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Pollutants could pose health risks for 5 sea turtle species
Researchers at the Hollings Marine Laboratory (HML) and four partner organizations have measured for the first time concentrations of 13 perfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs) in five different endangered species of sea turtles. While PFC toxicology studies have not yet been conducted on turtles, the levels of the compounds seen in all five species approach the amounts known to cause adverse health effects in other animals.
PFCs are man-made compounds that have many uses including stain-resistant coatings, fire-fighting foams and emulsifiers in plastics manufacturing. They have become widespread pollutants, are detectable in human and wildlife samples worldwide, infiltrate food chains, and have been shown in laboratory animalsrats, mice and fishto be toxic to the liver, the thyroid, neurobehavioral function and the immune system. The PFCs most commonly found in the environment are perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA).
Located in Charleston, S.C., the HML is a collaboration of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, the College of Charleston and the Medical University of South Carolina.
"In our experiment, we wanted to accomplish two goals," says NIST research biologist and study lead Jennifer Keller. "We wanted to get the first accurate measurements of the plasma blood concentrations of PFCs in five sea turtle species across different trophic [food chain] levels, and then compare those concentrations to ones known to cause toxic effects in laboratory animals. That way, we could estimate the potential health risks from PFC exposure for all five turtles."
The five sea turtle species studied were the green, hawksbill, leatherback, loggerhead and Kemp's ridley. Their preferred diets range up the food chain from the green's sea grasses and algae to the crabs favored by the Kemp's ridley. The researchers expected that the PFC concentrations would be higher in species that fed farther up the food chain, since their prey's tissues would probably concentrate the pollutants.
This was generally the case. Plant-eating green turtles had the lowest plasma concentrations for the majority of PFCs examined, especially PFOS. As expected, leatherbacks, loggerheads and Kemp's ridleys had progressively higher PFOS concentrations. Surprisingly, however, hawksbillswho browse low on the food chain, primarily on spongesrecorded the second-highest average concentration of PFOS and were the only species to have a detectable PFOA level. The researchers surmise that this may relate to the locations where the hawksbills forage, or it may suggest that sponges have unusually high concentrations of PFOS and PFOA.
In the second part of the study, Keller and her colleagues compared the plasma concentrations of PFOS that they found in the five sea turtle species with previously reported concentrations that were shown to have adverse health effects in laboratory animals. The results showed that hawksbills, loggerheads and Kemp's ridleys had PFOS concentrations approaching those linked to liver and neurobehavioral toxicity in other animals; levels in loggerheads and Kemp's ridleys approached those linked to thyroid disruption in other animals; and all five species had levels that approached those linked to suppressed immunity in other animals.
"Better understanding the threat of PFCs, especially PFOS, to sea turtles can help wildlife managers and others develop strategies to deal with potential health problems," Keller says. "Our study provides the first baseline data in this area but more research is neededespecially for hawksbills after seeing their unexpectedly high PFC exposure."
Researchers from the College of Charleston's Grice Marine Laboratory, NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service and the Loggerhead Marinelife Center also contributed to the study.
Contact: Michael E. Newman
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
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"url": "http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Pollutants-could-pose-health-risks-for-5-sea-turtle-species-25586-1/"
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The Significance of the Title in 'the Crucible'
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What is the significance of the title in The Crucible?
The title of The Crucible effectively helps us to understand the play in a deeper and more thorough way as the definitions of the noun ‘crucible’ reflects the themes of the play such as moral, reputation, courage, righteousness, hysteria and truth. It also foreshadows the severe and unjust persecution of the upright characters who hold on to their beliefs and moral values, as the word ‘crucible’ comes from the Latin word ‘crucibulum’, which derives from the word ‘crux’. ‘Crux’ is also the root word of ‘crucifixion’. The first definition of the noun ‘crucible’ is a refractory container which is used for melting metal in a very high temperature or where concentrated forces are asserted to cause change. In The Crucible, the society itself is the ‘crucible’, with the people being accused of witchcraft the contents inside. A homophone for the word ‘metal’ is ‘mettle’. As a crucible melts down the metal, the crucible of society melts down the people’s mettle, i.e. courage, strength and integrity. Fuelled by the fear and hysteria of witchcraft, as well as the greed of some people like the Putnams and the ignorance of the judges, the society becomes more and more fanatical, forcing the innocent people being accused to a point which they cannot withstand but to ‘melt’ and comply by giving a lie to live, even though they try to resist initially, Tituba and Sarah Good are good examples. When Tituba finally confesses, she is described as ‘falls to her knees’, an action that reveals her forced compliance and helplessness. Yet the most significant example is perhaps when Mary turns away from Proctor and accuses him, crying, “I’ll not hang with you.” Her firm tone here reveals her desperation. This shows that although she is willing to tell the truth and be a good person, she cannot withstand the hostility of the situation. As the definition states, it is the concentrated forces that causes Mary to change. When Mary tells...
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Details of this Paper
Java & Processing Language + Particle systems, inheritance and polymorphism
Question 3 - Particle systems, inheritance and polymorphism;Back to our own (maybe not super but still quite amazing) universe.;Start from this Make sure you understand the code and add comments wherever they are missing.;3a - Different kinds of particles;Implement three different subclasses of class Particle. For each subclass, override the display() method to make the 3 kinds of particles look and behave differently. For at least one subclass, also override the update() method.;To test your subclasses, change the method createParticle() in ParticleSystem so that the system creates each time a different kind of particle from one of your 3 subclasses (could either be random or sequential).;3b - Wind particle system;Implement a subclass of ParticleSystem. Override the applyForces() method.;The applyForces() method is where you can have a particle system that applies one or many forces to its particles.;Your subclass should apply a wind force to its particles in the applyForces() method. A wind force is represented as a simple PVector that gets applied to all the particles of the system. At each call of applyForces(), the wind should also change its heading (ie. its angle) according to some random pattern. You have to change the heading using trigonometry. Make the wind as believable as possible. Use the randomGaussian() and/or the noise() (Perlin noise) function at least once in your code for controlling the wind.;3c - More particle systems;Now, implement two more subclasses of ParticleSystems (ie. there will be three subclasses of ParticleSystems in total).;For these two subclasses, override the createParticle() method. The createParticle() method will determine the kind of particles generated by the system. By overriding it, the kind of particles that each subclass of ParticleSystem generates will be different. For example, one subclass could generate only red, round-shaped particles will low mass, while another might generate a combination of round-shaped and star-shaped particles with random mass.;Once that is done, override the applyForces() method as well. Your two subclasses can apply any force you want on their particles. They can apply forces on all the particles or a subset of them. The only rule is that you should use at least two different forces that we have seen in The Nature of Code: gravitation, repulsion, friction, drag and spring.
Paper#70379 | Written in 18-Jul-2015
Price : $37
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Wednesday, March 28, 2012
Object Initializers
With the help of Object Initializers, you can initialize objects with fewer lines of code.
For. e.g:
We have a class representing a Student.
public class Student
public string StudentName;
public int StudentID;
public Student(string StudentName, int StudentID)
this.StudentName = StudentName;
this.StudentID = StudentID;
public Student(int StudentID)
this.StudentID = StudentID;
public Student()
Suppose we make a class for Student List and inherit it from class List. To add objects to this class, we'll make use of object initialization.
Before we had object initialization, we would have had to do the following:
public void Add(string StudentName, int StudentID)
Student std = new Student(StudentName, StudentID);
With object initialization, the code can be reduced to the following lines:
public void Add(string StudentName, int StudentID)
this.Add(new Student { StudentID = StudentID, StudentName = StudentName});
Do note that the resulting IL Code of both the above code snippets will be the same. However, you can see the difference in the lines of code the developer will need to type. Though, this may not sound very beneficial by looking at the above example. But try implementing object initialization in real-life code and you'll see the benefit.
The above example used object initialization without constructor. Here's how you use it with constructor.
public void AddStudent2(string StudentName, int StudentID)
this.Add(new Student(StudentName, StudentID));
Another way to use object initialization is by calling the constructor and initializing the properties at the same time:
public void AddStudent(string StudentName, int StudentID)
this.Add(new Student(StudentID) { StudentName = StudentName });
Saturday, March 24, 2012
Implicitly Typed Local Variables (C#)
While coding, at some point, you might want to be able to declare a variable without having to explicitly mention the type of this variable.
C# 3.0 allows this by introducing a keyword var.
Here's how you use it:
var i = 0;
var str = "some string";
The type of the variable is deduced by the statement at the right hand side. However, these variables are still not loosely typed. You can check this be assigning different type of values to the same variable. For e.g., the variable i above cannot later on be assigned a string value.
The code below;
var i = 0;
i = "some string";
would give a compile-time error ("Cannot implicitly convert type 'string' to 'int' ").
Though, the use of implicitly typed variables may not be understandable by just these examples, these are really helpful when you are using LINQ.
Friday, December 16, 2011
JavaScript Introduction
Web site development is not simply about 'designing', neither does it comprise of learning one language and excelling in it. Instead for good designs and better websites you need to get hands-on on several skills/tools/languates. For e.g. if you are working on ASP.Net, you'll need to know your way in and out of ASP.Net, then you'll need to know be proficient at a programming language like C# or VB.Net to do all the code-behind stuff.
In addition to that you'll need to have a good knowledge of Javascript and CSS. What are they? How are they used? What can be accomplished through them? etc.
(Of course there are a lot of other things involved in web site development, such as security, but let's keep that for another discussion.)
What is it? (What can be accomplished through it? and other similar questions)
First up Javascript and Java have nothing to do with each other, although the similarity in names is misleading.
To put simply, Javascript is used to add interactivity to web sites/pages. Using Javascript
• one can add HTML dynamically to the page, so that a piece of HTML is only included in the page when certain condition is true. For e.g. greeting message can be displayed based on the time of the day the page is viewed. (Good Morning, Good Afternoon etc.)
• to validate input before sending it to the server. As each request to server is time and resource consuming, it is considered smart to validate input before sending it to server.
How is it used?
Let's start working on JavaScript now.
The first step is to understand the ways through which JavaScript can be added to a web page.
There are two simple ways to do it:
1. Include JavaScript in the page itself.
2. Write JavaScript in a separate file and then include the file in the page (this method is beneficial whenever the same JavaScript needs to be used on multiple pages).
The script tag:
For implementing both the methods mentioned above, the script tag is used.
Usage: (Method # 1)
<script language = "JavaScript">
//JavaScript code
Usage: (Method # 2)
<script language = "JavaScript" scr = "filepath" />
The src (source) attribute expects a file path. The name of the file containing JavaScript MUST have the extension ".js".
Book: Java Script and Jscript by Jaworski
Thursday, July 14, 2011
Folder options in Windows 7
In a lot of things, Windows 7 is different from Windows XP.
Just the other day I needed to display the extension of all files. This could be done easily in XP with folders options. But in Windows 7, where do I find the "Folder Options".
For folder options on Windows 7, follow the below steps.
1. Start (the windows icon at the bottom left corner) -> Control Panel
2. If you can't find "Folder Options" anywhere, locate the "View by:" title at the top right corner. It must be set to Category for you to not see Folder options. Change it to either "Large Icons" or "Small Icons".
3. You'll now be able to see "Folder Options". You can play with it all you want.
Sunday, April 17, 2011
Informative links on ASP.Net Page Cycle, View State and Session Tracking
ASP.Net View State Contains information on ASP.Net Page Cycle as well
Cross Site Request Forgery Attack
Cross site request forgery attacks constitute of tricking a user to unknowingly send a request, of, say, transferring funds to the attacker's account.
Formal Definition:
AKA (Also Known As):
One-click attack
Session riding
Abbreviated as:
CSRF or XSRY (pronounced as sea-surf)
Difference from XSS(Cross-Site Scripting):
To understand how it works, we first need to understand the concept and working of cookies and session.
If a user has cookies enabled on his/her web browser, every time the user makes a request to a web server, (that is, accesses a web site) the web server stores information in a piece of text called cookie.
This cookie is hereafter used for identifying this user uniquely.
Session is another way to identify users uniquely. If you have worked on ASP.Net applications you will know that values that need to be stored for a particular user are added in Session. Each session is uniquely identified by an ID called Session ID.
When a user makes a request to an application that implies session and if the user has cookies enabled the Session ID generated would be stored in the cookie. And for every subsequent request this Session ID would be sent to the server. The server would use this Session ID to identify the user. This way the user would not need to authenticate himself/herself for each request.
Once the user's session has been assigned an ID, it is returned to the server for every request. However, if the time elapse between two requests is more than the timeout value, the session is said to be expired and the user will have to identify himself again, (for e.g. login again) if the user wishes to continue using the web site.
How CSRF Works?
Consider the following scenario:
1. You are logged into your internet banking account.
2. Simultaneously you are also checking out a forum.
3. Let's say you click on an innocent looking link on the forum.
4. Though this link "looks" innocent, it actually isn't. In fact, it sends a funds transfer request of say, Rs. 1000 destined for his own account.
5. How is this possible?..
It is possible if the internet banking website you are visiting does not have a multi step funds transfer process, or even if it does, the last step, which is the final step where funds are actually transferred to the destination account does not check if the previous steps have been performed, and simply transfer funds without verifying the user sending the request. Here, the site blindly trusts the Session ID sent by the client browser (through cookie) to authenticate the user.
How does the hacker know the web page of the final step.
Simple.. The hacker may also have an internet banking account and has, therefore, noticed the link of the funds transfer page and also that the amount and destination account number are made a part of the link. For e.g, the link may look something like:
(Normally, web sites that provide features which involve money transactions or that provide any type of crucial information should never ever make even minor fields like amount a part of the URL.)
So, here's a small introduction to CSRF.
Helpful Links:
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Oct 17th 2016
Chicken Behaviour and Welfare (Coursera)
Created by:Delivered by:
This course will explain the general principles of chicken behaviour and welfare, and the behavioural and physiological indicators that can be used to assess welfare in chickens kept in hobby flocks through to commercial farms. The focus is primarily on laying hens and meat chickens (broilers) although many of the principles will be relevant to other types of poultry. The course is likely to be of interest to people who own chickens as pets or keep a small hobby flock, commercial egg and chicken meat producers, veterinarians and vet nurses.
1. Describe avian sensory perception and motivation.
2. Explain the main behaviour patterns of poultry.
3. Define welfare and explain the bases of welfare standards.
4. Assess chicken welfare, using behavioural and physiological means
5. Understand common welfare problems of chickens.
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"edu_score": 3.953125,
"fasttext_score": 0.9778567552566528,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9187158942222595,
"url": "https://www.mooc-list.com/course/chicken-behaviour-and-welfare-coursera"
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Satellite, Science
Satellite transmission is one important symbol of revolution in communication technology. Besides transmitting picture and sound over long distances, it has revolutionised telecommunicaiion, telephone, telegraph etc. Already, from a number of towns in India, we can make long distance telephone'calls not only to other towns within the country but also to several towns in other countries through direct dialling, i.e., without the help of a telephone operator. In fact, for remote places like Leh, Port-Blair and Aizwal
which are separated by Jea or difficult terrain, satellite transmission offers the only viable afid feasible means of linkage. multi-purpose satellites for expanding the communication network in the entire country. INSAT- 1 A was launched in 1982, but it developed technical snags. INSAT- 1B was then . launched in 1983, and INSAT-1C in 1988. These satellites have been providing widespread coverage to the media, in addition to many other services like in the fields of mete~~ology,resource surveys, telecommunication, and research etc.
Posted Date: 9/29/2012 1:16:59 AM | Location : United States
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5 Amazing Scientific Innovations That Affect Our Lives
5 Amazing Scientific Innovations
For thousands of years, astronomers, engineers, geographers, mathematicians and other bright minds have pondered, hypothesized, researched, tested, proved and invented in the pursuit of scientific discovery. The list of scientific innovations is vast and includes advancements that affect us in areas such as communication, food, health and safety, technology, and transportation. This slideshow will highlight five scientific innovations from the last century that have had a profound effect on how we live our daily lives.
Antibiotics And Immunizations
In the late 1920s, British scientist Alexander Fleming discovered a naturally growing mold in one of his staphylococcus bacteria samples. He found that the area around the ring-shaped mold was free of the bacteria and concluded that it had been destroyed by something in the mold. Named after the Penicillium mold, penicillin was further tested and eventually produced by drug companies. By the mid-1940s, penicillin was widely available and was instrumental in treating the bacterial infections that occurred in soldiers during World War II. Since the discovery of penicillin, hundreds of antibiotics and immunizations have been developed and produced worldwide.
Jet Engines
On Dec. 17, 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright were the first to fly a self-propelled, heavier-than air machine. The longest flight launched the age of the airplane. Nearly three decades later, Sir Frank Whittle, a British engineer and pilot, patented his "turbojet engine" in 1930. He developed the first feasible jet engine in 1937 using recently available alloys. Unbeknownst to Whittle, Hans Von Ohain, a German airplane designer on the opposite side of the war, was also developing a jet propulsion engine which he patented in 1933. Both Whittle and Von Ohain are credited with inventing the jet engine, which revolutionized air travel for both military and commercial applications.
Personal Computers
Early computers were huge and prohibitively expensive. One of the first computers was the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer (ENIAC), which was built to perform World War II ballistics calculations for the United States military. Weighing in at 30 tons, it cost half a million dollars and covered about 2,000 square feet of space at the University of Pennsylvania. With the introduction of the transistor in 1948 and the later development of the microprocessor in 1971, the personal computer became a reality.
Space Flight
In his May 25, 1961 speech, President John F. Kennedy famously stated: "I believe this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth. No single space project in the period will be more impressive to mankind or more important in the long-range exploration of space."
Eight years later, on July 20, 1969, NASA's Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin helped the U.S. reach this goal, becoming the first humans to step foot on another world when they walked on the Moon. Ten more astronauts over the next several years followed in Armstrong's and Aldrin's lunar footsteps.
The idea for the Internet stemmed from the 1960s realization that there would be great value in allowing computers to share information. ARPANET, the original Internet, was brought online in 1969. Years later, Tim Berners-Lee, a British software consultant, created HTML and its rules for usage, which introduced the World Wide Web in 1991. Today, the Internet is used by individuals, corporations and governments across the globe to communicate, congregate and share information.
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Reproductive Systems Research Task - Science, 2013
^ Examples of Nudibranchs
^ Examples of the habitat and distribution of the Nudibranch
Nudibranchs live in an aquatic environment, found in oceans widespread across the world. Their habitat ranges specifically from shallow costal tide pools, to vibrant coral reefs and the cold depths of the ocean; depending on the genus.
This particular environment places multiple pressures on the Nudibranch – the main issue being
strong waves and currents, which have the ability to upset the species’
environment. Other pressures include predators (especially those who have
evolved to camouflage into the Nudibranch’s environment) and tourists, who
stage a risk to damage both the habitat and Nudibranchs themselves, as they are
drawn to their bright colours and unique markings.
^ Examples of courting and copulation between Nudibranchs
Nudibranchs are hermaphroditic, which means they possess both
female and male sex organs. Despite this leading to a possibility of self
fertilisation, the Nudibranch reproduces by cross-fertilisation. As all
Nudibranchs are both male and female, they have the same tube-structured
genitals. The process of fertilisation for such a primitive animal is rather
intimate, with most species undergoing extensive courting before actually
Nudibranchs have reproductive pores on their necks, and once sexually mature they begin searching for another Nudibranch to mate with. Once two members of the same species have recognised each other, courting begins. This involves both species manoeuvring around in opposite circles to get their reproductive pores aligned. In some cases, one might follow the other around touching on the edge of its tail; others will crawl over one another, nuzzle heads, heads or stroke their mate with their mouth tentacles. Others fight each other, and others devour their mate if he or she doesn’t deem suitable. Mating can only take place when each Nudibranch has moved into a head to tail position with their 'necks' touching.
On contact with the other neck, each penis becomes
erect and seeks out the female genital duct of the other. Sperm sacs are passed
through the penis into the other Nudibranch, fertilising both molluscs;
fertilisation is internal, and the specific amount of gametes is unknown – but
is within the thousands. Both now go their own way and lay egg masses that may
contain up to 100,000 eggs.
An advantage of this strategy would be that by
cross-fertilizing it creates many more variations in the gene pool, thus giving
the species a better chance of survival is a dramatic change to their
environment were to happen. The major disadvantage of cross fertilisation would
be that it takes both more time and energy to complete.
^ Examples of egg ribbons laid by Nudibranchs
Nudibranchs are oviparous animals, and therefore development
is external. Their eggs are laid 1-2 days after fertilisation and have a
gestation period of 8-12 days. These molluscs lay thousands of eggs in a
delicate, ruffled ribbon-like strand, called an egg ribbon; such massive
spawning numbers increase the chance of as many as possible of the Nudibranchs
reaching adulthood.
These ribbons are laid on or near the Nudibranch’s favourite
food (generally sponges or algae), this acting as the food source for the eggs,
and eventually the young. The egg girdles laid by Nudibranchs are rarely attacked and eaten by predators, even though many are laid out in the open and appear extremely vulnerable -the only known predators seem to be other Nudibranchs. This is because the strands are protected by toxic chemicals which cover the ribbon, repelling all potential predators except for its own species. Upon hatching, the young have a small shell. The juvenile Nudibranchs rise into the water column and are distributed by the currents. After drifting around in the currents for days, they cast off their baby shell, and settle to a habitat near their food source.
An advantage of this strategy would be that although out in the open, the eggs are protected by the toxic chemicals covering the ribbon, and the gestation period is relatively quick. A major disadvantage to would be that although protected
within the egg, once hatched and carried away from the ribbon the young have no
means of protection or parental care.
Parental Care
^ Examples of juvenille Nudibranchs
No parental care is provided to the young of the Nudibranch; once the ribbon is laid, the mother Nudibranch abandons the eggs and swims away. This creates a clear link between the number of eggs the Nudibranch produces and the mortality rate of the
offspring. The Nudibranch has a low mortality rate due to the low level of care
provided and the pressures their environment place on them, but this is
compensated by the large masses of eggs that are produced, increasing the
chance of survival for the species. Another factor that increases the chance of
survival for the Nudibranch is the protective capsule surrounding the eggs.
The most probable reason as to why there is no parental care provided for the young
of the Nudibranch is relative to energy expenditure, life span and number of
eggs. To care for thousands of young individually without assistance would be an impossible task in itself, let alone one for a primitive Nudibranch. It would also take up an enormous amount of energy, and a considerable amount of the mother Nudibranchs’ life, considering they live for up to three months. As there are many offspring produced, the gestation period of a Nudibranch is very short as is their body length, the level of parental care they provide is low-nothing and sexual maturity is quick, the Nudibranch is clearly of r-selection.
Advantages of this strategy would be that is uses less energy to produce and care for the young, sexual maturity is fast and a large amount of young is produced. The major disadvantage would be the decreases chance of survival due to minimal care and great exposure.
Interesting Information
^ An example of penis fencing (the white spike) between Nudibranchs
To ensure against interruptions or such whilst mating, some species have a modified penis with multiple hooks which act as a stimulator and an anchor, while others have a spike-like penis for deep penetration. Some female vaginas are lined with spines to ensure against premature withdrawal when mating occurs in strong currents, or swell conditions.
One species of Nudibranch takes part in what is referred to
as penis fencing. During mating, they fence with one another using their
penises attempting to stab and inject sperm in their opponent, while avoiding
being fertilized themselves. They are able to inseminate their opponent by
injecting their sperm into any region of the other's body they are able to
penetrate. After successfully injecting the other, the sperm streams through
their partner's body on their way to ovaries, where they will fertilize the
eggs. The victorious Nudibranch swims away, whilst the loser now has to bear
the burden of motherhood.
Nudibranchs. (2013, July 18). Retrieved September 14, 2013, from
Curran-Ragan, S.
(2010, January 10). Life of a Nudibranch. Retrieved September 14, 2013,
from Suite 101:
Kennedy, J. (2013,
August 29). Nudibranchs. Retrieved September 14, 2013, from About.Com -
Marine Life:
Nudibranch. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 14, 2013, from National Geographic:
Reproductive Biology
. (n.d.). Retrieved September 14, 2013, from Neville Coleman
Legacy - Marine Life Information Center:
Nudibranchs. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 14, 2013, from Reef ED:
Comment Stream
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Exploration of "Pillbugs"
Fifth graders define vocabulary terms, identify the characteristics of a pillbug, and create a dichotomous key. Then they examine the pillbugs and make observations and record these observations. Finally, 5th graders observe specific behavior of pillbugs and formulate a conclusion to their initial hypothesis and construct graphs that reflect data.
5th Science 18 Views 12 Downloads
Resource Details
3 more...
Resource Type
Lesson Plans
Instructional Strategy
Inquiry-Based Learning
5 days
What Members Say
Stacey C.
Stacey C.
Brinkley, AR
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.96875,
"fasttext_score": 0.6920762062072754,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8428963422775269,
"url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/exploration-of-pillbugs"
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Go to the previous, next section.
Control Structures
A Lisp program consists of expressions or forms (see section Kinds of Forms). We control the order of execution of the forms by enclosing them in control structures. Control structures are special forms which control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they contain.
The simplest control structure is sequential execution: first form a, then form b, and so on. This is what happens when you write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top level in a file of Lisp code--the forms are executed in the order they are written. We call this textual order. For example, if a function body consists of two forms a and b, evaluation of the function evaluates first a and then b, and the function's value is the value of b.
Naturally, Emacs Lisp has many kinds of control structures, including other varieties of sequencing, function calls, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled) jumps. The built-in control structures are special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated. You can use macros to define your own control structure constructs (see section Macros).
Evaluating forms in the order they are written is the most common control structure. Sometimes this happens automatically, such as in a function body. Elsewhere you must use a control structure construct to do this: progn, the simplest control construct of Lisp.
A progn special form looks like this:
(progn a b c ...)
and it says to execute the forms a, b, c and so on, in that order. These forms are called the body of the progn form. The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire progn.
When Lisp was young, progn was the only way to execute two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them. But programmers found they often needed to use a progn in the body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So the body of a function was made into an "implicit progn": several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual progn. Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit progn. As a result, progn is not used as often as it used to be. It is needed now most often inside of an unwind-protect, and, or or.
Special Form: progn forms...
This special form evaluates all of the forms, in textual order, returning the result of the final form.
(progn (print "The first form")
(print "The second form")
(print "The third form"))
-| "The first form"
-| "The second form"
-| "The third form"
=> "The third form"
Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return a different value:
Special Form: prog1 form1 forms...
This special form evaluates form1 and all of the forms, in textual order, returning the result of form1.
(prog1 (print "The first form")
(print "The second form")
(print "The third form"))
-| "The first form"
-| "The second form"
-| "The third form"
=> "The first form"
Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable x, then return the value of that former element:
(prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x)))
Special Form: prog2 form1 form2 forms...
This special form evaluates form1, form2, and all of the following forms, in textual order, returning the result of form2.
(prog2 (print "The first form")
(print "The second form")
(print "The third form"))
-| "The first form"
-| "The second form"
-| "The third form"
=> "The second form"
Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp has two conditional forms: if, which is much the same as in other languages, and cond, which is a generalized case statement.
Special Form: if condition then-form else-forms...
if chooses between the then-form and the else-forms based on the value of condition. If the evaluated condition is non-nil, then-form is evaluated and the result returned. Otherwise, the else-forms are evaluated in textual order, and the value of the last one is returned. (The else part of if is an example of an implicit progn. See section Sequencing.)
If condition has the value nil, and no else-forms are given, if returns nil.
if is a special form because the branch which is not selected is never evaluated--it is ignored. Thus, in the example below, true is not printed because print is never called.
(if nil
(print 'true)
=> very-false
Special Form: cond clause...
cond chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each clause in the cond must be a list. The CAR of this list is the condition; the remaining elements, if any, the body-forms. Thus, a clause looks like this:
(condition body-forms...)
cond tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the condition of each clause. If the value of condition is non-nil, the body-forms are evaluated, and the value of the last of body-forms becomes the value of the cond. The remaining clauses are ignored.
If the value of condition is nil, the clause "fails", so the cond moves on to the following clause, trying its condition.
If every condition evaluates to nil, so that every clause fails, cond returns nil.
A clause may also look like this:
Then, if condition is non-nil when tested, the value of condition becomes the value of the cond form.
The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where the value of x is a number, string, buffer and symbol, respectively:
(cond ((numberp x) x)
((stringp x) x)
((bufferp x)
(setq temporary-hack x) ; multiple body-forms
(buffer-name x)) ; in one clause
((symbolp x) (symbol-value x)))
Often we want the last clause to be executed whenever none of the previous clauses was successful. To do this, we use t as the condition of the last clause, like this: (t body-forms). The form t evaluates to t, which is never nil, so this clause never fails, provided the cond gets to it at all.
For example,
(cond ((eq a 1) 'foo)
(t "default"))
=> "default"
This expression is a cond which returns foo if the value of a is 1, and returns the string "default" otherwise.
Both cond and if can usually be written in terms of the other. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of taste and style. For example:
(if a b c)
(cond (a b) (t c))
Constructs for Combining Conditions
This section describes three constructs that are often used together with if and cond to express complicated conditions. The constructs and and or can also be used individually as kinds of multiple conditional constructs.
Function: not condition
This function tests for the falsehood of condition. It returns t if condition is nil, and nil otherwise. The function not is identical to null, and we recommend using null if you are testing for an empty list.
Special Form: and conditions...
The and special form tests whether all the conditions are true. It works by evaluating the conditions one by one in the order written.
If any of the conditions evaluates to nil, then the result of the and must be nil regardless of the remaining conditions; so the remaining conditions are ignored and the and returns right away.
If all the conditions turn out non-nil, then the value of the last of them becomes the value of the and form.
Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is not nil. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2, which is not nil. The third condition is nil, so the remaining condition is never evaluated.
(and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3))
-| 1
-| 2
=> nil
Here is a more realistic example of using and:
(if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x))
(message "foo is a list starting with x"))
Note that (car foo) is not executed if (consp foo) returns nil, thus avoiding an error.
and can be expressed in terms of either if or cond. For example:
(and arg1 arg2 arg3)
(if arg1 (if arg2 arg3))
(cond (arg1 (cond (arg2 arg3))))
Special Form: or conditions...
The or special form tests whether at least one of the conditions is true. It works by evaluating all the conditions one by one in the order written.
If any of the conditions evaluates to a non-nil value, then the result of the or must be non-nil; so the remaining conditions are ignored and the or returns right away. The value it returns is the non-nil value of the condition just evaluated.
If all the conditions turn out nil, then the or expression returns nil.
For example, this expression tests whether x is either 0 or nil:
(or (eq x nil) (= x 0))
Like the and construct, or can be written in terms of cond. For example:
(or arg1 arg2 arg3)
(cond (arg1)
You could almost write or in terms of if, but not quite:
(if arg1 arg1
(if arg2 arg2
This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate arg1 or arg2 twice. By contrast, (or arg1 arg2 arg3) never evaluates any argument more than once.
Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For example, you might want to repeat some expressions once for each element of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to n. You can do this in Emacs Lisp with the special form while:
Special Form: while condition forms...
while first evaluates condition. If the result is non-nil, it evaluates forms in textual order. Then it reevaluates condition, and if the result is non-nil, it evaluates forms again. This process repeats until condition evaluates to nil.
There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop will continue until either condition evaluates to nil or until an error or throw jumps out of it (see section Nonlocal Exits).
The value of a while form is always nil.
(setq num 0)
=> 0
(while (< num 4)
(princ (format "Iteration %d." num))
(setq num (1+ num)))
-| Iteration 0.
-| Iteration 1.
-| Iteration 2.
-| Iteration 3.
=> nil
If you would like to execute something on each iteration before the end-test, put it together with the end-test in a progn as the first argument of while, as shown here:
(while (progn
(forward-line 1)
(not (looking-at "^$"))))
This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until an empty line is reached.
Nonlocal Exits
A nonlocal exit is a transfer of control from one point in a program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control. Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being exited.
Explicit Nonlocal Exits: catch and throw
Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the construct itself. The function throw is the exception to this rule for of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling only.) throw is used inside a catch, and jumps back to that catch. For example:
(catch 'foo
(throw 'foo t)
The throw transfers control straight back to the corresponding catch, which returns immediately. The code following the throw is not executed. The second argument of throw is used as the return value of the catch.
The throw and the catch are matched through the first argument: throw searches for a catch whose first argument is eq to the one specified. Thus, in the above example, the throw specifies foo, and the catch specifies the same symbol, so that catch is applicable. If there is more than one applicable catch, the innermost one takes precedence.
All Lisp constructs between the catch and the throw, including function calls, are exited automatically along with the catch. When binding constructs such as let or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are unbound, just as they are when these constructs are exited normally (see section Local Variables). Likewise, the buffer and position saved by save-excursion (see section Excursions) are restored, and so is the narrowing status saved by save-restriction and the window selection saved by save-window-excursion (see section Window Configurations). Any cleanups established with the unwind-protect special form are executed if the unwind-protect is exited with a throw.
The throw need not appear lexically within the catch that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function called within the catch. As long as the throw takes place chronologically after entry to the catch, and chronologically before exit from it, it has access to that catch. This is why throw can be used in commands such as exit-recursive-edit which throw back to the editor command loop (see section Recursive Editing).
Common Lisp note: most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp, have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: return, return-from, and go, for example. Emacs Lisp has only throw.
Special Form: catch tag body...
catch establishes a return point for the throw function. The return point is distinguished from other such return points by tag, which may be any Lisp object. The argument tag is evaluated normally before the return point is established.
With the return point in effect, the forms of the body are evaluated in textual order. If the forms execute normally, without error or nonlocal exit, the value of the last body form is returned from the catch.
If a throw is done within body specifying the same value tag, the catch exits immediately; the value it returns is whatever was specified as the second argument of throw.
Function: throw tag value
The purpose of throw is to return from a return point previously established with catch. The argument tag is used to choose among the various existing return points; it must be eq to the value specified in the catch. If multiple return points match tag, the innermost one is used.
The argument value is used as the value to return from that catch.
If no return point is in effect with tag tag, then a no-catch error is signaled with data (tag value).
Examples of catch and throw
One way to use catch and throw is to exit from a doubly nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a "go to".) Here we compute (foo i j) for i and j varying from 0 to 9:
(defun search-foo ()
(catch 'loop
(let ((i 0))
(while (< i 10)
(let ((j 0))
(while (< j 10)
(if (foo i j)
(throw 'loop (list i j)))
(setq j (1+ j))))
If foo ever returns non-nil, we stop immediately and return a list of i and j. If foo always returns nil, the catch returns normally, and the value is nil, since that is the result of the while.
Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag, hack:
(defun catch2 (tag)
(catch tag
(throw 'hack 'yes)))
=> catch2
(catch 'hack
(print (catch2 'hack))
-| yes
=> no
Since both return points have tags that match the throw, it goes to the inner one, the one established in catch2. Therefore, catch2 returns normally with value yes, and this value is printed. Finally the second body form in the outer catch, which is 'no, is evaluated and returned from the outer catch.
Now let's change the argument given to catch2:
(defun catch2 (tag)
(catch tag
(throw 'hack 'yes)))
=> catch2
(catch 'hack
(print (catch2 'quux))
=> yes
We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has the tag hack; the inner one has the tag quux instead. Therefore, the throw returns the value yes from the outer return point. The function print is never called, and the body-form 'no is never evaluated.
In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want. For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data structures, or created temporary buffers which should be deleted before the program is finished. In such cases, you would use unwind-protect to establish cleanup expressions to be evaluated in case of error. Occasionally, you may wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine. In these cases, you would use condition-case to establish error handlers to recover control in case of error.
Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from one part of the program to another; use catch and throw. See section Explicit Nonlocal Exits: catch and throw.
How to Signal an Error
Most errors are signaled "automatically" within Lisp primitives which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the CAR of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the buffer; you can also signal errors explicitly with the functions error and signal.
Quitting, which happens when the user types C-g, is not considered an error, but it handled almost like an error. See section Quitting.
Function: error format-string &rest args
This function signals an error with an error message constructed by applying format (see section Conversion of Characters and Strings) to format-string and args.
Typical uses of error is shown in the following examples:
(error "You have committed an error.
Try something else.")
error--> You have committed an error.
Try something else.
(error "You have committed %d errors." 10)
error--> You have committed 10 errors.
error works by calling signal with two arguments: the error symbol error, and a list containing the string returned by format.
If you want to use a user-supplied string as an error message verbatim, don't just write (error string). If string contains `%', it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with undesirable results. Instead, use (error "%s" string).
Function: signal error-symbol data
This function signals an error named by error-symbol. The argument data is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to the circumstances of the error.
The argument error-symbol must be an error symbol---a symbol bearing a property error-conditions whose value is a list of condition names. This is how different sorts of errors are classified.
The number and significance of the objects in data depends on error-symbol. For example, with a wrong-type-arg error, there are two objects in the list: a predicate which describes the type that was expected, and the object which failed to fit that type. See section Error Symbols and Condition Names, for a description of error symbols.
Both error-symbol and data are available to any error handlers which handle the error: a list (error-symbol . data) is constructed to become the value of the local variable bound in the condition-case form (see section Writing Code to Handle Errors). If the error is not handled, both of them are used in printing the error message.
The function signal never returns (though in older Emacs versions it could sometimes return).
(signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y))
error--> Wrong number of arguments: x, y
(signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition."))
error--> peculiar error: "My unknown error condition."
Common Lisp note: Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp concept of continuable errors.
How Emacs Processes Errors
When an error is signaled, Emacs searches for an active handler for the error. A handler is a specially marked place in the Lisp code of the current function or any of the functions by which it was called. If an applicable handler exists, its code is executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler executes in the environment of the condition-case which established it; all functions called within that condition-case have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them.
If no applicable handler is in effect in your program, the current command is terminated and control returns to the editor command loop, because the command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors. The command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to print an error message.
When an error is not handled explicitly, it may cause the Lisp debugger to be called. The debugger is enabled if the variable debug-on-error (see section Entering the Debugger on an Error) is non-nil. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of variables precisely as they were at the time of the error.
Writing Code to Handle Errors
The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop. You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by establishing an error handler with the special form condition-case. A simple example looks like this:
(condition-case nil
(delete-file filename)
(error nil))
The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested condition-case forms try to handle the same error, the inner of the two will actually handle it.
When an error is handled, control returns to the handler. Before this happens, Emacs unbinds all variable bindings made by binding constructs that are being exited and executes the cleanups of all unwind-protect forms that are exited. Once control arrives at the handler, the body of the handler is executed.
After execution of the handler body, execution continues by returning from the condition-case form. Because the protected form is exited completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot resume execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is clean up and proceed.
Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to throw and catch, but they are entirely separate facilities. An error cannot be caught by a catch, and a throw cannot be handled by an error handler (though using throw when there is no suitable catch signals an error which can be handled).
Special Form: condition-case var protected-form handlers...
Each of the handlers is a list of the form (conditions body...). conditions is an error condition name to be handled, or a list of condition names; body is one or more Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error. Here are examples of handlers:
(error nil)
((arith-error file-error)
Each error that occurs has an error symbol which describes what kind of error it is. The error-conditions property of this symbol is a list of condition names (see section Error Symbols and Condition Names). Emacs searches all the active condition-case forms for a handler which specifies one or more of these names; the innermost matching condition-case handles the error. The handlers in this condition-case are tested in the order in which they appear.
The body of the handler is then executed, and the condition-case returns normally, using the value of the last form in the body as the overall value.
The argument var is a variable. condition-case does not bind this variable when executing the protected-form, only when it handles an error. At that time, var is bound locally to a list of the form (error-symbol . data), giving the particulars of the error. The handler can refer to this list to decide what to do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file, the file name is the second element of data---the third element of var.
If var is nil, that means no variable is bound. Then the error symbol and associated data are not made available to the handler.
Here is an example of using condition-case to handle the error that results from dividing by zero. The handler prints out a warning message and returns a very large number.
(defun safe-divide (dividend divisor)
(condition-case err
;; Protected form.
(/ dividend divisor)
;; The handler.
(arith-error ; Condition.
(princ (format "Arithmetic error: %s" err))
=> safe-divide
(safe-divide 5 0)
-| Arithmetic error: (arith-error)
=> 1000000
The handler specifies condition name arith-error so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this condition-case. Thus,
(safe-divide nil 3)
Here is a condition-case that catches all kinds of errors, including those signaled with error:
(setq baz 34)
=> 34
(condition-case err
(if (eq baz 35)
;; This is a call to the function error.
(error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35." 'baz baz))
-| The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35.")
=> 2
Error Symbols and Condition Names
In order for a symbol to be usable as an error symbol, it must have an error-conditions property which gives a list of condition names. This list defines the conditions which this kind of error belongs to. (The error symbol itself, and the symbol error, should always be members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is defined by the error-conditions properties of the error symbols.
In addition to the error-conditions list, the error symbol should have an error-message property whose value is a string to be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the error-message property exists, but is not a string, the error message `peculiar error' is used.
(put 'new-error
'(error my-own-errors new-error))
=> (error my-own-errors new-error)
(put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error")
=> "A new error"
This error has three condition names: new-error, the narrowest classification; my-own-errors, which we imagine is a wider classification; and error, which is the widest of all. Naturally, Emacs will never signal a new-error on its own; only an explicit call to signal (see section Errors) in your code can do this:
(signal 'new-error '(x y))
error--> A new error: x, y
This error can be handled through any of the three condition names. This example handles new-error and any other errors in the class my-own-errors:
(condition-case foo
(bar nil t)
(my-own-errors nil))
The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition names--the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message and list of condition names. If signal were given a list of condition names rather than one error symbol, that would be cumbersome.
See section Standard Errors, for a list of all the standard error symbols and their conditions.
Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits
The unwind-protect construct is essential whenever you temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits you to ensure the data are consistent in the event of an error or throw.
Special Form: unwind-protect body cleanup-forms...
unwind-protect executes the body with a guarantee that the cleanup-forms will be evaluated if control leaves body, no matter how that happens. The body may complete normally, or execute a throw out of the unwind-protect, or cause an error; in all cases, the cleanup-forms will be evaluated.
Only the body is actually protected by the unwind-protect. If any of the cleanup-forms themselves exit nonlocally (e.g., via a throw or an error), it is not guaranteed that the rest of them will be executed. If the failure of one of the cleanup-forms has the potential to cause trouble, then it should be protected by another unwind-protect around that form.
The number of currently active unwind-protect forms counts, together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit max-specpdl-size (see section Local Variables).
(set-buffer buffer)
(kill-buffer buffer))))
You might think that we could just as well write (kill-buffer (current-buffer)) and dispense with the variable buffer. However, the way shown above is safer, if body happens to get an error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively, you could write another save-excursion around the body, to ensure that the temporary buffer becomes current in time to kill it.)
Here is an actual example taken from the file `ftp.el'. It creates a process (see section Processes) to try to establish a connection to a remote machine. As the function ftp-login is highly susceptible to numerous problems which the writer of the function cannot anticipate, it is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the process in the event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with useless subprocesses.
(let ((win nil))
(message "Logged in")
(error "Ftp login failed")))
Go to the previous, next section.
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coronagraph,telescope that produces an artificial total eclipse of the Sun blocks the light of a star inside the instrument so that the Sun’s corona and prominences may objects close to the star can be observed. It was invented in 1930 by the French astronomer Bernard Lyot and first used by him at the Pic du Midi Observatory in the Pyrenees.A was used to observe the Sun’s corona and prominences.
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Heroes Take a Spin by David Mitchell
In this physics lesson with worksheets, students make a Hero engine in order to observe Newton's third law of motion. They demonstrate the use of falling water to make a soda can to spin while recording the trial data in the given tables as they make changes in the diameter of the can opening.
7th - 12th Science 6 Views 26 Downloads
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Name that Figure
Name that figure, no problem. Learners complete a table by examining the figures that are named. They name a figure that is congruent or similar to each of the 9 named figures. A critical thinking question gives this worksheet extra punch.
3rd Math 5 Views 17 Downloads
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Lesson Planet helps me find lessons that are engaging to my students.
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climate change wa
It's getting warmer (more comfortable), not hotter
Contrary to popular belief nurtured by poor media research, Australia has enjoyed a decline in extreme temperatures since record-keeping began in the 1800s.
Analysis of daily raw temperature records maintained by the Bureau of Meteorology shows that most locations in Australia have less extreme cold nights and less extreme hot days than was the case a hundred years ago.
The evidence is strong of a reduction in the diurnal temperature range at a majority of Australian weather recording stations, with the greatest reduction in extreme cold nights, fewer scorching days and an increase in the average mean temperature.
Australia's weather has become slightly warmer but more docile with less extreme storms and fewer cold/hot extremes that are threatening to most plant and animal life.
The evidence can most easily be viewed in charts of all daily minima and maxima recorded at numerous weather stations around the country:
Daily maxima and minima for
Adelaide, Bathurst, Bourke, Brisbane, Bundaberg, Cobar, Dalby, Darwin, Deniliquin, Gayndah, Goondiwindi, Gunnedah, Inverell, Melbourne, Perth, Sydney, Tewantin, Wagga Wagga and Walgett.
adelaide minimum temperature history
adelaide maximum temperature history
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bathurst goal minimum temperature history
bathurst goal maximum temperature history
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bourke minimum temperature history
bourke maximum temperature history
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brisbane regional office minimum temperature history
brisbane regional office maximum temperature history
Brisbane had a Stevenson Screen from 1892 (Source)
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bundaberg minimum temperature history
bundaberg maximum temperature history
Bundaberg had a Stevenson Screen from 1892(Source)
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cobar minimum temperature history
cobar maximum temperature history
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dalby minimum temperature history
dalby maximum temperature history
Dalby had a Stevenson Screen from 1892(Source)
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darwin minimum temperature history
darwin maximum temperature history
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deniliquin minimum temperature history
deniliquin maximum temperature history
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gayndah minimum temperature history
gayndah maximum temperature history
Gayndah had a Stevenson Screen from 1892(Source)
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goondiwindi minimum temperature history
goondiwindi maximum temperature history
Goondiwindi had a Stevenson Screen from 1892(Source)
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gunnedah minimum temperature history
gunnedah maximum temperature history
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inverell minimum temperature history
inverell maximum temperature history
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melbourne regional office minimum temperature history
melbourne regional office maximum temperature history
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perth regional office minimum temperature history
perth regional office maximum temperature history
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sydney observatory minimum temperature history
sydney observatory maximum temperature history
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tewantin minimum temperature history
tewantin maximum temperature history
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wagga minimum temperature history
wagga maximum temperature history
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walgett minimum temperature history
walgett maximum temperature history
There is a notable decrease in the number of extreme cold days and extreme hot days at most locations, including capital cities where recordings can be biased by urban heat influence.
Although each stations is different, the early temperatures before 1910 may be influenced by warmer recordings in Glaisher and other thermometer stands before the introduction of Stevenson Screens.
Regardless, a majority of locations show fewer extreme hot days since uniform temperature screen recording was introduced.
Missing records
The fallacy of modern "extreme" heatwaves can be illustrated by examining temperature records from the western NSW town of Bourke in 1896 (download Word file).
An argument might be put that the Stevenson screen wasn't installed at Bourke until August 1908 so the maxima air temperature recordings of 1896 were higher than reality.
The accuracy of raw temperatures at Bourke in 1896 can be gauged through The development of a high quality historical temperature data base for Australia published in 1996 by Simon Torok from the University of Melbourne, which is the source document for BoM adjustments to raw temperature data leading to development of Australia's High Quality data series. The Bourke adjustment are below:
torok temperature adjustments to bourke
temperature adjustments to bourke
The maximum for 1896 in the top chart seems to have had no adjustment that year so it might be assumed that Bourke's weather station raw temperature recordings were considered accurate despite the absence of a Stevenson Screen.
These Torok charts for Bourke also highlight the disappearance of the hottest ever temperature ever recorded in Australia. The BoM nowadays claims the hottest ever day in Australia was 50.7C at Oodnadatta Airport, South Australia, in 1960. See here and here.
However and probably because the BoM will not accept the validity of temperatures recorded before 1910, Australia's record maximum of 125F (51.7C) at Bourke on 3 January, 1909, is discarded.
It is confirmed that a Stevenson Screen was used for Bourke temperature recordings in 1909. For example, the BoM recognised the validity of the 125F record in this Sydney Morning Herald newspaper report on 29 January 1932:
Bourke's temperature of 119 degrees was six degrees below the record of 125 degrees, made on January 3, 1909. Bourke is credited with having experienced a temperature of 127 degrees in 1877, says the State Meteorologist. Mr. Mares, but this is not accepted by the Weather Bureau because the thermometer was not enclosed in the wooden screen which is used as a standard throughout the world. These wooden screens containing the thermometer are usually placed about four feet from the ground, and permit the free circulation of air about the instrument so that the real air temperature is recorded. The screens have now been set up in most New South Wales country towns.
In other words, Australia's hottest ever temperature of 125F at Bourke was OK with the BoM in 1932 because it was a Stevenson screen recording. It is pointless trying to find the raw temperature for 3 January 1909 in the BoM temperature tables because it was a Sunday.
It's worth noting that on 6 Jan 1909, the Sydney Morning Herald reported Bourke's temperature on 4 January as 114F. That's 45.6C which, with a decimal adjustment to the rounded newspaper Fahrenheit, is the same as the BoM raw record of 45.3C on 4 January. Again, it can be assumed the Bourke recording equipment was considered satisfactory so no adjustment was needed for the raw temps.
In the adjusted maxima from the top chart above, the year 1909 has been adjusted up by almost 1C which suggests that, if anything, the raw temperature recording was considered less than the real air temperature.
So what exactly is wrong with Australia's hottest ever day of 125F (51.7C) at Bourke on Jan 3 1909? It was recorded in an almost brand new Stevenson box that was well sited and not worn by the weather.
How did the Sunday 3 January 125C get into newspapers, why was it cited in future years by the BoM, and where did it go?
A similar question might be asked about the hottest ever day recorded in Western Australia, which the BoM identifies as 50.5C (122.9F) at Mardie in 1998.
However, a maximum of 123.2F (50.7C) was recorded at the southern coastal weather station of Eucla on 22 January 1906. Note that the BoM acknowledges this recording but dismisses it, claiming it was recorded using non-standard instrumentation - i.e. not the Stevenson Screen.
Most WA weather stations were equipped with Stevenson Screens in the early 1890s and the BoM's claim about Eucla in 1906 is at odds with decades of newspaper reports. For example, The Western Mail newspaper reported the following in 1934:
eucla record temperature with stevenson
Other examples include The Daily News in 1932:
Yesterday at Port Augusta people sweltered, and they were not surprised to hear that the mercury had risen to a record height for that city - it stood at 119.4 at the hottest part of the day. This high figure recalls other hot days that have been experienced in various parts of the Commonwealth. The palm - a cool, shady tree - must go to Bourke, generally recognised as the hottest town in Australia. On one blistering day in January, 1909, Bourke scored the Australian record of 125 degrees. The highest recording in our own State was made at Eucla, now known principally as a residence for snakes. In January, 1906, the mercury climbed to 123.2 degrees. Marble Bar has a couple of rather warm days to its credit. In January, 1905, and again in January, 1922, 120.5 degrees were recorded in that pleasant little town.
The Mercury Hobart in 1939:
The claim by New South Wales that Ivanhoe, with an unofficial reading of 122 degrees, is the hottest place in Australia, is challenged by West Australia, in fact West Australia challenges all-comers as far as Australia is concerned. The 27 consecutive "centuries" of temperature claimed by Ivanhoe would represent a cool change for Marble Bar (W.A.). Marble Bar has the distinction of 106 consecutive "century" readings in the shade, made with tested instruments under regulation conditions. Marble Bar has an official record of 120.55 in January, 1905. Eucla has gone even better than that. In January, 1906, 123.2 was reached.
The Melbourne Argus in 1922:
Tho highest temperature ever officially registered in Australia is 125deg. Fahr. This was at Bourke. Eucla came second in 1906 with 123.2, and in 1908 with 122.
The West Australian in 1944:
Temperatures at many places in this State recently have approached record figures. A Morawa correspondent writes that on Saturday the centre sweltered under a maximum of 118deg, which was a record for the district. According to Weather Bureau records, the highest temperature ever officially recorded in this State was the 123.2deg reported from Eucla on January 22, 1906.
The Daily News in 1949:
Marble Bar's 11-day century heatwave reached its peak yesterday when the temperature was 111deg. It was the town's hottest day since last summer. Marble Bar's record run of readings exceeding the century is 160 days - from October 31, 1923, to April 7, 1924. Its hottest day was January 11, 1905, when the mercury soared to 120.5deg. This record was broken next year when the temperature in Eucla hit 123.2deg. on January 22, 1906.
These newspaper reports suggest the Eucla record temperature of 123.2C (50.7C) was from a Stevenson Screen and BoM spokesmen identify the station as such in ensuing years. What makes WA's hot temperature record at Eucla in 1906 invalid?
Different sources
Evidence of an increasingly benign climate can be found from many sources. For example, in Trends and variability in storminess over south-east Australia since the end of the 19th century, BoM meteorologist Blair Trewin examined the incidence of extreme storms in Australia since records began:
"Using geostrophic wind speeds derived from eight triangles of sub-daily mean sea level pressure observations, we calculated measures of storminess for the south-east Australian region from the end of the 19th century through to 2008 for all seasons. Storminess has reduced in almost all triangles and seasons across the region since the end of the 19th century but particularly in autumn and winter. Reductions are statistically significant at the 5% level in nearly all regions and seasons. Using data from all the station triangles to create a combined index for south-east Australia, our results indicate statistically significant declines in all seasons in both storm and severe storm activity. There is strong decadal variability in storm activity particularly in the early part of the record, with storminess peaking in the 1920s. Decadal variability in storm activity has reduced in more recent decades in all seasons.
The results show strong evidence for a significant reduction in westerly flow across south-east Australia over the past century, consistent with a southward movement of Southern Hemisphere storm tracks. While these changes can not fully explain the significant reductions that have been observed in rainfall in the region it is likely that reductions in storminess are exacerbating observed drought conditions."
Alternative evidence of a reduction in extreme hot days can be sourced to the CSIRO which in 2010 published An Examination of Extreme Heatwave Events and Their Effects on Building and Infrastructure which has heatwave records tabulated for 548 Australian weather stations and reaches the following conclusions:
Figure 4.1.1 presents the changes in the yearly number of hot days evaluated given four different temperature thresholds by the use of observation at the Melbourne Regional Office station. The data were fitted with a linear line to estimate the trends. It can be seen that whilst the numbers of hot days equal or more than 35°C and 40°C slightly decrease, the numbers of hot days equal or more than 25°C and 30°C has increased over the years.
In other words, the CSIRO finds an increase in duration of heatwaves above 25C but a decrease above 35C, which is in line with the daily raw data at so many stations above suggesting a reduction in the diurnal range with less "extreme" cold nights and less "extreme" hot days.
For long record regional stations, the CSIRO finds:
Meanwhile, the number of hot days with Tmax ≥ 30°C (Table 4.1) shows increasing trends at about half of the stations, and decreasing trends at the other half.
The tables show an increase at 21 of Australia's long-record stations since records began, and a decrease at 24.
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Cape Leeuwin
Cape Naturaliste
Halls Creek
Marble Bar
Mt Barker
Rottnest Island
Southern Cross
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knowledge unlocks a world of possibilities The Robinson Library
ScienceZoologyKingdom Protozoa
colony of noctilucaNoctiluca miliaris
One of the largest of the single-celled animals, the noctiluna averages 1/50 to 1/25 inches across, and can be as large as 1/8 inches.
noctiluca that has ingested a brittle star larvaThe noctiluca is roughly spherical in shape, with an "indenture" on the side that floats uppermost. Projecting from the "indenture side" is a flattened and cross-striated tentacle that is almost as long as the body is wide. Prey (planktonic organisms) is caught on the sticky surface of the tentacle and brought to a rod-like thickening of the surface layer that operates much like a mouth. The nucleus lies just beneath the mouth, and from it stretch thread ofcytoplasm that branch and rejoin at intervals and in which droplets and other particles are carried. The cytoplasm may be colorless, blue-green, or tinged with yellow, and between the strands is a semi-fluid sap. Undigested particles are eventually discharged through the mouth.
Noctiluca does not swim actively, but the constant waving of its tentacle (at a rate of about half a dozen times a minute) does tend to move the animal about.
Noctiluca usually reproduces by splitting in two (asexual reproduction), a process that takes 12 to 24 hours. Although it is known that noticulates do occasionally produce gametes that in turn come together to form new noticulates (sexual reproduction), how those gametes come together and what happens afterward has never been determined.
noctiluca soupNoctiluca occurs in warm and temperate shallow coastal waters and at times the numbers floating near the surface may be enough to turn the sea into "soup." That "soup" can sometimes be seen at night as an almost ghostly glow. That glow is the result of a specific type of granule in the noctilucates' cytoplasm that gives out a brief flash of light when the animals are disturbed.
Maurice Burton and Robert Burton (editors) Funk & Wagnalls Wildlife Encyclopedia New York, New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Inc., 1974
Questions or comments about this page?
The Robinson Library > Science > Zoology > Kingdom Protozoa (Protozoans)
This page was last updated on 07/28/2016.
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How Google Earth Works
Nature explains the technology behind Google Earth and how the sphere of the planet's surface is converted to a polygon made up of flat tiles.
"...[H]ow is it possible for you to zoom in from outer space to a point somewhere above the rooftop of your house without bringing your desktop computer to a grinding halt?
...If one were to download over the Internet a one-metre resolution image of the entire world it would take 69 years with a 10-megabit-per-second Internet connection, and 12,400 years with a standard 56K modem.
To slash the amount of data they have to transmit across the Internet, virtual globes such as Google Earth approximate the sphere of the planet's surface with a polygon made up of flat tiles. The further away your viewpoint is from the surface, the fewer tiles are needed to create the illusion of roundness, and the lower the resolution of these tiles can be."
Full Story: How does Google Earth work?
Prepare for the AICP* Exam
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Stay thirsty, urbanists
Book cover of Contemporary Debates in Urban Planning
Contemporary Debates in Urban Planning
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How Strong are a Bird's Bones?
How Strong are a Bird's Bones? Activity
3.4 based on 102 ratings
Updated on May 22, 2014
How Strong are a Bird's Bones? Activity
Your child may have learned in science class that birds can fly due to their hollow, lightweight bones, but it's hard to understand how hollow bones can be strong enough to support a bird's muscles. In this science activity, you and your child will see just how strong a hollow structure can be by testing how many pennies a structure supported by hollow paper "bones" can hold. The answer may surprise you!
As she completes this experiment, your child will learn about the strength of hollow structures and will learn that in science (as in life), things aren't always as they seem.
What You Need:
• Printer paper
• Tape
• Paper plate
• Pennies
What You Do:
1. Explain to your child that birds have hollow bones. Hollow objects are lighter than solid objects and, because of this, birds use less energy in flight and need less food. Hollow bones may not seem very strong to your child, but in this experiment she'll see how strong hollow bones can be!
2. Starting at one of the shorter sides, have your child roll a sheet of printer paper into a tube approximately 1 inch in diameter and 11 inches tall. Tape the edges of the paper so the tube doesn't unroll. Repeat this step with two more sheets of paper so you have three "bones" in all.
3. Have your child stand the three bones on end and then balance a paper plate on top. It may help to tape the bones to the bottom of the plate to keep the structure from falling.
4. Ask your child how many pennies she thinks it will hold. Have your child write her estimate down on paper, then write down your own estimate.
5. Add pennies to the plate one at a time to see how many the structure can hold. Distribute the pennies evenly around the center of the plate to keep the structure balanced.
6. Continue adding pennies until the bones collapse and the structure falls. Have your child count the pennies. Were either of your estimates close?
Extension Idea: Practice using the scientific method by asking your child to state a theory and then work to prove, or disprove, that theory.
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Did Black Slaves Revolt in Iraq?
(Continued from Page 1)
The spectacular Arab conquests, like those of the earlier Romans, revolutionized geographic boundaries and produced an immense flow of slaves for employment as servants, soldiers, members of harems, eunuch chaperons, and bureaucrats. Thanks to such earlier innovations as the North Arabian saddle and camel caravans, Arabs, Berbers, and their converts made deep inroads into sub-Saharan Africa, thus tapping, through purchase or capture, an unprecedented pool of slave labor. According to some scholarship, this importation of black slaves into Islamic lands from Spain to India constituted a continuous, large-scale migration—by caravan and sea over a period of more than twelve centuries, beginning in the 600s— that may have equaled in total numbers all the African slaves transported to the Western Hemisphere. One French scholar, Raymond Mauny, estimates that as many as fourteen million African slaves were exported to Muslim regions.
The Zanj
But who exactly were the Zanj? Some identify them specifically as black slaves from east Africa—think Zanzibar—but it was a much looser term than that (“Zanj,” an Arabic word, is often translated as “black”). The best book on the subject is The Revolt of African Slaves in Iraq in the 3rd/9th Century by Alexandre Popovic. (I had the pleasure of writing the introduction to the French-to-English translation in 1999.) As Popovic explains, Zanj was a label used for black slaves, specifically those tasked with the hardest, plantation-style work.
Key information on the Zanj work sites within Mesopotamia comes to us through Popovic by way of ninth-century Arab historian al-Tabari, who remembered the Zanj as black slaves who were forced to undertake the massive field project to drain the salt marshes of Lower Mesopotamia. It was backbreaking work, and the men were underfed and stuffed into labor camps of 500 to 5,000. While most slaves in Islamic countries were domestic workers, the Zanj toiled at the bottom of society at the bottom of the Arabian Peninsula.
Over time, their presence reinforced Arabs’ negative stereotypes of blacks in general. Davis explains:
[R]egardless of their continuing enslavement and purchase of white Christian infidels, medieval Arabs came to associate the most degrading forms of labor with black slaves—with the Zanj whom the medieval Arab writer Maqdisi described as ‘people of black color, flat noses, kinky hair, and little understanding or intelligence.’ In fact, the Arabic word for slave, abd, came in time to mean only a black slave and, in some regions, referred to any black person whether slave or free. Many Arab writers echoed the racial contempt typified by the famous fourteenth-century Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun when he wrote that black people ‘are, as a whole submissive to slavery, because Negroes have little that is essentially human and have attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals.’
Throughout history, the hardest work has had a way of landing on the lowliest workers, who, in turn, are bestialized by the master class in order to justify the very conditions they imposed. It is important to remember that this process, historically throughout the world, has not always been based on differences of color or “race,” though it became color-coded early on in the history of the British colonies, just as it had in the Middle East. And many white immigrant groups—such as the earliest Irish immigrants—were demeaned and stereotyped in very similar ways to the treatment of black people. The quickest way to justify exploiting an entire race, nationality or religious group is to represent them as subhuman. As Georgia congressman John Lewis recently tweeted about the United States, “In many ways this country was built by slaves and immigrants, something we should not forget in our ‘debate’ about immigration.” Except that we always do.
The Caliphate
What the caliphate of the ninth century failed to remember, to its detriment, was that however long and cruelly a master might use his slaves as “tool[s] or instrument[s],” he can never erase their will to survive—and be free. As Davis writes, “The slave is of course an independent center of consciousness, a unique human mind often aware of an owner’s weaknesses and capable of defiance, retaliation, or subtle triumphs that uncloak a master’s pretensions to godhood.”
In other words, the Zanj camps were a powder keg.
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1929: The Artificial Larynx
Photo montage: People using artificial larynxes. The first artificial larynx developed by AT&T Bell Labs was purely mechanical. A metallic reed vibrated inside a tube that was connected, by the speaker, between the mouth and the stoma, an artificial opening in the speaker's throat. Air forced up the windpipe, through the tube and across the reed, was then manipulated in the speaker's mouth to create artificial speech.
In 1960, AT&T Bell Labs replaced the mechanical artificial larynx with an electronic version. This required no stoma, and could simply be held against the speaker's throat. A vibrating driver in the larynx replaced the sounds made by vocal cords, which could then be formed into words by the speaker. AT&T made it available at cost worldwide.
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willow, Weeping willow (Salix babylonica).J.L. Watchamshrubs and trees of the genus Salix, family Salicaceae, mostly native to north temperate areas, valued for ornament, shade, erosion control, and timber. Salicin, source of salicylic acid used in pain relievers, is derived from certain willows. All species have alternate, usually narrow leaves and catkins, male and female on separate trees; the seeds have long, silky hairs.
Three of the largest willows are black (S. nigra), crack, or brittle (S. fragilis), and white (S. alba), all reaching 20 metres (65 feet) or more; the first named is North American, the other two Eurasian but naturalized widely. All are common in lowland situations.
Widespread from Mexico to Chile, the Chilean willow (S. chilensis) reaches 18 m; the columnar Xochimilco willow (S. chilensis fastigiata) is a variety especially common at Xochimilco near Mexico City.
The shrubby common, or silky, osier (S. viminalis) supplies twigs used for basketmaking in Europe. Woolly willow (S. lanata), of northern Eurasia, to over 1 m, has woolly white leaf buds.
Several species and hybrids with drooping habit are called weeping willows, especially S. babylonica and its varieties from East Asia. From northern Asia, S. matsudana has sharply toothed leaves, whitish beneath. One variety, S. matsudana tortuosa, is called corkscrew willow for its twisted branches.
Pussy willow (Salix discolor)Bill Larkin—Photo/NatsPussy willows, the male form of several shrubby species, have woolly catkins that are considered a harbinger of spring. The catkins are formed before the leaves appear. The North American S. discolor is slightly smaller than the Eurasian species, which attain a maximum 7.5 m.
Shrub willow plants, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska.U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceThere are numerous shrubby willows common along watercourses (e.g., S. purpurea and S. sericea) and several range to the tundra, where they grow as small matted woody plants (e.g., S. arctica and S. glacialis).
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Coat of arms of Greece.svg
This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
Venizelism was one of the major political movements in Greece from the 1900s until the mid-1970s.
Main Ideas[edit]
Named after Eleftherios Venizelos, the key characteristics of Venizelism were:
• Opposition to Monarchy. Despite Venizelos' moderation concerning the institution of monarchy, the struggle between venizelists and pro-monarchist conservatives defined Greek politics during most of the 20th century.
• Support of the Megali Idea, Greek nationalism the aggressive pursuit of incorporation of all Greek-majority lands into Greece. It was the annexation of Crete into Greece that propelled Venizelos (a Cretan himself) into Greek politics.
• Liberal nationalism. Venizelists have been frequently described as nationalists, although in this attribute they did not differ much from their conservative opponents.
Liberal Party[edit]
Venizelos' liberal party ruled Greece from 1910 until 1916. That year, determined to enter World War I on the entente side, Venizelos rebelled against the king and formed a provisional government in the north. He regained full control of the country and ruled until losing the 1920 elections.
After a crisis period (including two short-lived pro-Venizelist military governments after Nikolaos Plastiras 1923 coup) the liberals returned to power from 1928 until 1932. Venizelists Sophoklis Venizelos and George Papandreou formed the core of the Greek government in exile during the Axis Occupation of Greece (1941–1944), and held power a number of times in the 1950s.
Center Union[edit]
Georgios Papandreou, leader of the Center Union.
Georgios Papandreou created the Center Union party in 1961, as a coalition of Venizelists and progressive conservatives. In 1963 the party was elected and held power until 1965, when its right wing broke ranks in the events known as the Apostasia.
Centrist Democratic Union[edit]
After the 1967–1974 Junta, Venizelists formed the Center Union-New Forces party, which then evolved into the Union of the Democratic Centre (Greek: ΕΔΗΚ). While the Venizelist legacy was still popular, election results were disappointing as the abolition of the monarchy, the dilution of support for Greek nationalism after the seven years of the junta and the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus, and Karamanlis' move towards the political center had blurred the differences between the liberals and their former conservative opponents, while the socialist PASOK party was gaining support at the left side of the spectrum.
Although the image of Venizelos is still very popular in Greece today, Venizelism is no longer a major force in Greek politics. Venizelos' prestige however and his ideology's connotations of republicanism, and progressive reforms means that most mainstream political forces claim his political heritage. There are few explicitly "Venizelist" movements today in Greece. In the 2004 elections for the European Parliament, the leading Venizelist party was the Union of Centrists, gaining only 0.54% of the Greek popular vote. An attempted revival of the original Liberal Party, under the same name, was founded in the 1980s by Venizelos' grandson.
Against Venizelos' policy were united politicians of different political orientation during the 1910s. Some of their common points was the criticism against Venizelos' extreme philo-Entente policy during World War I, their disagreement concerning his policy about the Megali idea and its results (regarding the relations with Turkey and the Greeks who were still under Ottoman sovereignty) and later the population exchange. Another common point of the Antivenizelists was a hesitation about the country's social and economical modernization.
See also[edit]
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05/12/2012 - 14:08
Scientists have discovered that the chitin fibres in the fangs of a large Central American wandering spider are arranged and surrounded with proteins in a way that makes the material particularly rigid and thus capable of penetrating its prey’s cuticular armour. Thanks to the composition and structure of their materials, the fangs become optimised and reusable hypodermic needles for injecting prey with paralysing venom.
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Treaty of Kyakhta
The topic Treaty of Kyakhta is discussed in the following articles:
history of
Qing dynasty
• TITLE: China
SECTION: Foreign relations
• TITLE: history of Central Asia
SECTION: The Russian conquests
...Amur River about the mid-17th century, they entered the Chinese sphere of interest. Although some clashes occurred, restraint on both sides led to the signing of the treaties of Nerchinsk (1689) and Kyakhta (1727), which remained in force until 1858. To this day, the border delineated at Kyakhta has not been altered substantially.
relation to Treaty of Nerchinsk
• TITLE: Treaty of Nerchinsk (China-Russia [1689])
...potential military defeat and gained China’s implied recognition of Russia as a state of equal status, an accomplishment not achieved by other European countries. Confirmed and expanded by the Treaty of Kyakhta (1727), the Nerchinsk treaty remained the basis of Russo-Chinese relations until 1858–60.
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"A dream is a goal in life, not just dreams experienced during sleep." Explain this statement with reference to the poem "A Dream Deferred."
Expert Answers
mwestwood eNotes educator| Certified Educator
When interpreting the denotation as well as connotation of the word dream, it is important to consider the historical context of "A Dream Deferred." For, since his poem was written in Langston Hughes's use of the word dream seems a counterpoint to the American Dream that brought many to the United States in the early 1900s. Written in the 1920s, the poem of Hughes expresses the futility of the African-American who fled from under the Jim Crow laws of the South to the North and the unstated discrimination of the North where many whites came to Harlem's nightclubs, but did not wish to be associated in any other way.
Langston Hughes attended Columbia University in 1921, but left in 1922 because he felt too much prejudice against him. Thus, his dream of success and recognition--an American Dream held by many at the time--was, for him, "deferred." With little promise of change in his social condition, he wonders in his poem what will happen to this dream, this hope of respect and recognition. Langston Hughes's "dream deferred" in the opposing concept of the American Dream. It is an ephemeral goal terminated by forces beyond his control.
What happens to a dream deferred?....
Maybe it just sags
Like a heavy load....
Further Reading:
morningvictoria eNotes educator| Certified Educator
As a black writer, and precursor to Martin Luther King, Jr., Hughes's dream in the poem 'A Dream Deferred' is likely to refer to his desire for racial equality. He explores the terrible negative effects of desperately dreaming for something and not being able to achieve it.
His shocking metaphors of deferred dreams as being "like rotten meat" and festering "like a sore" show just how painful it can be not to achieve a dream. The heavy rhyme at the end between "load" and "explode" seems to show how dangerous it can be when a person has no hope of achieving their dream. He hints that violence may occur as it often does when a group of people have been oppressed.
wordprof eNotes educator| Certified Educator
The word "dream" has, in the contemporary multimedia environment, become a frozen idiom, an overused metaphor for "improbable career wish" as in "It's my dream to be a pop singer". As such, the word is empty of impact in daily discourse, simply a place-holder, like "thing." It has actually lost its denotation, and resides in the language as a connotative substitute for "a world other than the world that works by the laws of physics, cause-and-effect, etc.". The non-logic of the physical dream is referred to by the word.
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Gallbladder Anatomy and Function
Published: January 13, 2017
Last reviewed: November 18, 2017
What is the gallbladder?
The gallbladder is a small hollow organ that stores the bile produced by the liver and delivers it into the duodenum.
The medical terms for the gallbladder include:
• Vesica biliaris or vesica fellea (from Latin vesica = bladder; bilis or fel = bile) [4,17]
• Cholecyst (from Greek khole = bile; kystis = bladder) [16]
Can you live without the gallbladder?
Yes, you can live without the gallbladder since it is not a vital organ. The gallbladder does not produce the bile; it only stores it. After gallbladder removal, the bile constantly flows from the liver into the intestine, which can cause diarrhea in some people.
Gallbladder agenesis is a rare condition in which a person is born without the gallbladder but usually has no symptoms [6].
Where is the gallbladder located in your body?
The gallbladder is located in the upper right abdominal quadrant. The front part (the fundus) is under the cartilage of the 9th rib at the bottom edge of the rib cage [12]. It lies under the liver, near its lower border, about an inch medially from the crossing of an imaginary vertical line from the right breast nipple and the bottom edge of the rib cage.
The intrahepatic gallbladder is an anatomical variant in which the gallbladder is completely embedded into the liver [10].
Shape and Size
• Shape: like a pear
• Length: 3-4 inches or 7-10 cm [1,12]
• Width: 1-1.5 inch or 2.5-3.8 cm [1,12]
• Weight: 2.5 ounces or 70 grams, in average [3]
• Volume: 30-50 mL [5,12]
• (All values are for adults)
Some people have two gallbladders with either one or two cystic ducts [5].
The gallbladder is a muscular sac, which can be divided into the fundus, body and neck (infundibulum).
The Gallbladder Wall Histological Structure
Gallbladder wall consists of the following layers (from inside out) [1,5]:
• Mucosa:
• The inner (luminal) surface of the gallbladder consists of a single layer of the columnar epithelial cells, which secrete mucus and absorb water.
• Tunica (lamina) propria is made of connective tissue, which supports the epithelium.
• A muscular layer (muscularis propria) is made of smooth muscle fibers, which contract and push the bile out of the gallbladder.
• The subserosal layer is made of the connective tissue, which strengthens the gallbladder wall.
• Serosa is the outer layer, which is a part of the abdominal membrane (peritoneum); it covers the gallbladder only on its lower side. Serosa contains epithelial cells that secrete a liquid that prevents friction between the gallbladder and other abdominal organs.
Bile Ducts
The cystic duct connects the gallbladder to the common hepatic duct; the ducts merge and form the common bile duct (Picture 1). All the ducts are made of the fibroelastic tissue, not muscular tissue [5].
Bile ducts
Picture 1. Biliary system: the gallbladder and bile ducts
Blood Supply
The flow of the arterial blood: aorta > celiac trunk > common hepatic artery > right proper hepatic artery > cystic artery [5].
The flow of the venous blood: cholecystohepatic veins > portal vein [5].
Parasympathetic fibers: the hepatic branch of the Vagus nerve [5]
Sympathetic fibers: celiac plexus (from T 7-9) [5]
Lymphatic Drainage
The lymph from the gallbladder drains to the cystic lymph node, which is often enlarged when the gallbladder is inflamed [5]. Gallbladder cancer can spread to the cystic but also pericholedochal, pancreaticoduodenal, aortocaval, celiac and para-aortic nodes [5].
The cystic lymph node (Mascagni’s or Lund’s node) lies in the imaginary hepatobiliary or cystohepatic triangle, which has three borders: the cystic duct inferiorly, common hepatic duct medially and the lower liver edge superiorly [9]. This node is often removed together with the inflamed gallbladder.
What is the purpose of the gallbladder and its role in the digestion?
The purpose of the gallbladder is to store and concentrate the bile, which is produced in the liver, and to push it into the duodenum after meals.
The gallbladder is a part of the biliary system, which consists of the ducts that convey the bile from the liver to the intestine. The bile flows from the liver through the hepatic ducts and enters the gallbladder through the cystic duct. After meals, the bile is squeezed out of the gallbladder into the cystic duct and further through the common bile duct into the duodenum. Without the gallbladder, the bile would constantly flow into the intestine, even between meals and at night, which would be a waste.
The bile is a liquid that contains bile acids, which emulsify the fats from the food and thus enable their digestion and absorption in the intestine. The bile also disposes of the bilirubin, which is created in the liver from hemoglobin from the wasted red blood cells.
The Hormones Involved in the Gallbladder Emptying
When the fat-containing food enters the duodenum, it triggers the release of the hormones cholecystokinin (CKK) and motilin from the cells that line the duodenum and jejunum (the first two parts of the small intestine) [7]. Both hormones reach the gallbladder via the blood and stimulate its contraction, which results in the release of the bile into the duodenum [1].
The hormone somatostatin [7] and the neurotransmitter vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) [8] relax the gallbladder.
Medications that stimulate the gallbladder emptying include cholestyramine, cisapride, erythromycin and NSAIDs (aspirin, ibuprofen) [7]. Curcumin from turmeric can also stimulate gastric emptying [11].
Medications that inhibit the gallbladder emptying: calcitonin, loperamide, progesterone.
• References
1. Gallbladder InnerBody
2. Palasciano G et al, 1992, Gallbladder volume in adults, and relationship to age, sex, body mass index, and gallstones: a sonographic population study PubMed
3. How much does a gallbladder weigh?
4. Gallbladder Medilexicon
5. Kapoor VK, Gallbladder anatomy Emedicine
6. Balakrishnan S et al, 2006, Agenesis of the Gallbladder: Lessons to Learn PubMed Central
7. Van Erpecum KJ et al, 2000, Review article: agents affecting gall-bladder motility – role in treatment and prevention of gallstones Wiley Online Library
8. Sundler S et al, 1977, VIP innervation of the gallbladder PubMed
9. Landmarks of the hepatobiliary triangle ResearchGate
10. Nagral S, Anatomy relevant to cholecystectomy PubMed Central
11. Rasyid A et al, 2002, Effect of different curcumin dosages on human gall bladder PubMed
12. Gray’s Anatomy, The Liver Bartleby
13. Common bile duct Radiopedia
14. Senturk S et al, 2012, Diameters of the common bile duct in adults and postcholecystectomy patients: a study with 64-slice CT PubMed
15. Turner MA et al, 2001, The Cystic Duct: Normal Anatomy and Disease Processes Radiographics
16. Cholecyst
17. Definition of bilis Latinlexicon
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Popular Kinetics Press logo
First grader with her pop-ups
5th grader with his pop-up card
Kid's Classes
Kids Make Pop-Ups!
3rd grade and Up
Learn to make pop-up cards and illustrations! Kids will learn basic on-the-fold pop-ups, straddle pop-ups, talking mouths, and other forms. They will then use their imaginations and creative abilities to turn their pop-ups into landscapes, animals, and city scenes. These structures work easily with a wide range of subject matter, including history, creative writing, math and science topics. Pop-ups provide a way of bringing these various subjects "to life" through play and invention. The class will be geared to the students' specific age level and skills.
Emma's accordion book
Accordion Books for Kids
4th-6th grades
The accordion book is an ancient form that pre-dates the western codex (our standard book form today). In this workshop, students will learn to make several types of accordion books variations, including two that are constructed from a single sheet of paper. Students will develop their own stories and drawings as content for their books, and will learn the history of the structure.
Kid's diamond fold book
Diamond-Fold Books
3rd-6th grades
The diamond-fold book, designed by California artist Anna Wolfe, is based on a simple origami fold. It can be assembled in numerous ways to create a series of wonderfully sculptural books, and redesigned with various geometric patterns. Students will add their own illustrations and text that correlates with the structure.
Kid's flag book
Flag Books
5th-6th grades
Flag books are accordion books with flaps that move in opposite directions. This fun, sculptural format can be used to present collections of drawings or collage materials. Themes might include postage stamps, presidents, flowers, rocks, and lots more. Each participant in the workshop will create their own model flag book.
Student with her landscape book
Landscape Books
4th-6th grades
The landscape book is a layered diorama that is similar to a "tunnel book" but does not require cutting with a single-edged knife. By combining layers of pages connected together with two accordion strips, a magical three-dimensional scene is created. The book expands to reveal various layers of the scene, then collapses closed. Text can be added to create a sculptural narrative. Students will design their own landscape books, incorporating their drawings along with collage elements. This is a terrific way for kids to develop their dimensional design skills.
Kid's sewn books
Sewn Books for Kids
5th-6th grades
Students in this class will learn simple sewing techniques for binding books together. In the process, they will also learn about sequencing (imposition) and story development. Participants will be encouraged to develop a theme or narrative, using both words and pictures.
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Sounds and Writing
There are three distinct writing traditions in use among Anishinaabe people. Most ancient is the pictographic system used both to make mnemonic charts and other inscriptions for religious purposes, and for various kinds of correspondence ranging from personal notes to formal petitions. In the nineteenth century, a syllabic writing system was developed for northern varieties of Anishinaabemowin and Cree, called simply syllabics. For centuries various roman alphabetic writing systems based on European languages have been used locally, showing an immense amount of variation. In the 1950’s Charles Fiero developed a roman writing system for Minnesota and Wisconsin Anishinaabemowin, which has become a de facto standard, used in the popular Nichols and Nyholm dictionary, the Oshkaabewis Native Journal, and other widely published materials. It is commonly called the Double Vowel system, because it uses doubled vowel letters to represent long vowels.
To learn about a pictographic petition made in 1849 by a group of Anishinaabe chiefs to the President of the United States, click on the image below (a new browser window will open; close it when you're done). Otherwise, click Next in the navigation bar above.
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4.1.8 William Blakes "The Lamb"
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• Published : May 1, 2013
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Emily Olsen Ms. Orr AP Literature “A poem is a composition written for performance by the human voice” (Ferguson 2026). The audience is to speak the words. One type of spoken poem is the Lyric. In lyric form, the audience reads the speaker’s words in a singsong voice. William Blake’s poem, “The Lamb,” reads as a call and response hymn. Blake used voice, sentence structure, and allusion to convey a message of innocence and reverence to God. Blake voiced his words through a child speaker in the poem titled, “The Lamb.” The child is a symbol for innocence and acts as a link between heavenly spirits and the reverence of the lamb in Blake’s poem. In line 17 and 18 of the poem, the child speaker exclaimed to the lamb, “I a child, and thou a lamb/We are called by his name” (Blake 17-18). In these two lines, the child is nearing his/her answer to the question posed at the start of the poem, “Little Lamb, who made thee?/Dost thou know who made thee” (Blake 1-2). The young child explains the lamb’s connection to God, as well as, explains the lamb’s connection to himself; the child shows reverence to the creator, therefore the lamb desires to do the same. The child’s explanation in the second stanza forms the rhetorical poem. Like many childhood sing-a-longs, “The Lamb,” poses a question and precedes to provide an answer. By starting the first stanza with a questioning tone, and the second with a definitive answering tone, Blake convinces the audience of the message of the poem. God and the Christian religion, believe in cleansing and the value of a clear conscience. Black answers the Little Lambs question by saying, “Little Lamb I’ll tell thee!/He is called by thy name,/For he calls himself a Lamb” (Blake 12-14). The Lamb in the second stanza represents Jesus. The simple comparison as the little lamb or child and Jesus, explains the innocence of both...
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Southwest Alaska
The Sea, A Common Bond
Alaska's Past - Regional Perspectives
In this section you will learn about:
• The common bond of Southwest Alaska Natives
• How the Aleuts used the sea's resources
• How the Koniag Eskimos used the sea's resources
• How the Yupik Eskimos used the sea's resources
Three Native groups share one bond
Today only six of the over 200 islands in the Aleutian chain have year round villages. Before the Russians came to trade in the 1700s, every major island with fresh water was inhabited.
Most anthropologists believe that early Aleutian Island inhabitants came from Beringia 10,000 or more years ago across the land bridge that now is covered by the Bering Sea. Others think the Aleutian Islands were a crossroads and their people came from east and west as well as north. The people who stayed have come to be known as Aleuts. Over time the diverse groups with their distinct languages and customs blended and created a common heritage.
The Aleut heritage is much different from the background of their neighbors to the east and north. The Koniag Eskimos of Kodiak Island and the Yupik Eskimos of riverine Southwest Alaska are closely related to each other. On Kodiak Island traces of a culture called the Kachemak, which began more than 6,000 years ago, have been found. About a thousand years ago Eskimos moved onto the Alaska Peninsula and then crossed the straits to Kodiak Island where they displaced people of the Kachemak tradition.
The three Native cultures of Southwest Alaska the Aleuts, the Koniag Eskimos, and the Yupik Eskimos shared one bond. They used the sea to fill nearly all of their needs.
Aleuts depend upon the riches of the sea
The rough, mountainous Aleutian Islands could not support human life. Only a few needs, such as stones for knives or lamps and grass for woven baskets, were met from the land. For everything else, the people turned to the sea.
Most Aleuts located their villages on the northern shores of the islands fronting on the Bering Sea. Usually the people settled on points of land between two bays or on narrow sandspits. Villagers were fiercely possessive of their hunting and fishing sites.
Seals were particularly important to the Aleuts. The Aleuts ate seal meat and burned seal fat in stone lamps which heated and lighted their homes. The inhabitants used seal intestines to make waterproof clothing and used bristles of the seal's beard for ornaments.
The sea also provided many kinds of shellfish and seaweed. Besides collecting sea urchins, the Aleuts gathered mussels, whelks, and clams. They hunted sea mammals, including whales.
To gather food and to travel the Aleuts became adept seafarers. They traveled in skin covered boats, kayaks to hunt. Families traveled in large open skin covered boats, umiaks, to visit other islands. Some Aleuts traveled as far as the Gulf of Alaska in these boats to trade.
Life is easier for the Koniag Eskimos
Life was easier for the Koniag Eskimos of Kodiak Island than for the Aleuts. The Koniags could hunt and trap in the timbered hills of their territory. They also could fish for salmon. Because of the warm Japanese Current, waters off Kodiak and the surrounding islands were usually ice free.
Yupik villagers stay close to home
Yupik villagers lived along the channels and deltas of the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. Their legends say these rivers were carved by the talons of the great raven. The Yupik moved seasonally between summer fishing camps, fall hunting camps, spring trapping camps, and permanent winter homes.
In summer the Yupik used kayaks and umiaks. For much of the year, however, the rivers and lakes of the delta country were frozen. In winter they used flat bed sleds constructed from driftwood and fitted with ivory or baleen runners. These sleds, were pulled by hand. Wood or ivory ice creepers and a pointed staff helped the Natives keep their footing. Snowshoes of wood and rawhide were also used.
Salmon were central to the Yupik diet. The fish were caught with gill nets set from a kayak or with funnel shaped fish traps that could also be used under the ice in winter. The Yupik also fished from the riverbanks or from their kayaks, using short rods and sinew lines.
Summary questions
1. What common bond was shared by the Aleuts, Koniag Eskimos, and Yupik Eskimos?
2. What did the Aleuts use seals for?
3. Why was life easier for the Koniag Eskimos than for the Aleuts?
4. What food was most important to the Yupik Eskimos?
Inquiry question
1. Find out about the Japanese Current. Make a map that shows where it goes.
The Sea, A Common Bond
1743-1867 Era of Russian Violence
1867-1912 The Era of American Exploitation
1912 1924 Lessons From The Land
1924-1959 The Recent Years
1959-1980 Joining Old And New
Suggested Readings
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All About Apostrophes!
In 3/4C, we have been learning about apostrophes.
An apostrophe is a type of punctuation and it fits in with the “Conventions” writing trait.
Apostrophes can be confusing. Here are some tips that might help. Thanks to Mrs Morris who created this slideshow.
After a big discussion about apostrophes where students brainstormed sentences that did and did not require apostrophes, they demonstrated their learning in a creative way on their iPads. Students made comics and had to feature apostrophes correctly. You can view some examples of the students’ work below.
A lot of people think any word that ends with an s needs an apostrophe. Remember, unless there is ownership in a sentence, plurals do not need an apostrophe.
What is wrong with this picture?
Image: ‘Sofia’s Pizza’s Calzoni’s Kebab’s Burger’s Pakora’s’
Found on
Did our tips help you learn about apostrophes?
What is wrong with the picture above? Have you ever seen apostrophes used incorrectly before?
Can you make up a sentence that has an apostrophe before an s, after an s and in a contraction?
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Self-avoiding walk
Polymers are molecules with long strings of repeated units. When placed in a good solvent, the polymer can expand. One model of a polymer is a self-avoiding walk (SAW). In this model the walker steps at random, but cannot return to a site that has already been visited.
One approach to simulating SAWs is to generate a random number at each step and choose one of the maximum of three possible steps. However, there soon would be no allowable steps as the walker finds itself in a cul-de-sac of visited sites. There are a number of enrichment schemes that have been developed to improve the statistics. We will use the following algorithm which is an improvement of the Rosenbluth and Rosenbluth method due to Prelberg and Krawczyk. We consider walks on a square lattice.
1. Begin with a collection of n walkers labeled by the index i. Assign a weight wi = 1 to each walker. Place each walker at the origin. Maintain a list of visited sites for each walker.
2. At each step, N, determine for each walker how many available sites, m, there are for the next step. Move to one of these sites with equal probability. Update the weight as
wi(N) = wi(N-1)(m/3).
Update the arrays corresponding to the visited sites.
3. Compute the average wave = <wi(N)> and the ratio r = wi/wave for each walker. If r > 1, then c = min((int)r,m), and make c copies of the walker each with weight wi/c. If r < 1, then remove the walker with probability 1 - r. Repeat for all the walkers.
4. Compute averages such as <r2(N)> = <wi(N)(xi2 + yi2)>.
5. Go to step 2.
In the program output the number of steps is equal to the time t. The input parameters are the number of initial walkers n and the number of steps N.
1. Run the program with the default input parameters. Discuss the values for the mean positions of x and y. Use the Data Table in the Views menu and copy the table of data for ln <x2(t)>, ln <y2(t)>, and ln <r2(t)> versus ln t. Plot these data and estimate the exponent ν assuming that <r2(t)> = Ct. Use only the data that appears to be on a straight line. For large times you might not have enough walkers to obtain reliable data. What value of ν do you expect for a regular random walker? Explain why the value of ν for a self-avoiding walk is different.
2. Based on your results what can you conclude about the mean displacement in the x and y directions? To make sure your answer is meaningful, do at least three independent trials. Discuss the meaning of your result. Is there a statistically significant difference between the results in the x and y directions?
3. Increase the number of initial walkers to 1000, and repeat your analysis. Is there any significant differences. Repeat your simulations a few times to see how much your results vary with each trial.
4. Increase the number of steps to 2048. Do your results improve significantly? Note that the program only takes data in increments of ln t. What does this increment mean about the ability to improve results by going to longer times?
Java Classes
Updated 27 February 2007.
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Orientalism in Jane Eyre
by , 2004
According to Edward Said, "the Orient has helped to define Europe (or the West) as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience." (1-2). The European has become recognized simply as someone who is not 'oriental.' Throughout the novel Jane Eyre, Charlotte Brontë maintains typical anglocentric assumptions about the 'other.' The orient is involved in the novel two ways: non-oriental people and ideas are occasionally given oriental traits, and oriental people are described in a stereotypical fashion. Jane Eyre, the occidental Englishwoman, along with Mr. Rochester and Blanche Ingram are, in certain instances given oriental traits. By doing so, Brontë is not transforming these occidental characters into oriental ones, but is instead giving them a sense of otherness either in general or at that particular moment in time. Bertha Mason is an obvious example of the sexually passionate, uncivilized exotic woman. Brontë goes even further by separating out the English from the rest of Europeans. Adèle and her mother are looked down upon because of their French heritage. Finally, Brontë describes an oriental location, India, as a harsh, distant land.
Brontë's first mention of the orient comes early in the first chapter and serves to identify Jane as an outsider. Jane says, "I mounted into the window-seat: gathering up my feet, I sat cross-legged, like a Turk" (20). By identifying her with a Turk, an oriental, Brontë quickly connotes Jane's status as an outsider. By sitting like a Turk, Jane is sitting like a non-European, like someone who does not belong. Her status in the Reed family as an outsider mimics the oriental's status in society as an outsider. Later in the novel, after Jane finds her place in society, Brontë does not continue to identify Jane with the Turks. The comparison is only made to stress her outsider status within the Reed family.
Blanche Ingram is given oriental features in order to distinguish her beauty as different from all the other girls'. When Jane begins painting a portrait of Blanche, she reminds herself to "remember the raven ringlets, the oriental eye" (164). Blanche's oriental eyes give her a sense of attractive exoticism, but do not make her all together oriental. She still has a face the color of "smooth ivory," (164) a "Grecian neck and bust," (165) and a name which represents the color white. Blanche clearly remains an occidental character, only with slight oriental traits. Her exotic nature was again highlighted when the group was playing charades and she "was attired in oriental fashion: a crimson scarf tied sash-like round the waist; an embroidered handkerchief knotted about her temples; her beautifully-moulded arms bare" (186). This description works in two ways: first, as a literal depiction of what she was wearing for the game and, second, as an identifier that Blanches was going to be separated from the others in this group somehow. By dressing her as an oriental, Brontë is able to show Blanche as somewhat of an outsider to the group.
Similarly, Mr. Rochester is dressed in oriental fashion while playing charades and is given oriental eyes that set him apart from the group of Europeans as somewhat exotic. Mr. Rochester, when playing charades, was "costumed in shawls, with a turban on his head" (186). Just like the description of Blanche Ingram, this one is used to both literally depict what he was wearing and to separate him symbolically from the group. In addition, he is given oriental traits: "His dark eyes and swarth skin and Paynim features suited the costume exactly" (186). Not only is he dressed like a Muslim, but his own characteristics look pagan as well. And, earlier, when Jane was painting the portrait of Blanche, she must stop herself from reverting to Mr. Rochester's oriental eyes as a model (164). The similar oriental depictions of Mr. Rochester and Blanche take them out of the group and associate them with each other. It is a technique that Brontë uses to suggest to us that they are somehow connected.
Brontë depicts non-English characters in a very traditional negative orientalist light. An obvious example is the way in which Bertha is described. Mr. Rochester says of her: "Bertha Mason is mad; and she came of a mad family; idiots and maniacs through three generations! Her mother, the Creole, was both a mad woman and a drunkard!" (288). The Creole family is the mad family. The animal-like woman who is locked up in the attic comes from an exotic, crazy family and not a wholesome English one. There are no other West Indian families described to act as a counterargument to the suggestion that being Creole is equivalent to being crazy. Brontë closely relates the two characteristics to each other in the novel. In addition to her insanity, Bertha is given an oversized sexual appetite. Mr. Rochester again describes her poor characteristics: "What a pigmy intellect she had -- and what giant propensities!" (302). Bertha, the oriental woman, is unintelligent and has uncontrollable desires. We learn what those desires are later in Mr. Rochester's description when he says that she was "a wife at once intemperate and unchaste" (302). Unlike the good, solid, dependable English woman, Bertha was a drunk and was sexually promiscuous. There are no other female oriental characters in the novel to counteract the negative opinion that we are given of Bertha. The stereotypes of oriental woman being inferior to English women are certainly sustained throughout Jane Eyre.
Even French characters were looked down upon by Brontë in her anglocentric work. Little Adèle and her mother, Céline Varens, were both described as intellectually inferior to the English women. Céline, like Bertha, was given the characteristic of hypersexuality. While acting as Mr. Rochester's mistress and receiving his gifts, her heightened sexual appetite causes her to have an affair with an army officer in the very apartment which Mr. Rochester was paying for. After he discovered what she had done, he said that she "was not worth contending for: she deserved only scorn" (149). The inability of non-English women to control their sexual urges is called scornful by Mr. Rochester, and by Brontë through his voice. Adèle, although too young to be overindulgent in sex, is portrayed as less than intelligent. Jane says of her, "She had no great talents, no marked traits of character, no peculiar development of feeling or taste which raised her one inch above the ordinary level of childhood" (115). In this seemingly unbiased interpretation of Adèle's talents, Jane says that she is in no way remarkable. In contrast, some of the poor English peasant girls that Jane would later teach would be spoken of more highly. Adèle is also portrayed as being very materialistic. She is overeager to receive her present from Mr. Rochester when he returns home (124). The depictions of Adèle and her mother, when put together become remarkably like that of Bertha, though not as extreme. These non-English women are described as being overly sexual and unintelligent. Brontë's view of the world is very anglocentric.
The final description that we get of the orient comes as a result of St. John Rivers' plan to go to India as a missionary. Brontë makes India seem like an incredibly faraway and dangerous place and never once questions the right that an English missionary would have to go there evangelizing. Jane says that, "if I go to India, I go to premature death" (395). India is seen as such a different world that Jane does not even think that she would be able to survive there. She questions whether or not she should go on the mission trip not based on whether forcing Christianity on others was justified or not, but instead on her relationship with St. John Rivers. The happy ending of the novel comes in the form of Jane choosing to stay in the safe, secure, civilized England and not jeopardizing herself by traveling to the harsh orient.
Certainly, Jane Eyre was not written as a discourse on imperial policy or foreign relations. However, throughout the novel Charlotte Brontë did, perhaps unconsciously, sustain anglocentric beliefs about the orient. She uses oriental traits to signify otherness, even in occidental characters. None of her non-English characters are exemplary people. Rather, the oriental women she describes are overly sexual and unintelligent. And, finally, Brontë contrasts the safe, secure England with the harshness of faraway places like India and the West Indies. All of these little pieces work together to create an idea of the orient as something inherently non-European and, therefore, 'other.'
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During the Napoleonic Wars and into the first decades of the 20th Century Skirmishers played a key role in battles by attempting to disrupt the main enemy force by firing into their close-packed ranks and by preventing enemy Skirmisher PennerSkirmishers from doing the same to friendly troops. Due to their mobility, Skirmishers were also valuable for reconnaissance, especially in wooded or urban areas. As the Skirmishers generally fought in open order, they could take cover behind trees, houses, towers and other obstacles, and as such were harder targets to hit with small arms and artillery fire, though this made them very vulnerable to cavalry. Once preliminary skirmishing was over, Skirmishers participated in the main battle by shooting into the enemy formation, or joined in melee combat with sword bayonets.
The aims of skirmishing were to disrupt enemy formations by causing casualties before the main battle, neutralizing key leaders, and tempting the opposing infantry into attacking prematurely, throwing their organization into disarray. Skirmishers could also be effectively used to surround opposing soldiers in the absence of friendly cavalry.
The Royal Winnipeg Rifles still parade a ceremonial detachment of Skirmishers wearing ceremonial uniforms with Skirmisher Burchappropriate accoutrements, and carrying the Martini-Henry rifles. On a Regimental ceremonial parade, their duties consist of securing the ground (parade ground) at the start of the parade, as well as enacting an advance on an enemy trench. Once reporting to the RSM that the ground is secure, the Skirmishers are ordered to “Take Post”, and for the reminder of the parade, patrol the perimeter of the parade ground, protecting the Regiment from threats; when the Regiment steps off for the March Past, Double Past and Dismissal, the Skirmishers lead the parade.
The Regimental Skirmishers also perform sentry duty at memorials and cenotaphs on Remembrance Day and other similar occasions.
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Goldenrod Bonus
How goldenrod helps downy woodpeckers
Asters & GoldenrodThe native wildflowers of each region are plants that have adapted through the centuries to the climate, birds, and insects of the places they make their homes.
Each flowering plant provides something special to birds or other wildlife. Many provide ripened seeds after the flowers are spent, like the goldenrods and asters in the photo above.
But some wildflowers do more than offer seeds. For example, the bright yellow goldenrods also provide a rich winter bonus of fat and protein to downy woodpeckers. It's a story that begins in spring and takes many months to develop.
The goldenrod gall fly
GoldenrodAn tiny fly, named the goldenrod gall fly, lays an egg inside the stem of the goldenrod. In spring, when the goldenrod plants are young and soft, the female goldenrod gall fly pokes her oviduct into the stem of a goldenrod. An egg comes through the oviduct and lodges inside of the the stem.
Goldenrod gallThe egg hatches, about a week and a half after being laid, and now the goldenrod stem contains a larva, which is white and soft bodied. As the larva begins to chew at the inside of the stem, the plant reacts by swelling up and making a spherical gall, about the size of a large marble.
The larva lives in the gall through the entire summer, eating away at the inside of the gall and growing larger. Lavae are good at chewing, and in fall the larva chews an tiny escape tunnel. But it doesn't leave the gall yet. It plugs up the hole and stays right in the gall all winter.
In spring, the inhabitant of the gall has metamorphosed and is now an adult goldenrod gall fly. An adult goldenrod gall fly does not eat, and it could not chew its way out of the the gall. But it crawls out through the hole it made for itself as a larva. And then it repeats the cycle — unless a downy spots that gall.
Bonus for a downy woodpecker
Downy WoodpeckerGoldenrod gall fly larvae are full of fat, protein, and calories—the very stuff that that birds need to survive a freezing winter. Somehow, downy woodpeckers know that there is something good to eat inside those goldenrod galls.
And if a downy woodpecker finds gall during the winter, it will peck a hole through the wall of the gall. This hole is big enough for the woodpecker to insert its bill. It spears the fat, juicy, larva and pulls it out of the gall. A marvelous snack for a small woodpecker on a snowy afternoon.
Gall DividedHere's what the goldenrod gall looks like inside, with a cavity in the center, where the larva was.
That is the story of how the goldenrod provides for the downy woodpecker and helps it survive the long, cold winter. It's a good reason to let goldenrods grow wherever they spring up — and a reason to not to mow them down after they've bloomed.
For that matter, even in a garden, it's a great help to wild birds to leave the remains of flowers for the birds in winter. Those spent flower heads provide seeds that the birds want and need.
A perfectly neat garden may be a good thing, but a garden that attracts wild birds through the cold days of winter is even better.
Diane PorterThis story first is a Birdwatching Dot Com original.
Copyright 2007 by Diane Porter
Pictures copyright 2002-2007 Michael and Diane Porter
More Birding Stories by Diane
Birding Tips
Birding FAQ
Birding DVDs & VHS Tapes
Birding Software
Birding Optics
Birding Store
Other wildflowers that help wild birds
Inexpensive binoculars
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Great Helm
Approx. Period: 1400 AD
Length: 0.30m Width: 0.30m
The development of the helmet naturally progressed to the point where the whole head and face were enclosed. This round capped construction is known as the "Great Helm". It is likely that William Wallace and his higher ranking commander would have been wearing such a helmet in battle.
The Great Helm is constructed from shaped sheets of iron riveted into a cylindrical shape. The top is capped and the lower plate covering the mouth is slotted or pierced to allow the wearer to breath. The front of the helmet is reinforced by a brass cruciform across the nose and eye slot. A padded helmet cap would be worn inside and a chain mail aventail attached below to protect the neck, shoulders and upper body.
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"url": "http://sites.scran.ac.uk/weapon/Content/Great_Helm/Content.html"
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How to Trap a Beaver
Caution: Don't try this at home!
Photo by stevehdc on Flickr.
A fascinating explanation about how trappers caught beaver, by Richard C. Roberts and Richard W. Sadler in A History of Weber County:
Each beaver trap weighed five pounds and was usually attached to a length of chain that was used to secure the trap after it was set. The end of a small stick was dipped in the musk or castor taken from the beaver's sex glands, and the other end of the stick was pushed under the water in the jaws of the trap. As the beaver swam past the baited stick, it lifted its nose to smell and, as its hind legs were lowered, they were caught in the trap.
Furs were prime only in the cold season of the year, the time when most trapping was done. This meant much wading in cold streams by trappers, who usually placed between five and ten traps a day. The traps were usually positioned about dusk and raised in the gray light of dawn. Since the trappers were usually dressed in buckskins, which would become dry and brittle after being soaked in water, trappers would often go naked into the streams to set and retrieve their traps.
The beaver were usually skinned on the spot, with only the castor glands, the tail, and the fur taken to camp, where the pelt would be stretched on a hoop made by bending a willow in a circle and tying it tightly. The pelt was scraped with a sharp knife or an axe blade to clean it. It would dry rapidly and would be resistant to insects....
Although beaver meat might be used as food by the mountain men, they liked the tail best. They roasted it over the fire and ate it as a delicacy.
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Coracina javensis
Coracina javensis, Javan Cuckoo-shrike, Kepudangsungu Jawa
The cuckoo-shrikes and allies in the Campephagidae family are small to medium-sized passerine bird species found in the subtropical and tropical Africa, Asia and Australasia. The roughly 85 species are found in eight (or nine) genera which comprise five distinct groups, the ‘true’ cuckoo-shrikes (Campephaga, Coracina, Lobotos, Pteropodocys and Campochaera) the trillers (Lalage), the minivets (Pericrocotus), the flycatcher-shrikes (Hemipus). The wood-shrikes (Tephrodornis) were often considered to be in this family but are probably closer to the helmetshrikes or bushshrikes. Another genus, Chlamydochaera, which has one species, the Black-breasted Fruithunter was often placed in this family but has now been shown to be a thrush (Turdidae).
Cuckoo-shrikes are neither closely related to the cuckoos or shrikes, the name probably comes from the grey colour of many of the cuckoo-shrikes. Some of the species also bear a superficial resemblance to cuckoos, and have a similar undulating flight. The grey colouration has led to one of their other names, the greybird. In some parts of the world they have also been known as caterpillar-birds, a name derived from their diet. They are in fact thought by some to be closely related to the Old World orioles (Oriolidae), although they differ strongly in some morphological characteristics (such as skull morphology and the arrangements of feathers on the wing).
Overall the cuckoo-shrikes are medium to small arboreal birds, generally long and slender. They are predominantly greyish with white and black, although the minivets are brightly coloured in red, yellow and black, and the Blue Cuckoo-shrike of central Africa is all-over glossy blue. The four cuckoo-shrikes in the genus Campephaga exhibit sexual dimorphism, with males that have glossy black plumage and bright red or yellow wattles, the females having more subdued olive-green plumage.The genus Coracina is not monophyletic.
Of the 84 species of cuckoo-shrike, the majority are forest birds. Some species are restricted to primary forest, like the New Caledonian Cuckoo-shrike, others are able to use more disturbed forest. Around eleven species use much more open habitat, one Australian species, the Ground Cuckoo-shrike being found in open plains and scrubland with few trees.
The ‘true’ cuckoo-shrikes are usually found singly, in pairs, and in small family groups, whereas the minivets, flycatcher-shrikes and wood-shrikes more frequently form small flocks. There is a considerable amount of variation within the family as a whole with regards to calls, some call very infrequently and some, principally the minivets, are extremely vocal.
These are mainly insectivorous, and will take large hairy caterpillars. They have also been recorded eating small vertebrates, and some fruit, seeds and other plant matter. About four blotchy white, green or blue eggs are laid in a cup nest in a tree. Incubation is about two weeks.
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King Philip, a bronze sculpture by Jud Hartmann
"Tis admirable to consider how powerful are their Kings, and yet how they move by the breath of their people ..."
King Philip
"Metacomet", son of Massasoit, who had welcomed the Pilgrims at the first Thanksgiving, lived to see his large territory dwindle in the face of the insatiable English appetite for land. Rather than submit to a humiliating subjugation he launched "King Philips War" (1675-1676). It was the last great resistance of New England Tribes and one of the major chapters in the history of the conquest of America. Ultimately Philip's cause was doomed to failure: The Puritans forced to swallow their pride, had to rely heavily on Philips' Indian enemies, primarily Uncas' Mohegans, to locate the elusive foe. From the London Gazette of 1676: "The Indians (of Philip) being so light of foot that they can pass boggs, rocky mountains and dense thickets where we could by no means pursue them."
The other factor which tilted the outcome of the war in the Puritans favor were the Mohawks. Philip had hoped to win this most war-like of tribes to his cause and had he succeeded it is more than likely that the outcome might have been very different. However the Mohawks were staunch allies of the English of New York and long were hostile to the Algonkians of New England. Their response to Philips' overtures was unequivocal: The heads of Philips' five ambassadors were sent back to him as answer. The Mohawks then proceeded to rout Philips' forces from their sanctuaries in western New England back into the arms of the English. Philips' fate was sealed.
In the early going however, Philip achieved a series of stunning successes which made the outcome far from certain. He united his own Wampanoags with the Nipmucks, Pocumtucks and Narragansetts in the south and west and together with the Pennacooks and Abenaki to the north, inflicted on the Puritans the highest casualty rate of any subsequent American war. Two dozen towns were partly or wholly destroyed so that it was twenty years before many areas of New England frontier were again re-occupied. Along with the cost in human life, the economy suffered greatly and per capita income in New England did not surpass 1675 levels until 1815. By April of 1676 after a string of unbroken victories culminating in the burning of Sudbury only twenty miles from Boston, "so insolent were the Indians grown at their success, that they sent word to provide store of good cheer, for they intended to dine with us upon the Election Day!" (May 3, 1676). The implication, of course, being that soon even Boston would be theirs.
"Tis admirable to consider how powerful are their Kings, and yet how they move by the breath of their people ... I have never seen more natural sagacity ... and he will deserve the name wise who is able to outwit them."
William Penn (1681)
Bronze edition: 9 Height: 32"
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Group Work- Jury Selection
• Learning Objectives: Students will be able to recall the definition and purpose of the voir dire process as well as understand some of the critiques/controversies of using such a process to select jurors.
• Preparation: On 3x5 index cards write out 12 juror cards including the age, race, gender and occupation of each potential juror, selecting characteristics that will provoke discussion or disagreement.
Sample cards:
37 year old white male construction worker
29 year old African American female stay at home mom
30 year old Persian male journalist
50 year old white female sociologist
34 year old white male security officer
40 year old Hispanic female city assemblywoman
70 year old white male retired army general
60 year old Chinese male small business owner
35 year old white female real estate agent
24 year old white male college student
19 year old Hispanic male mechanic
44 year old African American female child advocate
Example of card (scanned)
• Exercise: As you pass out the cards, explain how the exercise will run.
Ex: “If you receive a card you will take on the persona on that card and will be a potential juror for the upcoming trial. The case involves a robbery and assault at a 7-11. The defendant is a 30 year old, African American male.”
Before you begin, elicit:
What do we call this pool of potential jurors?
What is this process of selecting jurors called?
Voir Dire
What is the purpose of this process?
To eliminate biased jurors.
There are two ways to excuse potential jurors. What are they?
For cause and peremptory challenge.
Can you explain the difference between the two?
When using a peremptory challenge you do not have to provide a justification, with a dismissal cause you must.
Explain to students that both the defense and prosecution get 3 dismissals for cause and 3 peremptory challenges. They must decide who they would like to dismiss and explain which method they chose to use. Who would you dismiss and why?
Let students volunteer opinions initially and then run through each potential juror if necessary.
• Follow-up discussion questions (to check for understanding):
1. What did this exercise illustrate about the voir dire process?
2. Can anyone really ever be unbiased? Impartial?
3. What are some of the dangers of the voir dire process, specifically of using peremptory challenges?
4. Should we change this process?
5. How do you feel about professional jurors?
6. How do you feel about jury consultants?
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Przewalski's Horse
Przewalski's wild horse
A pair of przewalski's wild horses roaming a field.
Conservation status
Extinct in wild
Scientific classification
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Perissodactyla
Family Equidae
Genus Equus
Species E. ferus
Subspecies E. f. przewalskii
Trinomial name
Equus ferus przewalskii
Przewalski's horse (pronounced /ʃᵻˈvælski/ shə-val-skee or /pʃᵻˈvælski/ pshə-vahl-skee; Khalkha Mongolian: тахь, takhi; Ak Kaba Tuvan: [daɣə//daɢə] dagy; Polish: [pʂɛˈvalskʲi]; Equus ferus przewalskii) or Dzungarian horse, is a rare and endangered subspecies of wild horse (Equus ferus) native to the steppes of central Asia. At one time extinct in the wild (in Mongolia, the last wild Przewalski's horses had been seen in 1966), it has been reintroduced to its native habitat in Mongolia at the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal Nature Reserve, and Khomiin Tal. The taxonomic position is still debated, and some taxonomists treat Przewalski's horse as a species, Equus przewalskii.
Common names for this equine include Asian wild horsePrzewalski's wild horseMongolian wild horse, and takhi. Historical but obsolete names include true tarpan and Mongolian tarpan. The horse is named after the Russian geographer and explorer Nikolay Przhevalsky.
Most "wild" horses today, such as the American Mustang or the Australian Brumby, are actually feral horses descended from domesticated animals that escaped and adapted to life in the wild. In contrast, Przewalski's horse has never been domesticated and remains the only truly wild horse in the world today. Przewalski's horse is one of three known subspecies of Equus ferus, the others being the domesticated horse Equus ferus caballus, and the extinct tarpan Equus ferus ferus. There are still a number of other wild equines, including three species of zebra and various subspecies of the African wild ass, onager (including the Mongolian wild ass), and kiang.
Phylogeny Edit
Many believe that the Przewalski horse is the closest relative to the domestic horse. DNA sequencing has been done to test whether or not the Przewalski horse is the primogenitor of domestic horses, but it was found that they are not. If Przewalski horses were indeed the ancestors of domesticated horses, those sequences, too would have been found within the Przewalski horse sequences. The DNA was then tested the other way as well; domestic horse sequences were checked for Przewalski horse sequences, and were found to contain none. This puts to rest the theory that Przewalski horses were derived from domestic horses. Studies of the DNA diversity within the Przewalski horses have been done to see how successful their reintroduction into the wild may be. Studies have shown through multidimensional scaling analyses that tight grouping occurs within most horse breeds, close grouping between related breeds, and far less grouping between mixed breeds. The Przewalski horse and the domesticated horse showed a close relationship through pairwise genetic distance and multidimensional scaling analyses showing that the Przewalski horse is very closely related to the domesticated horse.
Taxonomy Edit
The Przewalski's horse was described in 1881 by L. S. Poliakov. The taxonomic position of Przewalski's horse has always been problematic and no consensus exists whether it is a full species (Equus przewalskii), a subspecies of the wild horse(Equus ferus przewalskii), or even a sub-population of the domestic horse (Equus ferus caballus). Studies using DNA have been inconclusive, in part due to crossing domestic horses into the Przewalski's horse as well as the limited genetic variation present in the founder population of the Przewalski's horse. A 2009 molecular study using ancient DNA recovered from archaeological finds like bones and teeth places the Przewalski's horse in the middle of the domesticated horses, but 2011 mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests that the Przewalski and the modern domestic horse diverged some 160,000 years ago. An analysis based on whole genome sequencing and calibration with DNA from old horse bones gave a divergence date of 38–72 thousand years ago. The karyotype of the domestic horse differs from that of Przewalski’s horse by an extra chromosome pair either because of the fission of domestic horse chromosome 5 in Przewalski’s horse or fusion of Przewalski’s horse chromosomes 23 and 24 in the domestic horse. In comparison, the chromosomal differences between domestic horses and zebras include numerous translocations, fusions, and inversions. Przewalski’s horse is known to have the highest diploid chromosome number among all equine species. Przewalski’s horse can interbreed with the domestic horse and produce fertile offspring (65 chromosomes)
Population Edit
Every Przewalski horse presently living is descended from 9 of the 13 horses captured in 1945. Two of these were hybrids, one sired from a wild horse stallion and domestic mare and the other from a wild stallion and a tarpan mare. These 13 horses were descended in turn from approximately 15 captured around 1900. A cooperative venture between the Zoological Society of London and Mongolian scientists has resulted in successful reintroduction of these horses from zoos into their natural habitat in Mongolia; and as of 2011 there is an estimated free-ranging population of over 300 in the wild. From a population of 13 horses held in captivity in 1945, the total number by the early 1990s was over 1,500.
A population introduced in 1998 now exists in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone protected from the interference by humans.
Reproduction Edit
Przewalski females are able to give birth at the age of three and have a gestation period of about 11 to 12 months. Their reproduction process is seasonal and in Mongolia the season is towards the end of either May, June, or July. Mating stallions do not start looking for mating partners until the age of five. Instinctively, the stallion will look to create his own group of mares or else wander until he finds a group with its own leader. If the stallion finds a group of mares with its own leader, the stallion will usually fight the other leader stallion of the group. The mares will adjust and follow the victor. After birth, the foal can stand almost immediately (only taking about an hour or so) and can walk on its own. The foals drink milk from the mother mare.
Characteristics Edit
The hooves of the Przewalski's horse are longer in the back and have significantly thicker sole horn than feral horses. This is beneficial as it improves the performance of the hooves.
Behaviour Edit
The patterns of their daily lives exhibit horse behaviour similar to that of feral horseherds. Stallions herd, drive and defend all members of their family, while the mare often displays leadership in the family. Stallions and mares stay with their preferred partner for years. While behavioural synchronisation is high among mares, stallions other than the main harem stallion are generally less stable in this respect.
Horses maintain visual contact with their family and herd at all times and have a host of ways to communicate with one another, including vocalisations, scent marking, and a wide range of visual and tactile signals. Each kick, groom, tilt of the ear, or other contact with another horse is a means of communicating. This constant communication leads to complex social behaviours among Przewalski's horses.
Diet Edit
The Przewalski horse's diet consists mostly of vegetation. There are many plant species in a typical Przewalski horse environment including: Elymus repensCarex spp., Fabaceae and Asteraceae. While the horses eat a variety of different plant species, they tend to favour one species during a specific time of the year. In other words, the Przewalski horses have seasonal food preferences. In the springtime, Przewalski horses favor Elymus repensCorynephorus canescensFestuca valesiaca and Chenopodium album. In early summer they favor Dactylis glomerata and Trifolium and in late summer, they gravitate towards Elymus repens and Vicia cracca. In winter, for example, the horses eat Salix spp.Pyrus communisMalus sylvaticaPinus sylvestrisRosa spp., and Alnus spp. Additionally, Przewalski horses may dig for Festuca spp.Bromus inermis and Elymus repens that grow beneath the ice and snow. The Przewalski horse’s winter diet is very similar to the diet of domestic horses. Studies have suggested that in the wintertime, Przewalski horses experience hypodermis. Hypodermis is a condition in which one’s metabolic rate slows down. This means that in the winter time, Przewalski horse’s process their food more slowly than they do during other times of the year. Looking at the species diet overall, however, Przewalski horses most often eat Elymus repensTrifolium pratenseVicia craccaPoa trivialisDactylis glomerata and Bromus inermis.
Water, along with grassy vegetation, is another major component of the Przewalski horse's diet. A study, conducted by K.M. Scheibe and a team of scientists, documented the water consumption of 12 female Przewalski horses that were living in a semireserve over a course of 17 months. Their results show that, on average, a Przewalski horse drinks between 2.4 and 8.3 liters of water a day, which is less than the amount of water a domestic horse drinks daily. In fact, the Przewalski horse that consumed the most water in the study drank on average 8.6 liters of water a day. This almost equals the lowest amount of water consumption for a domestic horse which is 8.4 liters a day.
History Edit
In the 15th century, Johann Schiltberger recorded one of the first European sightings of the horses in the journal of his trip to Mongolia as a prisoner of the Mongol Khan. The horse is named after the Russian colonel Nikolai Przhevalsky (1839–1888) (the name is of Polish origin and "Przewalski" is the Polish spelling). He was the explorer and naturalist who first described the horse in 1881, after having gone on an expedition to find it, based on rumors of its existence. Many of these horses were captured around 1900 by Carl Hagenbeck and placed in zoos. As noted above, about twelve to fifteen reproduced and formed today's population.
After 1945 only two captive populations in zoos remained, in Munich and in Prague. The most valuable group, in Askania Nova, Ukraine, was shot by German soldiers during World War II occupation, and the group in the United States had died out. Competition with livestock, hunting, capture of foals for zoological collections, military activities, and harsh winters recorded in 1945, 1948 and 1956 are considered to be the main causes of the decline in the Przewalski's horse population. By the end of the 1950s, only 12 individual Przewalski's horses were left in the world.
In 1977, the Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski horse was founded in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, by Jan and Inge Bouman. The Foundation started a program of exchange between captive populations in zoos throughout the world to reduce inbreeding, and later began a breeding program of its own. As a result of such efforts, the extant herd has retained a far greater genetic diversity than its genetic bottleneck made likely.
Since 1986, Chinese researchers have bred Prezewalski's horses in captivity, with the program seeing over twenty years of success.
Since 2011, Prague Zoo has transported twelve horses to Mongolia in three rounds, in cooperation with partners (Czech Air Force, European Breeding Programme for Przewalski´s Horses, Association pour de cheval du Przewalski : Takh, Czech Development Agency, Czech Embassy in Mongolia and others) and it plans to continue to return horses to the wild in future. In the framework of the project Return of the Wild Horses it sustains its activities by supporting local inhabitants. The Zoo has the longest uninterrupted history of breeding of Przewalski's horses in the world and keeps the studbook of this species.o
The reintroduced horses successfully reproduced, and the status of the animal was changed from "extinct in the wild" to "endangered" in 2005. On the IUCN Red List, they were reclassified from "extinct in the wild" to "critically endangered" after a reassessment in 2008 and from "critically endangered" to "endangered" after a 2011 reassessment.
Conservation efforts Edit
While dozens of zoos worldwide have Przewalski's horses in small numbers, there are also specialized reserves dedicated primarily to the species. The world's largest captive breeding program for Przewalski's horses is at the Askania Nova preserve in Ukraine. Several dozen Przewalski's horses were also released in the area evacuated after the Chernobyl accident, which now serves as a deserted de facto nature reserve. In Chernobyl, the population reproduced at a high rate, reaching up to 200 individuals until poachers decreased their number to just 60 in recent years. As of 2011, it was estimated that only 30–40 individuals remained. An intensely researched population of free-ranging animals was also introduced to the Hortobágy National Park puszta in Hungary; data on social structure, behaviour and diseases gathered from these animals is used to improve the Mongolian conservation effort.
Several American zoos also collaborated in breeding Equus ferus przewalskii from 1979 to 1982. Recent advances in equine reproductive science in the United States also have potential to further preserve and expand the gene pool. In October 2007, scientists at the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoo successfully reversed a vasectomy on a Przewalski's horse — the first operation of its kind on this species and possibly the first ever on any endangered species. While normally a vasectomy may be performed on an endangered animal under limited circumstances, particularly if an individual has already produced many offspring and its genes are overrepresented in the population, scientists realized the animal in question was one of the most genetically valuable Przewalski's horses in the North American breeding program. The first birth by artificial insemination occurred on July 27, 2013 at the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute.
Le Villaret, located in the Cevennes National Park in southern France and run by the Association Takh, is a breeding site for Przewalski's horses that was created to allow the free expression of natural Przewalski's horse behaviors. Eleven zoo-born horses were brought to Le Villaret in 1993. Horses born there are adapted to life in the wild: they are free to choose their own mates and must forage on their own. Such a unique breeding site was necessary to produce the individuals that were reintroduced to Mongolia in 2004 and 2005. In 2012 there were 39 individuals at Le Villaret.
The Przewalski's Horse Reintroduction Project of China was initiated in 1985 when 11 wild horses were imported from overseas. After more than two decades of effort, the Xinjiang Wild Horse Breeding Centre has bred a large number of the horses, of which 55 were released into the Kalamely Mountain area. The animals quickly adapted to their new environment. In 1988, six foals were born and survived, and by 2001 there were over 100 horses at the centre. As of 2013, the center hosted 127 horses divided into 13 breeding herds and three bachelor herds.
Reintroductions organized by western European countries started in 1990s. These were later stopped, mostly for financial reasons. Prague Zoo started a new cycle of transporting horses to the wild, which, with the support of public and many strategic partners, continues today.
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martes, 7 de marzo de 2017
Sundial Project
If you want to know what time it is, you probably watch at your wristwatch or mobile phone. But imagine that you live some centuries ago... Sundials are the oldests known instrument for telling the time. In fact, the earliest known sundial was made by Egyptians about 3.500 BC. As the Sun moves across the sky, the shadows objects cast move too. And people use this movement to know the time.
There are two parts in a sundial. One of them is called a gnomon; normally a stick that cast a shadow. The other one is a flat surface with marks, one for each hour of the day, where the shadow is projected. This is the dial plate. Those marks are usually numbered lines, the hour lines, that show the hours of the day. As the day passes, the gnomon' shadow moves around the dial; the shadow falls on a new line every hour.
Our Science Week is coming; and as every year, we are going to work about sundials. We are going to learn about these instruments, how they work, different types of sundials. And the most important... you are going to build your own sundial. Don't worry; it's very easy. Here you have some sundials made by students last year.
But, in my opinion, it is important to know about sundials in Granada too. How many sundials are there in Granada? Where are they? What kind of sundial is every one of them? Answer these questions as comments. Please, and if you can, take photos of those sundials. Send them to me and I will include your images in our blog.
And now, a very difficult question: where is the sundial of the picture below?
Construcción de relojes solares. Incluye la descripción de los principales tipos de relojes de sol así como plantillas de los cuadrantes solares para relojes orientados.
Algunos modelos de relojes solares.
Relojes solares otras semanas de la ciencia del IES Zaidín Vergeles.
La sombra del tiempo. Relojes solares del IES Zaidín Vergeles en el diario Granada Hoy.
Son muchas las páginas web dedicadas a la gnomónica y a la construcción de relojes solares. Algunas de las más representativas son:
Relojes de Sol de Mallorca.
Reloj andalusí. Web andaluza de relojes solares.
Relojes de Sol de la provincia de Málaga.
Asociación Amigos de los relojes de Sol.
North America Sundials Society.
Sundials on the Internet.
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Friday, June 20, 2008
O.S. "Ozzie" Williams 1921-
-A NASA scientist who invented the first radar that could locate downed planes.
-He was the chief developer of the Apollo lunar lander engines.
Ozzie Williams*Ozzie Williams was born on this date in 1921. He is an African-American Engineer. From Washington, D. C., his father was Oswald S. Williams, a postal worker, and his mother was Marie (Madden) Williams, a housewife. He grew up in New York, graduating from Boys High School in Brooklyn in 1938. Williams became interested in engineering as a teenager. He loved to make model airplanes and decided to become an engineer after a family friend described an engineer as a person who designs things. Williams went to New York University where a dean discouraged him because he was black. Williams completed his bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering at New York University in 1943; he received his master's degree in aeronautical engineering from the same institution in 1947. During World War II, Williams was a senior aerodynamicist with the Republic Aviation Corporation. He helped to design the P47 Thunderbolt, which was pivotal in the war effort. In 1947 Williams moved to the Babcock and Wilcox Company, where he was a design draftsman. He then spent two years as a technical writer with the United States Navy Material Catalog Office, leaving in 1950 to take an engineering position at Greer Hydraulics, Inc. At Greer, as a group project leader, he was responsible for the development of the first experimental airborne radio beacon, which was used to locate crashed airplanes. In 1956, Williams moved to the Reaction Motors Division of Thiokol Chemical Corporation, where he was responsible for pioneering work on small rocket engines. Grumman International hired Williams as a propulsion engineer in 1961 because of his expertise on liquid-fuel rockets. He had published several papers on the subject, one of which, "On the feasibility of liquid bipropellant rockets for spacecraft attitude control," was translated into Russian. At Grumman, Williams managed the development of the Apollo Lunar Module reaction control subsystem. Williams was fully responsible for the $42 million effort for eight years. He managed the three engineering groups that developed the small rocket motors--which used 100 pounds of thrust in comparison to the 10,500 pounds of thrust of the lunar module's main engine--that guided the lunar module, the part of the Apollo spacecraft that actually landed on the moon. Williams went on to become their company vice president in 1974. After leaving Grumman he became a marketing professor at St. John's University in Queens, New York, where he had completed an M.B.A. in 1981. Williams was a member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, as well as an associate fellow and past chair of its Liquid Rockets Technical Committee. The second African-American to receive a degree in aeronautical engineering, in 1993, O. S. and Doris Reid Williams celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary.veloper of the Apollo lunar lander engines.
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Edit Article
A laminator is a piece of equipment that fuses 2 pieces of plastic together with paper in between. Laminating is a way to preserve items that are important. Laminators are used in schools to protect bulletin boards and posters and they are used in offices where badges and licenses are made. A laminator can be a large machine that stays in a permanent location, or a smaller movable machine. Follow these steps to use a laminator.
1. 1
Load the laminating film into the laminating machine. Most machines require 2 separate rolls of film. The machine's directions should give step by step details on how to load the rolls of film.
2. 2
Preheat the laminator. Turn the laminating machine on so that it can warm up. The specific directions that come with your laminator should tell how long to preheat the machine. Most machines have a light that signals when the machine is turned on and another light that signals when the machine is ready to laminate.
3. 3
Prepare the paper to be laminated. You will want to cut and trim the item to be laminated to look exactly as you wish it to look once the plastic has been fused into place.
4. 4
Place the paper to be laminated on the laminator shelf. Push it right up next to the rolls of film, so that the machine can grab hold of the paper easily.
5. 5
Flip the feed switch. The laminator will begin to pull the paper into the machine.
6. 6
Wait until the paper being laminated has gone completely through the machine. Let it continue to run to get the film at a place where you can cut it.
7. 7
Stop the feed by pushing the stop button. Try not to start and stop the lamination in the middle of a project.
8. 8
Cut the laminating film with scissors behind the item that has been laminated. Some machines have a perforated edge for tearing the laminating film.
9. 9
Trim the laminating film away from the item that has been laminated leaving 1/8 inch (3mm) border of film around the edges.
10. 10
Turn off the laminator heat when you are finished laminating.
• Practice using the laminator. You may want to start with items that are not as important until you are more comfortable with how to use this machine.
• There are rather large laminators that can laminate posters. If the item you want to laminate is too large for the laminating machine, you might consider cutting it in half to laminate.
• Most types of paper can be laminated. This includes cardstock and poster board.
• You can place more than 1 item at a time to be laminated in the machine. Just be sure to leave plenty of space between the items. You can also keep inserting items into the feeder one after the other. Just be careful that your items do not overlap.
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Español: usar una laminadora, Italiano: Usare un Laminatore, Português: Usar uma Laminadora, Русский: пользоваться ламинатором
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Operation Pluto: The plan to bring oil to France for the 1944 invasion of Normandy
Boban Docevski
When the Allied forces started to plan their invasion of Normandy (Operation Overlord), oil was among the resources they needed the most.
During this time, most fuel was transported by oil tankers that were exposed to attacks by German submarines. Most of the tankers were also used in the Pacific War, so the British and American forces needed an alternative way of transporting fuel to France. This is how Operation Pluto was born.
Operation Pluto was a plan devised by British engineers, oil companies, and the armed forces to construct undersea oil pipelines under the English Channel between England and France. This was supposed to provide a steady stream of oil for the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944.
A surviving segment of the pipeline at Shanklin Chine / Photo credit
The chief engineer behind this project was Arthur Hartley from the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. He proposed using modified submarine telephone cable as pipes and his idea was accepted. Research and testing began in 1942 and soon, two different types of pipelines were developed: a flexible HAIS (Hartley-Anglo-Iranian-Siemens) pipe with a three inch (75 mm) diameter lead core, weighing around 55 long tons per nautical mile; and a less flexible steel pipe of similar diameter, developed by engineers from the Iraq Petroleum Company and the Burmah Oil Company, called HAMEL.
A stripped section of a PLUTO pipe / Photo credit
The first type of pipe was good, but it turned out that it was more expensive for production. It needed a huge amount of lead and obtaining it would mean stripping down every church roof in Britain. The HAMEL pipe was cheaper because it was made of mild steel. During testing, they realized it was better when the final sections of the pipeline were made of HAIS pipe.
Because the HAMEL pipe was less flexible than the first type, they needed to make a special rig called The CONUN drum which would help them deploy the pipes. CONUN Drum is short for Cone-ended drum, which was exactly what this piece of apparatus was.
the CONUN Drum
Pipe wounding on the CONUN Drum in 1944
After several tests, lengths of both of the pipes were laid in the Clyde in June 1942 and their performance was successful; Operation PLUTO was officially part of the Allied plans for the invasion of Europe. They marked this plan as: “strategically important, tactically adventurous, and, from the industrial point of view, strenuous”. This project also demanded bigger ships because the existing cable ships couldn’t carry the load of the pipes and weren’t powerful enough to lay them on the seabed. For this purpose, a few merchant ships were refitted with special gear for pipe-laying.
A Conundrum being towed across the English Channel laying out pipe behind it
The production of the pipes was started on 14 August 1942 with steel from the disused Corby steel works. By 30 October 1942, 30 miles of cable were finished and loaded on board HMS Holdfast for the full-scale rehearsal of Operation PLUTO. The rehearsal was successful and the results contributed to a few modifications that made the pipeline even more efficient.
Work on the first line to France began on 12 August 1944. This initial pipeline was laid over the 130 km (70 nautical miles) from Shanklin Chine on the Isle of Wight across the English Channel to Cherbourg. As the battles continued and allied forces came closer to Germany, 17 more lines (11 HAIS and 6 HAMEL) were laid from Dungeness to Ambleteuse in the Pas-de-Calais.
When the PLUTO pipeline started pumping oil to France, the officials were very disappointed by its performance. from June to October 1944 it managed to bring only 150 barrels per day, which was just 0.16% of the total need of the Allied forces.
One of the PLUTO pumps used for pumping oil across the English Channel / Photo credit
As the war effort continued, the pipeline got better and better: in January 1945, it managed to pump 305 tons per day and by March its efficiency increased to 3,048 tons per day. By the end of the war, a total of 781 000 m³ of fuel had been transported to the troops in Europe. It became the main Allied supply line for fuel until a better solution was found and it remained in use even after the war.
Remains of the pipeline can be traced on different locations around Romney Marsh. In some parts, the pipes crossed water drainage ditches and were enclosed in concrete cases above ground. Some of these cases can still be found.
The pumping station at Sandown was disguised as “Brown’s Ice Cream”. The building is still used today / Photo credit
The importance of the PLUTO pipeline can be measured with the Mulberry Harbors (built after D-Day). This operation entered the hall of fame of military engineering as one of the biggest feats in history.
Read another story from us: Out of Gas: Photos from the 1973 Oil Crisis in the United States
Besides its importance during WWII, this pipeline also laid the foundations for future flexible pipe technology that is crucial for offshore oil drilling.
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“Ernest Hemingway is the writer perhaps most famous for his pithy writing style.”
According to what’s shown above, what is the best definition of pithy?
Check your answer!
Choice A - Confusing or misleading but not deliberately so
Choice B - Hilariously entertaining in language or style
Choice C - Verbose or circuitous in language
Choice D - Concise and to the point but full of meaning
Pithy (adjective) – concise and to the point while still being clever, persuasive, or otherwise full of meaning (or full of pith)
Pith (noun) – the core or essence of something; significant weight or substance; or, the spongy interior of a plant
GRE pro tips:
In plants, the “pith” refers to the spongy interior substance that helps transport nutrients and holds water. Similarly, if an argument or writing has pith, then it both has substance and holds water. The related adjective pithy describes writing and speech that has pith. So, pithy language is full of substance — it may be clever or persuasive – while still concise, or to the point. Pithy is the opposite of other common GRE words that refer to someone using more words than necessary: Words like circuitous, prolix, and verbose indicate excess wordiness that detracts from the power and clarity of writing or speech.
The writer who is perhaps most famous for pithy writing is Earnest Hemingway. His advice to F. Scott Fitzgerald was to “write the best story and write it as straight as you can.”
Example sentences:
“The speech was short but passionate and pithy in expression.”
“Whereas his first book was a silly schoolgirl romance, his latest novel had surprisingly pith.”
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Greed in the Bible and The Pearl
John Steinbeck was born on February 27, 1903 and passed away on December 20, 1968, he is widely known for his Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Grapes of Wrath. His novella The Pearl, was published in 1947 and functions as a parable about greed and evil, telling a simple story to get a big point across. The story focuses on a poor man and his wife who find an enormous pearl, for which their entire village becomes greedy. Steinbeck uses his biblical reference of “A Pearl of Great Price” to illuminate the severity of greed through his protagonist Kino to further show the identity change in man and society from the acquisition of greed.
Greed was given to the Earth through the seven seals. The seven seals are in the book of Revelation, the seven seals present the scroll of the apocalypse and each seal represents one of the seven ways that will un-doubtingly cause the end to our world and highlight the coming of Christ. The four horsemen deliver the first four seals. The Bible states “When he opened the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth living creature say, “Come!” And I saw, and behold, a pale horse, and its rider’s name was Death, and Hades followed him; and they were given the power over a fourth of the earth, to kill with sword and with famine and with pestilence and by wild beasts of the earth” (Revelation 6:7-9), the ,“I,” in this section is John who is having a vision of God on his throne, John is bearing witness to the steps that will lead to the coming of Christ and the end of Earth. The fourth rider symbolizes death that results from war and famine when men turn against each other. Each rider adds to what the previous rider already stated about their seal, “And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say, A measure of wheat for a denarius, and three measures of barley for a denarius; and [see] thou hurt not the oil and the wine” (Revelation 6:5-6), stated above, the third seals brings forth economic hardships and poverty that follow the unleashing of wars on humankind, while the rich get richer. The forth adds that the result of wars is death because the men turned against each other, the men turn against each other because of greed. The men see the rich getting richer and want that life which turns them against one another. The four horsemen have introduced greed, and as time goes on society is able to highlight specifically ways in which greed is influenced on people in modern time.
In the film, “Now You See Me,” directed by Louis Lettier, the first 15 minutes of the film shows the greedy eyes of Americans as they bound in the air reaching for money falling from the ceiling of a magician show. In the film the four magicians call themselves the four horsemen, correlating themselves with the four horsemen from the book of Revelation, in essence the film depicts the magicians raining down greed and the audience responds by acting out instead of sitting quietly and properly watching the show. The audience acting out shows a way in which greed has influenced people from the introduction of greed by the four horsemen of Revelation. Acting out of the norm shows a drive in people, a drive that starts during one’s childhood. Greed is usually formed during childhood starting with the lack of nourishment. A psychoanalysis named Melanie Klein, “saw greed developing out of the earliest experiences of being fed or not fed, of having hunger frustrated or gratified, and Klein inferred fantasies, fears, and mental processes occurring in the minds of infants as a consequence of these early oral experiences,” (Winarick 3) according to Klein, greed develops at an early age. As these neglected children grow up there is a constant barbarous cycle of distress and vexation, from not having enough, leading to more ideas of wanting more of an object they don’t get enough of. According to Klein the influence of greed therefore is distributed from the parents whether the parents realize it or not!
As the bible says, “Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom,” (Matthew 24:7), reminding society that men being greedy of other man’s riches is where greed is derived from along with the lack of parental attention/nourishment to their child. The fourth seal of pestilences reflects greed as being a disease; the parents’ acquisition of greed is acquired through war according to the bible. Greed’s existence as a disease can infect people and it will spread. According to physician Halley Faust she believes greed began to really take shape during the 1990s when “an anticipation of rapid wealth came from an over-hyped culture nurtured by entrepreneurs, investment bankers, venture capitalists, investment analysts and the news media,” (Faust 1), rapid wealth help spread this infectious disease beginning in the “rarified atmosphere of executive suites, but it spread throughout the land — at the family meal, the bridge game and the corner grocery store. The virus took hold in all of us,” (Faust 11), and made each and every one turn on each other, just as the bible has specified. Whether greed is spread during childhood or through economic business one final fact remains the same, the person who has been infected will receive a side effect of an altered identity.
In John Steinbeck’s novel, “The Pearl” the protagonist Kino exemplifies the definition of greed by means of an altering identity, and what happens when his greed goes untreated. Steinbeck wrote The Pearl during the height of his fame, and based on his personal convictions toward the public. Matthew states, “The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field. When a man found it, he hid it again, and then in his joy went and sold all he had and bought that field. Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant looking for fine pearls. When he found one of great value, he went away and sold everything he had and bought it,” (Matthew 13:44-45), in this story, a jewel for which the merchant trades everything he owns becomes the metaphor for Heaven. Everything in the merchant’s earthly existence, however, becomes worthless when compared to the joys of living with God in Heaven. However, Steinbeck uses the parable as a meditation on the American dream of success. Steinbeck, who himself had risen quickly to prosperity, explores how Kino, the protagonist of, “The Pearl,” deals with his newfound prominence in the community and riches. Kino deals with his pearl by altering identities, Kino begins his transformation first as a seemingly well mannered, and grateful man, “Kino squatted by the fire pit and rolled a hot corncake and dipped it in sauce and ate it. That was the only breakfast he had ever known outside of feast days,” (Steinbeck, 4) Kino’s attitude proves gratefulness and understanding even with the knowledge of higher quality nourishment. Unfortunately as Kino acquires the massive pearl his actions tend to prove differently. Steinbeck states, “Her arm was up to throw when he leaped at her and caught her arm and wrenched the pearl from her. He struck her in the face with his clenched fist and she fell among the boulders, and he kicked her in the side,” (59), obtaining the pearl has caused Kino to struck his wife Juana, because Kino thought she was trying to steal it from him. Before Kino’s act of violence, he was a man of respect even when his financial status poor, but acquiring just the simple idea of money infected him to become greedy causing him to be violent towards his wife, with the idea in mind that his precious pearl would be removed from his possession.
As Klein stated earlier greed forms from a young age, along with Kino’s lack of nourishment, and lack of a medical attention, “this doctor was of a race which for nearly four hundred years despised Kino’s race,” (Steinbeck 9) Kino was granted access to greed, from lack of attention and nourishment even if Kino himself didn’t know it until he got hold of the pearl. Kino’s lack of attention intensifies aggression, which becomes more dominant and is transformed into greed and greedy fantasies of violence. The consequence is a vicious circle of deprivation and frustration and a sense of never having enough, which leads to a further intensification of greedy sadistic fantasies. These fantasies are projected, distorting the image of the hated depriving object, generating a fear that the object now filled with greedy and destructive fantasies will attack and devour in return, resulting in what Klein describes as, “persecutory anxiety, a paranoid fantasy,” (Winarick 3), which is exactly the cycle Kino goes through. Once he acquires the pearl he is joyous of his new founded riches, but as time bears on his own fantasies of what the pearl will bring him consumes him and he becomes aggressive with anyone who will try to take his pearl away, which turns to fear and results in the act of hiding. If one is not cured from these fantasies of greed it will lead to death, “Kino’s brain cleared from its red concentration and he knew the sound-the keening, moaning, rising hysterical cry from the little cave in the side of the mountain, the cry of death,” (Steinbeck 87) the cry of Coyotito dying (Kino’s son). Kino’s rage and greed blinded him from the true happiness of life not materialistic items, or the so-called American Dream he was blinded from the happiness of love and family.
Greed is a vicious cycle, starting at a young age and developing throughout ones life, as the bible says greed is one of the causes of war and it will lead to the end of our existence. The coming of our time is true because of the evidence in Kino; his greed caused the death of his child, his own flesh and blood killed from his own selfishness, which if this act is continuous throughout time, life as we know it will cease and the seven sins will be fulfilled.
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Federalist Architecture
September 7, 2015
Federalist architecture in
Significant Dates
1800: Completion of first White House Federal style heavily influenced by Georgian architecture.
1803: Louisiana purchase. America's territory expands past the Mississippi River. Westward immigration begins in earnest.
1812 — 1815: War of 1812. The war marks a shift from America's dependence on English trade and architectural forms. Adamesque architecture wanes in popularity after the war.
1814: British forces burn the first White House and much of Washington DC.
1825: Erie Canal is completed, speeding the immigration of European settlers into the western territories.
1830: United States Capitol completed. The Greek Revival building is the model for many later public buildings, prompting the style to become known as the "National" Style.
1837: City of Chicago incorporated. By 1860 it has become the largest city in the region and the center of America's growing industrialization.
1861—1865: US Civil War. The war marks the end of the popularity of Federal architecture. Much of the historical architecture of the Southern states is destroyed during the war.
Federal Era buildings predominated post-colonial America, from the creation of the U.S. Constitution to the start of the Civil War. Most civil government buildings were Federal in design, and Federalist houses were very popular throughout the American settlements, especially in New England.
Architecture of the American Federal Era embraced the optimism and boldness of the growing nation, and marked a gradual trend toward the unification of forms between the regions. A more harmonized pattern of national architecture was beginning to emerge.
Adam Shortly after the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, the Federal, or Adam, style became widely popular throughout the newly unified country. Based on the designs of British architect Robert Adam, this style incorporates many features found in Georgian homes, such as cornices with tooth-like dentils or other decorative molding and double-hung windows with six panes in each sash. Additionally, they often incorporate an elliptical fanlight over the front door, with side lights and decorative crowns as ornamentation.
Source: www.houseofantiquehardware.com
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Once thought extinct, the world's largest bee spotted for first time in nearly 30 years
Posted: 8:07 AM, Feb 22, 2019
Updated: 2019-02-22 09:07:21-05
The Wallace's giant bee is as big as a human thumb.
That might be frightening to most people, but scientists were delighted when a team of researchers recently found it in Indonesia.
It's the largest bee in the world, and scientists feared it might be extinct -- until now.
A group of researchers made a stunning "rediscovery" of the elusive critter and took the first photos and video of a living Wallace's giant bee on January 25.
The team -- composed of natural history photographer Clay Bolt, entomologist Eli Wyman, behavioral ecologist Simon Robson and ornithologist Glenn Chilton -- spent years studying the bee and slogged around in humid Indonesia forests for days before stumbling upon one.
The rediscovery has renewed hope that more of the region's forests are home to the rare species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies this species as "vulnerable" due to mining and quarrying.
Only two other lucky fellows are documented to have seen it in person before. The first was British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, who discovered the giant bee in 1858 while exploring the tropical Indonesian island of Bacan. Entomologist Adam Messer became the second in 1981.
The team went from termite nest to nest in the forests of remote islands known as the North Moluccas, Bolt said.
They had some information about the bee's habitat and behavior from Messer's paper, and they examined satellite imagery to become familiar with the terrain. They knew the Wallace's giant bee tended to be found in the lowland forest and tree-dwelling termite nests.
However, deforestation in Indonesia has ramped up in the past decade to pave way for agriculture. This meant the bee's natural habitat had been shrinking -- and with it, the chances of people seeing it.
They observed nests for about half an hour before moving onto the next. At times, they thought they'd encountered the giant bee, only to find out that it had been a wasp, Bolt said.
On the last day of a 5-day area search, the team's guide and interpreter spotted an interesting-looking nest about 8 feet off the ground. When Bolt climbed onto a tree to take a closer look into the mound, he saw a lone female Wallace's giant bee.
"It was a remarkable, humbling moment," Bolt said. After the team recovered from the intial excitement, they set out to photograph the bee in its natural environment.
They waited a couple hours for her to emerge from the nest, but she was camera shy.
Finally, the researchers decided to tickle the bee with a piece of grass, and she walked right out into a large tube. Once they released her from the tube, Bolt was able to capture the bee flying in front of the nest.
Robson, who studies animal behavior and evolution, said the bee they observed "wasn't very aggressive."
Only four years ago, Bolt and Wyman were dreaming about seeing a real Wallace's giant bee in the wild.
The two met while Bolt was on a shoot in New York. At the time, Wyman was working in the American Museum of Natural History and offered to show Bolt a Wallace's giant bee specimen.
"Eli and I began to talk about, 'Wouldn't it be cool to rediscover this in the wild?'" Bolt said.
So they started planning over the course of three years. In October 2018, the two were contacted by Robson and Chilton, who were on the same quest.
"We decided to join forces," Robson said. The first time they all met was at the Chicago airport.
When the team arrived at its first site, they found that the local residents had never seen -- or heard of -- what they were looking for. They even spoke with a local birding guide, but came up with nothing.
"People couldn't believe we were there looking for a bee," Bolt said.
Now that they've found it, Bolt hopes to work with local conservationists and potentially turn the Wallace's giant bee into a flagship species for the area.
"With all the bad news coming out about things in the natural world, this (rediscovery) gives me hope," Bolt said.
Robson is optimistic that the bee will continue to thrive.
"There's still a lot of forest and there's time and good hope for the bee and its survival," Robson said.
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Interjections are one of the easier parts of speech for kids to remember. They almost always come right at the beginning of a sentence, and express great emotion. They're fun! This instructional activity gives young readers 12 sentences in which they must find the interjections and underline them. This would be an ideal homework assingment, or in-class task.
11 Views 14 Downloads
Resource Details
3rd - 4th
Resource Types
1 more...
Usage Permissions
Fine Print
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Musashi Miyamoto
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Later Life and Death.
The departure of a legendary figure.
In 1640, Musashi officially became the retainer of Hosokawa Tadatoshi, Lord of Kumamoto, and received seventeen loyal retainers at his service and Chiba Castle as his residence.
During the following year, 1641, Musashi wrote the "Hyoho Sanju Go", or "The Thirty-five Instructions on Strategy" for Hosokawa Tadatoshi.
This was a book dedicated to his fighting philosophy and technique, and it would form the basis of his masterpiece, the "Go Rin No Sho", which would come into being two years later.
In 1642, Musashi suffered attacks of neuralgia, a painful disorder of the nerves. Feeling that his end was near, in 1643, Musashi retired to a cave named Reigando near Kumamoto to write his "Go Rin No Sho", or "The Book of Five Rings". He finished it in the second month of 1645 and gave it to his closest student.
On the twelfth day of the fifth month, he finished writing 'Dokkodo', or "The Way of Walking Alone", a book on self-discipline, which was intended as a guide to future generations.
He died in Reigando cave on around the nineteenth day of the fifth month, possibly on June 13, 1645.
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The Language of Catechesis
The language of catechesis may be unfamiliar, but it’s a time-honored word, and worth recovering. It’s a biblical and historically rich word, and carries with it an important set of assumptions about Christian formation, which marks it out as a peculiar form of instruction or religious education. As a way of introduction, it may be helpful to know how various derivations of the word are used, as they often take on different shades of meaning.[1]
Catechesis is a noun referring to the general art of instructing new believers in the faith, with a view towards comprehensive instruction in the basic tenants of belief, spirituality, and ethics.
A catechist is someone who does this teaching, while a catechumen is one who is taught—a “hearer.” In the early church, catechumen entailed a particular status in the church. They were not considered a pagan or outsider, but neither were they full members—they were not yet baptized, and could not participate in the Eucharist.
To catechize is the verb form referring to this kind of teaching, while catechetical is the adjectival form.
Catechetics is a way of describing the study of catechesis—similar to the way homiletics refers to the art of preaching.
The catechumenate is a term that refers to a process or period of time devoted to the instruction of new Christians. While this specific term wasn't used in the early church, the concept started to emerge. In the early church, one could be a catechumen anywhere from one to three years. By the fourth century, the catechumenate concluded with an intense time of training during the season of Lent, just before Easter when baptisms took place.
By the late Middle Ages and early Reformation period (late fifteenth, early sixteenth century), the term catechism emerged, usually in reference to a text in a question-and-answer format that those preparing for baptism would memorize and be tested on. In general it refers to the content of catechesis—what is taught.
During the Reformation, a number of catechisms appeared: Martin Luther wrote a Small and Large Catechism, Calvin wrote a Genevan Catechism, which underwent several editions, and later Reformed churches developed the Heidelberg Catechism, the large and small Westminster Catechisms, and several others. The Roman Catholic Church formulated its primary catechism during the Council of Trent at the end of the sixteenth century, and has since produced variations in local languages, the most recent being the English-language Catechism of the Catholic Church, published in 1992.
The difference between a catechism and a confession is that whereas a confession simply states a denomination’s doctrinal emphases, a catechism is typically presented in a question-and-answer format, and was designed especially for teaching and memorization. In the centuries following the Reformation, many Protestant pastors and theologians wrote catechisms in order to teach their flocks the basics of the faith, adapted to their particular circumstances and what was deemed most pressing.
[1] A similar set of definitions can be found in J. I. Packer and Gary Parrett, Grounded in the Gospel: Building Believers the Old-Fashioned Way (Downer’s Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2010), 27–28.
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It is generally acknowledged that the various styles in architecture were the results of necessity, and originated in accordance with the different pursuits of the early inhabitants of the earth; and were brought by their descendants to their present state of perfection, through the propensity for imitation and desire of emulation which are found more or less among all nations. Those that followed agricultural pursuits, from being employed constantly upon the same piece of land, needed a permanent residence, and the wooden hut was the offspring of their wants; while the shepherd, who followed his flocks and was compelled to traverse large tracts of country for pasture, found the tent to be the most portable habitation; again, the man devoted to hunting and fishing - an idle and vagabond way of living - is naturally supposed to have been content with the cavern as a place of shelter. The latter is said to have been the origin of the Egyptian style; while the curved roof of Chinese structures gives a strong indication of their having had the tent for their model; and the simplicity of the original style of the Greeks (the Doric) shows quite conclusively, as is generally conceded, that its original was of wood. The pointed, or ecclesiastical style, is said to have originated in an attempt to imitate the bower, or grove of trees, in which the ancients performed their idol-worship. But it is more probably the result of repeated scientific attempts to secure real strength with apparent lightness; thus giving a graceful, aspiring effect.
17. - Orders: or styles, in architecture are numerous; and a knowledge of the peculiarities of each is important to the student in the art. An ORDER, in architecture, is composed of three principal parts, viz.: the Stylobate, the Column, and the Entablature. This appertains chiefly to the classic styles.
18. - The Stylobate: is the substructure, or basement, upon which the columns of an order are arranged. In Roman architecture - especially in the interior of an edifice - it frequently occurs that each column has a separate substructure; this is called a pedestal. If possible, the pedestal should be avoided in all cases; because it gives to the column the appearance of having been originally designed for a small building, and afterwards pieced out to make it long enough for a larger one.
19. - The Column: is composed of the base, shaft, and capital.
20. - The Entablature: above and supported by the columns, is horizontal; and is composed of the architrave, frieze, and cornice. These principal parts are again divided into various members and mouldings.
21. - The Base: of a column is so called from basis, a foundation or footing.
Interior Of St. Stephens, Paris
Interior Of St. Stephens, Paris.
22. - The Shaft: the upright part of a column standing upon the base and crowned with the capital, is from shafto, to dig - in the manner of a well, whose inside is not unlike the form of a column.
23. - The Capital: from kephale or caput, the head, is the uppermost and crowning part of the column.
24. - The Architrave: from archi, chief or principal, and trabs, a beam, is that part of the entablature which lies in immediate connection with the column.
25. - The Frieze: from fibron, a fringe or border, is that part of the entablature which is immediately above the architrave and beneath the cornice. It was called by some of the ancients zophorus, because it was usually enriched with sculptured animals.
26. - The Cornice: from corona, a crown, is the upper and projecting part of the entablature - being also the uppermost and crowning part of the whole order.
27. - The Pediment: above the entablature, is the triangular portion which is formed by the inclined edges of the roof at the end of the building. In Gothic architecture, the pediment is called a gable.
28. - The Tympanum: is the perpendicular triangular surface which is enclosed by the cornice of the pediment.
29. - The Attic: is a small order, consisting of pilasters and entablature, raised above a larger order, instead of a pediment. An attic story is the upper story, its windows being usually square.
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Public Release:
Scientists show newborn ducklings can acquire notions of 'same' and 'different'
University of Oxford
The ducklings therefore 'imprinted' on these pairs of moving objects before being tested for their preferences between different sets of objects. In these subsequent choice tests, each duckling was allowed to follow either of two pairs of objects composed of shapes or colours to which the duckling had not previously been exposed.
For example, if an individual duckling had originally been exposed to a pair of spherical objects, in the choice test it may have had to choose between following a pair of pyramids (same) or a pair made up of one cube and one cuboid (different).
If the birds had learned the relationship between members of the original moving pair, then they should have followed the pairs of novel objects showing that same relationship (either 'same' or 'different'), even if they had never seen the test objects.
In the example above, ducklings that had been imprinted on two spheres should have followed the set of two pyramids, because they were the same as each other. This is exactly what the ducklings did.
'And because imprinting happens so quickly, the ducklings learned to discriminate relational concepts much faster than other species, and with a similar level of precision.'
'Ducks walk, swim and fly, and are constantly changing their exact shape and appearance as they extend their wings or become partially submerged, or even change angle with respect to the viewer. If the ducklings just had a visual "snapshot" of their mother, they would lose her. They need to be able to flexibly and reliably identify her, and a library of concepts and characteristics describing her is a much more efficient way to do so, compared with a visual memory of every possible configuration of the mother and her environment.
'Still, this is an unexpected feat for a duckling, and a further reminder that "bird-brain" is quite an unfair slur.'
The discovery of relational concept learning in a new species and in a newly hatched baby bird suggests that this ability may not be as rare or as difficult as previously thought.
Professor Kacelnik added: 'It may mean that relational concepts are adaptively useful or even necessary to a wider variety of animal. Most animals will, like the ducklings, need identification mechanisms that are robust to natural variation. A challenge we face now is to identify the processes by which the animals' brains achieve it.'
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"url": "https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2016-07/uoo-ssn071216.php"
}
|
News & media
Learning from ants how to build transportation networks
Press release
21 October 2015
Using mathematical modeling and field data, researchers at the mathematics department at Uppsala University have found the basic rules that allow ants to build efficient and low cost transport networks without discarding robustness. The study is now published in the Royal Society journal Interface.
We live in a world that is deeply interconnected. Nowadays, transportation networks are fundamental to exchange resources and information from a point to another, from a person to another. Every day we travel on roads, we use electricity and water that are carried from distant plants, we connect to the internet to read about facts happened on the other side of the world. Ideally, we would like to be able to travel between cities on the shortest way possible, but sometimes we have to follow long detours.
Almost everyone in his life has experienced a black out: sometimes the breakdown of a cable is enough to compromise the distribution of electricity in a whole suburb. However, we all know how expensive it is to install new cables at home, and we can imagine the cost of building a highway.
Thus network planners struggle to build transportation systems that are efficient and robust, but also not too expensive, trying to find the best compromise between competing design goals.
Searching for inspiration, researchers have turned towards nature, observing the spontaneous formation process of natural transportation networks, from ant trails to leaf veins.
A two-year long field study recently provided a large data set consisting of several trail networks built by the Australian meat ant to connect different nests spread over a wide territory.
‘What is amazing about these ants is that they don’t rely on engineering to plan their networks, however it turns out that they are able to find a specific balance between cheapness, efficiency and robustness,’ explains Tanya Latty, researcher in biology at the University of Sydney.
Researchers from the department of mathematics at Uppsala University have developed a model to understand how these networks have formed. Using data and numerical simulations, they were able to identify a general mechanism of local cost minimization as the basic rule that leads to a balance between competing design goals. The study showed that when building a new nest, the ants connect it to the closest nest available and possibly to a tree, that is where the ants feed, if it is not too far away.
‘Once we have found what nature does, we have tried to apply the same simple rules to predict what would happen to man-made system, electric grids for example, if they were built by these ants,’ says Arianna Bottinelli, PhD student at Uppsala University.
It turns out that, when building a new suburb, it is sufficient to connect it to the closest city area to ensure that the whole power network will be relatively cheap but also quite efficient in the long run. Then robustness can be increased or decreased by changing the frequency with which new suburbs are connected to service centers, in this specific example to power plants.
‘It is a further step towards the understanding of nature and an attempt to use what we observe there to improve and advise the design of human-made systems,’ says David J.T. Sumpter, Professor at the Department of Mathematics at Uppsala University.
Bottinelli A, van Wilgenburg E, Sumpter DJT, Latty T. 2015 Local cost minimization in ant transport networks: from small-scale data to large-scale trade-offs. J. R. Soc. Interface 20150780.
For more information, please contact Arianna Bottinelli at or at +46 708236394
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<urn:uuid:23718392-092c-40a8-aeca-43748da8f6e4>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.02802860736846924,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9527952671051025,
"url": "https://www.uu.se/en/news-media/press-releases/press-release/?id=2960&area=3,8&typ=pm&lang=en"
}
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Document Type
Open Access Article
Within recorded history. most Southeast Asian peoples have been of "southern Mongoloid" physical type, whether they speak Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Austronesian, Tai-Kadai, or Hmong-Mien languages. However, population distributions suggest that this is a post-Pleistocene phenomenon and that for tens of millennia before the last glaciation ended Greater Mainland Southeast Asia, which included the currently insular world that rests on the Sunda Shelf, was peopled by short, dark-skinned, frizzy-haired foragers whose descendants in the Philippines came to be labeled by the sixteenth-century Spanish colonizers as "negritos," a term that has since been extended to similar groups throughout the region. There are three areas in which these populations survived into the present so as to become part of written history: the Philippines, the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands. All Philippine negritos speak Austronesian languages, and all Malayan negritos speak languages in the nuclear Mon-Khmer branch of Austroasiatic, but the linguistic situation in the Andamans is a world apart. Given prehistoric language shifts among both Philippine and Malayan negritos, the prospects of determining whether disparate negrito populations were once a linguistically or culturally unified community would appear hopeless. Surprisingly, however, some clues to a common negrito past do survive in a most unexpected way.
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<urn:uuid:bf5b93a9-de8e-40a7-9ee6-01ee7d961fca>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.04157257080078125,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9396988153457642,
"url": "https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/18/"
}
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Intertidal Creatures
Plumed Worm Plumed Worm
What are they?
The muddy and sandy zone that occurs along beaches and back bays between the high water mark and the low water mark is known as the intertidal zone. This can be a tough place for any creature to live, requiring the ability to survive in saltwater while the tide is in, then survive in much drier conditions while the tide is out - to say nothing of the trials of surviving the wave action during rising and falling tides. Creatures of these zones include a number of species that are covered elsewhere on this site, such as crabs, shrimps and various shellfish, so this section serves as a catch-all for anything not included on those pages.
This is a mixed bag of species, many of which are small or elusive and thus some are more easily identified by sign of their presence, or by their 'homes' rather than by the creatures themselves. Work through the pictures and text below for clues to identification.
Plumed Worm Diopatra cuprea
An abundant species of intertidal waters in the backbays and along the bayshore. Plumed worms are large (up to one foot long) worms that have seven antennae on their heads and a 'plume' of gills just behind the head. Finding them would involve digging into the mud when the tide is out, but they make their presence obvious by making tubes within which they live. The top of these tough, membranous tubes project some two or three inches proud of the surface and are encrusted in various objects that the worms can find nearby - usually including pieces of seaweed, broken shell and the like.
Plumed Worm Plumed Worm
Detritus-covered tubes
Detritus-covered tube
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"fasttext_score": 0.11991286277770996,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9621346592903137,
"url": "http://capemaywildlife.com/_templates/beachgroup_intertidal.html"
}
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Oregon's Roaring Twenties Bring Mixed Record
Drawing of Columbia Gorge view point with 1920s car and people standing looking out.
Tourists take in a panoramic view looking east from Crown Point in the Columbia River Gorge. The success of the Columbia River Highway inspired Oregon leaders to improve other roads in the 1920s. (Postcards, Accession 88A-057, OSA)
Building the State
Economic Challenges
While the 1920s "roared" through much of the American economy, in many ways they only whimpered in Oregon. World War I heated up Oregon's economy with demand for the production of ships, lumber, grain and other materials. But in its wake, the state's economy faltered as farming slumped and orders to shipyards and lumber mills declined precipitously. Housing starts dropped, stock market speculation increased, banks grew more unsteady. Looking for brighter horizons, 50,000 Oregonians left the state after World War I.
Oregon's Good Roads Movement
One impediment to economic prosperity was the state's transportation system. Certainly, Oregon had a network of railroad, stage, and steamboat routes, but its road system could only be described as primitive. A spectacular exception was the just completed Columbia River Highway, which provided both inspiration and impetus to push modern road building forward statewide. After passing the nation's first gas tax to pay for roads in 1919, Oregon moved at full speed to construct a network of modern paved and concrete roads. The campaign to "Get Oregon Out of the Mud" began to pay dividends as highway projects such as the Pacific Highway and later the Oregon Coast Highway captured the imaginations of wandering Americans. Meanwhile, great efforts went into enhancing a network of farm to market roads linking agricultural communities with railroads and other shipping resources.
Social Trends
Americans indulged in the ironic combination of excess and Prohibition during the 1920s, all in search of what President Harding called "normalcy." Symbolic of the decade, alcoholic beverages were illegal but plentiful at the same time, leading to the rise of organized crime and other distortions of the social fabric.
New Freedoms and an Advertising Age
Photo of Charlie Chaplin wearing hat and tie.
Actor and filmmaker Charlie Chaplin.
As it struggled economically in the 1920s, Oregon also experienced the excitement and fears of the tumultuous social and cultural times. Changes hastened by World War I expressed themselves in American culture as old traditions waned. Many women, newly empowered by the right to vote, broke social constraints on dress and behavior. They "bobbed" their hair, discarded their corsets, wore flapper dresses, listened to jazz music, danced the Charleston and openly smoked cigarettes. Many demanded easier and more equitable divorces along with access to birth control.
Movie idols such as Rudolph Valentino, Clara Bow, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and Charlie Chaplin captivated film audiences. Film plots followed classic themes reflecting ideals of society: farm boy conquers city while remaining pure; poor boy struggles and saves to achieve wealth and happiness; nice boy meets and marries rich girl. Sports combined with the booming advertising profession to create heroes such as Babe Ruth in baseball and Jack Dempsey in boxing. Radio broadcasts and ownership grew rapidly. Automobiles, made more useful by improving roads, provided Oregonians with a level of physical independence they had never known.
Darker Currents
Yet troubling aspects of the society dampened the exuberance for many. The great social experiment of Prohibition led to underground economies, increased organized crime, and an erosion of respect for government. Labor strife boiled over at regular intervals, sometimes leading to violence. Fear and distrust of American radicals as well as foreigners grew while Bolsheviks were seen in the shadows of society.
Oregon State Hosptial during winter shows snow covered ground and bare trees in front.
Eastern Oregon State Hospital, opened in 1913, was one of several state institutions in which residents were sterilized. (Photographs, Box 1, Board of Control Records, OSA)
The Twenties also saw growth in the application of Social Darwinism principles to state institutions. The eugenics movement blossomed in Oregon, leading to the violation of the rights of many disabled and incarcerated citizens. Specifically, a 1923 state law provided for "the sterilization of all feeble-minded, insane, epileptics, habitual criminals, moral degenerates and sexual perverts who are a menace to society..."
The Oregon Eugenics Board regularly made decisions to sterilize residents of the Oregon State Hospital, Oregon State Penitentiary, Eastern Oregon State Hospital and the State Institution for the Feeble-Minded (later Fairview Hospital and Training Center). Officials initially used the law to punish people for having homosexual sex. And, for years they also favored castration over vasectomies as a means of sterilization. The board reasoned that the gene pool would be stronger if "defective" individuals were not allowed to breed. Sterilization was also thought to have a "calming" effect on individuals. Until reforms in 1967, sterilization often was used as a condition of release from state institutions or to punish people who acted out. The board was finally abolished in 1983.Footnote 1
Rise of the Klan
Perhaps the most menacing trend during the decade was the rise of anti-Catholic bigotry and racist vigilante movements, which established a firm foothold in the state. The Ku Klux Klan formed chapters in Portland, Eugene, Medford, Roseburg and other communities. Its members donned robes and paraded through streets igniting crosses and intimidating Catholics and minorities. In 1921 Medford Klan organizers perpetrated "necktie-parties" (near lynchings) against two African Americans suspected of bootlegging as well as against a piano dealer who had filed a lawsuit against a Klan member. Deploring the incidents, Governor Ben Olcott declared: "Oregon needs no masked night riders, no invisible empire, to control her affairs.... The true spirit of Americanism resents bigotry, abhors secret machinations and terrorism, and demands that those who speak for and in her cause speak openly, with their faces to the sun."
But the Klan's rise in the early 1920s carried considerable political clout. In 1923, the Klan-dominated Oregon Legislature passed an Alien Land Law barring Japanese land ownership. The new law came on the heels of a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that Japanese people could not be naturalized citizens. The law passed despite the fact that Japanese aliens held less than 1% of Oregon land in 1920. Similar laws passed in Washington, California and other states.Footnote 2
placeholder image
The organization also endorsed a ballot measure to require children of ages 8 to 16 to go to public schools. While other reasons were given, a primary impetus of the measure was to wipe out Catholic schools. Approximately 7% of Oregon students attended private schools, many of which were Catholic. Most of the state's newspaper editors supported the measure or remained neutral.
The Oregon Legislature decided not to enforce the measure until the courts ruled on it. Finally, the U.S. Supreme Court in "Pierce vs. Society of Sisters" unanimously ruled in 1925 that the bill was an unconstitutional violation of parents' rights to send their children to schools of their choice. By the time of the ruling, the Klan had faded from prominence, a victim of internal conflicts, corruption rumors, and the second thoughts of Oregonians.Footnote 3
The tired end of the frenetic decade saw the event that precipitated the next major era of American history, the Great Depression. The stock market crash of 1929 was more of a symptom of the underlying excesses and weaknesses of the economy than a cause. But it served as a wake up call for the despairing times ahead.
1. Eugenics Board: Oregon Laws, 1923, Ch. 194.
2. Ku Klux Klan: "An Oregon Century" Web Exhibit by The Oregonian.
3. Compulsory school measure: Gordon Dodds, Oregon: A History (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1977); Oregon Blue Book.
Next: Oregon Weathers the Great Depression >
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<urn:uuid:efbad11b-741c-45bf-a368-d88c77058ee9>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.875,
"fasttext_score": 0.03769361972808838,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9562290906906128,
"url": "http://sos.oregon.gov/archives/exhibits/ww2/Pages/before-roaring-20s.aspx"
}
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Charles White, “Frederick Douglass” (1951)
by Lesa Redmond
White’s lithograph creates a unique representation of Frederick Douglass. On the surface, this lithograph seems like any other reproduction of his image, but White portrays a version of Douglass askew from his typical likeness. The white space around his head forms a halo that crowns his checkered hair. The folds of skin that sag beneath his eyes suggest a fatigue that only comes with age. His eyes, framed by large, black eyebrows, give the impression of an intense focus, one compounded by the frontal direction of Douglass’s gaze. Here Douglass is a world-weary man staring back at his audience.
Douglass’s beard and hair send just as forceful a message as they occupy most of the space in the frame. Each strand of Douglass’s hair stretches neatly from his temple down to his cheek before seamlessly transitioning into the flowing hair of his beard. Such a large, elegant rendering gives a calm antithesis to the strained look on his face. It also invokes the Muralist tradition that White was trained in. Douglass’s hair and signify the knowledge and wisdom that is characteristic of a great leader. Ultimately, viewers see Douglass as a wise and praiseworthy leader who is also tired and somber. Such an attitude seems fitting in the context of a Civil Rights movement yet to bear tangible results.
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<urn:uuid:2575dd7d-7b24-4032-80b1-1dea66996dc3>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.03125,
"fasttext_score": 0.04018598794937134,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9664851427078247,
"url": "http://commons.princeton.edu/seeingtoremember/reclaiming/charles-white-frederick-douglass-1951/"
}
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Dating a penn scale
This resulted in a lack of coordination between these armies, which caused a miscarriage of the plan, a forced halt in the German advance, and the subsequent withdrawal north of the Marne.On the Allied side, the debacle of the Russian forces in East Prussia—a crushing defeat at the hands of General —was largely due to an almost total lack of signal communication.They were thus able to maintain contact with their homelands during their far-flung campaigns and to transmit messages with surprising speed. As he advanced upon his conquests he established pigeon relay posts across Asia and much of eastern Europe.He was thus able to use these messengers to transmit instructions to his capital for the governing of his distant dominions.Later Sir Home Popham increased the effectiveness of ship-to-ship communication by improved methods of flag signaling. The development of the of dots and dashes used with key and sounder was soon used to augment the various means of visual signaling.
dating a penn scale-18dating a penn scale-8dating a penn scale-42dating a penn scale-45
The organization and efficiency of the armies varied greatly.
Before the end of the 18th century European armies used the visual telegraph system devised by towers or poles with movable arms.
The Prussian army in 1833 assigned such visual telegraph duties to engineer troops.
At the same time that these elementary methods of signal communication were being evolved on land, a comparable development was going on at sea.
Early signaling between naval vessels was by prearranged messages transmitted by , lights, or the movement of a sail.
Leave a Reply
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<urn:uuid:575a7261-8809-4147-9bf0-a226a6b32921>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.8125,
"fasttext_score": 0.03965872526168823,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9639627933502197,
"url": "http://kihreh.sochiato-mitsubishi.ru/dating-a-penn-scale-65"
}
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By B
Who Was Pericles?
Pericles was born in 495 B.C. to a wealthy family. His father, Xanthippus, was a commander of Athens at the battle of Mycale in 479 B.C. The name Pericles means 'Surrounded by Glory'. In 429 B.C. during the Peloponnesian War a breakout of a plague called the Plague of Athens killed Pericles in 429 B.C.
Why Was Pericles Important?
Pericles was famous for being a well known statesman, a famous orator and a general. His influence was so powerful that he led Athens into a time called the 'Age of Pericles. Pericles also helped found the Delian League.
Pericles, the Delian League, and the Athenian Golden Age
Where Was Pericles From?
Pericles Lived in Athens his whole life. From the time he was born (459 B.C.) to his death in 429 B.C. Pericles was a citizen of Athens and pledged his allegiance to the city/state.
What Did Pericles Do?
The big achievement Pericles did was letting all appointed men, poor or wealthy, could take part in running the government. He also helped found the Delian league. He was a general in many important battles for Athens to.
How Did Pericles Become Famous?
Pericles became famous by influencing many things. He was one of the two people that influenced Athens into a direct democracy.
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<urn:uuid:8841a91f-89c6-4e42-a36d-b635eae80959>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.828125,
"fasttext_score": 0.8763009905815125,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9855080842971802,
"url": "https://www.smore.com/2x2yx"
}
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IncestIncessantnessIncessantlyIncessantIncessancyIncertitudeIncertainInceptionInchInchwormIncidentIncidentalIncidental ExpenseIncidentallyIncinerateIncinerationIncineratorInciseIncisedIncision
1. Inch NounIn
A unit of length equal to one twelfth of a foot.
فٹ کا بارہواں حصہ
Britain, Great Britain, U.K., Uk, United Kingdom, United Kingdom Of Great Britain And Northern Ireland - a monarchy in northwestern Europe occupying most of the British Isles; divided into England and Scotland and Wales and Northern Ireland; `Great Britain` is often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom.
2. Inch VerbEdge
Advance slowly, as if by inches.
He edged towards the car.
آہستہ آگے بڑھنا
Advance, Go On, March On, Move On, Pass On, Progress - move forward, also in the metaphorical sense.
Useful Words
Advance, Advancement, Forward Motion, Onward Motion, Procession, Progress, Progression - the act of moving forward (as toward a goal).
Compeer, Equal, Match, Peer - a person who is of equal standing with another in a group.
Base, Foot, Foundation, Fundament, Groundwork, Substructure, Understructure - lowest support of a structure; "it was built on a base of solid rock".
If - On the condition that; "If Allah wills".
One - a single person or thing; "Do I say one thing if you dont mind?".
Duodecimal, One-Twelfth, Twelfth, Twelfth Part - one part in twelve equal parts.
Unit, Whole - an assemblage of parts that is regarded as a single entity; "how big is that part compared to the whole?".
You are viewing Inch Urdu definition; in English to Urdu dictionary.
Generated in 0.03 Seconds, Wordinn Copyright Notice
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<urn:uuid:45d6f6b4-299c-4a17-9c78-5fa01f577050>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.5444674491882324,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8482273817062378,
"url": "http://urdu.wordinn.com/Inch"
}
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Body Languages2018-07-13T14:01:09+00:00
language of the body
At elc international schools, children have an opportunity to communicate, explore and learn a wide range of body languages through play, soccer, basket ball, swimming, ballet, Thai dance and creative movement.
The body assumes postures, poses, angles, and movement motifs that communicate joy, sadness, conflict, and other emotions. When playing sports, the child moves in ways that instruct a team member what to do: to fake to the right, to mask a move, receive a pass.
Dance clearly requires exquisite sensitivity to what the dance partner’s body has yet not done, but could do, if properly signaled at the correct time. Motion and posture have the power to express emotions and communicate instructions, These are just some ways children demonstrate languages of the body.
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<urn:uuid:b75cb74b-d9b5-4c5c-bd3c-374f76285c42>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.7659664154052734,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9087216854095459,
"url": "https://elc-bangkok.com/body-languages/"
}
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Flashlight Building
9 years and up.
After inspecting a “real” flashlight, students hypothesize about and draw the electrical connections in the flashlight, and what it means to have an open or closed circuit. Students design, build, and solder their own circuit. Placing the circuit into the flashlight casing and decorating the outside provides an exciting outcome for this activity. To close the activity, students are introduced to the convention of using schematics for illustrating electrical parts.
Any children under the age of 9 who attend will not be allowed to participate in soldering due to its dangerous nature.
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<urn:uuid:29748d7b-c7c0-4782-b4d5-50c7aa447d95>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.125,
"fasttext_score": 0.0345035195350647,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.934285581111908,
"url": "https://edgerton.mit.edu/k-12/flashlight-building"
}
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A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, most often written for orchestra, and more recently, con
The word symphony is derived from Greek συμφωνία (symphonia), meaning "agreement or concord of sound", "concert of vocal or instrumental music", from σύμφωνος (symphōnos), "harmonious" (Oxford English Dictionary). The word referred to an astonishing variety of different things, before ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a musical form.
In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for consonance, as opposed to διαφωνία (diaphōnia), which was the word for dissonance (Brown 2001). In the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form symphonia was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously (Brown 2001). Isidore of Seville was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two-headed drum, and from c. 1155 to 1377 the French form symphonie was the name of the organistrum or hurdy-gurdy. In late medieval England, symphony was used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century it was equated with the dulcimer. In German, Symphonie was a generic term for spinets and virginalsfrom the late 16th century to the 18th century (Marcuse 1975, 501).
video 1
video 2
18th century
19th century
20th century
What's included
• 2 Video Lessons
• 4 Text Lessons
• Works on all devices
• Certificate of completion
Abin Das
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<urn:uuid:67eec4a4-a4d3-4362-8208-3bc1e02a6885>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.2786465883255005,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9429459571838379,
"url": "https://appu.zenler.com/courses/symphony-symphony"
}
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Konrad Zuse
Konrad Zuse
Konrad Zuse invented “Computer”
Konrad Zuse was a German engineer, widely credited with manufacturing of the world’s first programmable computer in 1938, long before the world had ever heard of such a thing. Zuse was born in 1910 in Berlin. His family moved to Braunsberg when he was two years old, where his father was a postal clerk. After attending high school, he enrolled at the Technische Hochschule Berlin-Charlottenburg where he obtained a degree in civil engineering in 1935. He was of an artistic nature and used to design advertisements for Ford Motor Company when he was a student.
Zuse began experimenting with the construction of computers when he was living in his parents apartment. He invented a binary computer at the age of 28, mainly to automate the routine calculation work that he was forced to perform at his job. This was the world’s first mechanical binary digital computer, known as the Z1. It was invented in Berlin between 1936 and 1938. Mechanical computers were available at that time but they were expensive and not widely available. It had limited programming ability and was made up of 30000 metallic parts. Zuse applied for and received a patent for his device, but the computer, along with its blueprints was destroyed during a British air raid during World War II. Decades later, in 1987, he recreated it from memory but suffered health problems during its construction. It cost 800,000 Deutsche Mark (approximately $500,000) and required four people just to assemble it. The project funding was provided by Siemens and five other companies.
After the Z1 was destroyed, Zuse continued his efforts independently from other leading computer companies of the day. He worked in isolation between 1936 and 1945. In the meantime he was called for military service, and ultimately managed to obtain the funding needed for construction of the Z2. This was completed in 1940 and occupied several rooms in his parents apartment. It used telephone relay technology and was an improved version of the Z1. Zuse used discarded equipment for the construction of his machine. A further improved model known as the Z3 was completed in 1941, and this was demonstrated to the public. This was the first fully operational electromechanical computer, and was partially financed by German government. Both the Z2 and Z3 models were present in a lab that was destroyed in an air raid in 1943. Fortunately, Zuse had begun construction of the Z4 by this time, which was still intact.
The partially completed Z4 model was then packed and moved from Berlin on 14 February, arriving in Göttingen two weeks later. Zuse could not immediately resume work on his machine, and it was in 1949 that he showed it to a mathematician named Eduard Stiefel working with the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich. Although he had no direct Nazi associations, he chose to take government support where he could get it, else his project would have been entirely stalled. In the 1940s, Zuse constructed the S1 and S2 models through funding given by the German government. These were special devices used to compute aerodynamics of radio controlled flying bombs. The S2 is known as the world’s first process controlled computer. Zuse later formed his own company for the construction and marketing of his machines which makes him the world’s first founder of a computer startup company.
Konrad Zuse has been honored posthumously by the Computer Museum History Center in Mountain View, California for his contributions to computing and being a pioneer in computer manufacturing before mainstream computing became popular or even possible. He was married to Gisela Brandes in January 1945. His eldest son Horst Zuse is a professor at Berlin’s Technische Universität, where his father studied. Zuse died on December 18, 1995 in Hünfeld, Germany from heart failure.
Write About Konrad Zuse
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<urn:uuid:80300f28-5111-4985-9eb6-4c35a5fbacbc>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.1014137864112854,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9911767840385437,
"url": "https://www.famousinventors.org/konrad-zuse"
}
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Literary Techniques: Juxtaposition
In this post, we explain what juxtaposition is and how to talk about it in your responses.
Welcome to our glossary of Literary Techniques JUXTAPOSITION post. This post is part of a series that is aimed at increasing your knowledge of literary techniques and what they do. In this post, we expand on one of the techniques from our Literary Techniques Part 1: Techniques for Analysing a Written Text guide.
Some common questions that students ask are:
• What is juxtaposition?
• How does juxtaposition work?
• How do I discuss juxtaposition in essay?
Here, we will discuss JUXTAPOSITION. Keep reading to find out what juxtaposition is, how it works, and to see some examples of how to discuss juxtaposition in your responses.
Table of Contents
1. What is juxtaposition
2. Analysing juxtaposition – a step-by-step guide
3. Juxtaposition examples
The literary technique of juxtaposition is the placement of two things side-by-side in order to reveal a contrast. Composers can effectively emphasise things by letting the audience to the work.
What is Juxtaposition?
When we place to things side-by-side we can’t help but compare them. Consider the image below:
Image: A pair of Juxtaposed Vases
In this image, we can see two vases. While they are similar in colour and design, they are also quite different in form and shape. They both share the same raised spirals and swirls. The colour of the glaze is also the same. Yet, the shape is different. The one on the left is squat and round with a small lid. The one on the right is tall and slender with a long lid, it also sits on a saucer.
We can spot these things clearly because the vases are sat side by side. This is how juxtaposition operates, by allowing the reader to view things – be they characters or objects or ideas – side-by-side, the reader is compelled to examine the similarities and differences.
Analysing Juxtaposition – A Step-by-Step Process
Analysing techniques can be daunting, but it needn’t be. Really, analysis is just a systematic process. The more you practice it, the easier and more intuitive it becomes.
Let’s look at an overview of the process of looking at juxtaposition:
1. Read the passage and see if two objects, ideas, or places are being compared or contrasted;
2. Examine what is being compared or contrasted;
3. Figure out the effect of the juxtaposition:
1. Ask yourself, “is this comparison positive or negative?”
2. What is the consequence of the juxtaposition on my perspective?
4. Discuss your findings in a T.E.E.L structured response.
Now we’ve got an overview of how to do this, let’s look at the step-by-step process in detail. To do this let’s look at the opening lines of TS Eliot’s poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.
Let us go then, you and I,
When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherized upon a table;
Let’s see how to analyse this extract.
Step 1: Read the passage to see if things are being compared
This passage begins by describing a date as a pair of people prepare to go out. The persona narrating the poem states:
“Let us go then, you and I,
When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherized upon a table;”
There are two distinct images here:
1. The evening spreading out against the sky – this is a description of twilight;
2. A patient being anaesthetised on a surgical table.
These are profoundly different images, aren’t they? Clearly they are being juxtaposed. But why and to what end?
Step 2: Examine what is being compared or contrasted
The persona is describing a date. A date should be a romantic affair. And the description of the evening being “spread out against the sky” bears this up.
But the second image is not. The second image is a medical image an is quite unsettling. This is antithetical to the idea of romance.
Let’s think about the consequence of this comparison.
Step 3: Understand the effect of the juxtaposition
The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock is a critique of modern society and the rituals that were becoming commonplace, and in the persona’s view -sordid.
To this end, the opening lines offer an observation on dating during the early 20th century. Dating should be something romantic and profound, but it was becoming something bleak and procedural – like cutting up a patient on a table.
Clearly the persona is uncomfortable dating, because they perceive that dating has lost its traditional romance and sense of courtship. Instead it it is like prepping for an operation.
Now we understand what is being conveyed, we need to discuss. Let’s do that with a T.E.E.L structure.
Step 4: Write about the juxtaposition in a T.E.E.L structure
We now need to explain how this imagery develops meaning for the reader. The best way to do this is to use a T.E.E.L structure to explore what you perceive the juxtaposition to be conveying.
T.E.E.L stands for:
• Technique: The technique used in the example;
• Example: The example;
• Effect: Your explanation of the effect of this technique and how it develops meaning;
You can find a more detailed explanation of using T.E.E.L in our post on paragraph structure (this post is part of our series on Essay Writing and shows you the methods Matrix English students learn to write Band 6 essays in the Matrix Holiday and Term courses). Let’s use this structure to discuss this example of juxtaposition.
• The technique being used is juxtaposition.
• The example of this is “When the evening is spread out against the sky / Like a patient etherized upon a table;”
• The effect of this juxtaposition is to critique the devaluation of courtship in the early twentieth century from a conservative social position.
• The link to our argument about modernity is that the persona is critiquing modern society by saying that it has tossed away romance and mystery to make dating something clinical and procedural. This has disturbing sexual connotations.
Let’s put this together into a complete statement about this use of juxtaposition:
In The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock, TS Eliot critiques the dating rituals of his contextPrufrock narrates that they will go out on a date “When the evening is spread out against the sky / Like a patient etherized upon a table;” contrasting the romance of dating the systematic and clinical preparation of a patient for surgery. This juxtaposition of images is jarring and strips the scene of its potential romance. Not only does the scene shift from courtship to the macabre, there is the disturbing image of one party being anaesthetised – which carries connotations of sexual assault. This reflects Eliot’s disenchantment with modern courtship rituals and society’s move away from traditional Judaeo-Christian beliefs and practices.
Juxtaposition Examples
Now let’s look at some examples. We have included an explanation for each, and a sample response for the first one.
Consider the additional examples of literary juxtaposition below:
Juxtaposition Example 1:
In Julius Caesar, Shakespeare uses juxtaposition to sway the audience at Caesar’s funeral service. Consider the following extract:
“Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me:
But Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.
He hath brought many captives home to Rome
Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill:
Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?
When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept:
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff:
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.”
Excerpt – The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 2, William Shakespeare – 1599
Effect of Juxtaposition:
In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Marc Antony juxtaposes the noble acts of Caesar with the refrain ‘and Brutus was an honourable man’ in order to negatively characterise Brutus negatively to his audience.
How to discuss juxtaposition in an essay:
Marc Antony needs to win over the citizens and people of Rome to secure his own power. Antony uses juxtaposition to achieve this aim. First, Antony asserts that “[Caesar] was my friend, faithful and just to me: / But Brutus says he was ambitious.” This statement juxtaposes his own experience of Caesar against Brutus’ view of him as a tyrant who needed to be executed. To reinforce his view of Caesar as a great man, and to further discredit Brutus, Antony asserts that “When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: / Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: / Yet Brutus says he was ambitious.” Antony contrasts the notion of ambition against Caesar’s tears. By presenting Caesar as an emotional man, and appealing to pathos, Antony juxtaposes his noble depiction of Caesar against Brutus’ tyrannical one. This proves effective for Antony, as he successfully turns the crowd against Brutus and the conspirators.
Juxtaposition Example 2:
In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Hamlet uses juxtaposition consistently to compare his uncle and father. Consider the following extract:
“Look here, upon this picture, and on this,
The counterfeit presentment of two brothers.
See, what a grace was seated on this brow;
Hyperion’s curls; the front of Jove himself;
An eye like Mars, to threaten and command;
A station like the herald Mercury
New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill;
A combination and a form indeed,
Where every god did seem to set his seal,
To give the world assurance of a man:
This was your husband. Look you now, what follows:
Here is your husband; like a mildew’d ear,
Blasting his wholesome brother. Have you eyes?”
Excerpt – The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Act 3, Scene 4, William Shakespeare – 1601
Effect of Juxtaposition:
While berating his mother, Hamlet juxtaposes positive images of his father and her former husband, King Hamlet, with grotesque images of Claudius, whom Gertrude has married. The effect of this is to emphasise the contrast Hamlet sees between the two men, and to horrify his mother.
Juxtaposition Example 3:
Juxtaposition is not purely a literary technique. We can also find it find in visual texts such as films. Consider these two shots from Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927):
Images: Stills from Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927)
Effect of Juxtaposition:
In the first still, we see the Worker’s City. It is underground and dark. The workers walk together with hunched shoulders towards cramped and towering apartment blocks. In the shot next to it, we can the Club of Sons. It is wide open and naturally lit. The people have lots of space and appear active and happy.
Lang juxtaposes these two shots next two each other to show the inequality between the two groups: the workers are oppressed and exploited, the sons of industry are privileged and given lots of space.
Want to Take Your Textual Analysis To the Next Level?
Written by Patrick Condliffe
Patrick has been an English teacher at Matrix since 2012. He is the editor of the popular Matrix blog.
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Pascal`s Triangle
The arithmetic triangle was developed in 1653 by Blaise Pascal. He named this triangle after himself and today it is known as Pascal’s Triangle. It is an arrangement of certain whole numbers in a triangular pattern. Blaise Pascal was regarded as a brilliant man of his own time. He made contributions to science, mathematics, and religious philosophy. Pascal was born on June 19, 1623 in Clermont-Ferrand of central France. His father was a highly placed civil official and everyone expected Pascal to follow in his footsteps.
But Pascal proved to be a child prodigy. At the age of twelve, he figured out the proposition of Euclidean geometry with no help. At the age of seventeen, he wrote an essay on conic sections which contained a theorum that was named after him. Pascal also invented many things. He constructed the first digital calculating system for his father. He invented the syringe and the hydraulic press. He also established the principle of hydrostatics, known as Pascal’s law.
This law says that in a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part of the fluid is transmitted without the loss of every portion of fluid and to the walls of the container. It also says that the pressure at a point in the fluid at rest is the same in all directions. The arithmetic triangle was known about long before Pascal’s time. Omar Khayyam used it in 1100 and Chu Shih-Chieh of 1303 included it in a Chinese manuscript. European mathematicians used it one hundred years before Pascal during the development of science and algebra.
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Galactic plane explained
The galactic plane is the plane on which the majority of a disk-shaped galaxy's mass lies. The directions perpendicular to the galactic plane point to the galactic poles. In actual usage, the terms galactic plane and galactic poles usually refer specifically to the plane and poles of the Milky Way, in which Planet Earth is located.
Some galaxies are irregular and do not have any well-defined disk. Even in the case of a barred spiral galaxy like the Milky Way, defining the galactic plane is slightly imprecise and arbitrary since the stars are not perfectly coplanar. In 1959, the IAU defined the position of the Milky Way's north galactic pole as exactly RA =, Dec = in the then-used B1950 epoch; in the currently-used J2000 epoch, after precession is taken into account, its position is RA, Dec . This position is in Coma Berenices, near the bright star Arcturus; likewise, the south galactic pole lies in the constellation Sculptor.
The "zero of longitude" of galactic coordinates was also defined in 1959 to be at position angle 123° from the north celestial pole. Thus the zero longitude point on the galactic equator was at, (B1950) or, (J2000), and its J2000 position angle is 122.932°. The galactic center is located at position angle 31.72° (B1950) or 31.40° (J2000) east of north.
See also
External links
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Air Stripper
A method used for removing contaminants from groundwater.
The procedure begins with contaminated water being pumped out of the ground into spray nozzles at the top of an “air stripper” tower. This tower is a column packed with small, many-sided, oddly-shaped pieces of plastic or ceramic. As the water falls through the packing material, droplets of liquid, containing contaminants, collect on the multi-sided surfaces. Simultaneously, air or steam is forced upward through the tower. The air or steam removes the contaminants from the packing material, and is discharged through the top of the stripper tower as vapor. This contaminated vapor is then treated through use of carbon filters or catalytic combustion chambers.
The resultant clean water collects in a sump at the base of the tower and is pumped to a discharge point; the contaminant-free air is discharged into the atmosphere.
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Learning Te Reo Māori
This term we have all been trying our best to use more te reo māori in class (teachers included!). Each week, Miss Mack will introduce us to one or two new words/phrases.
Using te reo is encouraged and celebrated by teachers and students. When we use te reo in class or at school, we are rewarded by being given dojo points. We have two secret Māori leaders who are listening out for children that use te reo at school. These children are then recorded in a document with a tally next to their name. At the end of the week the points are shared and children are celebrated.
Take a look at some of the words and phrases we are already using.
Moon Landing Ranking Sheet
NASA Exercise: Survival on the Moon
Statistical investigation ·Conduct investigations using the statistical enquiry cycle: –gathering, sorting, and displaying multivariate category and whole number data –identifying patterns and trends in context –communicating findings, using data displays.
You are a member of a space crew originally scheduled to rendezvous with a mother ship on the lighted surface of the moon. However, due to mechanical difficulties, your ship was forced to land at a spot some 200 miles from the rendezvous point. During reentry and landing, much of the equipment aboard was damaged and, since survival depends on reaching the mother ship, the most critical items available must be chosen for the 200-mile trip. Below are listed the 15 items left intact and undamaged after landing. Your task is to rank order them in terms of their importance for your crew in allowing them to reach the rendezvous point. Place the number 1 by the most important item, the number 2 by t…
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In order to understand and appreciate Indian dance as we know it today, it is essential to precede this with a brief discussion on the living conditions of Indians during and after the indentured period. The accommodation Indians were offered was extremely primitive. The “coolie barracks” were overcrowded and soon became slums. Working hours extended from 6am to 5pm. On Saturdays work stopped at 1 pm, after which rations were handed out. Suffering and unhygienic living conditions gave rise to a “high degree of diseases and illnesses”. Because of the drudgery experienced in their daily lives the early immigrant hungered for diversion and recreation. Although the Indentured labourers were considered illiterate by the British colonialists, they certainly did not lack a quest for religion, music, song and dance.
Indian dance, particularly Bharatha Natyam and Kathak, was not introduced in South Africa for many decades following the arrival of the early Indian settlers. The early dance forms that did exist then were known as North Indian Nautch (a light lilting dance style) and the South Indian dance drama, the Therukoothu.
Performances were presented in open grounds, under shaded trees and under crudely constructed shelters with only a demarcated area for a stage.
The Therukoothu or “street dance” had its beginnings in the ancient popular mode of story-telling. During the post-harvest period in the rural areas there existed a “lull” in the lives of the early Indians, and religious education in the form of story telling was
pursued fervently. The performers were only men who also played the roles of women. The earliest performances of this dance form began in Mount Edgecombe along the North Coast of KwaZulu Natal, and were part of the annual religious celebrations known as Thirunaal, which means “Festival Day”
Since the first batch of Indentured labourers were mainly from South India, and from an agricultural background, Therukoothu. made its appearance in almost all Indian settlements on sugar estates in South Africa. Bharatha Natyam was non – existent. Even in India the British had dishonoured the art form which was only revived in the 1930s and it became known in other parts of the world . South Africa is one such country. It is important to note that Therukoothu in no way influenced the development of Bharatha Natyam in this country.
However, before the pursuance of the ancient classical dance styles of Bharatha Natyam and Kathak in S.A, many folk styles emerged during Hindu festivals, highlighting socio-religious festivals such as Navarathri, Deepavallie, Krishna Asthami. At the more popular social events eg. Harvest festivals (Pongal) and wedding celebrations, folk dances such as the South Indian Kummie, Kolattam and and the Gujerati Garbas were performed respectively.
Since Natal had the largest Indian population, localities such as Pentrich, Pietermaritzburg, and the suburbs of Clairwood, Overport, Mayville,Cato Manor, Stella Hill, Puntans Hill, Riverside, Seaview and Central Durban became centres of cultural activities. Further afield, Indian Culture thrived in regions like Port Elizabeth, East London, Kimberly, Fordsburg,Vrededorp, Benoni, Germiston and Pretoria.
Classical dance forms particularly Bharatha Natyam and Kathak were not introduced into South Africa for many decades following the arrival of the early Indian settlers. Between 1860 and 1940 these classical forms were virtually non-existent. Based on the premise that Bharatha Natyam suffered a decline in status in India and that only after the 1930s was there a resurgence of this ancient temple art, could be a reason for the interest and subsequent introduction of this art form to this country.
The interest in the performance of Indian dance was introduced and kept alive through the Indian film industry which was major influence on style and technique in the 1930s. It was much later that the north Indian classical dance form, Kathak, surfaced. In the 1960s girls from South Africa started travelling to India to study the art form professionally. The interest has since spread and broadened with initiatives such as the Eisteddfod movements and cultural organisations. Many girls with profound talent for dance were discovered during these competitions.
The system of apartheid premised on the tenets of racial segregation and discrimination was effective in reducing the status of Indians to second-class South African citizens. The negative impact of this political ideology was experienced in the social, economical, political and cultural development on the Indian Community. Ad a protest against the infamous apartheid system in South Africa, the International community embarked on trade sanctions and disinvestments campaign as well as cultural and sports boycotts. Despite the cultural disinvestments campaign the Indian performing arts have enjoyed unprecendented growth in this country. One of the reasons for this was that students from South Africa travelled to India to study the authentic genres in music, song and dance. In the face of a major obstacle like the cultural boycott, the South African of Indian decent can be commended for employing creative ways in importing the performing arts from India to the land of their birth.
Unlike their white counterparts, government funding was unheard of. The community rallied together and raised the necessary funds to send talented students to study in India.
Indian nationals who settled in South Africa through marriage tutored the early dancers, They were,, Dr Thirupurasundree and Shrimati Sharda Naidoo and Shrimati Janaki Naidoo. They introduced Indian classical dance that resembled the ancient art form . The first few students who learnt the early dance styles were Komala Moodley, Kanya Kumari ( The daughter of the late Dr Goonam) and Padma Maistry. Others who learnt and performed were Mynawathi Pillay and Ragupathy Pillay, Devaki Kander and Jugadhambal Pillay.
The earliest South African Indian dance teachers (Studied the art during a short visit to India) ,teaching mainly north Indian folk styles akin to Kathak were Mr P.R.Singh and Mr Donald Singh. Their students were mainly males because women were not allowed to perform.
In 1959, Salochana Naidoo left for India where after two years of intensive training she had her “Arangetram”(equivalent to a graduation). Subsequently, other young women travelled to India. In the 1960s The Nydoo Sisters, Rani and Prema, Jayalakshmi Naidoo, and Kumari Ambigay qualified in the ancient dance style of Bharatha Natyam . On their return many young women studied classical dance under their tutelage. Inspired by these teachers many of their students then proceeded to India and returned to South Africa on completion of their Arangetrams. This batch of girls included Vasugi Singh (author of this article), Manormani Govender, Kantharuby Govender, Yogambal Singarum, Vyjantimala Naidoo and Savithri Naidoo (Cape) and Jayespree Moopen (Gauteng).
Maya Makanjee was one of the first South African dancers to have obtained a BA Dance (Bharatha Natyam),University of Bombay. Smeetha Singh was at that time the only South African girl to pursue the study of Kathak in Bombay.
Today, classical dance, both Kathak and Bharatha Natyam, has evolved into a fine art form and can claim a status of its own amongst all other performing arts both nationally and internationally. There are numerous schools where Indian dance is being taught and the interest has continuously gained momentum since its inception.
It must be noted that in the face of numerous obstacles experienced by Indians in South Africa, they fervently pursued an art form that was beyond the boundaries of the host country. It would appear that a shift in place and time would not deter their quest in maintaining and perpetuating a cultural heritage so steeped in religio-ritual and aesthetic character. Perhaps this is one of the reasons for the classical dance Bharatha Natyam to have successfully earned the reputation of being the most popular in this country.
Post 1994 introduced the question on national identity. Traditional Indian dance was reaching a greater multi-racial audience, no longer an exclusive Indian audience. Subjecting classical dances styles to innovation initially created resistance from the traditionalists. However the South African trailblazers in the field of innovation and experimentation are Jayesperi Moopen, (Thribanghi Dance Company), Jay Pather (Siwela Sonke Dance Company) and Prof. Suria Govender (Surialanga Dance Company). These choreographers draw from different cultures in the South African diaspora and use African, English and Indian music to highlight and juxtapose traditional and contemporary movement. Some very professional and successful productions have been presented in the true “Ubuntu” spirit. Nineteen years into democracy, terms and concepts like Fusion, Interculturalism, Multiculturalism and Cross- culturalism, is still being debated where innovative and experimental work is being concerned.
More recently the Bollywood dance genre has grasped the Indian community in South Africa at fever pitch. Unfortunately gyrating movements to popular music becomes a passing phase and relegated to club dancing and mass entertainment.
The classical forms of Bharatha Natyam and Kathak remain popular in many of the dance institutions judging from the number of Arangetrams and Rangmanch Pravesh produced annually.
In the area of Indian dance, there is a continuous flow of performing artists and relevant technology in and out of the country after the Indian Government established its Embassy in the Indian Consulate in South Africa. This has impacted positively on the state of the art and the South African community at large.
Nritya Aangan 2016
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SOLVING PROBLEMS WITH SUBROUTINES - LEARN TO PROGRAM WITH SMALL BASIC: An Introduction to Programming with Games, Art, Science, and Math (2016)
The programs you’ve written so far are short and easy to understand. But as you start dealing with more complex problems, you’ll need to write longer programs. Understanding long programs can be a challenge, because you’ll need to keep track of many different parts of the program. In this chapter, you’ll learn how to organize your programs into smaller pieces.
An approach known as structured programming started in the mid-1960s to simplify the process of writing, understanding, and maintaining computer programs. Instead of writing a single, large program, you divide your program into smaller pieces. Each piece solves one part of the overall task, and subroutines implement these smaller pieces as part of a long program.
Subroutines are basic building blocks for creating large programs (see Figure 10-1). In this chapter, you’ll delve into the wild world of subroutines, learn how to move data in and out of them, and use them to build large programs and fun games!
Figure 10-1: Subroutines are the building blocks of larger programs
Why Use Subroutines?
Let’s say you run a construction company. Your job is to coordinate the work among your contractors and build houses. As a manager, you don’t have to know all the nitty-gritty details of building a home: the plumber handles the plumbing, the roofer shingles the roof, and the electrician runs all the wires. Each contractor knows their job and is always ready to work when they receive your call.
That’s very similar to how subroutines work! Each subroutine has its own name, like how the plumber’s name is Mario. Each subroutine does something different, just like how the plumber and the roofer have different jobs, but all are needed to build the house. As the programmer, you’re the manager, and your job is to solve problems as you build your program. You call your contractors (that is, your subroutines) and let them know when you need them to work (see Figure 10-2). You start writing the program by typing statements in the editor. When you need to perform a job that a subroutine handles, you just call that subroutine and wait. When the subroutine completes its task, you move on to the next step in your program.
Figure 10-2: The boss (main program) calling the Bob subroutine
There’s nothing new about this call-and-wait strategy; you’ve been doing it since Chapter 1. When you call an object’s method, you’re actually giving the work to that object in the Small Basic library. Subroutines are like methods, but you have to write all the statements in the subroutines. Subroutines help you organize your thinking process and make it easier to fix errors.
Writing Subroutines
Let’s use a fun example to learn how to write a subroutine: in his travels, Gulliver had dinner with the king and queen of Lilliput (the land of tiny people). During dinner, the king explained that he was 8.5 glum-gluffs tall. Gulliver later learned that 1 glum-gluff is about 0.75 inches. To find out how the sizes of items in Lilliput compare to sizes in our land, write the program in Listing 10-1, which converts glum-gluffs to inches.
' GlumGluff.sb
2 TextWindow.Write("How many glum-gluffs? ")
3 glumGluffs = TextWindow.ReadNumber()
5 inches = 0.75 * glumGluffs ' Converts to inches
6 inches = Math.Round(inches * 100) / 100 ' Rounds to 2 decimal places
7 TextWindow.WriteLine("That's about " + inches + " inches.")
Listing 10-1: Converting measurements
This program looks just like the ones you’re already used to! You prompt the user to enter the glum-gluff measurement (line 2), read the input into the glumGluffs variable (line 3), convert the input number to inches (line 5), round the answer to two decimal places (line 6), and then display the result (line 7). Run the program to figure out how tall the king is in inches; remember that he’s 8.5 glum-gluffs tall.
Next, let’s rewrite this program and put the conversion statements (lines 5–6) in a subroutine named GlumGluffToInch(). Enter the code in Listing 10-2.
1 ' GlumGluff2.sb
2 TextWindow.Write("How many glum-gluffs? ")
3 glumGluffs = TextWindow.ReadNumber()
5 GlumGluffToInch() ' Calls the subroutine
6 TextWindow.WriteLine("That's about " + inches + " inches.")
8 ' This subroutine converts from glum-gluffs to inches
9 ' Input: glumGluff; the size in glum-gluff units
10 ' Output: inches; the size in inches rounded to 2 decimal places
11 Sub GlumGluffToInch
12 inches = 0.75 * glumGluffs
13 inches = Math.Round(inches * 100) / 100
14 EndSub
Listing 10-2: Calling a subroutine
This code does the same thing as the code in Listing 10-1, but it uses a subroutine. A subroutine is a collection of statements that do a specific job (just like hiring Mario the plumber to build a fancy toilet). In this case, your subroutine converts glum-gluffs to inches. The statements that make up the subroutine are sandwiched between the Sub and EndSub keywords (lines 11–14). The subroutine’s name comes after the Sub keyword (line 11). When you define the subroutine, don’t put parentheses after its name.
But just because you define a subroutine doesn’t mean your program will run it. To run a subroutine, you need to call (or invoke) it! To call a subroutine, you type its name followed by parentheses (line 5). The statement on line 5 means “run the subroutine named GlumGluffToInch(), and then return to the line that comes after this subroutine call” (which is line 6 in this example). It’s like taking a break from cleaning your room to go watch some TV and then coming back to pick up where you left off. Figure 10-3 shows how a subroutine works in a program.
Figure 10-3: Showing how GlumGuff2.sb calls the GlumGluffToInch() subroutine
Here is one example of output from this program:
How many glum-gluffs? 8.5
That's about 6.38 inches.
A subroutine can access all the variables in the main program, and the main program can access all the variables in a subroutine. The variable glumGluffs was created and assigned a value in the main program (line 3), but it was used by the subroutine to know how many glum-gluffs it needs to convert (line 12). And the variable inches was created inside the subroutine (line 12), but the main program reads it and displays its value to the user (line 6).
Here are some good reasons to put the unit conversion code into a subroutine:
1. You isolate (or separate) the unit conversion details from the main program. The main program now doesn’t have to worry about how the conversion is done. This makes your code easier to read and maintain.
2. If errors occur, you know where to look, which makes debugging much easier to do.
3. You don’t have to write the same code over and over again! Without using subroutines, if a program needs to run the same set of statements more than once, you have to duplicate these statements in your code. But if you put those statements in a subroutine, you can call it from any point in your program (code reuse). You’ll practice this in the next section.
In this book, we’ll start the name of a subroutine with a capital letter. We’ll also write all the subroutines at the bottom of every main program. We recommend you follow the same practice in your own programs: it’ll help keep you organized!
When Gulliver asked what a glum-gluff was, he was told it was 1/20 of a mumgluff. Write a subroutine named MumGluffToFoot() that converts mum-gluffs to feet. Write a program that prompts the user for a mum-gluff measurement, calls the subroutine, and then displays the result.
Subroutine Input and Output
You can think of a subroutine as a small program that provides a service to the main program. When the main program needs that service, it prepares the inputs that the subroutine needs and then calls the subroutine to start its job. The subroutine runs, saves its output(s) in some variables, and returns to the main program. When the main program continues, it looks at any new information from the subroutine and then uses that data to decide what to do next.
Small Basic doesn’t let you pass arguments to subroutines between parentheses (like you do with an object’s method, such as the DrawLine() method of GraphicsWindow). And it doesn’t define subroutines that directly return a value (like the Math.Round() method does). So you need to use variables to pass data between the main program and your subroutines. Let’s see how that works.
Great news! You inherited some land (Figure 10-4) from Uncle Moneybags. But you need to know the area of the land before you can sell it. The figure also shows Heron’s formula, which computes the area of a triangle given the lengths of its three sides. Don’t worry if you’re not familiar with this formula; you don’t need to fully understand something in order to use it (or most people wouldn’t be allowed to use the toilet).
Figure 10-4: Calculating the area of the piece of land you inherited
Because the land is made up of two triangles, you can compute the area of these triangles and then add them together. Follow Listing 10-3 and note how we put the code for calculating the triangle’s area (Heron’s formula) in a subroutine.
1 ' LandArea.sb
2 ' Calculates the area of the first triangle
3 side1 = 7
4 side2 = 20.6
5 side3 = 25
6 TriangleArea()
7 totalArea = area ' Saves the result from the subroutine call
9 ' Calculates the area of the second triangle
10 side1 = 30
11 side2 = 14
12 side3 = 22.3
13 TriangleArea()
14 totalArea = totalArea + area ' Adds the new area
16 totalArea = Math.Round(totalArea * 100) / 100 ' Rounds the answer
17 TextWindow.WriteLine("Area = " + totalArea + " square meters")
19 ' Subroutine: computes the area of a triangle given its three sides
20 ' Inputs: side1, side2, and side3; the length of the three sides
21 ' Outputs: area; the area of the triangle
22 ' Temporary variables: s; the semiperimeter
23 Sub TriangleArea
24 s = 0.5 * (side1 + side2 + side3)
25 area = Math.SquareRoot(s * (s - side1) * (s - side2) * (s - side3))
26 EndSub
Listing 10-3: Calling a subroutine multiple times
Here’s the output of this program:
Area = 208.63 square meters
The main program sets the lengths of the three sides of the first triangle (lines 3–5) and then calls the TriangleArea() subroutine (line 6). The subroutine (lines 23–26) saves the computed area in a variable named area. After the subroutine call, the main program stores this first area in thetotalArea variable (line 7). Without this, the value stored in area will be lost the next time we call the TriangleArea() subroutine. Then the main program sets the values to compute the area of the second triangle (lines 10–12) and calls the subroutine again (line 13). When the subroutine ends, the main program adds the new area to totalArea (line 14). The main program then rounds the answer (line 16) and displays it (line 17).
The TriangleArea() subroutine uses a temporary variable named s to store the semiperimeter, one-half of the perimeter of the current shape (line 24). Note how this variable is used to compute the area in line 25. This variable isn’t intended to be used by the main program, which just cares about the area variable. But the main program knows about it (for example, it can display the variable). Because your subroutines can change variables that belong to the main program, be sure to name your variables carefully and clearly. For example, if the s variable seems confusing, rename it to semiperimeter so you’ll remember what it does.
Uncle Moneybags left you another piece of land (Figure 10-5)! Update the program in Listing 10-3 to compute its area (all dimensions are in meters).
Figure 10-5: Your new piece of land
Nesting Subroutines
If your chore is to clean the house, you might get help by making a deal with your sister to clean the windows and asking your dog to clean the floor under the table. Similarly, a subroutine might call other subroutines to help it do part of a larger job. In Figure 10-6, the main program calls a subroutine, SubA(), which then calls another subroutine, SubC(). Subroutines called from other subroutines are nested subroutines.
Figure 10-6: Illustrating nested subroutines
If your program contains many subroutines, you can place these subroutines at the end of your program in any order you like. For example, it doesn’t matter if you put the code for SubA() before or after SubB(). What matters is the order in which you call these subroutines, not where you place them in your code!
To try out this concept, you’ll play Pepper Dare, an exciting game of chance, against the computer. When the game starts, the player is handed 10 imaginary cards face down. One of those cards has a jalapeño pepper on it; the rest are blank. The player picks a card and hopes for a blank one. If the player picks the card with the jalapeño, the player has to eat a hot pepper and the computer wins! If the player doesn’t get the pepper card, the computer takes a turn. The game ends when either the player or computer eats the pepper and runs for a drink of water. Enter the main program in Listing 10-4 into Small Basic. You’ll add the subroutines in a moment.
1 ' PepperDare.sb
2 player = 1 ' 1 for player, 2 for computer
3 pepper = Math.GetRandomNumber(10) ' Which card has the pepper
5 Again:
6 Pick() ' Updates the two variables: card and name
7 If (card = pepper) Then
8 TextWindow.Write("Hot tamale, it's a pepper! ")
9 TextWindow.WriteLine(name + " wins!")
10 TextWindow.WriteLine("")
11 Else
12 TextWindow.Write("The card is blank. ")
13 TextWindow.WriteLine("You put it back in and shuffle the deck.")
14 TextWindow.WriteLine("")
15 player = 3 - player ' Switches the player
16 Goto Again
17 EndIf
Listing 10-4: Setting up Pepper Dare
The game starts by setting the player variable to 1 to give you the first turn (line 2). It then randomly picks 1 of the 10 cards to be the card that has the jalapeño pepper (line 3). Then it starts a loop (lines 5–17) to take turns. In each round, the game picks one card at random for the player (or the computer) by calling the Pick() subroutine (line 6). If the picked card has a pepper on it (line 7), the game displays the winner’s name (line 9), and the game ends because the program moves out of the If loop and jumps from line 10 to line 17, bypassing the Goto loop on line 16.
Otherwise, it displays The card is blank. You put it back in and shuffle the deck. (lines 12–13) to indicate that the player (or the computer) picked a blank card. The game then switches to the next player (line 15) and goes back to start a new round (line 16). This is how the statement on line 15 works: if player is 1 (you, the user), then 3 – 1 is 2 (switching to the computer’s turn), and if player is 2 (the computer), then 3 – 2 is 1 (switching back to the user’s turn).
Next, you’ll add the Pick() subroutine in Listing 10-5 to the bottom of your program.
1 Sub Pick
2 If (player = 1) Then
3 name = "The computer"
4 TextWindow.WriteLine("Your turn. Pick a card.")
5 Else
6 name = "The player"
7 TextWindow.WriteLine("The computer picks a card.")
8 EndIf
10 TextWindow.Write("[Press any key...]")
11 TextWindow.PauseWithoutMessage()
12 TextWindow.WriteLine("")
14 card = Math.GetRandomNumber(10) ' Picks a random card
15 Animate() ' Animates the delay in picking a card
16 EndSub
Listing 10-5: The Pick() subroutine for Pepper Dare
The subroutine starts by checking the current player (either you or the computer) and then sets the name variable (lines 3 and 6). Next, it asks you to press any key to have you or the computer pick a card (lines 10–12). Then it randomly picks a card (line 14) and calls the nested Animate()subroutine to animate an arrow in the text window.
Now add the Animate() subroutine in Listing 10-6 to the bottom of your program.
Sub Animate
2 For N = 1 To card
3 TextWindow.Write("-")
4 Program.Delay(100)
5 EndFor
6 TextWindow.Write("-> ")
Listing 10-6: Subroutine to animate the delay
Don’t worry about the For loop here. You’ll learn about it in depth in Chapter 13. For now, this code just slowly displays a variable-length arrow. Here’s a sample run of the completed Pepper Dare program:
Your turn. Pick a card.
[Press any key...]
--> The card is blank. You put it back in and shuffle the deck.
The computer picks a card.
[Press any key...]
--------> The card is blank. You put it back in and shuffle the deck.
Your turn. Pick a card.
[Press any key...]
---------> Hot tamale, it's a pepper! The computer wins!
Not only can a subroutine call other subroutines, but it can also call itself (this is called recursion)! See the online resources to learn more.
Play the Pepper Dare game several times to understand how it works. Come up with some ideas to improve it, and then try to implement those ideas.
Create a Dragon Game
The previous example showed you how subroutines can add structure and clarity to your programs. You break your program into smaller pieces and tackle them one at a time. Although every problem is different and there’s no one-size-fits-all solution, we recommend a few ways to think through any problem.
First, spend some time trying to fully understand the problem. You wouldn’t dive into a pool without looking at it first, right?! (What if it was filled with pudding?) When you have a good idea of the problem you need to solve, plan a general solution. Then divide it into major tasks. As the solution planner, you decide what those tasks are. There’s no right or wrong answer; with practice you’ll get better at making these choices. But if you start with the general solution and break it down into smaller tasks, the logic of your program will be in good shape.
To show you this problem-solving strategy, let’s make the dragon game shown in Figure 10-7.
Figure 10-7: The dragon game’s user interface
In this game, you control the knight, and it’s your job to slay the dragon. On the screen you can see which variables we’ll display to keep score and where the player makes a choice of three actions to play.
When the game starts, Good Knight is on the right, some distance from Draggy the dragon. Good Knight has a bow and some arrows, and his shield has a certain strength level (the program picks these values at random). The knight makes the first move. He can move 1 step forward, shoot an arrow at the dragon, or stab the dragon with his sword (but only if he’s 1 step away). If the arrow hits the dragon, it’ll slay him instantly! With the sword, the knight has a 50-50 chance of slaying the dragon (but only when he’s close enough). If Good Knight slays Draggy, he’ll become Knight of the Year, win his very own dance party, and get his picture on the castle wall.
Once Good Knight makes his move, Draggy breathes his flames at the knight. If he hits the knight, he’ll weaken the knight’s shield. When the shield loses its strength, the knight is defenseless. After this point, if the dragon’s fire hits the knight, it’ll burninate him! The entire city will be under the attack of the merciless, ferocious dragon. Game over!
The game uses five images that you can find in this chapter’s folder: the background image (your battlefield), two images for the dragon (one image shows the dragon’s fire), the knight’s image, and an image of an arrow. Follow steps 1–10 to make a fun dragon game!
Step 1: Open the Startup File
Open the Dragon_Incomplete.sb file from the code folder for this chapter. This file contains the code in Listing 10-7 and has empty placeholders for your subroutines. You’ll add the code for these subroutines one step at a time. The program’s folder has all the images you need as well. It also has the complete game, Dragon.sb, in case you get stuck.
1 ' Dragon_Incomplete.sb
2 SetUp() ' Does one-time set up
4 NewGame() ' Sets the parameters for a new game
6 UpdateUserInterface() ' Shows values on background image
8 NextMove:
9 GetChoice() ' Displays options and gets the knight's choice
11 ProcessChoice() ' Processes the user's choice
13 DragonFire() ' Now it's the dragon's turn
14 Goto NextMove
Listing 10-7: High-level structure of the dragon game
First, you call the SetUp() subroutine (line 2) to draw the background image, create text shapes (for displaying the distance, number of arrows, and so on), and load the game’s images (dragon, knight, and arrow). Line 4 calls NewGame() to set the parameters for a new game, including the knight’s arrows, shield strength, and distance from the dragon. In line 6, you call UpdateUserInterface() to update the game’s user interface (UI). Then the code goes into a loop (lines 8–14) to manage the game. Each round, you ask the knight for his next move (line 9), process his move by calling ProcessChoice() on line 11, and then give the dragon a turn (line 13). As you’ll see in a moment, these subroutines will keep track of the game’s status and end the game when there’s a winner!
Next, you’ll work on the subroutines one by one.
Step 2: Write the SetUp() Subroutine
You’ll start by writing the SetUp() subroutine, which creates the scenario for your game. Add the code in Listing 10-8 to your program.
1 Sub SetUp
2 GraphicsWindow.Title = "Slay the Dragon"
3 TextWindow.Title = GraphicsWindow.Title
5 GraphicsWindow.Width = 480
6 GraphicsWindow.Height = 380
7 GraphicsWindow.CanResize = 0
8 GraphicsWindow.FontSize = 14
9 GraphicsWindow.Left = 40
10 ' Positions the text window
11 TextWindow.Left = GraphicsWindow.Left + GraphicsWindow.Width + 20
12 TextWindow.Top = GraphicsWindow.Top
14 path = Program.Directory
15 GraphicsWindow.DrawImage(path + "\bkgnd.png", 0, 0)
17 ' Creates text objects to show distance, arrows,
18 ' shield strength, and message
19 distText = Shapes.AddText("")
20 arrowsText = Shapes.AddText("")
21 shieldText = Shapes.AddText("")
22 msgText = Shapes.AddText("Draggy VS Good Knight")
23 Shapes.Move(distText, 60, 30)
24 Shapes.Move(arrowsText, 200, 30)
25 Shapes.Move(shieldText, 370, 30)
26 Shapes.Move(msgText, 5, 362)
28 ' Loads the images for the knight, dragon, and arrow
29 knightImg = Shapes.AddImage(path + "\knight.png")
30 dragon1Img = Shapes.AddImage(path + "\dragon1.png")
31 dragon2Img = Shapes.AddImage(path + "\dragon2.png")
32 arrowImg = Shapes.AddImage(path + "\arrow.png")
33 Shapes.Move(dragon1Img, 0, 250)
34 Shapes.Move(dragon2Img, 0, 250)
35 Shapes.Move(knightImg, 380, 250)
37 Shapes.HideShape(dragon2Img)
38 Shapes.HideShape(arrowImg)
39 EndSub
Listing 10-8: Setting up the windows and properties
This code contains all the one-time setup for your game; it’s a little long, but we’ll talk you through it. You set the titles for the graphics and text windows (lines 2–3). These are displayed in the title bars for these windows when the game is played (see Figure 10-7).
Then you set the graphics window’s size (lines 5–7), font size (line 8), and position (line 9). Next, you position the text window to appear to the right of the graphics window (lines 11–12). After drawing the background image (lines 14–15), you create and position the text shapes that you’ll use to show all the numbers on the game’s UI (lines 19–26). Then you load and position the images for the knight, dragon, and arrow (lines 29–35). Finally, you hide the images for the firing dragon and the arrow because they aren’t needed at this time (lines 37–38): you’ll show these images when Draggy breathes fire and Good Knight shoots the arrow.
When we built this program, we figured out where to place the text and images (with the numbers we’re using) on the background’s image by using a trial-and-error method (we guessed and tweaked it until we got it right). You’ll likely need to do that when designing your own UIs for your awesome future games.
Step 3: Add a Bit of Chance
Next, you need to add some luck to the game. Each time we run the game, we want Good Knight to get a different number of arrows, be a random distance away from the dragon, and have a different shield strength. To do this, add the NewGame() subroutine in Listing 10-9 to your program.
Sub NewGame
2 dist = 9 + Math.GetRandomNumber(10) ' 10 to 19
3 arrows = Math.Floor(0.4 * dist) ' 4 to 8
4 shield = Math.Floor(0.4 * dist) ' 4 to 8
5 moveStep = 280 / dist ' Knight's move in pixels
Listing 10-9: Setting up a new game
In line 2, you add 9 to a random number between 1 and 10, which sets the distance, dist, between 10 and 19. This is the number of steps Good Knight has to take to get to Draggy. Next, you set the number of arrows as 40 percent of the distance (line 3). The farther the knight is from the dragon, the more arrows he’ll have. In line 4, you set the strength of the knight’s shield—again, as a fraction of his distance.
Let’s think about the moveStep line a little. The width of the background image is 480 pixels. The width of the dragon is 100 pixels, and the width of the knight is 100 pixels. When we place the dragon and the knight on the background, the distance from the dragon’s right edge to the knight’s left edge is 280 pixels. So every time Good Knight moves forward, we’ll move his image to the left by 280 / dist pixels.
You can change the fraction in lines 3 and 4 from 0.4 to a different value to make the game easier or harder. After you complete the game, try changing the fraction and play the game a couple of times!
Step 4: Let the Player Know What’s Going On
After you set the game’s parameters, you’ll need to show them to the user. Add the UpdateUserInterface() subroutine in Listing 10-10.
Sub UpdateUserInterface
2 Shapes.SetText(distText, dist)
3 Shapes.SetText(arrowsText, arrows)
4 Shapes.SetText(shieldText, shield)
Listing 10-10: Subroutine that updates the text
This subroutine is pretty basic (and small!). You just use the SetText() method of the Shapes object and pass the identifier of the text shape and the number you want to display. Recall that we saved these identifiers when we created these text shapes in the SetUp() subroutine (lines 19–21 in Listing 10-8).
Step 5: Get the Player in the Game with GetChoice()
If you run the game now, you should see all the images and numbers in place, but nothing will happen yet. You need to start taking the knight’s orders, so it’s time to add the GetChoice() subroutine in Listing 10-11.
1 Sub GetChoice
2 AskAgain:
3 TextWindow.WriteLine("Select:")
4 TextWindow.WriteLine(" [1] Move 1 step forward")
5 TextWindow.WriteLine(" [2] Shoot an arrow")
6 TextWindow.WriteLine(" [3] Stab the dragon (you have to be 1 step away)")
7 TextWindow.Write(" Your choice [1-3]: ")
9 choice = TextWindow.ReadNumber()
10 If((choice <> 1) And (choice <> 2) And (choice <> 3)) Then
11 Goto AskAgain
12 EndIf
14 If ((choice = 2) And (arrows = 0)) Then
15 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "You ran out of arrows! Borrow some from Link.")
16 Goto AskAgain
17 EndIf
19 If ((choice = 3) And (dist > 1)) Then
20 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "You're too far to use your sword. Too bad you can't train dragons.")
21 Goto AskAgain
22 EndIf
24 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "")
25 TextWindow.WriteLine("")
26 EndSub
Listing 10-11: Getting the user’s choice and displaying any errors
You start by displaying the options to the user (lines 3–7). You read the user’s choice for Good Knight (line 9) and make sure it’s valid. If your user enters any number other than 1, 2, or 3, you ask them to enter a number again (lines 10–12). If the user chooses to shoot an arrow but doesn’t have any arrows, you tell them they’re out of arrows and ask them again (lines 14–17). If they want to stab the dragon but are too far away, you tell them they’re too far away and ask them to choose again (lines 19–22). Otherwise, the choice the user makes is acceptable. You clear the message text in line 24, add an empty line to the text window in line 25 to prepare for the next prompt, and return to the main program (line 26).
Step 6: Process the Player’s Choice
Now that the user has made their choice, you need to examine the choice variable to decide what to do next. Add the ProcessChoice() subroutine in Listing 10-12 to your program.
Sub ProcessChoice
2 If (choice = 1) Then ' Move-forward subroutine
3 MoveKnight()
4 ElseIf (choice = 2) Then ' Shoot-arrow subroutine
5 ShootArrow()
6 Else ' Stab subroutine
7 StabDragon()
8 EndIf
Listing 10-12: Jumping to the choice’s subroutine
You use an If/Else ladder on the choice variable and call a different subroutine for each choice. Next, you’ll write these three subroutines!
Step 7: Add Motion with MoveKnight()
Add the MoveKnight() subroutine in Listing 10-13 to breathe some life into Good Knight and get him moving.
1 Sub MoveKnight
2 dist = dist - 1
3 Shapes.SetText(distText, dist)
5 Shapes.Move(knightImg, 100 + dist * moveStep, 250)
7 If (dist = 0) Then ' Checks whether the knight touched the dragon
8 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "The dragon swallowed you! You taste like chicken.")
9 GameOver()
10 EndIf
11 EndSub
Listing 10-13: The subroutine that moves Good Knight
You start by reducing the knight’s distance from the dragon by 1 step (line 2), and then you show that new distance on the game’s UI (line 3). You then move the knight’s image to the left (line 5).
To understand how this works, let’s assume that the knight’s initial distance from the dragon, dist, is 10, which makes moveStep = 28, as illustrated in Figure 10-7. When the knight is 10 steps away from the dragon, the upper-left corner of the knight’s image is at (100 + (10 × 28), 250). When the knight is 9 steps away from the dragon, the upper-left corner of the knight’s image is at (100 + (9 × 28), 250), and when he’s 8 steps away, the image’s upper-left corner is at (100 + (8 × 28), 250), and so on. To move the knight, you set the image’s horizontal position to 100 plus the current distance, dist, times the moveStep, and you set the image’s vertical position to 250 (see Figure 10-8).
Figure 10-8: Illustrating the knight’s motion
After moving the knight, you check whether he touched the dragon (line 7). If he did, you tell Good Knight how great the dragon thinks he tastes and call the GameOver() subroutine. This subroutine is in Listing 10-14; add it to your program now.
Sub GameOver
2 TextWindow.Pause()
3 Program.End()
Listing 10-14: Running the GameOver() subroutine
This subroutine calls Pause() to give your user a chance to read the message (line 2). When the user presses any key, the Pause() method ends, and you call the End() method to exit your program (line 3).
Step 8: Shoot Arrows with ShootArrow()
Add the ShootArrow() subroutine in Listing 10-15 to make the Good Knight a master archer who puts Hawkeye to shame.
1 Sub ShootArrow
2 arrows = arrows - 1
3 Shapes.SetText(arrowsText, arrows)
5 range = Math.GetRandomNumber(dist)
7 ' Animates the arrow
8 pos1X = 100 + dist * moveStep
9 pos2X = 100 + (dist - range)* moveStep
10 Shapes.Move(arrowImg, pos1X, 280)
11 Shapes.ShowShape(arrowImg)
12 Shapes.Animate(arrowImg, pos2X, 280, 2000)
13 Program.Delay(2000)
14 Shapes.HideShape(arrowImg)
16 If (range = dist) Then ' You hit the dragon right on
17 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "Perfect shot. The dragon's dead! You kiss the princess's frog.")
18 GameOver()
19 Else
20 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "Your arrow missed! Robin Hood is giving lessons.")
21 Program.Delay(2000) ' To read the message
22 EndIf
23 EndSub
Listing 10-15: Shooting the arrow
You start by using one arrow (line 2) and show the remaining arrows on the UI (line 3). You then set the arrow’s range randomly to a number between 1 and the distance to the dragon (line 5). The closer the knight is to the dragon, the better his chances are that he’ll hit his target. The next block of code (lines 8–14) animates the arrow. The horizontal start position, pos1X, is the same as the knight’s position (line 8), and the end position, pos2X, is based on the selected range (line 9). You then move the arrow to its start position (line 10), show it (line 11), animate it to its final position (line 12), wait for it to reach its target (line 13), and then hide it (line 14). You can change the value 2000 in lines 12 and 13 to make the animation shorter or longer.
Once the animation is complete, you check whether the arrow hit the dragon (line 16). If it did, the game is over (lines 17–18) and the dance party is yours! Otherwise, you tell Good Knight that his arrow missed (line 20), delay the program for your user to read the message (line 21), and return to the ProcessChoice() subroutine, which returns to the main program to give the dragon his turn.
Step 9: Swing the Sword with StabDragon()
Now, add the last subroutine for the knight in Listing 10-16.
Sub StabDragon
2 If (Math.GetRandomNumber(2) = 1) Then
3 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "You killed the dragon! You marry the princess and 7 dwarves.")
4 GameOver()
5 Else
6 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "Your sword missed! Good one, Lance-a-Little!")
7 Program.Delay(2000) ' To read the message
8 EndIf
Listing 10-16: Stabbing the dragon
You randomly pick the number 1 or 2. If the number is 1 (line 2), the knight hits the dragon and the game ends (lines 3–4). If the knight misses, you tell the knight that he missed (line 6), delay the program for your user to read the message (line 7), and return to the ProcessChoice()subroutine.
Step 10: Breathe Fire
If the knight didn’t kill Draggy and end the game, the main program calls DragonFire() to give the dragon a fair fight. Add Listing 10-17 to your program.
1 Sub DragonFire
2 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "The dragon ignited his fire. The Pokemon run.")
3 Shapes.HideShape(dragon1Img)
4 Shapes.ShowShape(dragon2Img)
5 Program.Delay(1000)
6 Shapes.HideShape(dragon2Img)
7 Shapes.ShowShape(dragon1Img)
9 If (Math.GetRandomNumber(2) = 1) Then ' Knight is hit
10 If (shield = 0) Then ' Shield is damaged
11 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "The dragon's fire BURNINATED you!")
12 GameOver()
13 Else
14 shield = shield - 1
15 Shapes.SetText(shieldText, shield)
16 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "You're hit! Your shield became weaker. Use the force!")
17 EndIf
18 Else
19 Shapes.SetText(msgText, "The fire missed you! Aunt Mildred could've used your luck.")
20 EndIf
21 EndSub
Listing 10-17: The dragon breathing fire on Good Knight
Lines 3–7 animate the dragon’s fire. You hide the normal dragon image (line 3) and show the one spitting fire (line 4). You wait 1 second (line 5) and switch the images back (lines 6–7). After that, the dragon has a 50-50 chance to hit the knight with his fire. You pick a random number that’s either a 1 or a 2. A value of 1 means the dragon has hit the knight (line 9). In this case, you check the shield’s strength (line 10); if it’s 0, the game is over (lines 11–12). But if it isn’t 0, you reduce the shield’s strength by 1 (line 14), display the new value (line 15), tell the knight that he was hit (line 16), and return to the main program. If the random number is 2 (line 18), you tell the knight that the dragon’s fire missed him (line 19) and return to the main program.
Your game is done! Play it several times and enjoy your creation!
The dragon game is fun, but it isn’t perfect. When you play the game several times, you’ll notice some issues that you either don’t like or can improve. It’s now your game; make any changes you think will make the game better. You can even change the messages and the graphics. Head to http://tiny.cc/dragongame/ to share your game in the gallery and see what others did!
Programming Challenges
1. The folder for this challenge has images for the head, eyes, mouth, and body of an alien creature (see the following figure).
Write a program that prompts a user to enter the number of eyes (2, 4, or 6) and the number of mouths (1 or 2) of the alien. Then have your main program call DrawHead(), DrawEyes(), DrawMouths(), and DrawBody() to draw the alien! For example, here’s an alien with six eyes and two mouths:
2. In this challenge, you’ll develop the game Ghost Hunt (see the following figure). Open the file GhostHunt_Incomplete.sb from this chapter’s folder (which has all the images you need for this game). A ghost is hiding in 1 of the 12 rooms. To find the ghost, the user picks a room. If the user finds the ghost in that room, they win! Otherwise, the ghost tries to find the user (by selecting a room number at random). If the ghost finds the user, the game ends. Otherwise, the ghost moves to a different room, and the user tries again.
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Oskar Schindler was a German Industrialist who saved over 1100 Jews during the Holocaust
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Oscar Schindler Oskar Schindler was a German Industrialist who saved over 1100 Jews during the Holocaust. Many consider him a hero for his honorable deeds, and others, a greedy exploiter. Oskar Schindler was born in 28 April 1908 in Zwittau, Austria-Hungary which today is known as Zvitava, Czech Republic. His mother and father, Hans and Louisa were deeply religious which resulted in a strong Catholic childhood for Schindler and his younger sister Elfriede. Schindler himself was a handsome man; a womanizer, who always had many women after him. The one who caught his eye was Emilie Pelzl whom he married after just a six week relationship. However, he wasn't the best example of a husband, heavily abusing alcohol and having relationships with other women. ...read more.
He took over a bankrupt enamelware factory and with the help from his Jewish accountant Itzhak Stern, he got in touch with the remaining wealthy Jews who invested in his factory. In return they would be employed and perhaps be spared. A few years later, the Krakow ghetto was to be fully cleared and the Jews were going to be deported to the Plazow labor camp. Since Schindler had such good connections with key people of the government and armies, he easily convinced the ones responsible for Plazow to set up a part of the camp in his factory. Even the weak and unqualified were chosen to work. By doing this single action, he saved around 900 Jewish lives. ...read more.
He told them not to vow revenge for what the Nazi's had done and then fled the country, leaving the factory behind. A few days later, the 1100 Schindlerjuden were freed by the Russians. Schindler moved to South-America in 1949 but returned to West Germany without his wife. During the remaining years of his life, he traveled a lot to Israel where he was honored because of saving his Schindlerjuden. Because of liver problems, Schindler died in 1974. As he requested at the time he was alive, he was buried in Israel. His funeral was attended by about 500 Schindlerjuden who watched as his body was buried in the Catholic cemetery on Mount Zion in Jerusalem. Because of Oskar Schindler, thousands of people remained alive to tell the story about Schindler's list. But one question still remains a mystery: why did he do all this? ...read more.
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See related essaysSee related essays
Related GCSE Germany 1918-1939 essays
1. Describe how Jews were persecuted in the twentieth century before the Holocaust.
For example "you must not covet or tell lies about anyone else," are probably irrelevant now. So, what were the Jewish people doing wrong around the time of the First World War? Was God breaking his promise that he would lead them to safety?
2. Oskar Schindler
Oskar saved 1100 Jews and made his name unforgettable by winning respect from all kind of people over the world. In the beginning of the holocaust, Oskar Schindler, unfamiliar with Nazi party's ideas, took over a Jewish factory and house.
2. The Reich citizenship law, which defined the difference between Reich citizens (Germans) and Nationals (Jews). The deputies were also a major factor on their own. For instance, G�ebbels the propaganda minister was responsible for producing such films as ''The Eternal Jew''6 which showed the brutality that was going to come with the final solution.
2. Explain the Holocaust Era In As Much Detail As Possible.
Books, plays, films and arts were strictly censored. The German people only read what the Nazis only wanted them to read and hear. Dr Joseph Goebbels was the minister of Propaganda. He was in control of the newspapers and the radio. Books by anti- Nazis were taken from the schools and libraries.
It is apparent from the quotes and my own research that the "everyday" citizens delivered just as much pain and suffering as any Nazi associate, and it is the purpose of this investigation to identify just how far the 'ordinary Germans'1 were to blame for the mass genocide of Hitler's 'final solution.'
2. The Holocaust
This shows that Kristallnacht was a huge event. The source says "all of the synagogues were completed glutted by fire". This proves that Kristallnacht was a direct attack on the Jews. The source states that, "the fire brigade made no attempts to put out the fire."
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Below the thegns were the ceorls, freemen, farmers and independent landed householders who formed the mainstay of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom, based as it was on a rural economy. The term free in an Anglo-Saxon context can be misleading, since there were many degrees of freedom. Ceorls were 'folcfry' (folk-free), that is, free in the eyes of the community. They enjoyed weregilds and had the right to seek compensations for other free kinsmen. They were allowed to bear arms and be considered 'fyrd worthy' and 'moot worthy'. This meant they were considered worthy to serve in the fyrd and take part in folk meetings. They did not have the same degree of freedom as thegns or ealdormen. There were three main classes of ceorl, although the dividing line between the classes was indistinct. First were the geneatas, the peasant aristocracy who paid rent to their overlord. Geneat originally meant companion, implying that the class originated from the lord's household, often receiving land as a gift. The Thegn's Law source on the duty of a geneat:
"The geneat's duty varies, depending upon what is determined for the estate. In some he must pay ground rent and one store-pig a year, and ride, and perform carrying services and supply cartage, work and entertain his lord, reap and mow, cut deer-fences and maintain hides, build and fence fortifications, conduct strangers to the manor, pay church dues and alms, attend his superior, and guard the horse, carry messages far and near wherever he is directed."
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Past Paper
Topics: Slavery, Caribbean, Atlantic slave trade Pages: 5 (1612 words) Published: May 14, 2013
Past Paper Questions
Theme 1- The Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans
1.Read the passage below, and answer the questions that follow. The Taino (Arawak) and Kalinago (Caribs) were similar in many ways, but different in others. For example, their technology was quite similar, but their political organization was to some extent different. Their technology was not as advanced as that of the Maya. a)Explain why Mayan technology is considered more advanced than the technology of the Arawaks and Caribs. (4 marks) b)Outline the ways in which the technology of Taino and Kalinago were similar. (9 marks) c)Describe FOUR ways in which the political organization of the Arawaks was different to the political organization of the Caribs. (12 marks) Total: 25 Marks
2.Imagine that you are a Taino cacique on whose island the Spaniards settled in the early 1500s. You are having a discussion with the Spanish settlers about the meeting of your culture with theirs. a.Explain the aspects of the Spanish presence in your island that pose a problem to your people. (15 marks) b.Describe the features of your culture that have most impressed the Spanish. (10 marks) 3.Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow. The Europeans made contact with several different groups of Amerindians in the Caribbean and mainland territories. Though similar in some respects, there were marked differences among the groups. The Mayan civilization was more advanced than the Carib and Arawak civilizations. a)Explain why the Mayan civilization might be considered ‘advanced’. ( 6 marks) b)In what ways was the political organization of EITHER the Caribs OR Arawaks different from that of the Maya? (9 marks) c)In what ways was the social organization of the Carib and Arawaks similar? (10 marks) 4.Read the passage below and answer the questions that follows Columbus finally got support from the Church and the Genoese merchants in Spain. He also persuaded Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand to support his plan. However, Columbus died without knowing what he achieved. a)Explain what wa Columbus’s plan. (4 marks)
b)What arguments did Columbus use to get support for his plan from I.The Church?
II.The Merchants
III.Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand? ( 9 marks)
c)Explain the impact of Columbus’s voyage on Europe and on the ‘New World’. (12 marks) 5.What were the leaders of (a) the Taino and (b) the Kalinago peoples called? (2 marks) a.How was the Kalinago leader chosen? (2marks)
b.Describe THREE functions of the Kalinago leader (9marks) c.Describe THREE features of the political system of EITHER the Taino or the Mayan people. (12 marks) Total 25 marks
6.During the period of 1498- 1600, the colonial relationship between the Spanish and Indigenous people was determined by two systems of labour. This was the basis of Spanish colonial society in the New World. a.Name the TWO systems of labour which were used by Spain in the New World. (2 marks) b.Name the person who introduced EACH system. (2 marks)
c.Describe THREE requirements of these systems of labour. (9 marks) d.Examine THREE areas in which these systems of labour affected the Indigenous people. (12 marks) Total 25 marks
Theme 2: Caribbean Economy & Slavery
7.Identify TWO Caribbean territories which produce tobacco and TWO Caribbean territories which produce logwood in the 1600s. (4 marks) a.Explain THREE reasons for the changeover from the production of tobacco to sugar in the 1600s.(9 marks) b.Examine THREE economic effects of the changeover from tobacco to sugar. (12 marks) Total 25 marks
8.Identify FOUR countries from which white indentured servants were recruited to the Caribbean. ( 4 marks) a.Explain THREE reasons why enslaved Africans became the preferred or favoured labour force in the Caribbean in the 1600s. (9 marks) b.Examine THREE reasons for the marked increase in the demand for enslaved Africans after 1700 in the British and French Caribbean. (12...
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La Cueca is the national dance of Chile and was established as such on September 18th 1979. The dance is zoomorphic, meaning the dance represents animal forms, in this case it is the courting between a rooster and a hen.
There are many debates on the exact origin of La Cueca, however there are two beliefs most accepted by soceity today. The first theory is that a new style of music, Fandango, appeared in Spain and spread to the Americas. The Fandango first arrived in Peru where it was renamed the Zamba in 1810. The Zamba was shortly after renamed the Zamucueca and spread to Chile between the years 1824 and 1825. The Zamucueca was popularized very quickly in Chile and was renamed from the Zamucueca to the Cueca in the year 1870. As the
zamacueca.gif Cueca's popularity spread, the rest of the world began to recognize the name of the new dance as well, resulting in what we know today to be La Cueca Chilena.
The other theory which was popularized by the historian Benjamen Vicuna Mackenna was that La Cueca is a dance influenced by African Culture. He believed that the word "Cueca" came from the Bantu word "Zamuclueca". Zamuclueca translates to the time when a hen stops laying eggs and looks for a male rooster to mate with, which is what La Cueca portrays when it is danced.
La Cueca is a combination of 6/8 and 3/4 timing played simultaneously and the song is divided into three sections. These sections are called the Cuarteta, the Sequidilla, and the Remate. The Cuarteta and Sequidilla both last twenty four measures and the Remate is only four measures long. The most common instruments used for La Cueca are: the guitar, accordion, and percussion. However depending on the region instruments can vary from brass to vocals. With the exception of Cueca from the North, all variations of La Cueca contain lyrics.
Variations of La Cueca:
There are four main variations of La Cueca. These types are called: Cueca From the North, Cueca From the Central Region, Urban Cueca (Also known as Brava or Cora), and La Cueca Chilota. Cueca From the North contains no lyrics and most commonly uses brass instruments for the song. Cueca From the Central Region uses the guitar, accordion, and percussion for music. Cueca From the Central Region is considered to be the most common Cueca that will be seen in Chile. The Urban Cueca appeared in the 1860's and was usually danced in bars and prisons. Finally, La Cueca Chilota is very similar to the Cueca From the Central region, except the song is longer because the Seguidilla is repeated. La Cueca Chilota is also puts greater emphasis on the lyrics of the song.
The clothing worn for La Cueca is considered traditional Chilean vestiments and slightly resembles western wear. The man wears a sombrero and a shirt with a poncho over it. He wears boots with spurs and occasionally will wear a jacket. The woman wears a floral dress with an apron over it. Both dancers carry handkerchiefs and hold them over their head when dancing to resemble the crest of the rooster or the feathers of the hen.
The dance in total lasts a little over a minute, but it is a fixed choreography that breaks down into eleven parts with some repetition. The first three parts are the "Invitation", the "Pass", and the "First Front" this is when the man invites the woman to dance (Invitation)
and they parade around the dance floor (Pass), they then will stop in the center of the dance floor and face each other (First Front). The couple then does the "Initial Turn" where they circle each other whilst twirling their handkerchiefs above their heads until they return to their spot. Next in the dance is the "Escobillado", this is when the man and woman both walk in a half circle formation, meeting at the top and the bottom of circle whilst crossing their legs and dragging their feet. The man who portrays the rooster here is supposed to be pursuing the woman, while the woman, portraying the hen, is evasive. Next comes the "First Turn", here the musicians will shout "Vuelta!" which means turn in Spanish. The dancers will pass each other in an "S" formation, each dancer going to their partners spot. The couple then repeats the "Escobillado" and the "First Turn", this time the couple is supposed to dance stronger and faster as the tempo of the song increases. The next part of the song, the "Zapateo" where both dancers stomp the ground, the man is supposed to stomp fiercely while the woman is supposed to stomp more softly. The last two parts of the dance, the "Closing in Turn" and the "Final" The man and woman begin to circle each other, coming closer to one another with each step with their handkerchiefs spinning above their heads until they end in the center of the dance floor together (Closing in Turn), the couple finally stays together in the middle of the dance floor until the music finishes (Final).
La Cueca is commonly danced on national holidays in Chile. The 18th of September or the day of the first meeting of the national government of Chile (also known as Ramadas) Is one of the holidays where La Cueca is always danced. However La Cueca can be danced under almost any circumstance, such as birthdays, religious holidays such as La Semana Santa or La Navidad, or any other festivals.
Caballero, Javier F. "Cueca Link to Compositions." From the Foundatios... N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. <>.
"Cueca." Cueca. Folklore Del Norte, n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. <>.Geel, Maria C. "El Origen Africano De La Cueca Chilena." Memoria Chilena, n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. <>."La Cueca." Gentileza Terra Networks Chile (edición 2000), n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. <>.Mellado, Patricia T. "LA CUECA CHILENA." LA CUECA CHILENA. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. <>.Rawlinson, Jose. "La Cueca â El Baile Nacional De Chile." La Cueca. Pepe's Chile, n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. <>.
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Robot helps study how first land animals moved 360 million years ago
Image shows a robot that used the locomotion principles of the mudskipper to move through a trackway filled with granular materials. The robot has two limbs and a powerful tail, with motion provided by electric motors. Credit: Rob Felt, Georgia Tech
When early terrestrial animals began moving about on mud and sand 360 million years ago, the powerful tails they used as fish may have been more important than scientists previously realized. That's one conclusion from a new study of African mudskipper fish and a robot modeled on the animal.
Animals analogous to the mudskipper would have used modified fins to move around on flat surfaces, but for climbing sandy slopes, the animals could have benefitted from using their tails to propel themselves forward, the researchers found. Results of the study, reported this week in the journal Science, could help designers create amphibious robots able to move across granular surfaces more efficiently—and with less likelihood of getting stuck in the mud.
Sponsored by the National Science Foundation, the Army Research Office and the Army Research Laboratory, the project involved a multidisciplinary team of physicists, biologists and roboticists from the Georgia Institute of Technology, Clemson University and Carnegie Mellon University. In addition to a detailed study of the mudskipper and development of a robot model that used the animal's locomotion techniques, the study also examined flow and drag conditions in representative granular materials, and applied a incorporating new physics based on the drag research.
"Most robots have trouble moving on terrain that includes sandy slopes," said Dan Goldman, an associate professor in the Georgia Tech School of Physics. "We noted that not only did the mudskippers use their limbs to propel themselves in a kind of crutching motion on sand and sandy slopes, but that when the going got tough, they used their tails in concert with limb propulsion to ascend a slope. Our robot model was only able to climb sandy slopes when it similarly used its tail in coordination with its appendages."
Based on fossil records, scientists have long studied how early land animals may have gotten around, and the new study suggests their tails—which played a key role in swimming as fish—may have helped supplement the work of fins, especially on sloping granular surfaces such as beaches and mudflats.
"We were interested in examining one of the most important evolutionary events in our history as animals: the transition from living in water to living on land," said Richard Blob, alumni distinguished professor of biological sciences at Clemson University. "Because of the focus on limbs, the role of the tail may not have been considered very strongly in the past. In some ways, it was hiding in plain sight. Some of the features that the animals used were new, such as limbs, but some of them were existing features that they simply co-opted to allow them to move into a new habitat."
Dan Goldman, associate professor in the Georgia Tech School of Physics, is shown with the "MuddyBot" robot in a trackway used to study how the robot - which was modeled on the mudskipper fish - moved across granular surfaces. Credit: Rob Felt, Georgia Tech
With Ph.D. student Sandy Kawano, now a researcher at the National Institute of Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, Blob's lab recorded how the mudskippers (Periopthalmus barbaratus) moved on a variety of loose surfaces, providing data and video to Goldman's laboratory. The small fish, which uses its front fins and tail to move on land, lives in tidal areas near shore, spending time in the water and on sandy and muddy surfaces.
Benjamin McInroe was a Georgia Tech undergraduate who analyzed the mudskipper data provided by the Clemson team. He applied the principles to a robot model known as MuddyBot that has two limbs and a powerful tail, with motion provided by electric motors. Information from both the mudskipper and robotic studies were also factored into a mathematical model provided by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University.
"We used three complementary approaches," said McInroe, who is a now a Ph.D. student at the University of California Berkeley. "The fish provided a morphological, functional model of these early walkers. With the robot, we are able to simplify the complexity of the mudskipper and by varying the parameters, understand the physical mechanisms of what was happening. With the mathematical model and its simulations, we were able to understand the physics behind what was going on."
Researchers studied the motion of mudskippers to understand how early terrestrial animals might have moved about on mud and sand. This animal was photographed at the Georgia Aquarium in Atlanta. Credit: Rob Felt, Georgia Tech
Both the mudskippers and the robot moved by lifting themselves up to reduce drag on their bodies, and both needed a kick from their tails to climb 20-degree sandy slopes. Using their "fins" alone, both struggled to climb slopes and often slid backward if they didn't use their tails, McInroe noted. Early land animals likely didn't have precise control over their limbs, and the tail may have compensated for that limitation, helping the animals ascend sandy slopes.
The Carnegie Mellon University researchers, who have worked with Goldman on relating the locomotion of other animals to robots, demonstrated that theoretical models developed to describe the complex motion of robots can also be used to understand locomotion in the natural world.
"Our computer modeling tools allow us to visualize, and therefore better understand, how the mudskipper incorporates its tail and flipper motions to locomote," said Howie Choset, a professor in the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University. "This work also will advance robotics in those cases where a robot needs to surmount challenging terrains with various inclinations."
Credit: Carla Schaffer / AAAS]
The model was based on a framework proposed to broadly understand locomotion by physicist Frank Wilczek - a Nobel Prize winner—and his then student Alfred Shapere in the 1980s. The so-called "geometric mechanics" approach to locomotion of human-made devices (like satellites) was largely developed by engineers, including those in Choset's group. To provide force relationships as inputs to the mudskipper model, Georgia Tech postdoctoral fellow Jennifer Rieser and Georgia Tech graduate student Perrin Schiebel measured drag in inclined granular materials.
Information from the study could help in the design of robots that may need to move on surfaces such as sand that flows around limbs, said Goldman. Such flow of the substrate can impede motion, depending on the shape of the appendage entering the sand and the type of motion.
But the study's most significant impact may be to provide new insights into how vertebrates made the transition from water to land.
"We want to ultimately know how natural selection can act to modify structures already present in organisms to allow for locomotion in a fundamentally different environment," Goldman said. "Swimming and walking on land are fundamentally different, yet these early animals had to make the transition."
Explore further: 'Flipperbot': Sea turtles inspire beach-walking robot (w/ video)
More information: Benjamin McInroe, et al., "Tail use improves soft substrate performance in models of early vertebrate land locomotors," Science, 2016. … 1126/science.aaf0984
Provided by Georgia Institute of Technology
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Visual Encyclopedia
Armenian Genocide
The Armenian Genocide (Armenian: Հայոց ցեղասպանություն, Hayots tseghaspanutyun), also known as the Armenian Holocaust, was the Ottoman government's systematic extermination of 1.5 million Armenians, mostly citizens within the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey. The starting date is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported from Constantinople (now Istanbul) to the region of Ankara 235 to 270 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders, the majority of whom were eventually murdered. The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases—the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly, and the infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian Desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Other ethnic groups were similarly targeted for extermination in the Assyrian genocide and the Greek genocide, and their treatment is considered by some historians to be part of the same genocidal policy. Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a direct result of the genocide.
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The Mechanics Behind Yellowstone's Old Faithful
Originally published on October 12, 2017 6:02 pm
It's in the name Old Faithful, the geyser in Yellowstone National Park that blows over a hundred feet in the air every 90 minutes or so. It's enchanted millions of visitors for generations.
Geophysicist Robert Smith has been mesmerized for 61 years, since before he started college. And he has long wondered something.
ROBERT SMITH: What people really did not understand - and we didn't of course - is where is the reservoir that holds the water, the steam, the gas that fuels Old Faithful.
SIEGEL: Well, he has now coauthored a study that appears in Geophysical Research Letters based on research that he did with his team.
SMITH: We put out seismographs on the ground, up to 150 or so. And we record the - just the natural ground vibrations.
MCEVERS: From those, they created an image of what's below the surface - a reservoir that fills up with gases and water. Smith says picture something in your kitchen.
SMITH: You fill a teakettle up with cold water and put it on the stove. And as the teakettle heats, it takes so many minutes. And then finally, when the pressure from the steam and hot water is big enough, it pops open the teakettle nozzle, if you wish, and out comes the steam.
SIEGEL: In Old Faithful's case, it takes about 90 minutes to refill, and then it blows. Sixty-one years after first spending a summer study in Yellowstone's tributaries, Robert Smith still loves the thrill of discovery.
SMITH: You know, a lot of the public thinks about geology as boring, billion-year-old rocks. Well, Yellowstone is anything but.
MCEVERS: That's geophysicist Robert Smith.
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How to Kill Scale on Palm Trees
Scale refers to an insect infestation that occurs almost exclusively on perennial shrubs and trees. Numerous species of scale insects exist and when a specific species attacks a host that is vulnerable to it, this unfortunate event can quickly kill the plant. That said, other species of scale will cause no damage, and most scale species are innocuous in moderate numbers. Adult male scales are almost never seen. Female and immature -- properly called nymphal -- scale of both sexes appear as round or oval lumps, are immobile, have no identifiable head or body parts and are wingless. Adult males do not feed; juvenile males and both juvenile and adult females suck sap from the host plant through tiny strawlike mouth parts. An infestation of scale effects all parts of a plant, including bark, leaf and fruit, but in palm trees is most prevalent on the leaves.
Palm tree health can be adversly effected by an infestation of scale.
Step 1
Identify the species of scale infesting the host plant. This is vital because insecticides balanced to eradicate one species of scale may be entirely ineffective on another. Consult the tables provided by the University of California to identify the specific form encountered. Armored scale live under a platelike, nippled cover that is approximately 1/8 inch in diameter. Euonymus, oystershell, California red and San Jose are some pernicious armored scales. Soft scales reach a maximum length of approximately 1/4 inch, and have a smooth and waxy surface. Black, brown and European fruit scales are some pernicious soft scales. Although less frequently encountered, European elm scale, cottony cushion scale, sycamore scale and oak pit scale can all cause problems.
Step 2
Use methods of cultural control to discourage infestation; methods include monitoring and providing accurate irrigation and prompt, appropriate pruning. Palms maintained in over-wet conditions and in soils with poor drainage are more susceptible to dangerous or unattractive scale. Conversely, washing the leaves of infested trees to remove dust will encourage natural scale predators. Prune off any limbs or fronds that have a heavy occupation. Open up the canopy by rigorously cutting back upper foliage; scale is naturally held back by high levels of uninterrupted sun exposure.
Step 3
Encourage organic resistance to scale by monitoring your plants' environment and allowing natural balance to eradicate -- or at least moderate -- the parasites. The larvae of small parasitic wasps such as Aphytis, Coccophagus, Encarsia and Metaphycus are voracious scale predators, as are many beetles, bugs, lacewings and mites. Predatory Chilocorus, Hyperaspis, Rhyzobius and Asian lady beetles -- almost universally colloquially called ladybugs -- also act as natural control agencies. Eggs and larvae of species that do well in specific locales are often available from special local landscaping suppliers.
Step 4
Prevent honeydew ants from occupying the area around a plant. Scale can flourish when their natural enemies, such as the vedalia beetle Rodolia cardinalis, are prevented from working by ants tending what are effectively farmed scale herds. Wrap the palm's trunk with a collar of fabric tree wrap and fit wedges into uneven areas, then coat the collar with a sticky substance to arrest the movement of ants up the tree to the areas where they are tending the scale. Move the collars twice a year to avoid damage to the bark.
Step 5
Spray the infested plant with narrow-range horticultural oil, insecticidal soap or a mixture of oil and soap, in the palm's least active season, usually late winter. The plant must be completely sprayed; trunk, branches and even the underside of fronds. This measure should be taken only when atmospheric moisture, such as fog and rain, is not expected for at least 24 hours. Horticultural oil is most effective on woody, deciduous trees, but may have a positive impact on some palm infestations.
Step 6
Apply systemic insecticides, which are absorbed into the tree then transferred to the parasite in lethal doses, where spraying and environmental control are not practical options. Use systemic insecticides according to the manufacturer's instructions; some are applied to the tree's roots where they are absorbed, others are injected or implanted into the trunk.
Step 7
Use contact insecticides such as carbamates, organophosphates and pyrethroids only as a last resort in scale control. Although they are effective in killing the insects, they also cause great disruption in the life cycles of other "friendly" insects and mites. Further, their residues remain present on the trees for extended periods, and this persistence continues to disrupt the presence of the "good bugs."
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Agents of Change: How American Indians Helped Change the World in Only Seven Years
byMichael R. McClellan
From the time I was a young student, I have always loved learning about our nation’s history. From Paul Revere’s midnight ride to Thomas Jefferson’s eloquently defiant Declaration of Independence, just the mention of these exciting events has, and continues to, make my heart beat just a little faster. And yet, as much as I love our nation’s history, a few inconvenient truths beckon from the darkened corners, calling for resolution. And, although America has endeavored to continually make strides towards Jefferson’s lofty ideals that “all men are created equal,” one of the more enduring paradoxes has been the treatment of American Indians from nearly the first European footfalls upon the shore of the “New World”.
Growing up towards the end of the golden age of television, like many in our society, I was programmed to see Indians not as people but as stereotypes. I can still hear the ominous music that played whenever an Indian menacingly appeared onscreen in a Western. Moreover, the iconic pop culture props, such as toy bow-and-arrow sets, feather-adorned drums, and the ever present cigar store Indian, certainly did not help to arrest the objectification of Native Americans. According to Seminar Leader, Ned Blackhawk, “Arguably at no other point in the nation’s history had such methods of visual communication so heavily impacted everyday life.”1 Clearly, Native Americans are not only the most enduring pop culture icons but also the least understood. In fact, this fascination with Indians can be seen at almost all epochs of American history and iconography, from rioting colonists masquerading as Indians at the Boston Tea party, to elements of Boy Scouts of America, to the shockingly racist portrayal of Native Americans in Disney’s Peter Pan. And so as harmless as my toy drum may seem, as Blackhawk asserts, by characterizing Indians as relics of the past, it has become easier for mainstream society to marginalize them as part of a vanishing era.
The Seven Years’ War is the main focus of this unit. It completely restructured the balance of power, disrupting not only the European power structures, but those in North America as well. This conflict loosened the grip on regional power held by Native Americans, especially the Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the Five or, later, Six Nation Iroquois). This war ultimately resulted in the ushering of Indians to the margins of American society and consciousness, an outcome that obviously had deleterious effects across the past few centuries of American history and culture, the effects of which continue to this modern age.
In our seminar, and through related readings, I have learned to see American Indian history in an entirely new light. It is a more realistic light in which one sees Native Americans as highly individualistic and, especially in the case of the Seven Years’ War, quite skilled in diplomacy. This conflict, and the ensuing policies and sentiments that followed, would serve to deny Indians their right to ascendant progress, an unthinkable development in a society that prides itself on freedom. Through the study of this unit, my students will come to see Indians as people with many of the same hopes and dreams as they themselves possess. They will learn that Native Americans were not the inherently “evil warriors,” nor the helpless “noble savages” portrayed across the American cultural landscape. Instead what will emerge is a vision of Indians as a vibrant people directly in the center of a global conflict that not only affected the North American continent, but the entire world.
It must also be considered that, given so many instances of conquest in all times and places across the arc of human history, conflicts over the North American continent seem inescapable. While not condoning this aspect of human nature, the unit will equip students to continually ask the deeper questions of how all inhabitants might have found a way to peacefully and equitably coexist, and how to chart a more favorable course for all parties as we continue to move forward through the modern era.
Rationale and Background Information
This unit, Agents of Change: How American Indians Helped Change the World in Only Seven Years, will use the far-reaching impact of the Seven Years’ War to provide students with the context and evidence to better understand the history of early Indian and European relations. Although the scope of Indian and federal government relations is far too vast to incorporate, this unit, sequenced early in the instructional year, will not only help students grasp how we arrived at the current state of affairs with the continent’s indigenous populations, but also leave them better equipped to more deeply consider these issues when they encounter the related subject matter in subsequent units.
Andres Castillero Middle School (grades 6 though 8) is located in the heart of Silicon Valley and the third-largest city in California (and the 10th largest in the U.S.). A performing arts magnet serving the Almaden Valley neighborhood of San Jose, the school’s numerous elective course offerings draw students from across an array of neighborhoods. The student body of approximately 1,222 students, mainly comprised of white (43%), Hispanic (36%) and Asian (13%), (with thirty-three percent of the student body identified as low socioeconomic), is a blend of white- and blue-collar families.2 Performing arts positively impact the school culture, as students from all economic backgrounds recognize the value of these social, educational, and extracurricular opportunities, and widely embrace them as they develop into well-rounded individuals.
In my unit, Agents of Change: How American Indians Helped Change the World in Only Seven Years, I want my students to appreciate Native Americans not as helpless victims anxiously watching from the sidelines but rather as keen pragmatists who placed themselves squarely in the middle of the conflict for control of the North American continent. It is vitally important that they grasp the political and cultural implications resulting from the first major conflict, The Seven Years’ War. Subsequent units such as The March to Civil Rights and Manifest Destiny, will incorporate the voices of the disenfranchised into our national consciousness.
Central to the teaching of these issues will be to incorporate Seixas’ Historical Thinking Concepts3 which include historical significance, cause and consequence, historical perspective, primary sources, continuity and change, and ethical dimensions. Under this umbrella lay the important tenets of agency (the Indians were not passive victims but pragmatic participants, fully at the center of the struggle for control of the continent), and presentism (that historians must not judge events of the past by today’s standards.)
This curriculum unit will enable me to teach seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian history at a much deeper and objective level. It is expected, even hoped for, that students will have to grapple with these issues, for the highest level of mastery comes as a result of the productive struggle, and this is subject matter with which the students will most definitely struggle. By navigating the complexities of relations between Native Americans and European settlers through close readings of particular passages from primary and secondary sources, students will analyze readings both individually and in table groups. They will also consider period paintings such as West’s The Death of General Wolfe to round out their understanding.
By the end of this unit, students will further develop their skills in historical inquiry and expository writing. Perhaps the most beneficial aspect of historical inquiry is that, because they have researched the subject in depth, students will realize that they know more about the topic than most anyone of which they can think. Armed with this assurance, they soon find their voice as they write from that confident, authoritative perspective. (See the Resources for Students and Teacher section for a more complete presentation of the historical inquiry process as well as the unit focus questions associated with this unit, and possibly, subsequent units.)
This unit, Agents of Change: How American Indians Helped Change the World in Only Seven Years, will consider the Seven Years’ War through a new lens, considering the factors affecting colonists and Native Americans that ultimately hampered peaceful cohabitation. By recasting it as a more foundational event, students will come to appreciate that it is more important than the Revolutionary War.
Early Contact: Diplomacy and Trade Relations
To most observers, it is undeniable that the Thanksgiving portrayals projected across Americana are decidedly inaccurate. From Currier and Ives prints to Charlie Brown feasting with smiling Native Americans, this notion has become so pervasive that today’s students know very little about the complex nature of Indian and colonial relations. In seminar it was discussed how this misconception has been propagated through various cultural representations such as the stoic, noble savage, the vanishing Indian, or the menacing barbarian. Such portrayals do violence to authentic Native America as it reduces the Indian experience to broad stereotypes that can easily be dismissed or marginalized as quaint or insignificant. Before these fallacies can be successfully put to rest, the competing viewpoints with regard to pre-1492 Native America must be understood.4 In one camp there is a tendency to view Indians as peacefully coexisting with their neighbors and their surroundings. From this perspective comes the “noble, vanishing Indian”, hapless victims of European exploitation, lacking any trace of agency. Yet the alternative extreme, armed with the distorted lens of presentism, rushes to the equally skewed perspective that Indians regularly engaged in violent acts, human sacrifice, and environmental devastation, as if this somehow suggests some level of hypocrisy. It is lamentable that this constructed interpretation often leads to justification for the indefensible original European view, which portrays Native Americans as “menacing barbarians” in need of rehabilitation meted out under the guise of civilization.
In order to eradicate these fallacious notions, it is important for students to appreciate the rich culture and society enjoyed by the continent’s indigenous peoples prior to European contact. Largely missing from most narratives are such aspects as Native American views on land ownership, sustainable living, and the individualistic nature of their societies. As is characteristic of many civilizations across history, especially those of European descent, some tribes lived in peace while others were at war numerous times throughout their existence. Yet divergent views of property ownership certainly contributed to the conflicts with European settlers. Many Native American peoples saw their relation to the earth not so much as possessors, but as inhabitants, and therefore served as stewards of the land. These views, when juxtaposed with the jarringly different European views that eventually led to the destabilization of tribal sovereignty, provide context for how this vision differed radically from the European perspective. Coming from a time not too far removed from feudalism, where land ownership was difficult to attain, colonists in the new world perceived property, namely land, as something to be possessed at any cost. This struggle for land came at a great cost, indeed.
Fostering a more realistic sense of American Indians is most helpful to the narrative. To better understand and dispel the erroneous notion of Native America in the intervening years after 1492, it is important to begin with an understanding of the central role the Indians played in the colonists’ physical and economic survival. According to Jace Weaver, “Indians of the Americas were engaged in diplomacy from the moment of first contact. Every parlay between Natives and Europeans was in some sense a diplomatic meeting, be it major or minor.”5 As traders showed up on their shores and lands with increasing regularity, Native Americans soon learned the intricacies of managing the relationship with their European business partners. For instance, while they were open to trade, their hospitality did not include extended European visits.
For the Europeans, it is quite possible that at first, technology played a major role in a skewed perception of strength. To be sure, the Indians were initially taken aback by the perceived superiority of European weaponry, but soon the Native Americans discovered that firepower lost its advantage if the shooter lacked accuracy, which most Europeans did.6 Moreover, taking into account the time constraints of reloading a musket versus a long bow, if the colonists had any technological advantage, it was slight at best. In fact, as John Smith was being captured, he disabled his pistol to hide that it lacked the range of an arrow. This parity of weaponry quickly leveled the playing field and greatly affected early diplomacy and trade, two seemingly separate forces which were inextricably interwoven.
As the fur trade became more lucrative, multiple colonizing empires converged on North America with an eye on building a powerful base of trade. In 1608, within a year of the founding of the British colony at Jamestown, the founding of New France increased Native American power in unexpected ways. As Allan Greer suggests, in the eyes of the Indians, the French came “not as conquering invaders, but as a new tribe negotiating a place for itself in the diplomatic webs of Native North America.”7 Both Iroquoian- and Algonquian-speaking nations quickly recognized the advantages of playing one European power against the other, avoiding a total commitment to either European power and thereby compelling those nations to compete for their attention like suitors pursuing the same beau. If either New France or the British colonists were to make any headway with their trade partners, both their knee and will would have to bend, to ensure they were obtaining a most favored status.8
Because the fur trade emanating from the Ohio River Valley was so vital to European economic interests, Indians, like the Iroquois, clearly had the upper hand. According to Anthony Wallace,
...the Six Nations were able to use the Ohio country as the fulcrum in a game of
playing off one side against the other that kept both the French and British
perpetually off balance...In the summer of 1701 the Iroquois confederacy...made
two treaties, almost simultaneously, at Albany [British center of operations] and
Montreal [French]. These treaties together inaugurated a new era of Iroquois
policy...that required of the Iroquois as much duplicity in diplomatic dealings with
the Europeans as was practiced towards them; its success is measured by
the fact that both the British and the French alternated constantly between the
conviction that the Iroquois were on their own side and the conviction that they had
turned to the enemy. In consequence, the basic policy of both French and British
toward the Iroquois was to secure Iroquois neutrality by making political and
economic concessions to them.9
The Iroquois Confederacy masterfully leveraged this “playoff system” pitting the Anglo versus French in disputes that played one side against the other. In doing so, they not only benefitted from the currying of favor from one side and then the other, but they could disrupt both sides from gaining any true dominance over the region. What was left was the “covenant chain,” an alliance forged between the Iroquois and the British settlers in 1677.10 Moreover, the Iroquois Confederacy, making sure to maintain strict control of trade in the region, jealously guarded their role as brokers between British suppliers on one side and their customers, the western tribes on the other.11 These alliances were important to the power structure in the region. According to Alan Taylor,
By framing an alliance to control the east-west trade, the Montagnais, Algonkin,
and Huron excluded and alienated the Five Nation Iroquois...Determined to take
trade goods, captives, and revenge, the Five Nation Iroquois frequently raided
northward to afflict the Montagnais, Algonkin, and Huron – which hurt the French
trade...In making Indians friends, however, Europeans almost invariably made
other Indians their enemies. As their price of business and protection, the
Montagnais, Algonkin, and Huron expected the French to help them fight the Five
Nation Iroquois. Compelled to choose, the French embraced the northern alliance
and made southern enemies.12
These bonds, however, proved quite expensive to maintain. Even though the English thought themselves superior to the indigenous peoples, the chain retained its strength only through maintaining the illusion of acceptance.13 Matters became rather complicated when the Indians, sensing their lower status, pressed for an audience with England’s King William III. To indulge such a request was fraught with peril and expense. Yet, in 1696, a cadre of Mohawk representatives were brought to London with the intent of dazzling them with a show of English might on all fronts, from culture to governance, and most certainly, firepower. However, on the heels of this excursion, came another Native American contingent receiving similar adulation in the courts at Paris and Versailles. According to Weaver, “England had to outdo its adversary in wooing the Iroquois.”14 From the astute management of these contending forces in the “beaver wars”, one can appreciate the degree of political power, and yes, agency, that the Native Americans possessed, a reality that their European counterparts failed to fully comprehend.
Perhaps the largest obstacle to harmonious relations was the prejudice of which both sides were guilty. According to Charles Mann, “ethnocentrism seems to be a near-universal human quality.”15 With greed, or at least self-interest, being a common human trait, then it is understandable that when the two sides first met, both sought the best outcome for themselves. Regrettably, in most cases, each party was blinded by its own perceived superiority, believing that it had the upper hand and could manage the negotiations to a successful, if decidedly one-sided, advantage. For instance, the British tended to look down upon Indians as primitive peoples. This arrogant outlook eventually alienated not just the native populations, but their own kin in the American colonies as well. And the Indian view of their English counterparts could be equally skewed. As Mann also illustrates, Native Americans perceived the English in the following way.
They were irritatingly garrulous, prone to fits of chancery, and often surprisingly
hatchets – unlike anything else in New England. Moreover, they would exchange
customers’ used socks – almost anyone would be willing to overlook the
shopkeeper’s peculiarities.16
The superior attitude of the British also distracted them from the realities of commercial and political alliances. Rather than recognizing that they were not just entering into a business venture, but a political, and if need be, military, alliance, the British often tried to treat the interwoven motivations as separate, which was decidedly different than the Indian point of view. Taylor adds,
In Indian diplomacy, words were cheap and meaningless unless
accompanied by the ceremonial delivery of valued presents. Because
Europeans thought of trade as purely commercial and distinct from
diplomacy, they initially balked at the Indian notion that trade sealed an
alliance between equals...(Native Americans) learned never to trade with the
first vessel to come their way but to await several to compete for their furs.
The natives became adept at driving a hard bargain, to the dismay of the
Europeans, who preferred to think of Indians as perpetual children.”17
Although the access to European products such as textiles, metal tools and weapons, and, regrettably, alcohol, built a dependence among the Indians, it was the Europeans who became captives to this process.18 Once the Indians valued these trade goods, any decrease or cessation of trade was seen as a threat to Native American survival and therefore an act of war. Isolated as they were in this strange new land, and surrounded by alliances that were temporal and unstable at best, colonial settlers could ill afford to make enemies. They had little choice but to adhere to Native American trade practices. The entangling nature of alliances meant that not only were goods exchanged but military assistance as well. And once again, the native populations were first to the party and well in control of their destiny.
Alan Taylor places Native American history in a more informal perspective in surmising that “Instead of lurking beyond the colonies in a ‘wilderness,’ Indians have come back into the story as central and persistent protagonists...The biggest difference was the unprecedented mixing of radically diverse peoples – African, European, and Indian – under circumstances stressful for all of them.”19 Seen from the right perspective, in this new light of agency, one can appreciate the diplomatic skill employed by Native American peoples as they navigated the changing tides of the late seventeenth century.
The Seven Years War
Paramount to these changing tides was an encounter involving a young George Washington, who inadvertently started a vitally important conflict in 1754. Not surprisingly, trade relations were a central factor. Although the conflict initially began as a squabble over control of a relatively small corner of the North American continent, it quickly expanded in scope to become what Fred Anderson has suggested was, in a sense, the first world war.20 Given that Europeans prized the warm and luxurious North American beaver above all other pelts, this war became a battle between age-old rivals France and Britain competing for primacy in the lucrative fur trade radiating from the Ohio River Valley. With the French looking to extend their influence beyond their Canadian land holdings, Washington, a surveyor by trade, was chosen as one who could traverse the woods and back roads and deliver a simple “No Trespassing” message to New France. Although rebuffed in his first attempt, he returned a year later to disastrous results. When a French diplomat was brutally killed by Tanaghrisson, a Native American ally from the Iroquois Confederacy and one supposedly under Washington’s command, the young commander soon found himself at the center of a global conflict that had far-reaching implications. For the next seven years, wherever France and England came in contact, be it North America, Europe, Africa or Asia, they would be at war.
It is important to note that the Seven Years’ War, a global conflict, began with the Battle of Fort Duquesne, near present-day Pittsburgh and ended, with Pontiac’s Rebellion, on the outskirts of Detroit. Following a pragmatic diplomacy policy of playing New France against the British crown, the Iroquois Confederacy thrived for the better part of a half century. As Fred Anderson states, “The story of the Anglo--French colonial war begins, therefore, not with Britain or France, nor even with their American colonies, but with the Six Nations of the Iroquois and indeed with a single chief: Tanaghrisson.”21
In this light, the Indians were anything but passive pawns in a larger story; they were the central protagonists in perhaps the most significant conflict the world had yet encountered.
An important outcome of the war was that it damaged British relations both with the Native American populations and equally, if not more so, with their colonists. While not the optimal foundation on which to build a bright future, British incredulity over the colonists’ strong reactions is somewhat understandable. However, as is so often the case, an underlying issue, perceived insults, had long been eroding the colonists feelings of goodwill towards their original home. Stemming from this conflict was a nagging sense for the colonists that somehow their provincial ways were looked down upon by those in the highly stratified British society. According to Gordon S. Wood,
In comparison with prosperous and powerful metropolitan England, America in the
middle of the eighteenth century seemed a primitive, backward place, disordered
and turbulent, without a real aristocracy, without magnificent courts or large urban
centers, indeed, without any of the attributes of the civilized world. Consequently,
the colonists repeatedly felt pressed to apologize for the crudity of their society, the
insignificance of their art and literature, and the triviality of their affairs.22
The attitudes and treatment of the British army during the Seven Years’ War only served to further alienate the colonists. General Edward Braddock, perhaps the epitome of British arrogance, summarily rejected the military and cultural advice of his provincial aides in how to engage an enemy that refused to fight in the Napoleonic style. When Washington urged him to consider that the absence of red in the forest strongly suggested a uniform modification among his troops, Braddock did nothing to hide his contempt for both Indians and provincials. He once said “These savages may, indeed be a formidable enemy to your raw American militia, but upon the king’s regular and disciplined troops, sir, it is impossible to believe they should make any impression.”23 The years of snide comments, sideways glances and repeated slights experienced among the British regulars only served to reinforce what the colonists had feared all along - that although they were British subjects, that did not mean they measured up, and perhaps never could, to the upper reaches of British society to which they aspired. This nagging sense of inadequacy would hound the founding fathers in the post-war years as Britain brought an end to over a century of salutary neglect and exerted greater control over its American colonies. In light of this treatment, the transformation of many colonists into revolutionaries--as Parliament imposed taxes upon them without their consent--becomes much more understandable. Such treatment played right into a long simmering inferiority complex.
British successes early in the war were hard to come by under the enigmatic leadership of Braddock and a host of others. Largely at issue was the British high command’s refusal to recognize that, in the Native American forces, they were facing an enemy like none that they had previously encountered. As noted above, Washington and others tried to convince the high command that a significant change in battle tactics was in order. However, their pleas and proposals fell on deaf ears. Instead, they steadfastly stuck to their tactics and demanded that the enemy react to the tone that they set. And yet, the Indians, and their French allies were only too glad to wait and ambush the British as, in their bright red coats with brass buttons shining and drums beating a cadence, they noisily and colorfully marched through the close confines of the forest.
Despite their early tactical blunders, British fortunes turned for the better with two great victories in 1758. Of course, the Ohio country would be key to their success. At the mouth of the St. Lawrence River sat the French fortress of Louisbourg, from which all navigation into the interior of Canada and the Ohio River Valley was controlled. After a protracted siege by British naval and ground forces, Louisbourg finally fell in July of 1758, clearing the way for British forces to pressure the interior of New France. The pivotal battle came at the French fortifications at Quebec, situated on a lofty perch overlooking the St. Lawrence River. In 1759, General James Wolfe directed a surprise attack on the French forces commanded by General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm. Sailing under the cover of darkness, Wolfe’s troops overpowered the few sentries watching the cliff approaches, and mobilized forces for an attack the next morning. Unlike the hit-and-run guerilla fighting at which the Indian forces excelled, Quebec’s open ground at the Plains of Abraham offered the perfect chess board for Wolfe to direct a strategic campaign to capture the last significant French stronghold. Although mortally wounded as depicted so dramatically in Benjamin West’s masterful painting, Wolfe’s victory was, in many ways, the turning point of the war.24
After the victories at Louisbourg and Quebec, it seemed all that remained was for England and Spain to dictate the terms of capitulation and for France to sign away all its North American holdings with the Treaty of Paris of 1763. Yet, instead of a slow fade to a happy ending, from a Eurocentric perspective, it may be easy to overlook what now seems the next obvious phase of the conflict. It is quite telling that the Seven Years’ War, although fought on nearly every continent, would begin and end in the Ohio River Valley. Because the Indians were and had always been the central protagonists, the French presence receding from the North American continent, certainly did not mean that the Indians accepted this as the end of the line for their fortunes. Although the end of a French presence in North America created the vacuum that eliminated the play-off system so vital to Native America’s control of the continent, this absence also left England solely responsible for managing the lucrative fur trade and forging a lasting peace between the Indians and colonists. With Parliament hastily making policy decisions that affected a land half a world away, this would prove to be a monumental task. In previous dealings with British traders where they had been swindled of both their land and furs, the Indians experienced nothing to give them any hope of better days ahead. So, in the absence of their French allies, the Native Americans turned to full-scale war. Anderson states,
imposed from above. They did it by launching attacks that grew into the most
successful pan-Indian resistance movement in American history...Pontiac’s
Instead of a peaceful end to the war, the escalating violence had an astounding effect on stability in the region. The next three years, from 1763 to 1766, saw allied Indian forces sack all but three of the British forts west of the Appalachians. Across the backcountry of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, more than 2,000 colonists perished.26
It was a matter of considerable pride that all British subjects, no matter where they might reside, could sleep safely in their beds. Therefore when word reached London of the latest mayhem occurring at the hands of the Native Americans, they understandably sought to bring about an expedient end to the hostilities by returning to the diplomacy that had so fragily held Native American relations intact. In response to General Thomas Gage re-instituting the granting of gifts and accommodations, the Indians gave control of the forts back to the British yet not without the following admonition from Chief Pontiac,
We tell you now [that] the French never conquered us, neither did they purchase a
foot of our Country, nor have they a right to give it to you. We gave them liberty to
settle for which they always rewarded us & treated us with great Civility…[I]f you
expect to keep these Posts, we will expect to have proper returns from you.27
In their rush to respond to the violence of Pontiac’s Rebellion, the British instituted policies that were not only less than equitable for all parties involved, but incredibly short-sighted as well. Many British policy makers presumed that only a standing army could guarantee a lasting peace in this remote yet troublesome corner of their empire.28
Ill-judged measures continued to pour forth from London, leading to colonial frustration in the short-term, and rebellion in the long run. Those in Parliament, far removed from the colonies, failed to grasp the intricate political web that had developed so far from their legislative reach. Therefore, a likely supposition was that, if the cause of all this violence was the Ohio River Valley, then a land grant would quell the ill will and restore order. Paul Johnson notes that the Royal Proclamation of 1763 which forbade Americans to settle past the Appalachians,
...was anathema to the colonies -- it destroyed their future, at a stroke...The
Proclamation was one of Britain’s cardinal errors, just at the moment when the
expulsion of the French had entirely removed American dependence on British
military power, and any conceivable obstacle to the expansion of the boundless
lands of the interior, the men in London were proposing to replace the French by
deliberate insult to American sensibilities.29
To the colonist mindset, Parliament’s decision to return the Ohio country to the Indians--the land for which they had just spent seven years fighting, and the enemy whom in their minds they had just defeated--was absurdly insulting. However, few could foresee that with these fiscal and military policies, the seeds of revolution had been sown.
Aftermath: The Revolutionary Era
Through a patriotic lens, there has been a tendency to see the American Revolution as the paramount event on the road to freedom. Yet, when one considers how the Seven Years' War set events in motion that profoundly shifted the balance of power between the colonizing powers, this conflict takes on much more preeminence. In the settling post-war dust, England emerged as the world’s superpower, while France was largely non-existent in the Western Hemisphere. Alan Taylor keenly points out that,
...within thirteen years of the treaty of peace, thirteen Atlantic seaboard colonies
would revolt to wage a long war for their independence. That shocking conflict
between the colonies and the mother country developed from strains initiated by
winning the Seven Years’ War. The conquest of Canada deprived the mainland
colonists and the British of a common enemy that had united them in the past.
Victory invited the British to redefine the empire and to increase the colonists’
burdens. But victory also emboldened colonists to defy British demands because
they no longer needed protection from the French.30
This conflict resulted not only in France’s support of the fledgling revolution, but also in New Spain’s securing of its empire via the advent of the mission system around the time of Lewis and Clark’s expedition (1804 - 1806). The aftereffect of all this strife was a “world turned upside down” where England and Spain had the lion’s share of North America and France was left with a few Caribbean holdings such as Haiti, Martinique, and St. Barts. These escalating incendiary events would lead to the American Revolution. Moreover, the outcome of the Seven Years' War drove France to avenge its losses by supporting the patriots in their quest for freedom. And as is so often the case, it began with taxes.
The colonists had started this costly engagement that led to a crushing post-war debt of 137 million pounds. Moreover, since some felt a standing army was required to keep peace after the suppression of Pontiac’s Rebellion, Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Grenville, felt the burden of colonial defense must be shared by the colonists.31 However, they were never party to whether the soldiers should be stationed among them or how they should share in the cost of their own defense. According to Taylor, “Instead of seeing the new permanent army in North America as a source of protection, colonial leaders felt threatened as those troops became both the pretext for raising new taxes and the means for enforcing them.”31
And yet, as “repeated usurpations” pushed both sides towards war, France later resurfaced in North American affairs, this time in the role of colonial ally. Considering that France’s monarch had much to lose by stirring up public foment, France’s involvement in the Revolutionary War obviously had considerably less to do with freedom than revenge. As Alexander Hamilton astutely pointed out in his usual acerbic style,
The primary motives of France for the assistance which she gave us was obviously
to enfeeble a hated and powerful rival by breaking into pieces the British
Empire...He must be a fool who can be credulous enough to believe that a despotic
court aided a popular revolution from regard to liberty or friendship to the principles
of such a revolution.32
Dangerous Misconceptions, Oppressive Policies
The outcome of the Seven Years’ War set the stage for massive Indian civil rights violations as the power of the United States government greatly expanded over the next two and a half centuries. As discussed in seminar, greed, prejudice and misguided notions eventually gave rise to such atrocious federal programs as assimilation, allocation and termination. Assuming that policy makers’ had sincere intentions for the welfare of Native Americans--which, in many cases is debatable, given the general lack of compassion displayed in their actions--these directives have led to broken treaties, destruction of culture, relocation of tribes, and a staggering amount of death and violence. Today these effects are manifest in a sense of hopelessness and distrust among many Native Americans, especially those living on reservations. Sherman Alexie brilliantly captures this sense of despair in his novel, The Absolutely True Diary of a Part Time Indian:
poor because you are stupid and ugly. And then you start believing that you’re
perseverance. No, poverty only teaches you how to be poor.” (Italics added by
The U.S. ascendancy to global superpower in the post World War II years led to an economic boom that left Indians, many of whom had proudly fought in the U.S. forces, on the outside looking in at all of this prosperity. Even worse, as a new rugged American identity emerged, forged in the crucible of a war fought against clearly discernable evil, Congress set into action the termination program. While not the purely genocidal program that the name might suggest, this policy nonetheless robbed Native Americans of their political autonomy and legal standing by dissolving all vestiges of “Indian-ness” in an attempt to make them more “American.” This sentiment was nothing new. From the very beginnings of our nation, our founding fathers pondered how to deal with this clash of cultures. In fact, just prior to issuing his Farewell Address in the waning months of his presidency, George Washington reached out to the Cherokee nation with a well-intended, if somewhat misguided plea for them to join white society.34
Although, to his credit, Washington’s views did not demand forced assimilation, his somewhat gentle and naive treatment is sadly in stark contrast to the rugged individualism inherent in the post-World War II national identity. It is somewhat ironic that, while seeking to “whiten” Native Americans, this same era also romanticized the “cowboys and Indians” of the Old West, establishing many of the aforementioned negative stereotypes. Through the wholesale removal of tribal sovereignty and all inherent Indian civil rights and land holdings, termination sought to force the Indians to “stand on their own two feet.” Speaking of this program and other federal attempts to force Native Americans to assimilate, Charles Wilkinson noted,
...termination stems from deep impulses long lodged in American views towards
Indians. The United States negotiated treaties, after all, in order to reduce Indian
landholdings and political power. Allotment was designed to hasten Indian
assimilation, which Congress also promoted through the far-ranging and coercive
BIA [Bureau of Indian Affairs] and church activities. Termination offered full and
final relief from the centuries-old weariness with the refusal of Indians to abandon
their political and cultural identity.35
In an attempt to explain away imperialization and restrictive governmental policies, an all-too-convenient rationale echoing across humanity has been that “to the victor go the spoils of war”, and that therefore history is written by the “winning side.” In the case of Native American relations, two erroneous assumptions have prevailed. First, that the Native Americans were helpless, passive participants virtually lacking in agency, and second, in light of this, that they simply had to accept their fate as a conquered people. Allowing for perceived advantages in economics and weaponry, one might be compelled to accept this proposition. However, as one takes into account the numerous treaty violations and disingenuous dealings of the federal and state governments, justice demands a closer look. This is certainly a painful history that touches a great many people. However, as we continue to evolve socially, I have a deep and profound hope that the time is finally right to chart a course to meaningful and lasting progress for all parties involved. By challenging these misconceptions, this unit seeks to put forth the first step on the journey to understanding, compassion, and ultimately, true and lasting progress for all Americans, both native and naturalized.
The process of historical inquiry will be used in conjunction with a variety of primary and secondary sources to consider how the events set in motion during the colonial period resulted in a significant shift in the global balance of power in the late eighteenth century. Sequenced near the beginning of my instructional year, this unit comes under the umbrella of the Colonial America unit of study. See the Resources for Students and Teacher section for a more complete presentation of the historical inquiry process.
Collaborative Learning and Groupwork
One of the basic tenets of my district’s lifelong learning standards stresses the synergistic benefits of collaborative learning. It is imperative that students learn how to work together to accomplish goals, both those set by me and even more importantly, themselves. Because each group member is accountable to, and dependent upon each other, all are expected to share their strengths and help others to develop their skills.
Essential Vocabulary
There are content-specific concepts and terms that will need to be front-loaded prior to delving into the subject. While most of these terms may not be entirely new to the students, I will connect these terms with their prior knowledge to help place them in the context of U.S. History. As mentioned previously, the concepts of agency and presentism will be introduced in this unit. I’m quite certain that these concepts will be new to most in my class. The ideas of confederacy and siege seem to show up with some regularity in many popular video games, so some students should have more than a passing acquaintance with them. These terms will re-occur in subsequent units throughout the year.
Google Classroom and Google Apps for Education
Technology continues to evolve as an essential part of the 21st Century classroom. For those of us who have not grown up with a tablet or smartphone in our hands, Marc Prensky has coined two new terms that can be used to describe both ourselves and the students under our tutelage.36 He essentially suggests that, if the digital world were an actual land, those that use technology would be either natives or immigrants. Having grown up surrounded by technology, most of our students are the digital natives. Their interaction with electronic devices greatly impacts how they relate to their world and enables them to easily master new technologies. However, many teachers can be seen as the digital immigrants. As Prensky states, they are
In short, if technology was a foreign language many teachers would always speak it with an accent. However, this should not deter our efforts to bring technology into our classrooms. Rather than sending the message “Welcome to school. Prior to takeoff, please stow all electronic devices”, we should take comfort in the fact that since our students adapt to new technologies so readily, all we usually need do is provide the most basic of introductions. In short order most of our students will be utilizing the technology far beyond what we imagined. Moments like this can provide empowerment and inspire far beyond our limited abilities in this arena.
To this end, the Google Apps for Education is a suite of products that promote collaboration and accessibility for our students. In line with San Jose Unified’s 21st century and lifelong learning strategies, students will use the Google Classroom environment to access assignments that involve close reading and annotation of primary and secondary sources, group and individual analysis of available evidence, structured academic conversations (such as Socratic seminars), and historical interpretations (written responses to the Unit Focus and Lesson Focus questions).
Google Classroom allows me to create and distribute a Google Doc or Slides presentation for each student. I can also post source documents, video clips and graphic organizers under the same assignment. Moreover, I can provide comments while students are working on their assignments, which streamlines the feedback and grading process. I want to ready my students for all that will be expected of them when they enter high school next year. Since this unit is early in the year, students will have ample time to master these strategies across the year.
Primary and Secondary Source/Document Analysis
Textual analysis is not only a basic tenet of Common Core, but a major focus of historical inquiry as well. The level of learning and subject mastery in my class deepened exponentially when my students started analyzing primary source documents. Students need to interact and yes, even struggle, with a document before they can uncover its true meaning. Given that most documents that we will be studying were written well over two hundred years ago, this activity presents an even greater challenge. Therefore I will provide excerpted documents at an appropriate length and complexity for a middle school audience. By the time that we arrive at this unit, students will have learned how to do close readings of primary sources to engage the historical narrative and extract the crucial information while deciding how they will use it as evidence to support their position.
Two of the main primary sources that I will use will be the Treaty of Paris of 1763 and in response to Pontiac’s War, the Proclamation Act of 1763. I will also employ texts from George Washington, General Edward Braddock, General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, and Chief Pontiac. (Public Domain)
In terms of secondary sources, I will draw from the sources of my research for this unit, namely Fred Anderson’s Crucible of War, Anthony Wallace’s The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca, Alan Taylor’s American Colonies, and Charles Mann’s 1491. Obviously these texts are above a middle school audience and will have to be heavily excerpted, scaffolded, and supported with graphic organizers.
Visual Aids
Learning Through Art is an important activity that helps the subject matter come alive through interaction with an historical painting or political cartoon. As if visiting an art gallery, students observe the image for two minutes without speaking, allowing it to reveal itself. Students then share their observations and impressions, asking increasingly complex questions of the art and of the artist. Helpful questions to ask students towards the end of the analysis are “What is missing?” or “What don’t you see?”
The image for this unit will be Benjamin West’s epic painting The Death of General Wolfe. (Public domain) Students should note the emotion of the participants depicted in the painting, from Wolfe’s fallen state, to his emotional staff, to the Mohawk warrior placed near the center. His pose suggests any number of emotions, perhaps pondering whether to stay or to gather his prizes of war and leave for home.
I will also employ maps. Adapted from the Anderson text, the first will feature a series of callouts placed at the majority of the battles that touched most every continent in the Seven Years War. This map illustrates how this conflict, that started with the French trying to expand their trading empire in North America, soon became not just a turf battle in the Ohio River Valley, but a conflict stretching from nearly one end of the globe to the other. In tracking the various battles of the war, students will see that hostilities began at Pittsburgh and concluded near Detroit. In so doing, they will come to see that the Native Americans were anything but helpless bystanders in this conflict, as they skillfully played the French and British against each other for political, economic and military advantage. It is important that students come to see how this war moves the Indians from the margins of history as we have previously perceived them, to the very center. By doing so we will come to see that Indians are central to not just U.S. history, but all of world history. Another set of maps before and after the Seven Years’ War will illustrate the land holdings of the three primary colonizing powers, illustrating how the North American empire lost by France fueled their desire for revenge.
"2016 History-Social Science Framework." - Curriculum Frameworks (CA Dept of Education). Accessed July 29, 2016.
"Castillero Middle School." - San Jose, California. Accessed July 29, 2016.
"Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants." Digital-Natives. Accessed July 19, 2016.
Ellis, Joseph J. Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation.
"Historical Thinking Concepts." The Historical Thinking Project. Accessed July 19, 2016.
Johnson, Paul. A History of the American People. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.
Langguth, A. J. Patriots: The Men Who Started the American Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.
Mann, Charles C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. New York: Knopf, 2005.
Mithlo, Nancy Marie. For a Love of His People: The Photography of Horace Poolaw.
Wallace, Anthony F. C., and Sheila C. Steen. The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca. New York: Knopf, 1970.
Weaver, Jace. The Red Atlantic: American Indigenes and the Making of the Modern World, 1000-1927. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.
Wilkinson, Charles F. Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations. New York: Norton, 2005.
1. Blackhawk, Ned. For a Love of His People: The Photography of Horace Poolaw. 65.
2. Castillero Middle School 5656-Castillero-Middle-School/details
3. Seixas, Peter.
4. Taylor, Alan. “Natives 13,000 B.C. - A. D. 1492. Chapter 1” in American Colonies: The Settling of North America Penguin Group New York NY 2001
5. Weaver, Jace. “Red Diplomats. Chapter 3” in The Red Atlantic: American Indigenes and the Making of the Modern World, 1000 – 1927 Jace Weaver 2014 University of North Carolina Press
6. Mann, Charles C. “Why Billington Survived. Chapter 2” in 1491: New Revelations before Columbus
7. Taylor, Alan. “Canada and Iroquoia 1500 - 1660. Chapter 5” in American Colonies: The Settling of North America Penguin Group New York NY 2001
8. Taylor, Alan. “Introduction.” in American Colonies: The Settling of North America Penguin Group New York NY 2001
9. Wallace, Anthony F. C., and Sheila C. Steen. The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca. New York: Knopf, 1970. p. 115-16
20. Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British Empire North America 1754 - 1766 p. 12
22. Wood, Gordon S. “Origins. Chapter 1” in The American Revolution: A History. Modern Library a division of Random House, NY 2002
23. Taylor, Alan. “Imperial Wars and Crisis 1739 - 75. Chapter 18” in American Colonies: The Settling of North America Penguin Group New York NY 2001
29. Johnson, Paul. “ That the Free Constitution Be Sacredly Maintained - Revolutionary America, 1750 - 1815. Part 2” in A History of the American People - HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. New York, NY 1997
31. Langguth, A.J. “Henry 1763-64” in Patriots: The Men who Started the Revolution. Simon & Schuster, NY 1988.
32. Chernow, Ron. “A Frenzy of Valor. Chapter 6” in Alexander Hamilton. New York: Penguin Group,. 2004.
33. Alexie, Sherman. The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2007. p.13.
34. Ellis, Joseph. “The Farewell. Chapter 4” in Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation. New York: Random House, 2000.
35. Wilkinson, Charles. Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. p. 58.
36. "Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants." Digital-Natives. Accessed July 19, 2016.
Appendix A: Implementing District Standards
To ensure compliance with state initiatives, this unit will integrate some of the focus questions found in the California Department of Education’s Curriculum Framework for History-Social Studies.37 The following objective is taken from that framework:
History–Social Science Framework, Chapter 12
The eighth grade course of study begins with an intensive review of the major
ideas, issues, and events that shaped the founding of the nation. In their study of
this era, students will view American history through the lens of a people who were
trying—and are still trying—to fulfill the promise of the Declaration of
Independence and the Constitution. Throughout their eighth grade United States
equality, and liberty and their changing definitions over time.
The unit will follow the teaching thesis that Europeans colonized the Americas in order to gain the economic, religious, and political freedoms that they did not have at home by subjugating the rights of Indigenous people. Stemming from this thesis, the overarching unit focus question will be “How did the European pursuit of freedoms in the New World impact the different groups’ definitions of being American?” Supporting this inquiry will be a series of four lesson focus questions. A more complete discussion of the hierarchical structure of these focus questions can be found in the next section.
Student and Teacher Resources
The entire course is oriented towards answering the course level question (CLQ), “How has the pursuit of freedom impacted the differing definitions of the American Identity?” Each unit breaks the CLQ down into a unit focus question (UFQ) that that helps to guide our study across the entire year. And, to provide support and context for the UFQ, each lesson is broken down further into lesson focus questions, each of which in turn seek to answer part of the UFQ. At the end of each unit, students answer the UFQ in a two to three paragraph “historical interpretation” in which they take a position in response to the UFQ and defend it by citing evidence discovered in the analysis.
Through the iterative process of answering these UFQs, by the end of the year, students will be well on their way to producing a far ranging summative assessment essay covering all they have learned about freedom and the American identity as a result of being in my class this year. The following are focus questions that will help frame the students’ historical inquiry in this unit and as they encounter Native American civil rights issues later in the year.
Course Level Question: How has pursuing freedom impacted the differing definitions of the American Identity?
Colonial America Unit Focus Question: What were the freedoms that drove people to migrate to the New World, and, to what extent did these motives have a positive or negative impact on all parties involved?
Lesson Focus Questions: What factors led to the deterioration of relations between western Europeans and Native Americans over the course of our history?
To what extent did the settlers coming to North America positively and negatively impact the Native Americans?
How important was the playoff system with regard to relations between Native Americans and the European colonizing powers they encountered?
What factors caused the French and Indian War and what was the most important lasting impact of this conflict?
March to Civil Rights Unit Focus Question: How has the quest for equality in America helped shape a new American identity?
Lesson Focus Question: To what extent did the African American civil rights movement impact the American Indian Movement’s activities and objectives?
Manifest Destiny Unit Focus Question: In their quest for freedom, were Americans justified in pursuing Manifest Destiny?
Lesson Focus Questions: How did the Native American perspective on land ownership differ from those of white settlers?
To what extent did Jackson’s Indian Removal Policy impact the lives of Native American peoples today?
Given the history of dishonest dealings by the American government, what reasonable and meaningful remedies can we as a nation expect to implement to help build a lasting equitable peace with American Indians?
The inescapable question that should come from Agents of Change: How American Indians Helped Change the World in Only Seven Years is “where do we go from here?” Some have taken the position that that abandoning our homes and cities is much akin to trying to put the genie back in the bottle. But one must acknowledge, in light of the stated goals of the Declaration and the Constitution, that we can at least try to get the genie to play fair. With a hopeful eye towards a higher level of societal evolution, the unit could later be used to leverage the power of various civil rights movements to help students brainstorm how to bring meaningful and equitable solutions to this persistent shortcoming of our national story.
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It may noted that Osmosis is responsible for the ability of plant roots to draw water from the soil this is very clearly described in the Mahabharata.
SHANTI PARVA 184.16 "As one draws water up with the mouth (by suction) through a lotus stalk, the plant, endowed with air (pressure) drinks with its feet"
The knowledge of Osmosis in Mahabharata was later discovered by Kramer - 1969 AD which states
"Due to rapid evaaporation of water from leaves during transpiration, a tense is created and transmited to the xylem of the roots, causing the water to cross cell wall and rise upwards".
Mahabharata throws more light on the awareness of plants and there responsiveness. In the Mahabharata it is explained that plants can SHANTI PARVA 184.13-14 "The creeper moves above the trunks, covering it all around. There is no path for the one without sight. Hence trees can see. The heat rays of the sun discolours the barks, leaves and flowers of trees. Since they also fade and perish because of heat, trees have the sense of touch. When covered with incense and smoke the trees become disease-free and flower a plenty. Hence they repond to gases".
"By the sound of wind, fire and lightening, the fruit and flower perish. Sound is perceived by the ear, hence the trees hear".
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Monday, September 22, 2014
Every Star is Different (CS p. 142)
(This could be used in Primary the day of the program: Today's Primary program was wonderful; do you know why? It was because each and every one of you was a shining star. Do you know what makes you a shining star? You let your light shine. As you sang the songs, the light of your personality and the light of your testimony shone so brightly that the people in the congregation felt that light and were warmed and strengthened by it. By YOU. EACH one of you made the program a success.)
(This could also be used in a family setting, discussing the importance of each family member.)
Today I'm going to teach you a song about being a shining star.
Every star is different (twinkle several different "stars" with your hands)
And so is every child (pat heads of several imaginary kids of different heights)
--Point out how we look different and have different talents,
but one isn't better than or worse than another; it's just different.
Some are bright and happy (exploding hands around face)
And some are meek and mild (clasp hands to bosom, smile and sway shyly)
--Again, point out that it's not better or worse to be outgoing/shy, it's just different
Why do you think Heavenly Father made everyone different?
Everyone is needed for just what he can do (arms out including everyone, fists close on needed)
You're the only person who ever can be you (point on you're and you)
--So should Sally try to be like Alice? Are Sally and Alice competing with each other? Remind the children that life is not a competition. They should just work on being the best "self" possible.
The chorus talks about shining brightly. Every time we say the word bright, our hands will explode like a shining star. Listen:
A shining star (arm waves across the sky) shining brightly (exploding hands on brightly)
Not so very far (pointer finger shakes no) shining brightly (explode)
Be a shining star (hand on chest for "be") shine so brightly (explode)
Shine right where you are (point down at where your feet are standing) brightly (explode)
What does it mean to "shine right where you are"? Why does it say "not so very far"? Do you have to be world famous to shine? Or are there things you can do right here and now to let your light shine?
(If there is not time to teach the 2nd verse, the first verse can be sung again to finish the song.)
Optional tie-ins:
Sing the first verse of "We are Different" (CS p. 263) while playing a simple cup passing rhythm game (sit on the floor in a circle with a cup in front of you; clap, clap, drum, drum, drum, clap, grab, pass to the right). This would tie into the theme of how everyone is needed to make the game a success. Here is a video showing this rhythm.
Watch several of the "One in a Million" videos on the church website. They spotlight children from around the world who are all different but are all shining their light.
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AskDefine | Define spark
Dictionary Definition
1 a momentary flash of light [syn: flicker, glint]
2 brightness and animation of countenance; "he had a sparkle in his eye" [syn: sparkle, light]
3 electrical conduction through a gas in an applied electric field [syn: discharge, arc, electric arc, electric discharge]
4 a small but noticeable trace of some quality that might become stronger; "a spark of interest"; "a spark of decency"
5 Scottish writer of satirical novels (born in 1918) [syn: Muriel Spark, Dame Muriel Spark, Muriel Sarah Spark]
6 a small fragment of a burning substance thrown out by burning material or by friction
1 put in motion or move to act; "trigger a reaction"; "actuate the circuits" [syn: trip, actuate, trigger, activate, set off, spark off, trigger off, touch off]
2 emit or produce sparks; "A high tension wire, brought down by a storm, can continue to spark" [syn: sparkle]
User Contributed Dictionary
• /spɑː(r)k/, /spA:(r)k/,
• Rhymes with: -ɑː(r)k
Etymology 1
1. A small particle of glowing matter, either molten or on fire.
2. A short or small burst of electrical discharge.
3. A small amount of something, such as an idea, that has the potential to become something greater, just as a spark can start a fire.
4. (in plural sparks but treated as a singular) A ship's radio operator.
particle of glowing matter
burst of electrical discharge
figurative: small amount of something, which has the potential to become something greater
informal: ship's radio operator
1. To trigger, kindle into activity (an argument, etc).
2. To give off a spark or sparks.
Derived terms
Etymology 2
probably Scandinavian, akin to sparkr 'sprightly'
1. gallant, a foppish young man
2. beau, lover
1. to woo, court
Derived terms
• Websters}}
Extensive Definition
A Spark is a small airborne ember or particle of glowing, hot metal.
Spark may also refer to:
In science:
In computer sciences:
In computer games:
In music:
In corporate usage:
• Spark Infrastructure, an investor in Australian infrastructure assets
In websites:
In fiction:
Spark is the name of:
See also
spark in Czech: Spark
spark in Dutch: Spark
spark in Japanese: スパーク
spark in Polish: Iskra (ujednoznacznienie)
Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words
AC arc, Beau Brummel, Poulsen arc, abettor, activate, actuate, actuator, address, animate, animator, aperiodic discharge, arc, arc column, arc discharge, atom, bake, be in heat, beau, begin, blade, blaze, blink, blinking, blood, bloom, boil, boulevardier, bring about, broil, brush discharge, bud, burn, cajoler, cast, chase, choke, clotheshorse, coax, coaxer, combust, compel, cook, coruscate, coruscation, court, coxcomb, dandy, dash, discharge, disruptive discharge, dude, electric discharge, electric shock, electric spark, electrify, electrodeless discharge, embryo, encourager, energize, energizer, enkindle, esquire, excite, exquisite, fashion plate, fine gentleman, fire, firefly, firer, flame, flame up, flare, flare up, flicker, flush, follow, fop, force, foster, fribble, fry, gadfly, gallant, galvanic shock, galvanize, galvanizer, gasp, germ, gleam, glimmer, glimmering, glint, glisk, glisten, glister, glitter, glittering, glow, glow discharge, glowworm, hint, idea, ignite, impel, impeller, incandesce, inducer, initiate, inspire, inspirer, inspirit, intimation, iota, jack-a-dandy, jackanapes, kindle, lady-killer, lay siege to, lick, light the fuse, look, macaroni, make suit to, make up to, man-about-town, masher, motivate, move, move to action, mover, moving spirit, nucleus, oscillatory discharge, pant, parch, pay attention to, pay court to, persuader, pleader, precipitate, prime mover, promote, prompter, propel, provoke, puppy, pursue, radiate heat, roast, scald, scintilla, scintillate, scintillation, scorch, seethe, serenade, set in motion, set off, shade, shadow, shimmer, shimmer with heat, shimmering, shock, silent discharge, simmer, sip, smack, smattering, smell, smolder, smother, soupcon, spangle, spark gap, spark plug, sparker, sparkle, speck, sport, sprinkling, squire, start up, steam, stew, stifle, stimulate, stimulator, stroboscopic light, sue, suffocate, suggestion, sup, suspicion, swain, sweat, sweetheart, swell, swelter, taste, tempter, thought, tincture, tinge, tinsel, toast, touch, touch off, trace, trigger, twinkle, twinkling, vestige, wheedler, whit, woo, wooer
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Avatar Country Flag United States of America
Date Shared: 10 Dec 2014
Worksheet Instructions:
Please use your science notebook to locate the correct body part for the trout. Some are used more than once.
Target Language:
What do trout use to eat their food? mouth What part of the body is only on male trout and is used in battles to win a mate? kype What helps a trout to detect odors or smells of food to catch? nare What is the name of the fine on top of the fish that helps with stabilization? dorsal fin What fins help with up and down movement? pelvic fins What fins help with side to side movement? pectoral fins What is the biggest fin that acts as a rudder? caudal fin What provides the sight to the trout? eyes What is the sense organ of the trout? lateral line What helps the fish to be able to breathe? gills What body part protects the gills? operculum What is the hooked lower jaw called? kype What body part senses vibration of the water? lateral line What body part is a fin without rays that helps with stabilization? adipose fin What body part act as "brake" for the fish? pectoral fins
Trout Body Part Review - Worksheet Thumbnail
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10 Dec 2014
sernst79 Author Country Flag United States of America
Trout Body Parts Vocabulary Review
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platonic solids
The Platonic Solids are regular space figures. They are regular because the same number of faces meet at the same angles at each vertex and identical polygons meet at the same angle at each edge. They are only five Platonic Solids:
- count the number of vertices of each solid, V
- count the number of edges of each solid, E
- count the number of faces of each solid, F
- calculate: V - E + F for each solid
What is the result?
Are some of them the same?
Solutions: 2 for every solid. You can look for more information about this topic in:
Obra colocada bajo licencia Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial Share Alike 3.0 License
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The Core Curriculum
Immanuel Kant
1724 CE – 1804 CE
Kant spent his entire life in or near the German city of Königsberg in East-Prussia, far away from the European capitals such as London, Paris, or Edinburgh. Renamed Kaliningrad when it fell to the Russians in 1945, the city now is the center of the Russian enclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea. Kant was born in 1724 into a family of artisans of modest means. The family belonged to the Protestant sect of the Pietists, and Kant went to a Pietist school. The emphasis on reason in Kant’s philosophy is sometimes interpreted as a reaction against his religious education. Biographers also stress that his parents might have influenced him less through their Pietism but through their high esteem of artisanal values such as hard work, honesty, and independence.
Kant lived the life of a scholar. He entered the University of Königsberg as a student at age sixteen. He studied philosophy, mathematics, physics, logic, metaphysics, ethics, and natural law. After college, Kant spent six years working as a private tutor for various families in the vicinity of Königsberg. He then returned to Königsberg and published various scientific works as well as two Latin dissertations, which earned him a Master’s degree and qualified him to teach at the university. He did not receive a professorship immediately but was taken on as a “Privatdozent,” an unsalaried position paid “by the head” depending on the number of students attending his lectures. From 1755 to 1770, Kant’s teaching load was heavy. He had to give a multitude of lectures on logic, metaphysics, ethics, mathematics, physics, and physical geography to earn a living. In the 1760s, he became a popular lecturer and published a number of works. During this time, he developed a reputation as a promising young philosopher.
In 1770, after fifteen years as an unsalaried lecturer, when he was already fourty-six, he was finally appointed a regular professorship, the chair of logic and metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. The year 1770 marks the beginning of what is often called Kant’s “silent decade.” Though he had regularly published scholarly works in the years leading up to this appointment, he stopped writing and publishing then. Following this decade, “there erupted a philosophical volcano the likes of which the world has rarely seen,” as Paul Guyer phrased it. From 1781 on, Kant published a major work almost every year for more than a decade and a half. The works from this later period have greatly influenced the philosophy of his time and all subsequent philosophy up to the present day. Among them are Kant’s so-called three critiques: “the Critique of Pure Reason (1781/ substantially revised in 1787), offering a new foundation for human knowledge and demolishing virtually all of traditional metaphysics; the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), inextricably linking human freedom to the moral law while attempting to reconstruct the most cherished ideas of traditional metaphysical belief on a practical rather than theoretical foundation; and the Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), ostensibly bringing the seemingly disparate topics of aesthetic and teleological judgment into Kant’s system but also struggling to refine and even substantially revise some of Kant’s most basic conceptions about theoretical and practical reason and the relation between them.” (Guyer, p. 4)
Always focused on his work and strictly following his daily routines, Kant lived a highly disciplined life. He got up at 4:45 a.m. every morning and went to bed at 10 p.m. The citizens of Königsberg are said to have set their watches by the regular time he passed their doors on his daily walk after lunch. However rigid Kant seems to have been in his work, contemporaries also praised his dry humor and his sociability. He regularly entertained guests for lunch or dinner.
Kant retired from teaching in 1796. He died in 1804, shortly before his eightieth birthday. His tombstone near the cathedral of Kaliningrad contains what is perhaps the single most famous passage of his work (from the end of his Critique of Practical Reason): “Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and steadily we reflect upon them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.”
Works consulted:
Paul Guyer, "Introduction: The starry heavens and the moral law", The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy, Ed. Paul Guyer (Cambridge University Press, 2006).
Julia Nordmann, Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures, Columbia University
Historical Contexts
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
Considered the foremost philosopher of the European Enlightenment, Kant lived in 18th century Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great (from 1740 to 1786), a vigorous “absolute monarch,” who was hailed both as a military genius and a “philosopher king” personifying the Enlightenment (Voltaire). Frederick the Great improved Prussia’s judicial and educational systems, promoted the arts and sciences, and instituted the principle of freedom of conscience in the Prussian state.
In his essay “What is Enlightenment?” Kant depicts Prussia as a shining example of the Enlightenment movement and expresses his hopes that Prussia’s spirit of freedom, advanced by Frederick, would spread beyond the state’s boundaries. In the majority of his philosophical works, Kant was not very preoccupied with the concrete manifestations of political freedom. He developed instead a notion of freedom as "autonomy," the idea that that we should obey a law based on reason that we give to ourselves.
Kant was impressed by the progress of modern science (Copernicus, Galileo, Newton). As a result, he found the endless and seemingly insolvable metaphysical debates of his time about God, freedom, and immortality unbearable. He became convinced that if philosophy was to take its place among the sciences, it would have to proceed more critically. It would have to start from scratch and systematically investigate its own possibilities.
In his moral philosophy, Kant explains how reason can guide us to find morality in our actions. Hume and other empiricists of his time advocated the idea that our experience could help us to understand the grounds for moral activity, often in "moral sentiments." Kant brushes away this. Moral philosophy, in order to be considered a science, he says in Section II of the Groundwork, must “manifest its purity as sustainer of its own laws, not as herald of laws that an implanted sense or who knows what tutelary nature whispers to it” (Groundwork, p. 35). Following moral principles derived from the senses and from experience, he admits, “may always be better than nothing at all.” Yet, they “can never yield basic principles that reason dictates,” and since this is decidedly Kant’s goal, he rejects the empiricists’ approach to morality.
Kant aimed for a moral philosophy founded on reason. More precisely, he sought to establish moral principles that “have their source entirely and completely a priori” and “expect nothing from the inclination of human beings.” A priori judgments, according to Kant, are judgments that are made independently of experience and that are held universally. In other words, he wanted to cut out any inconsistent empirical ‘mess.’ He sought a moral law independent from external circumstances (situations, customs, mores, societal laws), a universal law that is intelligible “for all rational beings” alike, regardless of the circumstances.
This premise led him to the bold statement in the first sentence of Section I, where he claims that the only thing that can be called good without limitation or qualification is the good will. Kant looked for goodness not in an object of our will but in the will itself. As Kant considered anything outside of the subject as dependent on empirical aspects, while he thought that our will can be guided by reason. By “placing” goodness within the individual (in the will), he makes it dependent on something that the individual—in fact, all rational individuals universally—can influence directly, namely the motivation underlying their actions.
Kant finds the a priori moral principle in the categorical imperative, which takes several forms, most famously: “act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.” It is significant that this imperative giving commands to the individual’s reason in moral matters shall be categorical and not hypothetical. What counts is the individual’s determination of his or her will—not the potential or hypothetical consequences of the action, which should not influence the individual’s reasoning. The imperative must therefore be categorical, an unconditional requirement that asserts its authority in all circumstances.
If the individual acts “from duty,” i.e. from respect for a self-given moral law (specifically, according to the categorical imperative), he or she follows a rational principle instead of simply reacting to the situation. The individual is guided by a law given through her own reason and proves to be truly autonomous in the Kantian sense. “Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed nonage,” Kant had begun his Enlightenment essay. In the Groundwork, he shows how the use of reason can become the antidote to this nonage in the realm of morality.
Works consulted:
Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
Encyclopedia Britannica
Otfried Höffe, Immanuel Kant (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994).
Julia Nordmann, Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures, Columbia University
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Insect Identification logo
Ground Spider (Zelotes duplex)
Detailing the identifying qualities of the Ground Spider, including physical features and territorial reach.
Updated: 12/12/2015; Authored By Staff Writer; Content ©
Ground Spider
Picture of Ground-Spider
Picture of Ground-Spider Picture of Ground-Spider
Ground Spiders are traveling predators that run quickly after prey and away from danger.
Ground Spiders are technically a group of spiders that are ambush attackers and one of the example species is Zelotes duplex. In general, all Ground Spiders forego weaving webs to trap prey. They run it down instead. They are great stalkers and fast runners, capable of startling humans that observe too closely. Females lay eggs in a silky sac.
Picture of the Ground Spider
Picture of the Ground Spider
Ground Spider Information
Category: Spider
Common Name: Ground Spider
Scientific Name: Zelotes duplex
Taxonomy Hierarchy
Arrow graphic Kingdom: Animalia
Arrow graphic Phylum: Arthropoda
Arrow graphic Class: Arachnida
Arrow graphic Order: Araneae
Arrow graphic Family: Gnaphosidae
Arrow graphic Genus: Zelotes
Arrow graphic Species: duplex
Size, Identifying Tags and Territorial Reach
Size (Adult, Length): Size (Adult, Length): 8 mm to 15 mm (0.312 inches to 0.585 inches)
Identifying Colors: black
Additional Descriptors: fast, biting, venomous
Images Gallery
BugFinder: What is it?
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1599 - 1500United Kingdom
Modern toilet design began in 1596, when Sir John Harington invented a device for Queen Elizabeth (his Godmother) that released wastes into cesspools. Harington invented two elements of the modern toilet: a valve at the bottom of the water tank, and a wash-down system.
The forerunner to the modern flush toilet had a flush valve to let water out of the tank, and a wash-down design to empty the bowl. The term ‘John’, used particularly in the USA, is generally accepted as a direct reference to its inventor.
• Kinghorn, Jonathan (1986), “A Privvie in Perfection: Sir John Harrington’s Water Closet”, Bath History, 1: 173–188. ISBN 0-86299-294-X. Kinghorn supervised a modern reconstruction in 1981, based on the illustrated description by Harington’s assistant Thomas Coombe in the New Discourse.
• http://www.sewerhistory.org/grfx/privbath/toilet1.htm
Photo: http://cdn.thinglink.me/api/image/626847681754431489/1240/10/scaletowidth
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Problem 3.94 - W w W a ρ w g ⋅ V d ⋅ − = so the...
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Problem *3.94 [Difficulty: 2] Given: Experiment performed by Archimedes to identify the material conent of King Hiero's crown. The crown was weighed in air and in water. Find: Expression for the specific gravity of the crown as a function of the weights in water and air. Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system. Governing Equations: F b ρ g V d = (Buoyant force is equal to weight of displaced fluid) F b Mg W w Assumptions: (1) Static fluid (2) Incompressible fluid Taking a free body diagram of the body: Σ F z 0 = W w Mg F b + 0 = W w is the weight of the crown in water. W w Mg F buoy = Mg ρ w g V d = However in air: W a Mg = Therefore the weight measured in water is:
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Unformatted text preview: W w W a ρ w g ⋅ V d ⋅ − = so the volume is: V d W a W w − ρ w g ⋅ = Now the density of the crown is: ρ c M V d = M ρ w ⋅ g ⋅ W a W w − = W a W a W w − ρ w ⋅ = Therefore, the specific gravity of the crown is: SG ρ c ρ w = W a W a W w − = SG W a W a W w − = Note: by definition specific gravity is the density of an object divided by the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius, so the measured temperature of the water in the experiment and the data from tables A.7 or A.8 may be used to correct for the variation in density of the water with temperature....
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All Science Fair Projects
Over 1000 FREE Science Fair Project Ideas!
Wind speed and altitudeFeatured science projectScience project video
The materials required for this science project:
- 4 anemometers
- 1 metal rod (measuring 5m in length)
- 1 stopwatch
1. For this science project, the independent variable is the height at which the anemometer is placed. The dependent variable is the rotating speed of the anemometer. This is determined by counting the number of turns made by the anemometer in one minute. The constants (control variables) are the chosen location for the testing, the wind speed, the distance between the anemometers, and the performance of the anemometer.
2. Assemble the 4 anemometers 1m apart on the metal rod. Leave 500mm at the base of the rod to plant it into the ground.
3. Choose a site on top of a hill to perform the experiment. The location is preferably an open field hill or a hill with minimal obstruction to the flow of wind. Obstructions include trees and nearby buildings.
4. Plant the metal rod with the anemometers into the ground at the chosen location with varying heights of 1m, 2m, 3m and 4m.. Assign an assistants to observe each anemometer. Once the wind blows and the anemometer starts to turn, start the stopwatch, count the number of turns made by the anemometer in one minute and record the values in a table, as shown below.
5. Carry out the tests for 3 days, and record the results in a table, as shown below.
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Complexity level:
Project cost ($):
Time required:
1 day for preparation, 3 days for science project experiment
Material availability:
Easily found. However, the experiment has to be conducted in an open space unobstructed by trees or buildings
Safety concerns:
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One day we can patch this
ALTHOUGH the possibility is several years away, people may one day be helped to recover from heart attacks by having specially engineered patches that have been seeded with cardiac cells placed over the damaged tissue in their hearts. The idea is that these cell-impregnated patches will encourage the regeneration of heart muscle. Laboratory studies using animals suggest the advantages could be so great that it is worth the risk of the surgery needed to put such patches in place; they might even provide an alternative to heart transplants. The problem is finding a suitable way to make the patches stay put.
Stitching is one possibility, but sutures bring risks. They might block the blood supply to the vulnerable area, or injure nearby healthy tissue, or cause haemorrhages. They might also introduce harmful bacteria. Nor is gluing—an obvious alternative to stitching—much better in practice. Some glues stiffen with age. Some are mildly toxic. Some are not porous enough to permit cells to grow and move around. To ameliorate these problems one of the researchers working on such patches, Tal Dvir of Tel Aviv University, in Israel, is developing a new type of cardiac scaffold that can secure a patch in place using light instead of stitches or glues.
Dr Dvir’s inspiration came from recent work his research group has carried out using tiny particles of gold. These can be warmed and manipulated by light from the red end of the spectrum, which travels well through tissue. He found himself wondering whether he could create a supportive scaffold by mixing albumin, a common protein, with tiny particles of gold and then sculpting the resultant material with a laser into a shape that would fit the damaged tissue so snugly that neither stitches nor glue would be needed.
To this end, as he and his colleagues explained recently in Nano Letters, they mixed albumin with a solution of beta-mercaptoethanol and trifluoroethanol, which softened the protein so that they could spin it into ribbonlike fibres. They used these fibres to build cardiac scaffolds, then soaked the scaffolds in suspensions of the golden particles for an hour, during which period most of the particles attached themselves to the scaffolds. After that, they added the cardiac cells.
This done, they tried attaching the scaffolds to hearts taken from pigs. They laid them on the organs and played the laser over them. As they had hoped, this softened the scaffolds, which then moulded themselves to the surrounding tissue and subsequently remained in place.
Dr Dvir worried, however, that heat generated when the laser struck the gold would end up cooking nearby tissue. To assess that risk he ran a second experiment. In this the team applied the scaffolds to the hearts of living rats, fused them into place with the laser and then studied those hearts for cell damage. They found none. More importantly, when they analysed the patched hearts in situ for health and function, they noted that the scaffolds were not impeding them at all.
There is a long way to go, but Dr Dvir does seem to have found a promising way that one day could help people recover from heart failure.
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Complicated Toilet Causes Loss of German Sub
U-1206 in happier times.
Life aboard German submarines in WWII ranged from uncomfortable to downright hazardous, even when they weren’t dodging depth charges. They were cramped, spartan, and even in the best of circumstances, the air was foul with diesel fumes, body odors, and other smells. Worst of all, there were only two toilets on board to service the needs of its 50-man crew, and one of the “heads” was located next to the galley, so the space was often used instead to store food.
In addition, plumbing on German subs of that era differed from American and British subs in one important respect. German toilets discharged their contents directly into the sea, while those of the allies flushed directly into holding tanks. This design saved precious space, but it came at a price. The toilets could only be used when the submarine was traveling on or near the surface. When the submarine was submerged, the pressure outside the hull was too great for the toilets to flush. This meant that when the sub was submerged, crewmen had to use buckets, tin cans, and anything else they could find to hold the waste until they could surface and once again resume proper flushing. This also added to the aromatic ambience.
In 1944, German engineers redesigned the plumbing system to include a more efficient flushing mechanism. This made flushing at greater depths possible, but the new system was incredibly complex, involving a number of levers and valves. The toilets came with complicated instruction manuals, and of necessity some crew members had to be trained as “toilet-flushing specialists.”
The U-1206 had one of the new-and-improved plumbing system.
On 14 April 1945, 24 days before the end of World War II in Europe, while U-1206 was cruising at a depth of 200 feet about ten miles off the Scottish Coast, first-time skipper Kapitänleutnant* Karl-Adolf Schlitt (1918-2009) had to answer the call of nature. Rather than request the assistance of the toilet specialist, Schlitt tried to follow the instructions in the manual to flush the toilet himself (“how tough could it be?”)
Schlitt got the inside valve open, then ran into trouble. He finally called the toilet specialist for help; that worthy opened the outside valve (the one open to the sea) without first making sure the inside valve was closed. A torrent of water flooded into the sub.
When a WWII submarine was submerged, it ran on electric motors powered by a giant bank of batteries, located in a compartment directly below the malfunctioning toilet. The seawater quickly reacted with the batteries by electrolysis to generate deadly chlorine gas, which began to spread throughout the sub.
U-1206 was badly damaged in the attack. Seeing no way to save his submarine, Captain Schlitt ordered the crew into the lifeboats; then he scuttled the ship. Thirty-six members of the crew were rescued by small boats in the area; ten others made it to shore in their lifeboats and were captured.
The U-1206 lies on the bottom at a depth of 283 feet. She lay undisturbed until she was discovered in May of 2012. Here’s the Story.
As for the unfortunately-named Capt. Schlitt, he lived to be nearly 91, secure in the knowledge that so far as is known, his is the only submarine in history to be sunk by its own toilet.
*Equivalent to a USN full lieutenant.
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Unfocused eyes in the stars
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Science 09 Feb 2018:
Vol. 359, Issue 6376, pp. 649-650
DOI: 10.1126/science.359.6376.649-c
Brittle stars detect light with a network of opsincontaining cells.
Imagine having a whole-body-surface visual system. The brittle star Ophiocoma wendtii and its relatives are decorated with a surface layer of calcite hemispheres. Although these have been implicated in light focusing, there has been little anatomical evidence of an underlying photoreceptor network. Sumner-Rooney et al. found a comprehensive network connecting opsin-containing cells across the entire body surface of the stars. However, these cells project past the calcite structures, which apparently are not acting as microlenses, as previously thought. The projecting photoreceptors are thus not eyes in the sense of image-forming vision. Rather, the opsin-containing cells detect high-contrast light changes, evidently to coordinate shade-seeking, predator avoidance, and color-changing reflexes.
Proc. R. Soc. B 285, 20172590 (2018).
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Visit our Titanic Centenary Commemoration section here
Weak rivets used in the construction of the Titanic may have contributed to the sinking of the vessel, according to latest scientific evidence published in Physics World.
The steel and wrought iron fasteners which were used to hold the metal plates of the ship together may have been inserted unevenly. As a result, the compartments easily burst when the ship’s hull filled with water.
For decades experts have speculated about what caused the ship making its maiden voyage to sink with the loss of 1,635 lives.
Explanations have included poor communications, the course taken by the ship, the absence of binoculars in the crow’s nest, and problems with the radio operator.
As part of the research, science writer Dr Richard Corfield examined the chain of events which led to the sinking of the liner on its maiden voyage.
It was shortly before 12pm on Sunday April 14, 1912 when the Belfast built ship bound from Southampton to New York collided with an iceberg and sank within three hours.
According to Dr Corfield, the answer is to be found within the science of the Titanic’s construction and the events that occurred on that fateful voyage.
Dr Corfield references the work of US researchers Tim Foecke and Jennifer Hooper McCarty, who based their research on historical records obtained from the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast.
Foecke and McCarty tested 48 rivets which were recovered from the ship and found they had high levels of slag, caused by smelting, which can make the iron brittle.
Dr Corfield wrote: “Foecke and McCarty found that the rivets that held the mild-steel plates of the Titanic’s hull together were not of uniform composition or quality and had not been inserted in a uniform fashion.
“Specifically, Foecke and McCarty found that the rivets at the front and rear fifths of the Titanic were made only of ‘best’ quality iron, not ‘best-best’, and had been inserted by hand.
Concluding, Dr Corfield said, “No one thing sent the Titanic to the bottom of the North Atlantic. Rather, the ship was ensnared by a perfect storm of circumstances that conspired her to doom.’
Historical black and white George Grantham Bain photograph of the RMS Titanic under construction and surrounded by scaffolding.Library of Congress
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"url": "https://www.irishcentral.com/news/scientists-believe-titanic-tragedy-was-due-to-the-weakness-of-critical-rivets-146076565-237439491"
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In 1704 the dye-maker Johann Jacob DiesbachIt made a chance discovery that characterizes so much of the history of artists’ colours and in the process invented the rst modern, arti cially manufactured colour.
Working in his Berlin laboratory on a cochineal red pigment, he disregarded the fact that one of his raw materials, potash, had been contaminated with animal blood. In the belief that red mixed with red would simply create more red, he was disappointed to nd this was not the case and his red lake turned out extremely pale. He attempted to concentrate it, whereupon it turned purple before becoming deep blue.
The animal blood had spurred an unlikely chemical reaction, which created the compound iron ferro- cyanide, now known as Prussian Blue.
The pigment was available to artists by 1724 and was immediately popular. Costing just a tenth of the price of Genuine Ultramarine, Prussian Blue was a very attractive alternative and its introduction saw the demise of Azurite, another mineral blue, from the artists’ palette.
Outside of artistic application, it has also been used as a colourant is blueprint paper, as a laundry blue, aswell as in plastics, paper, and cosmetics.
There is even a pharmaceutical grade manufactured for ingestion to counter radiation poisoning.
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"url": "http://chromatopia.org/2017/06/prussian-blue/"
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Expert Answers
merehughes eNotes educator| Certified Educator
A requiem is defined generally as a musical composition for the dead. This can include a full orchestra (like Mozart's Requiem) or it can be as simple as a chant to commiserate the passing of a person.
This word, requiem can represent a spiritual death namely the death of spirit of colored girls and of the different phases of life that a 'colored' girl goes through before she finds herself. In the last section, there is a rebirth of sorts as the women realise that everything they need is inside themselves and not externally.
The play is actually a set of poems set to music - so there you have the reinforcement of musical composition. Where it differs from a traditional requiem is that at the end of the play, a new woman emerges who has found herself. In a traditional requiem one is lamenting the death of either an important person or a loved one. Here the audience would understand that this death is positive as it leads to the birth a new person. The last line of the poem repeats the first line of the poem except that it is the present tense - "& this is for colored girls who have considered/suicide/but are movin to the ends of their own/rainbows."
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Detienne’s The Masters of Truth in Archaic Greece
Marcel Detienne
The Masters of Truth in Archaic Greece
Area: History of Rhetoric and Memory Studies
Critical moments in the text
15-16: “In archaic Greece, three figures—the diviner, the bard, and the king of justice—share the privilege of dispensing truth purely by virtue of their characteristic qualities. The poet, the seer, and the king also share a similar type of speech. Through the religious power of Memory, Mnemosyne, both poet and diviner have direct access to the Beyond; they can see what is invisible and declare ‘what has been, what is, and what will be.’”
17: logos: knowing reality and social relation
24-5: “While hermeneutics may successfully explore the double register of Hesiodic speech, it refuses to understand memory and oblivion in their ethnographic and religious contexts. […] Mnemosyne, or Memory, a divine power married to Zeus as were first Metis, then Themis, and finally Hera, dissolves into a platitude, a most ridiculous outcome. She becomes simply ‘good memory,’ because ‘we must remember what has already been said about perceiving Aletheia.’”
35: “Truth is defined at two levels: conformity with logical principles and conformity with reality. Accordingly, truth is inseparable from concepts of demonstration, verification, and experimentation.”
39: Poet invoking Muse whose task it is to make past events known; Muse and memory are complementary concepts.
41: “Sung speech is also inseparable from memory. In the Hesiodic tradition, the Muses are the daughters of Mnemosyne. In Chios they were called the ‘rembrances’ (mneiai) since they made the poet ‘remember.’ What is the meaning of memory, and how is it related to sung speech? First, the religious status of memory, its cult in bardic circles, and its importance in poetic thought can only be understood if one remembers that Greek civilization from the twelfth to the ninth centuries B.C. was based not on written, but on oral traditions: ‘in those days men had to have a memory for many things. […] Memory is essential in an oral civilization, and specific mnemonic techniques must be perfected.
43: “For the poet, remembrance came through a personal vision that ensured direct access to the events his memory evoked. His privilege was to enter into contact with the other world, and his memory granted him the power to ‘decipher the invisible.’ Thus, memory was not simply the material basis for sung speech or the psychological function on which the formulary technique depended. It was also, and above all, a religious power that gave poetic pronouncements their status of magicoreligious speech.”
46-7: “A warrior’s worth was decided by the masters of praise, the servants of the Muses. They granted or denied him ‘memory.’”
48: “A poet bestows through his praise a ‘memory’ on a man, who is not naturally endowed with it.”
50: “Truth is explicitly defined as a ‘nonforgetfulness’ of the poet’s precepts.”
63: “Soon after, he was taken to the oracle. Before entering, however, he paused at two neighboring springs, called Lethe and Mnemosyne after the two religious powers that dominated the inspired poets’ system of thought. The water from the first spring obliterated the memory of human life, while the water from the second allowed the individual to remember everything he saw and heard in the otherworld.”
73: “The speech of the diviner and of oracular powers, like a poetic pronouncement, defines a particular level of reality: when Apollo prophesies, he ‘realizes.’ Oracular speech does not reflect an event that has already occurred; it is apart of its realization.”
74: “Magicoreligious speech is pronounces in the absolute present, with no before or after, a present that, like memory, incorporates ‘that which has been, that which is, and that which will be.’ This kind of speech eludes temporality because it is at one with forces beyond human ones, forces that are completely autonomous and lay claim to an absolute power.”
83: “[Pittheus] is the inventor of ‘rhetoric,’ the art of persuasion and of using ‘lying words that resemble reality.’”
86: “Master of truth is also a master of deception.”
87: “This second power of speech is dangerous, since it may produce an illusion of reality.”
110: “By turning memory into a positive technique and considering time as the framework for secular activity, Simonides dissociated himself form the entire religious tradition, the tradition of both the inspired poets as well as the sects and philosophicoreligious circles.”
119: “For the Sophists, memory is simply a secularized function whose development is essential to the kind of intelligence at work in both sophistry and politics.”
122: “At this level of thought, memory Is not simply a gift of second sight that allows one to grasp the totality of past, present, and future; even more important, it is the terminus of the chain of reincarnations. Memory’s powers are twofold. As a religious power, it is the water of life, which marks the end of the cycle of ‘metensomatoses’; as an intellectual faculty, it constitutes the discipline of salvation that results in victory over time ad death and makes it possible to acquire the most complete kind of knowledge.”
128: “Memory is not simply a gift of second sight, a ‘decoding’ of the invisible that constantly interacts with the visible. Instead, it becomes a means of transcending time and separating the soul from the body, hence a method of acceding to something radically different from the visible world.”
From Untimely Mediations Response
• What is a sophist?
Interdisciplinary is indeed a tidy way of describing the sophists, but I not completely convinced this definition is ultimately fitting. Certainly, we can describe their knowledge as widespread, and some might even say scattered, but I do not believe that our pedagogical approaches/education as a whole are much different. We do not need skilled memory in order to know the “body, geometry, and epistemology.” Biological memory is no longer necessary for interdisciplinary studies, since I have a computer and a collection of books to assist me. Detienne clarifies this distinction (albeit in a round-about way) when he states, “Memory is essential in an oral civilization, and specific mnemonic techniques must be perfected” (42). However, contrary to Detienne, memory is non-essential for today’s digital orality, and only fluency in and knowledge of specific computer applications will allow one to study interdisciplinary-ly. I guess, then, we can see a resurfacing of ‘sophists’ in today’s culture—sophists are, then, people who have moderately advanced knowledge about many topics because they know where /how to find and apply it.
• What is sophistic rhetoric?
I have always thought “sophistic rhetoric” to be a redundant term. If we are dazzling someone with our rhetoric, are we not ‘tricking’ him or her into something they did not previously believe? In a way, we can look to last week’s New Hampshire primary and Clinton’s tears as a decent example (or her laugh, too, but the ‘teary’ results seem more immediate). By crying, Clinton convinced voters of her humanness, her elect-ability. By crying, Clinton displayed not Presidential qualities (presumably what one should vote on), but rather that she cries for America, too. Sophistic rhetoric is like campaigning—we are (likely) voting for part of the candidate’s beliefs not simply because they align with ours, but because we are tricked into believing that the other issues are either great or don’t matter.
• How are the sophists and their work related to earlier Greek traditions?
Detienne insists on choice—“Man no longer lived in an ambivalent world in which ‘contraries’ were complementary and oppositions were ambiguous. He was now cast into a dualist world with clear-cut oppositions. Choice became an urgent matter” (125-6). To me, I see the sophists characterized by “distinction”—one is not x, but z. Not a, not b, but rather c. One is distinct from something else, although not necessarily opposite from them. All is related, but one needs to choose what something is not in order to determine its being.
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"url": "https://qualquest.wordpress.com/2008/08/20/detiennes-the-masters-of-truth-in-archaic-greece/"
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Tattooed Fox Warrior
This drawing, executed at Quebec around 1730, shows a Fox warrior, tattooed and armed with a bow and arrow. An Algonquin people from the region of the Great Lakes, the Fox were decimated by wars with the French-backed Hurons and in the Fox Wars with the French that began at Detroit in 1712 and continued intermittently until 1738. The Fox Wars pitted the French and their Indian allies against the Fox, who had the support of the Sauk, Winnebago, and Kickapoo. The wars showed the inability of the French to impose peace among all the native nations, despite the success of the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. The conflict took thousands of lives and destabilized the Pays-d’En-Haut (also known as the Upper Country, a vast territory to the west of Montreal). The warrior depicted here was captured by the Miami and turned over to the governor of Canada, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois. He was deported to France in 1731 to become a galley slave, where he died the following year in a prison at Rochefort. The caption at the bottom of the illustration reads: “Fox Warrior. Feared by all nations because of their courage and speed of 25 to 30 leagues per day with no other food than forest herbs and leaves they are a group of around 400 to 500 armed men divided into 3 or 4 villages, since they have been at war with France almost all nations have learned to do their hair like the Foxes. When they have a shirt, they wear it tied when they have to fight.”
Last updated: January 8, 2018
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"url": "https://www.wdl.org/en/item/15508/"
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Follow the King or Declare Indepedence?
Should the colonists have continued to follow the rules of the King of England or should they have declared independence? Write a paragraph stating your opinion, supporting it with AT LEAST 3 REASONS, and writing a concluding sentence. You can use ideas from the Scholastic News article or your own ideas.
This entry was posted in Uncategorized by Mrs. Ngai. Bookmark the permalink.
About Mrs. Ngai
My name is Mrs. Ngai and I am currently a 5th grade teacher in the Math, Science, Technology Magnet at Montara Elementary School. I love using technology in the classroom and am really excited about using this blog with my students! In addition to technology, I also love chocolate, traveling, learning new languages, and trying new food from many different cultures!
13 thoughts on “Follow the King or Declare Indepedence?
1. The colonists should’ve declared independence. First of all, the king of England made unfair rules. Besides that, the colonists can provide everything they need by themselves. Finally, the king is taking many things from the colonists. As you can see, there are many reasons why the colonists should’ve declared independence .
2. The colonist should declared independence. I think tht cause the King make unfair laws.Another reason is cause the King made the colonist to do it or then he will kill them. Fianally I think the colonist could take care of them there selfs.So, that is why the colonist should declared independence.
3. The colonies should have independence. One reason is the king and the British want to own them. Second they never let the British
4. go with them. Third the king sent soiders to watch them. Those are the resons why they should have independence.
5. I think colonist should’ve declared independence because.First of all, king of England made unfair laws back then. Besides that, king made them dress up the color what the king wanted. Finally, I think the colonist can take care of them selfs instead ok the king demanding them what to do.As you can see, that tells us why colonist should’ve declared independence.
6. I don’t think colonist should have followed King of England’s rules. First, everyone should have freedom. Second, England made unfair laws for the colonists. Lastly, the colonists could take care of their selves. So that shows why colonists should have independence.
7. I don’t think they have followed the rules because first of all people have a right to do whatever they want. Second of all they could believe in whatever they want. Lastly they should have freedom because they were bossed around.
8. I think that it was right to declare independence .First of all,it is how the united states was created and people to be free and have liberty to vote.another reason is the rules made by british were unfair to the settlelers like the taxes.last reason is The british would maje thie own laws without settlelers agreeing with the laws😡😱🙀
9. I think that it was not important to the soders to treat them wrong thats my opinión
10. I think they should have declared independence because first they have the right to do what they want second they need a break from the King last they need to be able to be free and not bossed around😞
11. I think that they should declare independence because first of all, because they don’t have fair rules . Second, people in the other country don’t have to follow the same rules as the colonists. Finally, because the colonists have their own freedom to govern themselves. These are 3 reasons why they should declare freedom.
12. The colonists should have declared independence. First of all, the colonists were not treated fairly so they should have done something about it like declare independence. Second of all, the colonists were not treated fairly for a long time so they should have declared independence a long time ago. Finally, the colonists again were not treated fairly they were not able to have their own religion. so they were basically brainwashed.
13. They should of declared.First reason they have to listen and stuff they like you don’t like.Second reason they think you are not crazy to defend them.Third reason they give you a bit of food and drink.
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