit]
External links[edit]
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<urn:uuid:049bf77c-439c-4e3c-8f0d-3fafd624ed2c>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.16419506072998047,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9233351945877075,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien_bridge"
}
|
Subsetting Data
Selecting (Keeping) Variables
# select variables v1, v2, v3
myvars <- c("v1", "v2", "v3")
newdata <- mydata[myvars]
# another method
myvars <- paste("v", 1:3, sep="")
newdata <- mydata[myvars]
# select 1st and 5th thru 10th variables
newdata <- mydata[c(1,5:10)]
Excluding (DROPPING) Variables
# exclude variables v1, v2, v3
myvars <- names(mydata) %in% c("v1", "v2", "v3")
newdata <- mydata[!myvars]
# exclude 3rd and 5th variable
newdata <- mydata[c(-3,-5)]
# delete variables v3 and v5
mydata$v3 <- mydata$v5 <- NULL
Selecting Observations
# first 5 observations
newdata <- mydata[1:5,]
# based on variable values
newdata <- mydata[ which(mydata$gender=='F'
& mydata$age > 65), ]
# or
newdata <- mydata[ which(gender=='F' & age > 65),]
Selection using the Subset Function
The subset( ) function is the easiest way to select variables and observations. In the following example, we select all rows that have a value of age greater than or equal to 20 or age less then 10. We keep the ID and Weight columns.
# using subset function
newdata <- subset(mydata, age >= 20 | age < 10,
select=c(ID, Weight))
In the next example, we select all men over the age of 25 and we keep variables weight through income (weight, income and all columns between them).
# using subset function (part 2)
newdata <- subset(mydata, sex=="m" & age > 25,
Random Samples
Use the sample( ) function to take a random sample of size n from a dataset.
# take a random sample of size 50 from a dataset mydata
# sample without replacement
mysample <- mydata[sample(1:nrow(mydata), 50,
Going Further
R has extensive facilities for sampling, including drawing and calibrating survey samples (see the sampling package), analyzing complex survey data (see the survey package and it's homepage) and bootstrapping.
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<urn:uuid:7f0148d2-3603-44df-b9df-1ca5ad92e9d3>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.019320905208587646,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.728801429271698,
"url": "http://statmethods.net/management/subset.html"
}
|
In the race to the moon, who came in first?
The tortoises in question (
The Soviet Zond 5 sent the animals around the moon -- although not into lunar orbit -- during a mission in the middle of September, 1968. The unmanned craft then returned to Earth and splashed down in the Indian Ocean, after which the Russians recovered the craft.
A month later, Soviet scentists revealed that the Zond had been a tiny ark, carrying the tortoises, "wine flies, meal worms, plants, seeds, bacteria, and other living matter." A small dummy packed with radiation sensors flew, too.
The tortoises, as history (i.e. the AP) records, lost about 10 percent of their body weight, but had a healthy appetite when they returned to Earth. In checkups afterwards comparing the animals to "stay-at-home turtles used as a test control," most things seemed normal, aside from some hazily explained problems with the liver and spleen.
What this all means is that, as Teitel tweeted, "The first living beings to see an Earthrise from the Moon were communist turtles." As far as I can tell, the animals were not named.
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<urn:uuid:2609a32d-4206-4b93-892f-6ad2ec8ab05d>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.6392983198165894,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9567422270774841,
"url": "http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/who-was-first-in-the-race-to-the-moon-the-tortoise/266665/"
}
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Orange was able to grow and become a viable part of Texas history due to two things, the Sabine River and the proximity of thousands of acres of virgin pine and cypress timber. One of the men who saw a great future, both for himself and Orange was David R. Wingate.
Wingate was a descendant of some of the original colonists who had settled in the Carolinas in the 1600s. His ancestors were settlers who had built plantations and been a part of the British establishment in the colonies.
Wingate’s great-grandfather had been a representative to the Carolina Congress and one of the signatories who declared loyalty to the state and the united colonies. He and his son both fought with Francis Marion, the Swamp Fox, and allowed Marion and his men to stay on the plantation.
When Wingate was a young boy his family moved from South Carolina to Hancock County, Miss. In 1839 he married Caroline Morgan. They soon became the parents of seven children. He began to work in logging camps and sawmills and by 1849 he owned his first sawmill.
One of his uncles had fought in the Texas Revolution and had written back home to tell about the forests of East Texas. In 1844 Wingate had made a visit to Texas and seen the vast forests and the amount of land available for settlement.
In 1852, he sold his investments in Mississippi and moved his family to Newton County and established a large plantation near the Belgrade/Farrsville/Cow Creek area. In seven years he had built a productive plantation that produced 350 bales of cotton and made him the largest cotton planter in Texas.
He wanted to return to his roots in the sawmill business and by 1859 he had purchased the abandoned Spartan Sawmill at Sabine Pass and built it into the largest steam powered sawmill in the state. Along with the mill he operated a fleet of schooners to transport his lumber to markets along the Gulf of Mexico.
Early in the Civil War, in April, 1861, he and his son enlisted in the Sabine Pass Guard. He also began blockade running. A schooner and 500 bales of cotton were lost when the schooner ran aground and was burned to avoid capture by the Union forces. On Oct. 21, 1862 a Union Navy patrol invaded Sabine Pass and burned both Wingate’s sawmill and his residence; both were total losses. He moved his family back to the Newton County plantation. The plantation had continued to prosper, producing between 200 and 500 bales of cotton each year.
Wingate’s love of being a sawmill owner led to him moving his family to Orange in 1873 to seek new opportunities in the lumber industry. In 1878 he had begun the D. R. Wingate and Company sawmill. In 1880 a fire destroyed the mill at a loss of over $50,000. The demand for lumber stayed strong and he built a larger mill to replace his loss. His larger mill was capable of producing as much as 90,000 feet on lumber and 125,000 shingles per day.
Fire struck this mill, causing a loss of another $50,000. The planing mill and stacked lumber was saved. Insurance covered about half his loss. By this time he was 71 years old and tiring of the business, but friends talked him into creating a stock company. He did so and D. R. Wingate and Company was re-established. His new venture was fueled by his desire to keep his more than 100 employees working. The new mill also burned, but it was two years after Wingate’s death.
He had been a person who felt an obligation to care for his employees and to give to his community. Before his arrival in Texas he had served as a judge in Hancock County, Miss. In 1861 he had been appointed Confederate States marshal for the Eastern District of Texas. From 1861 to 1863 he served as county judge of Newton County. In 1878 he became county judge of Orange County and served until 1884.
In 1890, after several years of illness, Caroline Wingate died. Her funeral was the largest recorded in Orange County until that time. After her death the old sawmiller went into a new venture, rice farming. His farming venture was successful and added new commerce to the region.
On Feb. 15, 1899 Wingate died of pneumonia and was buried next to his wife in Evergreen Cemetery in Orange. His funeral became the largest seen in Orange.
By all accounts both of the Wingates were loving, kind people. They cared for their employees and the slaves they had owned. Even the decedents of some of the slaves have recounted how well they treated their ancestors. He was a man who refused to bow to misfortune. In spite of his many losses, he was one of the wealthiest men in Orange County when he died. In 1979, the Texas Historical Commission erected a commemorative marker at Wingate’s grave site.
One of Wingate’s relatives, the late Jim Wingate, authored a family book with a heavy focus on D. R. Wingate. The book, “From Sawdust to Gavel” is a family history that relates the many ventures and accomplishments of the Wingate family in the region. The Wingate family have been important contributors to Orange in fields as varied in later years as the grocery business and law.
The 83rd annual Wingate Reunion will be held in Orange this June.
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<urn:uuid:89d926d8-2c8c-4dd1-98b1-d1eefe228c83>
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{
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"fasttext_score": 0.023584187030792236,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9921453595161438,
"url": "http://therecordlive.com/2012/04/18/david-r-wingate-sawmiller-and-judge/"
}
|
Black-necked Crane
(Grus nigricollis)
Black-necked Crane IUCN VULNERABLE (VU)
Facts about this animal
The Black-necked Crane is a ashy grey crane with almost whitish under parts and with a black neck and head, black cloak over the wing tips and the tail. The crown and the lores are nearly naked and red. The legs are also black. The sexes are alike, but the males are slightly larger.
Did you know?
that local religious beliefs protect the black-necked cranes? They are regarded as supernatural and are featured in religious temples and art.
Class AVES
Suborder GRUES
Name (Scientific) Grus nigricollis
Name (English) Black-necked Crane
Name (French) Grue à cou noir
Name (German) Schwarzhalskranich
Name (Spanish) Grulla cuellinegra
CITES Status Appendix I
CMS Status Appendix I
Photo Copyright by
Eric Kilby
Range Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Viet Nam
Habitat Alpine bog meadows, riverine marshes, river valleys and reservoir shorelines
Wild population Approx. 11,000, with 8,800 mature individuals (2007) (Red List IUCN 2011)
Zoo population 250 (83.107.60) registered by the International Studbook (Dec 2007).
In the Zoo
Black-necked Crane
How this animal should be transported
Find this animal on ZooLex
Photo Copyright by
Eric Savage
Why do zoos keep this animal
With a population of probably less than 6'000 birds surviving in the wild the black-necked crane has been rated vulnerable by IUCN. In order to build up a reserve population, an International Studbook has been established under the WAZA umbrella. The Studbook is published by the Chinese Association of Zoological Gardens and comprised 213 birds in 2005.
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<urn:uuid:0ffc901b-c1f6-4e42-a7ef-4757faa77da2>
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"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.27418994903564453,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7978563904762268,
"url": "http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/pick-a-picture/grus-nigricollis"
}
|
Written by Thomas Whetstone
Written by Thomas Whetstone
Article Free Pass
Written by Thomas Whetstone
Table of Contents
The stipendiary police
When communities began paying private citizens for the capture and conviction of thieves, a standard set of fees was established, and a “stipendiary” police system evolved. Sources of fees in this system included public reward programs, insurance companies, commercial houses, prosecuting associations, and subscriptions. Any citizen, not only constables and justices, could earn such fees and rewards by becoming a thieftaker or “common informer.” (At the time, constables and justices either were not paid at all or earned a very small stipend that did not compensate them for the time that they devoted to their duties.)
The fee-based system was subject to abuse by criminal networks, perhaps the most successful of which was led by Jonathan Wild (c. 1682–1725). Wild organized the London underworld and systematically arranged to have goods stolen so that he could sell them back to the original owners. Any thief wishing to remain independent of Wild’s crime ring was delivered to the authorities and ultimately to the gallows. Finally, after a seven-year reign as the “thief-taker general,” Wild too ended up at the end of a rope.
The decline of constabulary police
Although the system of social obligation remained in place for more than 800 years and was transplanted to several of England’s colonial possessions (Australia, Canada, and the United States), it had serious weaknesses that were amplified by industrialization and urbanization. The system had become corrupted, especially in cities. The status of constables deteriorated through the years, and eventually the office became subservient to the justice of the peace. Because it had become degraded, persons of high social status were no longer willing to perform its duties. (Writing in 1714, Daniel Defoe spoke of the “imposition” of the office of constable as “an unsupportable hardship,” taking so much of a man’s time that it compelled him to neglect his own affairs, too often leading to his ruin.) As a consequence, England established laws that allowed persons to hire replacements to serve their terms as constables. Indeed, in the early 18th century, virtually no man who could afford to pay his way out of serving pro bono as a high constable neglected to do so. Although this did not create serious problems in small towns and agrarian areas, only the poor, the aged, and the infirm were willing to be constables in such cities as London, Boston, and New York City.
In England reformers began to call for the creation of a permanent body of men who would be in charge of policing under the higher authority of the state. For a model some looked to France, where such a policing body had been created at the end of the 17th century.
The French police system
The French police under the monarchy
Through a series of edicts proclaimed between 1536 and 1544, King Francis I instituted the first systematic measures to police France. The country was then intermittently at war with its neighbours, and between campaigns masses of disbanded soldiers preyed upon the peasants for their livelihood until the next war. To the chiefs of his armies—the maréchaux (“marshals”)—Francis allocated police officials who were charged to recruit military officers and troops to check the soldiers’ plundering. The officials were named prévôts, a word derived from the Latin preapositus, meaning an assistant assigned to a military authority. The military police roamed the countryside—they were not allowed to stay in one place for more than two days in a row—to catch military and, eventually, civilian offenders and to use their sentencing power to inflict punishment, for which there was no appeal. These special forces were not at first united in a single organization, but they came to be known collectively as the maréchaussée, as they were assigned to the various army marshals. Although effective in the countryside, the maréchaussée was not the answer to the problems afflicting France’s cities—most notably the capital, Paris. (As in England, French cities were at first policed, with little efficiency, by roving teams of watchmen.) Thus, it was in Paris in 1666 that King Louis XIV created the first modern and efficient system of policing.
Neither the nature of the system nor the circumstances in which it was created can be understood without knowing the meaning that the word police had in France in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Nicolas de la Mare provided a comprehensive definition in his Traité de la police (1722; “A Treatise on the Police”). For de la Mare, police first meant government, whether the government of the whole state or a particular institution within the state (e.g., the military or the clergy). It also denoted the public order in a city. Finally, it designated in a more technical sense the special authority of the police magistrate to establish all regulations necessary to promote public order in an urban environment. In 1765, Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert’s monumental Encyclopédie defined police as “the art of providing a comfortable and quiet life” to all the Earth’s inhabitants, but particularly to city dwellers. That definition is echoed in Samuel Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), which states that the word police is borrowed from the French and means “the regulation and government of a city or country, so far as regards the inhabitants.” In other words, police meant governance—the preservation of security being just one component of the police mandate. The political philosopher Montesquieu stressed these important features of policing in his influential work The Spirit of Laws (1748). Montesquieu also hinted at what was then a crucial feature of policing in France, the distinction between serious crimes and minor violations. Serious crimes—“felonies” in contemporary parlance—were tried by the various city parliaments of the realm, which acted as courts and provided the accused with due-process safeguards stipulated by the law. Minor, everyday violations were dealt with expeditiously by police officers and, if needed, by police courts that operated with very few procedural formalities.
The edict issued by Louis XIV proclaimed the office of lieutenant of police (the title later was changed to lieutenant general of police). Nicolas de La Reynie, a magistrate, was the first person to hold the post, from 1667 to 1697. Like most government offices, the police lieutenancy had to be bought from the French treasury—a system that favoured abuse, as the appointed officer naturally wished to recoup his investment.
Many factors led Louis to create the office. In 1660 there had been a plague, accompanied by food riots that threatened royal authority. Such events increased the general insecurity that pervaded Paris, a city of some 600,000 inhabitants. There were also administrative reasons: Louis wanted to centralize within a single office the policing responsibilities shared inefficiently between many officials. The lieutenant of police possessed regulatory, judicial, and executive powers. He also briefed the king on all noteworthy events in the realm, ranging from unusual crimes to matters considered threatening to state security (e.g., religious dissent). In a much-quoted remark, Lieutenant General of Police Antoine de Sartine boasted to King Louis XV that “whenever three people speak to one another on the street, one of these will be mine.” But as the outbreak of the French Revolution would show, Sartine’s claim proved to be an empty one.
The head of the police was assisted by 48 commissioners with judicial powers who were spread over the 20 districts into which Paris was divided. About 20 inspectors—their number varied—also aided the lieutenant general of police. By 1750 the commissioners commanded more than 1,000 troops, some of them mounted on horses, who performed deterrent patrols and night watches. The number of troops grew to more than 3,000 in the years preceding the revolution. In 1788 Paris had one police officer for every 193 inhabitants.
The key officials in the policing system of Paris were the inspectors. Although their status was much lower than that of commissioners, inspectors had to pay four times as much for their office. Because they managed things in the field, they were in a position to accept countless bribes, which complemented their minimal salary. Inspectors were responsible for various aspects of city life (e.g., morality and public health), but their highest priority was public safety. During the 18th century, no fewer than three inspectors devoted their efforts to it. One of the most famous lieutenants general of police, Jean-Charles-Pierre Lenoir, wrote in a memoir that the three inspectors responsible for public safety secured more arrests than all the rest of the police combined. He explained that the inspectors roamed the streets at night with bands of police irregulars who performed mass arrests. To locate their targets, the inspectors relied on informers, some of whom (e.g., prostitutes) were required to perform this function. Such reliance on covert informers came to be a hallmark of French policing.
In time, other countries in continental Europe showed interest in the policing system of France. King Louis XVI commissioned Lieutenant General of Police Lenoir to write an account of the French police, particularly in Paris, for Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and her daughter Maria Carolina, the queen of Naples. Maria Theresa’s son Holy Roman emperor Joseph II established a policing system similar to that of France in the vast territories under Austrian authority, including parts of Italy. Policing as a form of governance was most fully developed in 18th-century Germany—particularly in the kingdom of Prussia, where it was known as Policeywissenschaft (the science of government). The main object of Policeywissenschaft was the promotion of the economic well-being of the community and the establishment of an early incarnation of the welfare state.
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Ovide Mercredi
Ovide Mercredi, (born Jan. 30, 1946, Grand Rapids, Man., Can.), Canadian First Nations (Indian) leader and former national chief of the Assembly of First Nations.
A Cree, Ovide Mercredi lived outside the reservation because his mother was stripped of her Indian status when she married a Métis (a person of mixed indigenous and European descent). After receiving a law degree in 1977 from the University of Manitoba, Mercredi practiced criminal law. He was appointed a member of the Manitoba Human Rights Commission, and in 1989 he became the Assembly of First Nations’ vice-chief for Manitoba.
Mercredi became a leading advocate for native peoples’ rights. He was involved with the Cree of Northern Quebec in their efforts to stop the Great Whale hydroelectric project, which would have dammed the Great Whale River, in northwestern Quebec, and diverted two smaller rivers into it. In June 1990 he was one of the tacticians who helped Manitoba legislator Elijah Harper defeat the Meech Lake Accord because it did not address the rights of native people.
On June 12, 1991, Mercredi was elected national chief of the Assembly of First Nations. Influenced by the teachings of Mohandas K. Gandhi, Mercredi took a path of civil disobedience, passive resistance, and nonviolence. While acting as a mediator in confrontations between the government and Indians at Oka in Quebec (1990) and at Gustafsen Lake in British Columbia (1995), he argued against the use of violence.
In 1995 Mercredi—representing some 1.5 million aboriginal people from more than 600 bands across Canada—repeatedly espoused his belief that “aboriginal people, as the land’s original inhabitants, have inherent rights to self-government.” He warned that First Nations people would not allow their concerns to be ignored in discussions taking place in the wake of the October defeat of the Quebec referendum on sovereignty. Mercredi had participated in talks formulating the 1992 Charlottetown Accord, which, had it been adopted, would have supported self-government and treaty review for Canada’s aboriginal population.
Mercredi and the assembly favoured distinct status for Indians, with the right of self-government, mainly so that aboriginal people could deal with their problems according to traditional laws and values. The assembly also opposed the federal Indian Act, which allowed the government to dictate who had status as an Indian. Mercredi himself did not have status as an Indian until 1985 because his father was not one.
As national chief, Mercredi spoke for a diverse group of status Indians who embraced differing traditions and at times represented conflicting interests. In his efforts to find consensus for policies and to foster unity, he spent much of his time traveling across Canada to meet people and to learn firsthand of their problems. Mercredi served two terms (1991–97) as leader of the assembly. He continued his activism on behalf of Canadian First Nations people and in 2006 was awarded the Order of Manitoba, the province’s highest honour. He became the first chancellor of Manitoba’s University College of the North in 2007. Mercredi cowrote the book In the Rapids: Navigating the Future of First Nations (1993).
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Separate Spheres
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Sinews of Old England (1857) by George Elgar Hicks shows a couple "on the threshold" between female and male spheres.[1]
Separate Spheres is an ideology that defines and prescribes separate spheres for women and men. Culturally located in Europe and North America,[2] it emerged as a distinct ideology during the Industrial Revolution, although the basic idea of gendered separation of spheres is much older.
The notion of separate spheres dictates that men, based primarily on their biological makeup as well as the will of God, inhabit the public sphere – the world of politics, economy, commerce, and law. Women's "proper sphere", according to the ideology, is the private realm of domestic life, child-rearing, housekeeping, and religious education.[3][4] The separate spheres ideology presumes that women and men are inherently different and that the sex differences as well as the resulting separation of spheres are "natural".
The idea that women should inhabit a separate, domestic sphere has been extant in Western thought for centuries, extending as far back as the ancient Greeks.[5] In Politics, Aristotle described two separate spheres in Greek society, the home (oikos) and the city (polis). Women were confined to the private realm while men occupied the public sphere of the polis.[6][7][8]
This phenomenon, however, was not studied until much later. One of the first social critics to examine the separation between female and male spheres was French political thinker Alexis de Tocqueville.[9] In Democracy in America (1840), in a chapter entitled How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes, Tocqueville wrote: "In no country has such constant care been taken as in America to trace two clearly distinct lines of action for the two sexes and to make them keep pace one with the other, but in two pathways that are always different."[10] He observed that married women, in particular, were subject to many restrictions, noting that "the independence of woman is irrecoverably lost in the bonds of matrimony", adding that "in the United States the inexorable opinion of the public carefully circumscribes woman within the narrow circle of domestic interests and duties and forbids her to step beyond it."[11] Tocqueville considered the separate spheres of women and men a positive development,[9] arguing:
although the women of the United States are confined within the narrow circle of domestic life, and their situation is in some respects one of extreme dependence, I have nowhere seen women occupying a loftier position; and if I were what the singular prosperity and growing strength of that people ought mainly to be attributed, I should reply,—to the superiority of their women.[12]
The notion of separate spheres managed to prevail in the dominant mainstream consciousness as well-founded, or at the very worst harmless, until the mid-20th century when historians and feminist theorists began to take a much more critical stance toward the separate spheres ideology and its impact on women's lives.[9] Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique asserted that women were being forced to rely on their husbands and children as the sole sources of their identity by an historically constructed oppressive paradigm, not by any "intrinsic" predisposition. Drawing on Friedan, historian Barbara Welter identified a "Cult of True Womanhood", an ideal of femininity prevalent among the upper and middle classes in the 19th century. "True women" were supposed to be pious, pure, submissive, and domestic. Domesticity, in particular, was regarded as a laudable virtue as the home was considered a woman's proper sphere.[13] Unlike Tocqueville, Welter and other 20th-century historians were critical of the separate spheres ideology, seeing it as a source of women's denigration.[9]
The ideology of separate spheres emerged in the wake of the Industrial Revolution.[14] Prior to the industrialization of the Western world, family members worked side by side and the workplace was located mostly in and around the home. With the shift from home-based to factory production, men left the home to sell their labor for wages while women stayed home to perform unpaid domestic work. The separate spheres ideology reflected and fueled these changes.[15] Theorists such as Friedrich Engels and, to a lesser extent, Karl Marx have stressed the importance of industrialization. Marx argued that following the rise of capitalism, the home lost its control of the means of production and consequently became a private, separate sphere. As a result, Engels contended, women were excluded from participating directly in the production process and relegated to the subordinate domestic sphere.[16]
Biological determinism[edit]
The separation between female and male spheres was heavily influenced by biological determinism,[17][18] the notion that women and men are naturally suitable for different social roles due to their biological and genetic makeup.[19] The idea of biological determinism was popular during the Age of Enlightenment and among such thinkers as Jean-Jacques Rousseau who argued that women were inherently different from men and should devote themselves to reproduction and domesticity.[17] Women were considered passive, dependent on men, and, due to their reproductive capacity, ill-suited for life outside the domestic realm.[20] Rousseau described women's primary duties in Emile, or On Education, stating that "women's entire education should be planned in relation to men. To please men, to be useful to them, to win their love and respect, to raise them as children, to care for them as adults, correct and console them, make their lives sweet and pleasant; these are women's duties in all ages and these are what they should be taught from childhood."[17]
The popular beliefs about inherent sex differences remained deeply embedded in popular consciousness throughout the Progressive Era.[21] By the early 20th century, however, dissident anthropologists and other social scientists began to challenge the biological determination of human behavior, revealing great similarities between men and women and suggesting that many sex differences were socially constructed.[21] Despite these new insights and social and economic changes such as women's entry into the labor force, the separate spheres ideology did not disappear.[20][21]
Other influences[edit]
"Woman has no call to the ballot-box, but she has a sphere of her own, of amazing responsibility and importance. She is the divinely appointed guardian of the home...She should more fully realize that her position as wife and mother, and angel of the home, is the holiest, most responsible, and queenlike assigned to mortals; and dismiss all ambition for anything higher, as there is nothing else here so high for mortals."
— Rev. John Milton Williams, Woman Suffrage, Bibliotheca Sacra (1893)[22]
Women's confinement to the private sphere was reinforced by cultural and legal arrangements, such as the lack of women's suffrage, legal prohibitions against women undertaking professions like medicine and law, and discouragement from obtaining higher education.[3]
Strong support for the separation of spheres came from antisuffragists who relied on the notion of inherent sexual differences to argue that women were unfit for political participation.[23][24] Antifeminist men's groups in late 19th and early 20th century United States responded to the societal changes and shift in gender relations by advocating a return to a strict separation of spheres that would keep women from competing with men in the public sphere.[25]
Similarly, Christian fundamentalists supported the separate spheres ideology and opposed women's suffrage as well as other attempts to broaden women's influence in the public sphere.[26] Theological conservatism has been found to have a stable effect on the endorsement of separate spheres ideology.[27] Leading evangelicals propagated a view of womanhood which reinforced gendered division.[28] Thomas Gisborne's An Enquiry into the Duties of the Female Sex (1797) and Henry Venn's The Complete Duty of Man (1763) were two popular evangelical texts which described proper behavior for men and women, arguing that a woman's primary duty was to care for those in her domestic circle and obey her husband.[28]
In her paper Separate Spheres or Shared Dominions, Cathy Ross suggests that the separate spheres ideology had ambiguous effects on women's lives.[28] She argues that while it "was clear that women were supposed to be subordinate and that home and children were their sphere", the separation of spheres enabled women "to reach out to other women in sisterhood, in solidarity, on the common ground of domesticity."[28]
See also[edit]
1. ^ Barringer, Tim (2000). "The Gendering of Artistic Labour in Mid-Victorian Britain". In Donald, Moira; Hurcombe, Linda. Representations of gender from prehistory to the present. Basingstoke: Macmillan Publishers. pp. 154–56. ISBN 978-0-333-64331-0.
2. ^ Warne, Randi R. (2000). "Making the Gender-Critical Turn". In Jensen, Tim; Rothstein, Mikael. Secular theories on religion: current perspectives. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 249–60. ISBN 978-87-7289-572-7.
3. ^ a b Kuersten, Ashlyn K. (2003). "Separate Spheres Doctrine". Women and the law: leaders, cases, and documents. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-0-87436-878-9.
4. ^ Ryle, Robyn (2012). Questioning gender: a sociological exploration. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE/Pine Forge Press. pp. 342–43. ISBN 978-1-4129-6594-1.
5. ^ Vickery, Amanda (1993). "Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women's history". The Historical Journal (Cambridge University Press) 36 (2): 383–414. doi:10.1017/S0018246X9300001X.
6. ^ Arendt, Hannah (1958). "Chapter II: The Public and the Private Realm". The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 24, 72. ISBN 978-0-226-02592-6.
7. ^ Tétreault, Mary Ann (2001). "Frontier Politics: Sex, Gender, and the Deconstruction of the Public Sphere". Alternatives: Global, Local, Political (SAGE Publications) 26 (1): 53–72.
8. ^ May, Ann Mari (2008). "Gender, biology, and the incontrovertible logic of choice". The 'woman question' and higher education: perspectives on gender and knowledge production in America. Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-84720-401-1.
9. ^ a b c d Kerber, Linda K. (1988). "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History". The Journal of American History (University of North Carolina Press) 75 (1): 9–39. doi:10.2307/1889653. Full text available online
10. ^ Tocqueville, Alexis de (1840). "Chapter XII: How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes". Democracy in America. London: Saunders and Otley. p. 101.
11. ^ Tocqueville, Alexis de (1840). "Chapter X: The young Woman in the Character of a Wife". Democracy in America. London: Saunders and Otley. pp. 79–80.
13. ^ Welter, Barbara (1966). "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820–1860". American Quarterly (Johns Hopkins University Press) 18 (2): 151–174. doi:10.2307/2711179.
14. ^ Wells, Christopher (2009). "Separate Spheres". In Kowaleski-Wallace, Elizabeth. Encyclopedia of feminist literary theory. London, New York: Routledge. p. 519. ISBN 978-0-415-99802-4.
15. ^ Adams, Michele (2011). "Divisions of household labor". In Ritzer, George; Ryan, J. Michael. The concise encyclopedia of sociology. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 156–57. ISBN 978-1-4051-8353-6.
16. ^ Edwards, Laura F. (2001). "Gender and the Changing Roles of Women". In Barney, William L. A Companion to 19th-Century America. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-0-631-20985-0.
17. ^ a b c Roy, Anupama (2005). Gendered citizenship: historical and conceptual explorations. New Delhi: Orient Longman. p. 80–81. ISBN 978-81-250-2797-3.
18. ^ Grana, Sheryl J. (2010). "'Nature' and Biology". Women and justice. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7425-7002-3.
19. ^ O'Brien, Jodi (2009). Encyclopedia of gender and society 2. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. pp. 586, 602–603. ISBN 978-1-4129-0916-7.
20. ^ a b Adams, Michele; Coltrane, Scott (2005). "The Cultural Ideal of Separate Spheres". In Kimmel, Michael S.; Hearn, Jeff. Handbook of studies on men and masculinities. London: SAGE Publications. pp. 231–32. ISBN 978-0-7619-2369-5.
21. ^ a b c Rosenberg, Rosalind (1982). Beyond separate spheres: intellectual roots of modern feminism. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 114, 207, 245–46. ISBN 978-0-300-02695-5.
22. ^ Williams, John Milton (1893). Article VII. "Woman Suffrage." Bibliotheca Sacra, pp. 331–43. Also available in DeBerg, Betty A. (1990). Conservative Protestantism and the Separate Spheres. Ungodly women: gender and the first wave of American fundamentalism. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. pp. 43–58. ISBN 978-0-8006-2439-2.
23. ^ Marshall, Susan E. (1986). "In Defense of Separate Spheres: Class and Status Politics in the Antisuffrage Movement". Social Forces (Oxford University Press) 65 (2): 327–51. doi:10.1093/sf/65.2.327.
24. ^ Hewitt, Lyndi; McCammon, Holly J. (2005). "Explaining the suffrage mobilization: balance, neutralization, and range in collective action frames". In Johnston, Hank; Noakes, John A. Frames of protest: social movements and the framing perspective. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7425-3806-1.
25. ^ Kimmel, Michael. "Men's responses to feminism at the turn of the century". Gender & Society 1 (3): 261–283. doi:10.1177/089124387001003003.
26. ^ DeBerg, Betty A. (1990). "Conservative Protestantism and the Separate Spheres". Ungodly women: gender and the first wave of American fundamentalism. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. pp. 43–58. ISBN 978-0-8006-2439-2.
27. ^ Bartkowski, John P.; Xu, Xiaohe (2010). "Religion and Family Values Reconsidered: Gender Traditionalism among Conservative Protestants". In Ellison, Christopher G.; Hummer, Robert A. Religion, families, and health: population-based research in the United States. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. pp. 106–125. ISBN 978-0-8135-4945-3.
28. ^ a b c d Ross, Cathy (2006). "Separate Spheres or Shared Dominions?". Transformation (SAGE Publications) 23 (4): 228–35. doi:10.1177/026537880602300406.
External links[edit]
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Student Worksheet: Speed of Sound Key
Use the student reading ``Speed of Sound'' to help you answer the questions below.
1. In order for sound to move it must have a medium through which to travel. List three media through which sound travels.
Solid, liquid, gas
2. What is the speed of sound in miles per hour at sea level?
760 miles per hour
Under what conditions is this speed measured?
Under normal atmospheric conditions
3. Draw a picture of how sound waves coming from a subsonic aircraft move through the air at subsonic speed.
4. Draw a picture of how sound waves coming from a supersonic aircraft move through the air at supersonic speed.
a drawing
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Double Victory: Minorities and Women During World War II
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Escape and Evasion (E&E)
Efforts of uniformed military personnel to return to friendly forces after being captured by the enemy or to avoid capture when isolated in enemy-controlled territory. The Geneva Convention defined an evader as an uncaptured military member, isolated in enemy territory, trying to find his way back to friendly control. Under the convention, he was a legal combatant, subject to being interned by a neutral country for the war's duration; an escapee who had been captured, had escaped, and had then evaded was regarded as a noncombatant who could be returned home.
Escape and evasion (E&E) and related activities became a major focus of British and then American intelligence organizations early in the war. Escaped prisoners of war (POWs) and returned evaders could serve as intelligence assets, morale boosters for friendly forces, and a nuisance to the enemy, who would have to divert troops from normal duties to look for them. The British MI-9, established in 1939, and the American MIS-X, begun in 1942, each supported essentially the same E&E-related mission.
Both Allied units functioned in strict secrecy while providing training and E&E kits for servicemen whose missions made them particularly susceptible to capture. MI-9 and MIS-X were also involved in interrogating enemy POWs and arranging and maintaining clandestine networks of agents in Axis-occupied territory to assist evaders in reaching home. They built an impressive array of covert devices designed to help with E&E, including compasses built into uniform buttons, hacksaws hidden in shoelaces, and clandestine radios concealed in baseballs.
The Allied covert E&E networks in Europe and the Far East eventually assisted in returning to Allied control more than 35,000 officers and enlisted men who might otherwise have spent the remainder of the war behind barbed wire or never returned at all. By 1944, MI-9 ran four different escape lines in France alone, returning hundreds of Allied aircrews at tremendous cost to the French Resistance. Similarly, American agents in China organized "safe areas" in extremely difficult terrain, despite Japanese occupation. Official efforts notwithstanding, an escapee's initiative and courage and simple luck all played important roles.
One of the most famous escapes of the war was that organized by the prisoner escape committee in Germany's Stalag Luft III at Sagan, Poland. In this "Great Escape," 76 Allied POWs escaped in one night. Adolf Hitler later ordered 50 of the recaptured POWs shot. However, despite terrible circumstances, many POWs considered it their duty to escape and continued trying to do so throughout the war.
World War II E&E laid the groundwork for current Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE) programs in the United States and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), designed to help future escapees and evaders "return with honor."
Jeffrey W. Stamp
Further Reading
Brickhill, Paul. The Great Escape. New York: W. W. Norton, 1950.; Chancellor, Henry. Colditz. New York: Harper Collins, 2001.; Foot, M. R. D., and J. M. Langley. MI 9: Escape and Evasion, 1939–1945. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979.; Ottis, Sherri Greene. Silent Heroes: Downed Airmen and the French Underground. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2001.; Shoemaker, Lloyd R. The Escape Factory. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.; Wichtrich, A. R. MIS-X Top Secret. Raleigh, NC: Pentland Press, 1997.
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Did people in the Middle Ages throw excrement out windows?
How Did People in the Middle Ages Get Rid of Human Waste?
The best answer to any question.
Dec. 24 2013 8:17 AM
This question originally appeared on Quora.
Answer by Tim O'Neill, atheist, medievalist, skeptic, and amateur historian:
The idea that people emptied chamberpots out windows into the street is one of the images of the past that has been taught to generations of school children. It's usually said to have been done in the Middle Ages, and it's an image that has stuck with many people, particularly because we find it so disgusting. Unfortunately, like many popular ideas about the Middle Ages, it's largely nonsense.
People in the Middle Ages were no less sensitive to foul odors or disgusted by human waste than we are. They also did not understand exactly how human waste could spread disease, but they knew it did—they just thought it was something to do with its odors. So medieval towns and cities actually had a lot of ordinances and laws to do with waste disposal, latrines, and toilets. In medieval London, for example, people were responsible for the upkeep and cleanliness of the street outside their houses. The fines that could be imposed on them if they didn't do this could be extremely onerous. One account talks of an outraged mob badly beating a stranger who littered their street with the skin of a smoked fish, since they didn't want to have to pay the heavy fine for his laziness. In an environment like that, people are hardly going to be dumping buckets of excrement out of their windows.
Larger houses had enclosed latrines attached to or behind the home, which emptied into deep cesspits. These were called a "jakes" or a "gong," and the men who were employed to undertake the foul-smelling task of emptying these pits were called "gongfermours" or "gong farmers." Not surprisingly, these men were well-paid, and the gongfermours of medieval London usually ended their day with a much-needed dip in the River Thames.
Smaller residences made do with a bucket or "close stool" over a basin, either of which was emptied daily. They were usually carried to one of the streams that emptied into the nearest river and emptied into the water. This made some of these streams, like the Fleet, rather foul-smelling and gave one in the city of Exeter the lyrical name of "the Shitbrook." There were also public latrines maintained by the city of London, like the large communal municipal latrines on London Bridge that emptied into the river.
So like most things "everyone knows" about the Middle Ages, this one is in the same category as cumbersome heavy armor, the belief in a flat Earth, and medieval people eating rotten meat covered in spices—it's a myth.
More questions on History:
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Feathers, hair, and scales: Do they share a common ancestry?
Some animals have scales, some animals have feathers, and some animals have hair. But what do these skin appendages have in common? Check the placode.
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A picture showing scales (in a corn snake). Mammalian hairs, avian feathers, and reptilian scales are homologous structures inherited, with modification, from their shared reptilian ancestor’s scales, according to a new study published Friday in Science Advances.
Courtesy of Copyright Michel C. Milinkovitch 2016
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A bird's feathers, a reptile's scales, and a mammal's hairs may seem like very distinct features, but these skin appendages may come from common origins, say scientists.
The mechanism behind the embryonic development of feathers, reptilian scales, and hair is remarkably similar, according to a paper published Friday in the journal Science Advances. This finding suggests that these distinct appendages have their roots in a common ancestor of these three diverse lineages.
"This doesn't imply at all that feathers evolved from hair or that scales evolved from hair or that hair evolved from scales, et cetera," cautions Richard Prum, an ornithologist at Yale University who was not part of this study but who has studied these same developmental structures.
Recommended: 14 animals declared extinct in the 21st century
"They are homologous as appendages," he explains in an interview with The Christian Science Monitor, in that these features share a developmental origin. "They all use the same initial signaling system to create the place where something grows out of the skin, which is more subtle."
So what exactly is it that feathers, scales, and hairs share?
During embryonic development a signaling system tells the skin of an organism to start readying a location to develop an appendage or, as Dr. Prum puts it, it's a mechanism that "decides to grow a thing at a place."
That's what Prum's own research, published in 2015, found occurs in all three groups. But it doesn't stop with a signaling system.
A hair, scale, feather, or even a tooth, grows out of an anatomical structure called a placode that forms in the top layer of the skin. When the signal is sent to a particular location in the skin to form a placode, the top layer of the skin begins to thicken in that place, as columnar cells that divide more slowly than normal form.
Scientists had spotted these placodes associated with feather and hair development in bird and mammal embryos, Michel Milinkovitch, one of the study authors and an evolutionary geneticist at the University of Geneva, tells the Monitor in an interview. But finding these structures in scaly reptiles was proving more of a challenge.
"The problem is that birds and mammals are not sister groups," Dr. Milinkovitch says. Mammals and reptiles diverged long before birds arose from the same lineage as reptiles. So, for example, "if you take a sparrow, it's more closely related to a crocodile than to a mouse."
Because of this evolutionarily distant relationship, scientists began to muse that perhaps placodes evolved in birds and mammals independently, in a sort of convergent evolution scenario. Or, others suggested, perhaps placodes did exist in the common ancestor of these lineages, but reptiles lost the feature over time.
Prum's team found that the same genes were involved in signaling for the development of these skin appendages, even for scales in reptiles. "That was the beginning of the proof that maybe these things are homologous," Milinkovitch says.
So Prum and his colleagues proposed that a placode is "not just an anatomical feature, it's an information center, and that that is the appropriate definition," Prum explains to the Monitor. That would mean that scaly reptiles, birds, and mammals all have the same mechanism underlying their distinctive skin appendages, even if the physical expression of a placode didn't exist.
But it does, says Milinkovitch. "We found the anatomical placodes" in reptile embryos, from snakes to lizards to crocodiles.
Placodes (spots stained in dark blue by the expression of an early developmental gene) are visible before the development of hair, scales and feathers in (from left to right) the mouse, the snake, the chicken and the crocodile. Courtesy of copyright UNIGE 2016 (Tzika, Di-Poï, Milinkovitch)
Blink and you'll miss it?
Why were Milinkovitch and his colleague, Nicolas Di-Poï, able to spot these placodes when other teams couldn't?
In mammals, for example, placodes appear at the same time in embryonic development, Milinkovitch explains. "So if you look at the right time, you can look anywhere on the body and you will find the placodes."
But that's not the case in reptiles. Placodes will develop at different times on different parts of a reptile's body, and they don't stick around in an identifiable form for long.
"It's anatomically subtle," Prum says.
"This is something we've predicted," he says of the presence of placodes in scaly reptiles. "My only regret is that I wish I'd done it myself."
The "novelty" of the new paper "is to beautifully show the presence of those actors during squamate [scaly reptile] scale formation," French cell biologist Danielle Dhouailly, who was not part of this study but whose own research has focused extensively on skin appendages, says in an email to the Monitor.
Appendage ancestry
"Our data shows that all these structures – hair, feathers, and scales – are the descendants of a common structure that was present in the ancestor of all amniotes," Milinkovitch asserts.
Like Prum, Dr. Dhouailly warns about oversimplifying that relationship. This doesn't mean "a common phylogenetic origin of those appendages," she says. "This means the independent parallel co-option of the same set of signaling pathways."
Or as Prum puts it, "The event of becoming a hair was not the same event as becoming a feather, an organ becoming a feather. But they didn't start each of them from scratch. They started using something, a capacity in the skin, to say, let's start a thing here."
"And that is what's common between all of them: the placode," he explains.
And that decision center doesn't just dictate where a hair, scale, or feather should emerge from the skin, it also transmits information about how much space should be between each appendage or any patterning, like the swirls in the hair on top of humans' heads or in the fur of a dog, Prum says. "These kinds of things, the decision to make it, and the patterning over the body, are stuff that apparently are shared all through these amniotes that evolved in the amniote ancestor."
And that basal amniote, the last common ancestor of reptiles, birds, and mammals, lived about 300 million years ago.
Scientists have had little to go on when investigating the origins of these skin appendages because, as Milinkovich says, "it's very difficult to fossilize the skin."
So research has focused on the structure and mechanisms behind feathers, scales, and hairs on a molecular level in living animals in order to "understand a bit better the mechanisms that generated the diversity and complexity of the living world."
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RIPR In The Classroom: Battle With The Sea
Aug 4, 2016
Block Island's former landfill is at risk of crumbling into the sea.
Credit Ambar Espinoza
Story Synopsis
Recent hurricanes, along with ongoing climate change, are washing away an old, capped landfill on Block Island. As the land erodes, pieces of trash and debris are falling onto the beach and into the sea. Local residents and visitors are troubled by the contamination of the beautiful island. Engineers are trying to design solutions to the local problem, while leaders around the world are fighting against climate change. Listen to hear more about the environmental threats to Block Island.
Use with grades 6-9 NGSS Standard MS-ESS2-2: Construct an explanation based on evidence for how geoscience processes have changed Earth’s surface at varying time and spatial scales.
Listening Comprehension Questions
1. Which specific events have threatened the environment on Block Island?
2. In what ways are climate change and weather events changing Block Island?
3. What have engineers designed to solve the problem at other coastal landfills? Could this work on Block Island?
4. What are the challenges facing engineers as they design solutions to the problem at Block Island?
5. What are global leaders doing to resolve these types of issues?
Discussion Themes
1. In what ways does climate change affect the weather and environment near where you live?
2. What do you think would be a creative solution to the problems at Block Island?
More Resources
Literature Connections:
• Ship Breaker, Paolo Bacigalupi
• The Carbon Diaries, Saci Lloyd
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Intersection Worksheet Sketch
The Intersection Worksheet includes space for a simple sketch of the intersection being rated. At a minimum, the sketch should capture the following:
1. Crosswalk location and orientation, including skew and any change in direction (each one should be labeled (e.g., A, B, C, and D) for correct reference to the Crosswalk Worksheets.
2. Location of pushbuttons and other signal features.
3. Geometrics, such as islands and lane configuration.
Additional sketches and notes, as required, should be recorded on the Supplemental Worksheet.
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Twist in the tale of Pied Piper's kidnapping
Click to follow
The rats were gone, the rat-catcher returned to Hamelin to claim his wages, but the tight-fisted townsfolk would not pay up. Everyone who has read the Grimm brothers' fairy tales knows what happened next. The Pied Piper played a tune so enchanting as to lure all the children out of their homes.
Thus were they led, in the year of 1284, out of Hamelin, into the mountains and beyond. The mean parents never saw their offspring again. Only two of the children returned, and they could shed no light on the mystery. Moral: never cheat a rat-catcher.
That is where the tale ended, until now. In this revisionist age someone was bound to add a new twist to the legend. Previous research had placed the children variously in Transylvania or Moravia.
Good idea, but wrong country, argues the latest in the long line of German scholars who have devoted their careers to the quest. The children of Hamelin, Professor Jurgen Udolph says, lived happily ever after in what is today's east Germany and Poland.
Professor Udolph, who teaches linguistics at the same University of Gottingen where the Grimm brothers used to lecture, made his discovery while studying place names. Migrants, he says, tend to name their new settlements after their favourite hills and meadows back home.
Sifting through the atlas, he found various versions of "Hameln", as the town is known in German, in areas colonised by Germans in the 13th century. Even today, there are little Hamelns in thePriegnitz and Uckermark, north of Berlin, and in the vicinity of Stargard, which now lies in Poland.
The children, Professor Udolph says, were in fact young adults, hired by landlords in the east for their skills. After the defeat of the Danes in 1227, the area then inhabited by Slavs became ripe for conquest. Around the time of the Hamelin legend hundreds of thousands of young Germans were migrating from Lower Saxony and Westphalia to greener pastures in the east.
They were recruited in their home towns and villages by "locators" - the medieval equivalent of head-hunters. "Go east, young man," they preached on village squares, promising rich rewards for colonists. Documents going back five centuries show that on 26 June 1284, Hameln lost 130 young souls.
Now that they have been found, only one question remains: Who was the Pied Piper? "I have no idea," Professor Udolph admits. "But he may have been a locator. They wore multi-coloured robes, just like the the musician in the story."
The rats, by the way, returned to plague Hamelin several times down the centuries.
- Imre Karacs, Bonn
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From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
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Massacre has a number of meanings, but it most commonly refers to individual events of deliberate and direct mass killing, especially of noncombatant civilians or those without any reasonable means of defense; these would often qualify as war crimes or atrocities. Massacres in this sense do not typically apply to combatants except figuratively; the deliberate mass killing of prisoners of war, however, is often considered a massacre.
At the same time, the term "massacre" is used more widely to refer to individual, civil, or military mass killings on smaller scales, but having distinct political significance in shaping subsequent events, such as the Boston Massacre. Individual or small group acts of murder may also be described as massacres, as in the case of some school shootings.
In Guatemala, where massacres of Maya Indians have been common, the human rights commission agreed on a specific definition: "A massacre shall be considered the execution of five or more people, in the same place, as part of the same operation and whose victims were in an indefensible state." [1] In Colombia, the term is applied to the murder of half a dozen or more at one time.
See also
Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "Massacre" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on original research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.
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Etty Study Guide
Home | Education | Etty Study Guide
This study guide includes a brief introduction to Etty Hillesum and the play, Etty, inspired by her writings. It also provides pre- and post-performance activities, a timeline, relevant historical background, a glossary and biographies of the playwright, Susan Stein, and those who have helped bring Etty to the stage. The study guide is designed to be used in conjunction with the play, Etty, yet activities may be adapted to work independently.
Please contact us to learn more about having the play performed at your school.
About the play Etty
Using only Etty Hillesum's words from her diaries and letters, this play reveals the inner change in a young Jewish woman during the Holocaust as it juxtaposes her growing spirituality and the ever-increasing persecution of the Jews in Holland. Students witness the efforts of one victim to control her own destiny and as a result are empowered to address present day social justice issues.
Standing alone with her suitcase on a bare stage, Etty speaks directly to the audience as she witnesses her world and confronts us with her ethical and moral questions. Etty brings the audience into her thinking as she grapples with the changes unfolding every day during the Dutch occupation. She chronicles well-documented events--the yellow-star regulations, life in the barracks, the loading of Jews onto freight cars--and curious images, such as the SS guard who picks a bouquet of lupins while a train prepares to depart. Etty's observations are searing and intimate. Etty refuses to see herself as a victim, and as the world closes in around her, she nurtures her inner resources and finds a freedom within herself that is unshakable. She affirms the power of the human spirit to maintain dignity and authenticity in the face of forces that threaten to destroy both.
Each performance includes a post-performance discussion facilitated by actress/playwright Susan Stein. These conversations offer audiences the opportunity to learn more about Etty Hillesum, the history, people and events that shaped her life and to explore the creative process of adaption. Post-performance discussions have examined a range of topics from the roots of genocide to the use of writing as resistance.
The full play Etty runs a little under an hour. The high school version runs 35 minutes, and the middle school version runs 25 minutes. Each of the three versions of the play includes a post-performance discussion and may be augmented by student workshops that range from 40 minutes to a full day. Week- and month-long artist-in-residencies are also available. All workshops develop students' close reading, writing and speaking skills as well as critical thinking and artistic expression. Etty teaching artists work closely with teachers to adapt the workshops to the needs of an individual class or school and to enhance existing curricula on Holocaust, Genocide and Human Rights studies.
About Etty Hillesum And Her World
Amsterdam, 1941. Holland has been occupied by Nazi Germany for a year, and daily life is in constant flux, with laws changing every day and more and more emigres arriving from Germany. Etty Hillesum is a 27 year-old Jewish woman studying Russian at the University in Amsterdam until Jews are no longer allowed to attend school. She is bright and talented and has already earned her law degree, but she suffers under the weight of a sometimes overwhelming depression. For this she seeks the help of Julius Spier (referred to as S. in her writings), a brilliant, eccentric Jungian therapist. His unusual methods include palm reading and wrestling. He encourages Etty to keep a diary of her innermost thoughts.
Although Etty has the opportunity to go into hiding, she elects to remain an active witness and chronicle daily events unfolding before her. In July 1942, Etty initially works as a typist with the Jewish Council in Amsterdam. Unwilling to use her position to try to save herself, she volunteers to be transferred to Westerbork Transit Camp. Etty has a special travel visa which makes it possible for her to travel back and forth between Amsterdam and Westerbork. On 7 September 1943, Etty, her parents and brother, Mischa, are deported to Poland. On 30 November 1943, Etty was murdered in Auschwitz.
Pre-Performance Activities
Discussion: Why keep a diary? (10-15 minutes)
Choose some or all of the prompts below and ask students to discuss each for 3-5 minutes.
1. Ask students if they keep diaries or write in journals on their own or if they know someone who does. Discuss why a person might want to write about her life.
2. Generate as many reasons as possible that someone might keep a diary. What kinds of information might one find in a diary? How might a diary be useful to historians? What are some risks or challenges of using diaries to inform us about history?
3. Consider the audience: to whom is a diary addressed? How might it affect the writing if the author thought the diary would be read by others?
Writing: Writing Your Own Life (10-15 minutes)
1. Address some or all of the following prompts to students and ask them to respond in writing:
Choose something you saw or did or heard or even thought about this morning. Now, write about it in detail and use all five senses to describe the experience: sight, touch, smell, sound, taste.
2. Describe a moment from your life you want to live in forever. Use all five senses to put us in that moment with you (sight, touch, smell, sound, taste) - consider writing in present tense.
3. Describe a moment from your life you want to erase. Use all five senses to put us in that moment with you (sight, touch, smell, sound, taste) - consider writing in present tense.
Reading: Imagining Etty: (10-15 minutes)
Read the following three quotes of Etty's with the students. After reading, ask students to consider the following questions:
1. From her words, how would you describe Etty?
2. What more would you like to know about Etty? Write down your questions.
Etty quotes:
1. Last night, shortly before going to bed, I suddenly went down on my knees in the middle of this large room, between the steel chairs and the matting. Almost automatically. Forced to the ground by something stronger than myself. Some time ago I said to myself, I am a kneeler in training. I was still embarrassed by this act, as intimate as gesture of love that cannot be put into words either, except by a poet. (December, 1941)
2. And I shall wield this slender fountain pen as if it were a hammer, and my words will be so many hammer strokes with which to beat out the story of our fate and a piece of history as it is and never was before … still, a few people must survive if only to be chroniclers of this age. I would so much like to become one of their number. (10 July 1942)
3. One discovers that the basic materials of life are the same everywhere, and that one can live one's life with meaning – or else can die – on any spot on this earth. (10 July 1942)
4. One moment it is Hitler, the next it is Ivan the Terrible; one moment it is resignation and the next war, pestilence, earthquake, or famine. Ultimately what matters most is to bear the pain, to cope with it, and to keep a small corner of one's soul unsullied, come what may. (7 July 1942)
5. After this war, two torrents will be unleashed on the world: a torrent of loving kindness and a torrent of hatred. And then I knew I should take the field against hatred. (10 July 1943)
Analysis: Who was Etty? (20-30 minutes with optional extensions and homework assignments)
In preparation for class, ask students to read and annotate one of Etty's longer letters, either December 1942 or 24 August 1943, and write a letter to Etty in response. It should be in the student's own voice. In the letter, students should address three things Etty mentioned in her letter and pose a question for her to answer. Students may speculate how Etty would respond using the letter to support their views.
In class option: Classmates trade papers and read each other's observations about Etty, then write a response to your partner's piece, having conversations in writing. Students select written exchanges to share as class.
Comparative Study: Pairing Anne Frank and Etty Hillesum (30-40 minutes in class with optional extension and homework assignment)
This activity could occur before or after students have seen the performance. Because more students are familiar with Anne Frank, her writing can be a good entry point for approaching Etty Hillesum's diaries and letters.
1. Make enough copies of Anne's entry of 11 July 1942 for each student to have one; they should write their names on theirs. Next, ask students to read the entry and circle 3 images or lines that resonate; then, in the margins, write a response to the circled text. At the bottom of the page, write out at least one question for Anne or the text.
Put sheets in the middle of the table, choose one and read the comments, then respond to the question at the bottom of the page.
Repeat this 2 times: trade, read circled texts and write responses to questions.
Retrieve originals and read the comments written by other students to the questions at the bottom of sheet. Respond to what was written in a free write.
2. Make enough copies of Etty's entry of 8 June 1943 for each student to have one; they should write their names on theirs. Again, circle 3 images that resonate with something Etty wrote.
Questions to Extend and/or Homework Assignment. Write responses to the following questions:
1. What are some differences you noticed between Anne's voice and Etty's voice?
2. What are some similarities in their voices and/or perceptions?
3. What might contribute to some of the differences? For example, how might being inside (Anne) versus being outside (Etty) affect their experience? What about the difference in their ages?
Option to extend: Hand out copies of Etty's diary entry of 11 July 1942. Read part of Etty's silently, then part aloud. Recall Anne's diary entry of the same day.
1. Mark lines in each writing that show how aware the author is of the world beyond her own experience.
2. How is each writer using her diary to come to terms with what is happening around her?
3. Does the diary help the writer understand her circumstances? How?
Post-Performance Activities (in-class or homework activities)
Writing: Respond to Etty (10-15 minutes)
Choose one of the two prompts and write a one page response. Be sure to include specific details and draw from the five senses (sight, sound, taste, smell, touch):
1. Write a letter to Etty. Respond to something specific you remember from the performance--an image or moment she described--and ask her at least one question.
2. Construct an argument that Etty was a coward, a hero or something else altogether? Explain.
Writing: Personal Memoir Project (25+ minutes)
1. Imagine your life and all the different pieces and influences that make up who you are. Which parts are essential to the story of you? (your neighborhood, a grandparent, a certain memory, a friend) Now, imagine a rope, and consider all the strands that make up that rope. On a piece of paper list or free write some of the strands that are essential in your story that you would need to include in your story. (5 minutes)
2. Choose 1 strand and tell its story. (5 minutes)
3. Choose a second strand and describe it. (3 minutes)
4. Choose a third strand and write about it in the present tense. (5 minutes) Share a section (as short as a single sentence, as long as a paragraph) with the class.
Close-Reading & Critical Thinking: Analyzing Etty's words (20-30 minutes)
Choose one of the quotes below and respond to it. Possible questions to consider: What does it reveal about Etty? How do you read Etty's tone? How does this individual tell us anything about this historical event? What is the impact of the historical events on her? On us?
Analyze your response to Etty's quote. Why did you frame it that way? What do your response reveal about you? Respond from a different perspective.
1. But I always project myself back into reality. I make myself confront everything that crosses my path, which sometimes leave me feeling battered. It is just as if I let myself crash violently into myself; leaving dents and scratches. But I imagine that it has to be like that. I sometimes feel I am in some blazing purgatory and that I am being forged into something else. But into what? I can only be passive, allow it to happen to me. But then I also have the feeling that all the problems of our age and of mankind in general have to be battled out inside my little head. And that means being active. (4 September 1941)
2. God, take me by Your hand, I shall follow You dutifully and not resist too much. I shall evade none of the tempests life has in store for me, I shall try to face it all as best I can. But now and then grant me a short respite. I shall never again assume, in my innocence, that any peace that comes my way will be eternal. I shall accept all the inevitable tumult and struggle. I delight in warmth and security, but I shall not rebel if I have to suffer cold, should You so decree. I shall follow wherever Your hand leads me and shall try not to be afraid. I shall try to spread some of my warmth, of my genuine love for others. We cannot be sure that it really exists. I don't want to be anything special, I only want to try to be true to that in me which seeks to fulfill its promise. (21 November 1941)
3. It is probably worth quite a bit being personally involved in the writing of history. You can really tell then what the history books leave out. That man in Beethovenstraat this afternoon won't get a mention in them. I looked at him as one might at the first crocus in spring, with pure enchantment. He was wearing a huge golden star, wearing it triumphantly on his chest. He was a procession and a demonstration all by himself as he cycled along so happily. And all that yellow - I suddenly had a poetic vision of the sun rising above him, so radiant and smiling did he look. (30 April 1942)
4. How rash to assert that man shapes his own destiny. All he can do is determine his inner responses. You cannot know another's inner life from his circumstances. To know that you must know his dreams, his relationships, his moods, his disappointment, his sickness, and his death. (4 September 1941)
Reading versus Performance: Respond in writing or discussion (20-30 minutes)
Ask students to reread the responses they wrote to Etty's writings before watching the performance. How is the Etty they met reading her diaries and letters different from the Etty they just saw? Explain and give two examples of how she's different.
What were your reactions to hearing "Bei Mir Bist du Schein" sung in English? In Yiddish?
What were your reactions to Etty addressing members of the audience as God?
Discussion: Coming into Political Consciousness (30-40 minutes)
Etty's early diary entries show that she did not want to look at or think about the German occupation or the political situation that was occurring around her. Yet, the situation worsens and ultimately she has to face it. The journey she takes is profound, and her diary helps her establish her true self in the midst of what is occurring in the larger political world around her.
What is going on around you that you don't want to look at? What are you hearing about on the radio, your friends are talking about at school, your family is worried about – something that is happening but you don't want to get pulled into it and, instead, are trying to think about something else?
Date Location
1914 Jan 15
Esther, Etty Hillesum is born in Middelburg, Holland, where her father, Dr. Louis Hillesum, teaches classical languages.
Family moves to the city of Deventer, in the east of Holland. Louis, Etty's father, becomes Assistant and later Headmaster of a school there.
Etty leaves Deventer to take her first degree in law at the University of Amsterdam.
After obtaining her law degree, Etty enrolls in the study of Slavic Languages.
Etty moves into the house of Han Wegerif as a housekeeper in exchange for rent. Within six months, they begin having an affair.
1940 May
Nazi raid on Rotterdam followed by the Dutch surrender.
1941 Feb 03
Etty meets the therapist, Julius Spier (referred to as S. in diaries)
1941 Feb 12
Jewish Council in Amsterdam holds its first meeting.
1941 Mar 09
Etty begins her diary.
1942 Apr
Germans launch their first major roundups of the Jews, requiring them to wear the yellow star, and moving all Jews to Amsterdam.
Jews no longer allowed to use trams, buses or enter public parks.
1942 Jul 03
Etty writes in her diary that the Nazis are out to destroy us completely.
1942 Jul 16
Etty is hired by Amsterdam's Jewish Council as a menial clerk. Two weeks later her request is granted for a transfer to Camp Westerbork (a transit camp in the Netherlands) to accompany the first group of Jews being sent to Westerbork. With a special permit, Etty travels back and forth between Amsterdam and Westerbork for the Jewish Council.
1942 Sep
Julius Spier (S.) dies in Amsterdam.
1943 Jun
Etty returns to Westerbork for the final time. She leaves her diaries in Amsterdam. Knowing she may not return, Etty writes to friend and housemate Maria Tuinzing that she has left her diaries in Amsterdam.
1943 Jun
Etty's parents, Dr. Louis and Riva Hillesum, and her brother, Mischa, arrive in Westerbork.
1943 Sep 07
Etty, her parents and younger brother are deported to Auschwitz. Etty brings the diaries she writes after October 1942 with her.
1943 Sep 10
Etty arrives in Auschwitz with her parents and brother, Mischa. Her parents are gassed upon arrival.
1943 Nov 30
Etty reported dead by Red Cross.
1944 Mar 31
Mischa reported dead at Auschwitz.
1945 Apr
Jaap, Etty's younger brother, reported dead at Bergen Belsen.
The History of the Dutch Occupation
After the Nazi raid on Rotterdam and the Dutch surrender in 1940, regulations became increasingly threatening for the Jews.
On January 10, 1941 Germans order the compulsory registration of all those of full or partial Jewish blood. Failure to register is punishable by five years in prison, confiscation of property or both. In February 1941, the Jewish Council is established. Jews no longer are allowed to be members of an institution that also has non-Jewish members. By November 1941 non-Jews are no longer allowed to work in a household headed by a Jew. Round-ups of selected Jews begin in Holland.
Beginning in January 1942 Jews are removed from the provinces and brought to the ghettos in the cities. In April 1942 Jews are required to wear a yellow star with the Dutch word for Jew, "Jood" printed on it. All Jews over six years are required to wear a yellow star when going outside. Jews are forbidden to enter cafes, restaurants, libraries, beaches, and public swimming pools. Signs reading Jews not allowed or Jews not welcome appear in more and more places. By May 1942 more prohibitory rules follow:
In July 1942, two transit/concentration camps are established in Holland, at Westerbork and Vught, as way stations to hold Jews until they are deported east to concentration and extermination camps. Over 100,000 Dutch Jews were brought to Westerbork and deported to the concentration camps Bergen-Belsen and Theresienstadt and the extermination camps Sobibor and Auschwitz in Poland. The trains leave Westerbork every Tuesday morning, carrying between 1,100 and 3,000 people.
Glossary of Terms
The largest Nazi concentration camp, located 37 miles west of Kracow (Poland). Established in 1940, it became an annihilation camp when it began receiving deportees in March/April 1942. Eventually it consisted of a number of sections. Auschwitz II-Birkenau was designated as the main annihilation camp.
Originally a prisoner-exchange camp, it became a concentration camp in March 1944. Anne Frank was murdered there in March 1945.
The first concentration camp set up in Southern Germany near Munich in 1933.
Etty's home town.
Dutch capitulation
May 1940 Dutch surrender to the Nazis after the Nazi raid on Rotterdam, Holland.
A location in a city or town that was restricted to Jews in order to physically segregate and isolate them. The ghetto was meant as the first stop on the way to labor, concentration or camps.
From Samuel I (7:9), literally meaning "a completely burned sacrifice." It was the term used to describe the destruction of six million Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators in Europe and North Africa between the years 1933-1945. The term was first used in connection with European Jews by Elie Wiesel.
Jewish Council
In all occupied countries the Nazis selected prominent Jews to act as their liaisons with the Jewish community and ensure the orderly implementation of their new regulations. Jewish Council members also sought to provide basic community services to ghettoized Jewish populations and to protect their communities.
Member of "NSDAP"-fascist Nationalist Socialist German Workers' Party, which was founded after World War I and eventually taken over by Hitler.
Nazi camps
Between 1933-1945 Germany established a variety of camps in Europe, including transit camps, concentration camps and extermination camps.
Transit camps
Jews in Nazi-occupied lands often were first deported to transit camps, which served as temporary holding stations until they were sent to slave-labor and death camps. Average time in transit camps varied: some inmates spent a few hours, some a few days and some a few weeks.
Concentration camps
Camps established in the beginning of the Nazi regime for imprisonment and forced-labor of "enemies" of the Reich, political and "anti-social," as well as Jews. Disease, maltreatment and starvation led to many deaths, as did direct executions.
Extermination camps
To facilitate the Final Solution (the genocide or mass destruction of the Jews), the Nazis established these camps to systematically and efficiently kill primarily Jewish victims. Unlike Concentration Camps, these were explicitly designed to murder inmates.
a transit camp in Holland where Jews were interned before being deported to concentration and extermination camps in Eastern Europe. Etty Hillesum lived at Westerbork for fourteen months between July 1942 and September 1943. Anne Frank was brought to Westerbork in 1944, before being deported to Bergen Belsen.
Yellow Star
A Jewish ID badge worn on the arm or chest that Germans demanded Jews in most parts of occupied Europe to wear at the risk of being shot. On 1 September 1941, all Jews over the age of six, were forced to wear the star in public in Germany.
Glossary of Names
Etty's former teacher, colleague of Etty's father. Christine regularly sends food parcels to Etty's family in Westerbork.
Han Wegerif, an accountant and widower, owns the house where Etty lives in Amsterdam from 1937-1943. Etty and Han begin a love affair a few months after she moves into his house.
Etty's younger brother, medical student, works as a medical intern during the war.
Etty's best friend.
Louis Hillesum
Etty's father - teacher, classicist, and principal of a school in Deventer, Holland.
Etty's close friend. Etty leaves her diaries with Maria when she goes to Westerbork.
Etty's youngest brother. Mischa, a child prodigy and pianist, suffers with schizophrenia.
Rainer Maria Rilke (1875-1926), one of the most significant poets in the German language. Etty's favorite poet.
Riva Hillesum
Etty's mother. Born in Russia, she fled to Holland following a pogrom and tutored students in Russian.
Julius Spier, a student of psychiatrist Carl Jung. Spier is referred to as S. in Etty's diaries. Spier was a psychologist who also practiced palmistry (the reading of one's hands) and wrestling as part of his therapy. Etty becomes Spier's patient, secretary and lover.
1. Home
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© 2008-2014 ettyplay inc;
Modified: 2014 Oct 07
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The Hellebore Specialists
Hellebores (commonly known as Winter Roses) are herbaceous perennial plants. They mostly originate in inland regions of central and southern Europe.
The main concentration of Helleborus species in the wild is found in the Balkans. Hellebores are found as far West as Spain and Britain and as far east as Turkey and the Republic of Georgia. Helleborus argutifolius and H. lividus are found on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Majorca respectively.
But by far the most geographically isolated species is the rare Chinese species Helleborus thibetanus, cut off by 5,200km from its nearest Helleborean neighbour. Recent research suggests that Helleborus species may have once had a continuous distribution from Europe to east Asia. However major geological and climate changes cut off what is now H. thibetanus about 23 million years ago (1).
The habitat in which Hellebores are found in the wild is reasonably diverse. This ranges from semi-alpine to quite hot and dry low altitude areas. However they are mostly plants of semi shaded conditions, such as the edges of deciduous woodland, dryer in summer and damp in the cooler months. Hellebores are more tolerant of exposed sunny positions in cooler, high altitude regions.
The genus Helleborus has been placed within the Ranunculaceae family by Botanists. Other related genera in this family include Aquilegia, Clematis and Delphinium. As with some other members of the Ranunculaceae family, Hellebores are poisonous.
There are about 17 different species of Helleborus. The most basic way to divide the genus for horticultural purposes is between the ‘caulescent’ (stemmed) and ‘acaulescent’ (unstemmed) species. H. argutifolius is an example of a caulescent species. It has a well developed above ground stem which carries both true leaves and flowers. The acaulescent species (eg. H. atrorubens) are shorter clumping plants with separate leaves and flower stems. This split enables an understanding of the basic growth habit of the different species. H. niger is the exception, not sitting easily in either group.
A summary of the Helleborus species (2):
Section Species
caulescent species
Helleborus niger intermediate
acaulescent species
Several of the different Helleborus species will hybridise with each other. H. argutifolius and H. lividus are closely related and will hybridise to give the fertile hybrid H. x sternii. H. niger will hybridise with these two species and their hybrid, giving rise to the infertile interspecific crosses H. x nigercors (hybrid with H. argutifolius), H. x ballardiae (H. lividus) and H. x ericsmithii (H. x sternii). Helleborus niger will also hybridise with H. thibetanus and H. vesicarius. All of the Hellebore species in the Helleborastrum section will hybridise readily.
Helleborus x hybridus are the most commonly found Hellebores in the garden. For years labelled incorrectly as ‘H. orientalis’ or ‘H. orientalis hybrids’. As it is now recognised that several different acaulescent species have been involved in the development of these garden origin hybrids over the past 200 years, H. x hybridus is now recognised as the correct name (3).
1. Sun H., McLewin W. and Fay M. (2001) “Molecular phylogeny of Helleborus (Ranunculaceae), with an emphasis on the East Asian-Mediterranean disjunction” Taxon, 50:1001.
2. Based on a) Sun H., McLewin W. and Fay M. (op.cit.) and b) McLewin W. and Mathew B. (2002) “Helleborus Viridis”, The Plantsman, 1(3): 150-153
3. McLewin W. and Mathew B. (1998) “Helleborus orientalis and Helleborus x hybridus” The New Plantsman, 5(2): 117-124.
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Standing Waves figures
1. Jun 25, 2007 #1
The figures below show systems of standing waves set up in strings, fixed at both ends, under tension. All of the strings are under the SAME tension and are otherwise identical, EXCEPT for their lengths. The variables in these situations, in addition to the lengths (L) of the strings, are the amplitudes (A) at the antinodes and the number of nodes in the standing wave.
Which of the following statements are true about the situations depicted in the figures above?
True False The wave speed does not depend on the amplitude of the wave
True False Figure E has a wavelength of 20 cm
True False Figure B has the most nodes
True False All of the standing wave patterns have the same wave speed
True False Figures C and F have the same frequency
3. The attempt at a solution
I looked through my book, and i know that im close, im just not sure which ones are wrong. My answers are in bold, and the computer says its wrong, but not which ones are wrong. Any help?
2. jcsd
3. Jun 25, 2007 #2
Doc Al
User Avatar
Staff: Mentor
Which ones are you unsure of? What is your reasoning behind your answers?
4. Jun 25, 2007 #3
1) V= Sqrt T/U so i think thats right
2) Wavelength is from one antinode to another, so i think that is right
3) Figure B has the most frequency so it has the most nodes
4) Not too sure about this one
5) They both have 3 occurences in the same period so they must be the same
I dunno which is wrong, i tried changing number 4 but that was still wrong.
5. Jun 25, 2007 #4
Doc Al
User Avatar
Staff: Mentor
From one antinode to the next is a half wavelength, but OK.
You can just count the nodes.
What does wave speed depend on?
Why do you think the period is the same?
6. Jun 26, 2007 #5
4. length and tension/force
5. because they are all in the same window, but im not too sure
7. Jun 26, 2007 #6
Doc Al
User Avatar
Staff: Mentor
Wave speed does not depend on length. Review the formula that you quoted regarding question 1.
The windows are not all the same size. Check the length of each window, which is labeled on the diagram.
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Fact corner
Turkish is spoken as a first language by over 63 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Cyprus, with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania and other parts of Eastern Europe. Turkish is also spoken by several million immigrants in Western Europe, particularly in Germany.
The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination.
The verb
Turkish verbs indicate person. They can be made negative, potential ("can"), or impotential ("cannot"). Furthermore, Turkish verbs show tense (present, past, inferential, future, and aorist), mood (conditional, imperative, necessitative, and optative), and aspect. Negation is expressed by the infix -me- immediately following the stem.
The verbs are regular and can be conjugated at
The Copula
There is a defectice verb, whose stem is i- and which means "be". The missing forms of i- are supplied by ol-: the infinitive olmak is an example, since there is no infinitive *imek.
The following table shows the enclitic and independent forms where the stem i- is applied.
Enclitic forms1 Independent forms
Present Past Past Past Conditional Past Inferential Past Inferential Conditional
Sg.1 Izmir'deyim Izmir'deydim idim idiysem imişim imişsem
Sg.2 Izmir'desin Izmir'deydin idin idiysen imişin imişsen
Sg.3 Izmir'de(dir) Izmir'deydi idi idiyse imiş imişse
Pl.1 Izmir'deyiz Izmir'deydik idik idiysek imişiz imişsek
Pl.2 Izmir'desiniz Izmir'deydiniz idiniz idiysek imişsiniz imişseniz
Pl.3 Izmir'de(dir)ler Izmir'deydiler idiler idiyseler imişler imişseler
1. Enclitic forms are added in the main word; In this sample to Izmir-de 'in Izmir'. Thus, Izmir'deyim 'I am in Izmir', etc.
Verb Wiki
Verbix Website
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Copyright Verbix 1995-2016
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