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When we think of liturgy today, we imagine short, formal, congregational events happening periodically within the confines of churches. Medieval liturgy, however, took up many hours of every day, filled the city's largest meeting halls, and even spilled onto the streets. At the center of the medieval liturgy were the books we will study in this course. In this ninth and final module of The Book: Histories Across Time and Space, we’ll explore and explain the beautiful service books of the medieval church. No prior knowledge of liturgy or Latin is required, but there will be a lot of both, along with music. The medieval services consisted of a complex system of cycles, and the liturgical books correspond to the various functions of the people who used them: Laypersons, nuns and monks, readers, singers, priests, and bishops. We will explore and examine these precious objects using materials from Harvard’s collections. Close examination of various types of books will help to explain the complex and collaborative nature of medieval worship. Ultimately, we will learn how these beautifully adorned books represent the importance of liturgy as an essential function of society in the Middle Ages. Meet The Faculty Thomas Forrest Kelly Thomas Forrest Kelly Morton B. Knafel Professor of Music, Harvard University Thomas is the Morton B. Knafel Professor of Music at Harvard University. He received his B.A. from UNC-Chapel Hill, and his Ph.D. from Harvard. He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, an honorary citizen of the city of Benvento, and a Chevalier de l’Ordre des Artes et Lettres of the French Republic. Course Provided By Back To Top	<urn:uuid:3960718d-946b-4a53-ab18-88b0b973693a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.046690523624420166, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9090644121170044, "url": "https://online-learning.harvard.edu/course/books-medieval-liturgy?category%5B%5D=8" }
New Hampshire State History New Hampshire HistoryRead a brief History of New Hampshire. New Hampshire’s earliest inhabitants were the Native Americans. Mostly hunters and gatherers they migrated throughout New England seasonally depending upon where the most food would be. The two most predominate tribes that resided in New Hampshire were the Abenaki and the Pennacook. Please share your NH history comments. To feature your business in NHLiving.com, contact us. History of the State of New Hampshire history of New HampshireIn the 1500s Europeans started exploring along the coast of North America. In 1623 the first permanent European settlement was started in New Hampshire. During this period the majority of European settlements in New Hampshire were along the seacoast. The four main ports were Dover, Portsmouth, Exeter, and Hampton. These towns were originally part of Massachusetts but in 1680 become New Hampshire became its own province. The seacoast prospered greatly due to the ports that existed there. New Hampshire’s first capital was Portsmouth. The inland areas of New Hampshire were settled largely by farmers who cleared small plots of land and built one or two story farmhouses. As time went on this divide grew larger. New Hampshire was kept from breaking apart due to the legislative sessions that were held, mostly in Concord New Hampshire. New Hampshire’s geography did not help the divide between the seacoast area and the rest of the state. Most of the rivers ran from north to south which in turn meant that roads and later railroads lead into Boston rather than Portsmouth. This meant that the majority of New Hampshire was affected far more by the activities in Boston than what was going on in Portsmouth. So, when Bostonians needed help during the Revolutionary War New Hampshire was there to offer aid. New Hampshire’s economy changed during the industrial revolution with the textile mills that sprung up along the Granite State’s many beautiful rivers. Eventually the mills moved to the southern states and New Hampshire worked hard on attracting other businesses to the area such as shoe and technology manufacturing. While mills were on the rise the small family farms were on the decline because they could no longer compete with the farms in the midwest. In the 1800’s the railroads that were used to bring food from New Hampshire south to cities such as Boston and Portsmouth began bringing artists, scientists, and sightseers north to experience New Hampshire’s beauty first hand. By the early 1900’s New Hampshire was drawing visitors from all over the world to it’s picturesque lakes and mountains in the summer. The winter attracts many to ski the majestic white mountains to this day. More about New Hampshire’s Fascinating Past Products \| NH Town Guides \| Shopping	<urn:uuid:d8a6c4b8-76bf-44a8-b199-780db1ed5e4c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.984375, "fasttext_score": 0.02137666940689087, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9729454517364502, "url": "https://www.nhliving.com/history/" }
The first trip by a motorised airship with a Daimler single-cylinder engine in August 1888. 125 years of flying high. Wölfert and the airship. From theology to airship construction. It was 10 August 1888. At that time Friedrich Wölfert had already invested a considerable amount in his dream of a steerable airship: both in terms of working time and financially. That left him almost penniless and dependent on the immediate success of his invention. Wölfert had always aimed for higher things. Originally a student of theology and now the publisher of a weekly journal, in 1879 Wölfert’s attention was drawn to Georg Baumgarten’s air balloon test flights. From theology to airship construction. The two of them pooled their resources. The result was the hand-cranked predecessor of the later “Bodensee” (Lake Constance) airship. The airship which was to make history. Lake constance in the air. Sooner or later, Wölfert realised: no airship would get off the ground just with a hand crank. At about the same time Gottlieb Daimler was dreaming of mobility on land, on water and in the air. He had already realised his vision of the motor boat and the automobile. The missing item was air travel. Even though the Frenchman Baptiste Henri Jacques Giffard had already powered an airship with a steam engine, Daimler was wishing for aviation with a gas engine and had applied for a patent in 1885. Impressed by Wölfert’s ambition, Daimler offered him his assistance. The result of this productive cooperation was an airship named “Bodensee”. It was seventeen metres long and five metres in diameter. It was driven by a two-hp single-cylinder engine produced by the Daimler company. The solution to Dr Wölfert's problem: the two-hp single-cylinder engine by Gottlieb Daimler. On 10 August 1888 the time had finally come: the “Bodensee”, the first motorised airship with combustion engine, rose into the air from the Daimler grounds on the Seelberg in Cannstatt. Outstanding engine performance. Outstanding engine performance. Up to his death, Wölfert made 142 successful flights. However, the maiden voyage of the “Bodensee” 125 years ago is considered the most significant. It marked the beginning of the history of air travel with many ups and some downs. In those days, two propellers on the underside and the rear of the gondola carried the “Bodensee”, the first steerable airship, up to the sky. Steerable even when descending, it landed safely in Kornwestheim, ten kilometres away. The two-hp single-cylinder engine went down in history, not only for conquering the road and water. Its new destiny was to spark off modern air travel. Related topics.	<urn:uuid:940eaf22-038d-4ec2-86aa-ef7fedf7e69d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.056804776191711426, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.967643141746521, "url": "https://www.mercedes-benz.com/en/mercedes-benz/classic/125-years-of-flying-high/" }
Native American Society The Comanche, "those who are always against us," lived in a vast area of rugged high country that today includes parts of four states. The country was rough, and in winter they lived in rows of tipis placed along sheltered canyons while hunting deer, elk, antelope and small game. When spring arrived and the buffalo came the Comanche moved onto the plains to follow them, setting up camp in traditional circles. Buffalo: Food & Clothing As to many Plains tribes, the buffalo was key to Comanche survival, providing food, clothing, shelter and tools. Comanche hunters used huge spears, sometimes 14-feet long, instead of bows and arrows to kill buffalo. They considered hunting with a lance a sign of pride. Buffalo meat was either cooked over the open fire or sun-dried, either as jerky or pemmican (meat with nuts, marrow and fat). The Comanche also ate a mushy mixture of buffalo marrow and mesquite beans as a staple. The Comanche pemmican was often traded with other tribes for pumpkin seeds, honey and tobacco. Men wore buckskin breechcloths and shirts. Women wore buckskin shirts and long, decorated fringed skirts. Leggings and fur-lined robes were added in winter. Unlike the moccasins of many tribes, the Comanche moccasins had soles made from the toughest part of the buffalo hide. They also applied grease to the moccasins to make them waterproof. Comanche men claimed they could identify anyone's footprint in the snow or mud simply by observing the sole, heel fringe (which served to erase the tracks of the wearer in the dust) and toe design of the moccasin. Religion was very important and private to the Comanche. They believe in supernatural forces and that power to deal with the mysteries of life can be obtained by seeking a vision. Waging War Once horses were introduced to the Comanche by the Mexicans, the Comanche joined the Kiowa for raids into Mexico and against the Apache and other Indian enemies. The Comanche also were known to take many captives to replace loss of life in the tribe. Eventually they signed an agreement that would allow safe passage of white settlers through their lands provided Texas lawmen would help confine the travelers to one trail so they would not scare buffalo away. Like most agreements, this one did not work well and the Comanche were moved to reservations. In the days when Texas was still a republic, the Texas Rangers were formed specifically to drive Indians out of the territory, including those on reservations. Many of the Comanche escaped the Rangers by joining neighboring tribes, particularly the Kiowa. By 1868 the Comanche agreed to move to a reservation in Indian Territory. Once there, the government did not follow through on its promise to supply food to that reservation and many starved to death. Today, the Comanche live in Oklahoma where they are successful farmers and cattle ranchers. Comanche Language: The Comanche people call themselves the “NUMUNUU.” “NUMU TEKWAPUHA” is the Comanche term for the Comanche language. During World War II, 17 Comanches served as Code Talkers. Even though the Comanches are a modern and contemporary people, their heritage is important to them. The Comanche language is still spoken today, but not by all tribal members. The tribe has created language and cultural preservation programs that have produced numerous language instructional materials. • Current population: The Comanches have more than 13,000 tribal members. • Traditional Comanche Homeland: Traditional Comanche homeland spanned large parts of the southern Great Plains in what are now Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Kansas. • Homeland Today: Most Comanches live in the Lawton-Ft. Sill area of southwest Oklahoma. • Importance of Horses: Horses are a very important part of traditional Comanche culture. The Comanches kept large herds and were well known for their exceptional horsemanship. They introduced other tribes to the use of horses. • Tribal Government: Comanche government is elected and guided by a constitution. The Comanche government is involved in many kinds of programs, including economic development, environmental protection, and education. Copyright © 1999-2018 All Rights Reserved. DMC Firewall is developed by Dean Marshall Consultancy Ltd	<urn:uuid:5608af2e-1f65-4060-92c6-d9f6ed49b1e2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.09375, "fasttext_score": 0.058127403259277344, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9612191915512085, "url": "http://www.thewildwest.org/nativeamericans/nativeamericansociety/50-comanche-.html" }
Skip to main content Maths - Imagine all the people What it's all about Green issues are everywhere, but is there such a thing as "green mathematics"? The internet says there is, writes Jonny Griffiths. In the past, economics assumed that the earth's resources were virtually limitless - now economics needs a rewrite. Maths is "purer", yet in A-level mathematical modelling we make assumptions too - we could focus on greener topics. Take population growth. The United Nations has three projections for world population in 2100: high (14 billion); medium (9.1 billion); and low (5.5 billion). The eventual outcome will be the sum of myriad human choices, and the consequences are critical (bit.lydnegG2). Differential equations are part of the Core 4 syllabus for Mathematics in Education and Industry (MEI), including growth and decay of populations. To refine these models, progress to the logistic equation. This makes an excellent introduction to chaos and the butterfly effect. Try the Nuffield Foundation's Chaotic Population activity (bit.lyVbb2Rr). MEI's further maths syllabus includes a differential equations module, where population growth is considered within predator-prey systems. The Nrich site also has population resources (nrich.maths.org7827). Population is an emotive issue. A recent book on the ideal number of children in a Western family was called Maybe One. But parents of large families resent being told to think this way. We need to ensure the maths we construct is as truthful as possible. What else? Carry out a green classroom audit with this activity from California Academy of Sciences. bit.lyGreenClassroomAudit Discuss the economics of sustainability with pladley's Venn diagram. bit.lyEnvironmentalEconomics. Log in or register for FREE to continue reading.	<urn:uuid:45980e89-7126-403c-b05c-0d75e3e08018>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.05158501863479614, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9231277108192444, "url": "https://www.tes.com/news/maths-imagine-all-people-0" }
It's time for your Wednesday Wolbachia Wolbachia Wolbachia are a group of bacteria that infect a major proportion of insect species. They are known for intricate manipulations of their host’s reproduction. The most puzzling manipulation is called Cytoplasmic Incompatibility (CI). In males, CI consists of Wolbachia manipulating the sperm in a yet unknown way – this manipulation is called mod (for modification). DNA from modified sperm cannot properly participate in the first embryonic mitosis, except if Wolbachia action in the egg recovers the functionality of the sperm DNA. Owing to the nature of CI, a female can only successfully mate with an infected male if she is herself infected by an appropriate Wolbachia strain. If such an infected female mates with an uninfected male, there are no defects. Therefore, infected females have a selective advantage over uninfected ones, helping Wolbachia spread. Considering that CI effectively inhibits certain crosses, Wolbachia infection could lead to reproductive isolation or gene flow reduction between host populations with different infection statuses. Therefore, CI in Wolbachia may play an important role in insect speciation. A deeper insight into the mechanism behind Wolbachia-induced CI is likely to further our understanding of host evolutionary dynamics. A New Model and Method for Understanding Wolbachia-Induced Cytoplasmic Incompatibility. 2011 PLoS ONE 6(5): e19757. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019757 Wolbachia are intracellular bacteria transmitted almost exclusively vertically through eggs. In response to this mode of transmission, Wolbachia strategically manipulate their insect hosts’ reproduction. In the most common manipulation type, cytoplasmic incompatibility, infected males can only mate with infected females, but infected females can mate with all males. The mechanism of cytoplasmic incompatibility is unknown; theoretical and empirical findings need to converge to broaden our understanding of this phenomenon. For this purpose, two prominent models have been proposed: the mistiming-model and the lock-key-model. The former states that Wolbachia manipulate sperm of infected males to induce a fatal delay of the male pronucleus during the first embryonic division, but that the bacteria can compensate the delay by slowing down mitosis in fertilized eggs. The latter states that Wolbachia deposit damaging “locks” on sperm DNA of infected males, but can also provide matching “keys” in infected eggs to undo the damage. The lock-key-model, however, needs to assume a large number of locks and keys to explain all existing incompatibility patterns. The mistiming-model requires fewer assumptions but has been contradicted by empirical results. We therefore expand the mistiming-model by one quantitative dimension to create the new, so-called goalkeeper-model. Using a method based on formal logic, we show that both lock-key- and goalkeeper-model are consistent with existing data. Compared to the lock-key-model, however, the goalkeeper-model assumes only two factors and provides an idea of the evolutionary emergence of cytoplasmic incompatibility. Available cytological evidence suggests that the hypothesized second factor of the goalkeeper-model may indeed exist. Finally, we suggest empirical tests that would allow to distinguish between the models. Generalizing our results might prove interesting for the study of the mechanism and evolution of other host-parasite interactions.	<urn:uuid:7ecfb4d3-4a8e-4168-aecd-2f5ea31df0f2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.39891940355300903, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9230961799621582, "url": "https://microbiologybytes.wordpress.com/2011/05/18/its-time-for-your-wednesday-wolbachia/" }
13 Nov 2016 Quiz 30 - 10 Questions on Questions - Answer 1. "?"- this was the entire content of a telegram sent by Victor Hugo, to his publishers, asking how 'Les Miserables' was selling. What was the publishers reply ? Ans: "!" 2. The so called " Roman Question" was settled by the signing the Lateran Treaty in 1929. What was the result of the treaty? Ans: The state of Vatican City was created and full and independent sovereignty was guaranteed to the Holy pope. The treaty was signed for King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and for Pope Pius XI by Pietro Cardinal Gasparri, papal secretary of state. The term "The Roman Question" was from the title of an article headed "The Roman Question" in the Westminster Review . It expressed the opinion that the Papal States should be deprived of the Adriatic provinces and be restricted to the territory around Rome. 3. Groups of officers called 'legati', were assigned to carry out a survey. They visited each county of their country and conducted public inquiries. The set of questions that these officers asked with the town and county representatives constituted the 'Inquisitio Eliensis'. The answers to these questions provided the basis for which famous manuscript? Ans: The Domesday Book, which was a written record of a statistical survey of England ordered by William the Conqueror. The survey, made in 1086, was an attempt to register the landed wealth of the country in a systematic fashion, to determine the revenues due to the king. Domesday is a corruption of Doomsday (the day of the final judgment); the work was so named because its judgments in terms of levies and assessments were irrevocable. 4. The Modified Mercalli scale does not use any instruments to measure this natural phenomenon, but relies on the opinions of human observers. Scientist who use the Modified Mercalli scale, gather information by means of letter questionnaires sent to people who experienced the phenomenon or reports from the local population and then assign Mercalli numbers to points in the affected areas. Which phenomenon is thus measured in this way? Ans: Earthquake. The scale has 12 levels of intensity. Each level is defined by a group of observable earthquake effects, such as shaking of the ground and damage to structures such as buildings, roads, and bridges. The levels are designated by the Roman numerals I to XII. Levels I through VI are used to describe what people see and feel during a small to moderate earthquake. Levels VII through XII are used to describe damage to structures during a moderate to catastrophic earthquake. 5. King Menander was a Greek ruler of a large Indo-Greek empire in the late 2nd century BC. The questions and dilemmas posed by the king were answered by the Buddhist philosopher and senior monk Nagasena. These question and answer dialogues, between the two, form the basis for which Buddhist doctrine? Ans: Milinda Panha, in Pali means “Questions of Milinda”. Menander, was known to Indian sources as Milinda .This work forms a important part in Theravada Buddhism, in which certain key Buddhist teachings are explored. 6. This disease is caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii and was first described by Edward Holbrook Derrick of Queensland, Australia. The name for the disease is derived from the word 'Query' because when it was initially identified it posed many unanswered questions to Edward. Which disease? Ans: Q fever.In which Q stands for query 7. During the religious meal of Seder, four to five cups of wine are poured. After the second cup is poured, the youngest child asks four standard questions about the unusual ceremonies: “Why does this night differ from all other nights? For on all other nights we eat either leavened or unleavened bread; why on this night only unleavened bread? On all other nights we need not dip our herbs even once; why on this night must we dip them twice? On all other nights we eat either sitting up or reclining; why on this night do we all recline?” Which festival is thus commenced with the partake of Seder? Ans: The Jewish festival of Passover. The prepared answers to the questions are recited by all in unison.The fifth cup of wine is not drunk and is poured in honour of prophet Elijah. 8. Philosophers have attempted to answer this question for thousands of years. Today the four main theories they have proposed to answer this question are the correspondence, pragmatic, coherence, and deflationary theories. Which question? Ans: “What is truth?” 9. The "Question Hour" in the 'Lok Sabha' (India's lower house of parliament) has two main types of question—Starred and non-starred. What is the difference between the two? Ans: Starred Questions are those for which an oral answer is expected. The member is allowed to ask a supplementary question, with the permission of the Speaker, after the reply is obtained from the Minister concerned. Non-starred questions are those for which a written reply is expected. After the reply has been provided, no supplementary question can be asked. 10. Kya Aap Paanchvi Pass Se Tez Hain? was a game show on Indian Television channel STAR Plus and was based on the American game show, Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader? Which Indian star hosted the show? Ans: Shahrukh Khan No comments: Post a Comment	<urn:uuid:46d8cb98-1b48-4a3f-8cf5-a84f5d32910a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.14013797044754028, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9663876295089722, "url": "http://quizardofoz.blogspot.com/2016/11/quiz-30-10-questions-on-questions-answer.html" }
The “forty-niners,” who rushed to California once gold was discovered, were dominated by men. But ten percent of all the new arrivals were women—and Glenda Riley restores part of their history by telling the stories of the journalists, saloon keepers, wives, prostitutes, and others whose Gold Rush accounts have been largely ignored. “Conventional wisdom tells us that the gold rush was a male undertaking,” writes Riley. But women were there, too—and they didn’t always tag along as wives, cooks, or prostitutes. Sometimes they became incredibly wealthy entrepreneurs; others were left behind as their husbands and male family members went west to explore. The rush burst into being on January 24, 1848, when James Marshall was led to gold by Native Californians at Sutter’s Mill, in northeastern California. Once Marshall’s discovery was announced a few months later, it spurred a mass migration. The gold-hungry emigrants were later called “forty niners” in recognition of the year when most arrived in California. Most were men, but Riley implies that those who don’t see women as part of that history aren’t looking hard enough. Not only were women travelers’ names included on passenger lists for boats headed to California, but women staked claims in mines and interacted with the local authorities. Portrait of a Californio woman during the Gold Rush, 1850 Portrait of a Californio woman during the Gold Rush, 1850 via Wikimedia Commons Still, looking for the era’s women can take a bit of persistence. For example, Riley writes, almost every woman labored, but few of their hours were paid. Thus, it can be difficult to quantify their contributions through census records and other sources. One veritable gold mine of information on women’s lives comes from divorce records, which shed light on a social taboo that could confer real freedom on a boom-time divorcée. “Of early California divorces,” Riley writes, “women obtained more than two-thirds of the decrees.” Riley sees these separations as evidence of women on the move, who saw divorce as a road to financial and personal freedom. For Riley, the history of the Gold Rush is rife with research opportunities, like exploring what happened to the women whose husbands and male relatives rushed to California and how the unmarried women who remained dealt with a society bereft of men. And there are chances to explore the stories of the women of color who went westward, too. Riley gives a tantalizing peek into some of those lives, from an entrepreneurial pie baker to a storekeeper’s wife who took pleasure in watching other people’s complex Gold Rush lives unfold before her eyes. Their stories could easily be preserved, Riley implies, if people were willing to look for them. Until then, the stories of most of the women who became part of California’s history during the Gold Rush remain buried, like treasure. One hundred and seventy years after the Gold Rush began, they sparkle beneath the surface, just waiting to be discovered. Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Winter, 1999), pp. 445-448 Oxford University Press	<urn:uuid:2566e4f3-e8f8-4bb9-b502-023a074fc676>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.02777254581451416, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9707680344581604, "url": "https://daily.jstor.org/yes-women-participated-in-the-gold-rush/" }
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dial and Dialling From Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the divisions of the day (Lat. dies) by the motion of the shadow of some object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun; though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the greatest elevation. History.—The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were called temporary hours; and, since the duration of daylight varies from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that time, and especially in countries where the variation between the longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our climates. The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The second and third were found in 1751—one at Castel-Nuovo and the other at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in his Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten (Leipzig, 1777), says that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of Alexandria. Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but also of great ingenuity. Ptolemy's Almagest treats of the construction of dials by means of his analemma, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west, north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain, however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics—the Tower of the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different dials—four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary hours or, as the Greeks called them, hectemoria. The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not cultivated in Italy. The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks, but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the 13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and other surfaces. He even introduced equal or equinoctial hours, but the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in use. Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by equal hours was generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank, and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were, the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now, we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries. Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was Sebastian Münster (q.v.), who published his Horologiographia at Basel in 1531. He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among his inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much accuracy. During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be considered to contain all that was known at that time. In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little more than a mathematical recreation. General Principles.—The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded. That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts. But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once a day—the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some four minutes longer—so that at the end of the year it finds itself again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the heavens relatively to the stars from west to east. The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small, compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole, its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place. The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken of above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable. The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly; but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two agree are April 15, June 15, September 1 and December 24. Clock-time is called mean time, that marked by the sun-dial is called apparent time, and the difference between them is the equation of time. It is given in most calendars and almanacs, frequently under the heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time by the sun-dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa. Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy. The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The problem before us is the following:—A rod, or style, as it is called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know that at that moment it is solar noon,—that is, that the plane through the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again, that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1 o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for the subsequent hours,—the hours before noon being indicated in a similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are traced together constitute the dial. The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected—whether on church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall—the surface must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines. The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the thin band of shade is meant. The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate. The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line. In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line. The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style falls when 1, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and quarters, or even into minutes. But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II, III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before the calculations began,—that is, it would be necessary to know exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these results only very roughly. Dials received different names according to their position:— Horizontal dials, when traced on a horizontal plane; Vertical dials, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal points; Vertical declining dials, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal point; Inclining dials, when traced on planes neither vertical nor horizontal (these were further distinguished as reclining when leaning backwards from an observer, proclining when leaning forwards); Equinoctial dials, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's axis, &c. &c. Dial Construction.—A very correct view of the problem of dial construction may be obtained as follows:— Britannica Dial 1.jpg Fig. 1 Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant generating-lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII ... XII being in the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II, &c., following in the order of the sun's motion. Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ... XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on the lines AXII AI, AII, &c. The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made by AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known. For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial. Britannica Dial 2.jpg Fig. 2 Horizontal Dial.—Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of 15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c. ... These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3, &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be the I, II, III, &c., hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC, &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c., are respectively 15°, 30°, &c., then tan AB = tan 15° sin latitude, tan AC = tan 30° sin latitude, &c. &c. These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC, &c., required. The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of 11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at Paris, 12° 0' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other hour-lines. The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve. Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on it, and we shall have the horizontal dial. On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock, and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits will be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required. Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles. Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the remaining hours of daylight. Britannica Dial 3.jpg Fig. 3 The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see fig. 3). The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be better defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and one minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance through a space equal to its half-breadth. Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be purchased ready for placing on the pedestal,—the dial with all the hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial plate. When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate till the time given by the shadow (making the one minute correction mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would, without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire. If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the angle of the style,—all angles on the dial being readily measured with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59½° lat., and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland:— I. P.M. X. A.M. II. P.M. IX. A.M. V. P.M. VI. A.M. VI. P.M. 50° 0′ 11° 36′ 23° 51′ 37° 27′ 53° 0′ 70° 43′ 90° 0′ 50 30 11 41 24 1 37 39 53 12 70 51 90 0 51 0 11 46 24 10 37 51 53 23 70 59 90 0 51 30 11 51 24 19 38 3 53 35 71 6 90 0 52 0 11 55 24 28 38 14 53 46 71 13 90 0 52 30 12 0 24 37 38 25 53 57 71 20 90 0 53 0 12 5 24 45 38 37 54 8 71 27 90 0 53 30 12 9 24 54 38 48 54 19 71 34 90 0 54 0 12 14 25 2 38 58 54 29 71 40 90 0 54 30 12 18 25 10 39 9 54 39 71 47 90 0 55 0 12 23 25 19 39 19 54 49 71 53 90 0 55 30 12 27 25 27 39 30 54 59 71 59 90 0 56 0 12 31 25 35 39 40 55 9 72 5 90 0 56 30 12 36 25 43 39 50 55 18 72 11 90 0 57 0 12 40 25 50 39 59 55 27 72 17 90 0 57 30 12 44 25 58 40 9 55 36 72 22 90 0 58 0 12 48 26 5 40 18 55 45 72 28 90 0 58 30 12 52 26 13 40 27 55 54 72 33 90 0 59 0 12 56 26 20 40 36 56 2 72 39 90 0 59 30 13 0 26 27 40 45 56 11 72 44 90 0 Vertical South Dial.—Let us take again our imaginary transparent sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis. Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which, being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of two great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP, will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning at a, viz. ab, bc, &c.,—each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,—then through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c., which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial, Ep being the style. Britannica Dial 4.jpg Fig. 4 There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on each side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than 6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the dial before that time, and is no longer available. It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated. The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule. These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the latitude and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15°, 30°, &c., respectively. Then tan AB = tan 15° sin co-latitude; or more simply, tan AB = tan 15° cos latitude, tan AC = tan 30° cos latitude, &c. &c. and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC, &c., required. In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the opposite result to that of the horizontal dial. Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials.—We shall not enter into the calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have to be found from observations which can be only roughly performed. In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before we begin. Equatorial Dial.—The name equatorial dial is given to one whose plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into 24 equal ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked on both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox. To find the Meridian Plane.—We have, so far, assumed the meridian plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the methods by which it may be found. Britannica Dial 5.jpg Fig. 5 The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation. It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true north and south line, but the difference between them is generally known with tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place, though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need notice here (see Magnetism, Terrestrial). With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian, but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has been made. A very simple practical method is the following:— Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day. Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface, should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD, EF, &c. A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet line at some convenient height above H. Britannica Dial 6.jpg Fig. 6 Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve is a conic section—an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the same altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after noon. It follows that, if the sun has not changed its declination during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line. Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the mean of the positions thus found must be taken. The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary. If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two points, will have its position perfectly secured. To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position.—Before giving any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place, is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted approximately—correctly, indeed, as to its inclination—but probably requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls exactly on the plumb-line,—or, which is the same thing, if both shadows coincide on the dial. This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane, whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter to adjust the style as directed above. Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane.—We have dwelt at some length on these practical operations because they are simple and tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant, nor telescope—nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of shadow lines. The Pole star, or Ursae Minoris, may also be employed for finding the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star is now only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the Nautical Almanac, and a watch would be necessary to know when the instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate, because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the azimuth. The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star η Ursae Majoris, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole star, at a distance of about 1° 14' from the pole, is crossing the meridian above the pole, the star η Ursae Majoris, whose polar distance is about 40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the pole. When η Ursae Majoris reaches the meridian, which will be within half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now at some instant between these two times—much nearer the latter than the former—the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the stars is strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the plumb-line taken for meridian plane. In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one under each plummet. This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the upper transit of Polaris; for, at the lower transit, the other star η Ursae Majoris would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of the year is lost to this method. Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;—we may even say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5° above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible. There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but none so convenient as these two, on account of Polaris with its very slow motion being one of the pair. To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination of the Meridian Plane.—The various methods given above for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly placed. We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described and investigated in any work on astronomy. For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions of the horizon—but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than 10 o'clock—take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from the Nautical Almanac, enable us to calculate the time. This will be the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require. Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know, therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its proper position as explained before. We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar noon as in the previous case. In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Sometimes the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder, or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a rule, the more complex the less accurate. Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-lines they had hour-points; and the style, instead of being parallel to the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon. There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse; and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new mathematical problems. Portable Dials.—The dials so far described have been fixed dials, for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a watch. The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are essential points of difference between them, besides those which are at once apparent. In the fixed dial the result depends on the uniform angular motion of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instrument, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the sun being so rapid—a quarter of a degree every minute—that for the ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree, can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now available, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically find; and the basis for the determination of the time is the constantly but very irregularly varying zenith distance of the sun. At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however, to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there; and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial. To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials, let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock, and at noon have an altitude of 36°,—that is, the portable dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the day. Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4 or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed. We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use. Britannica Dial 7.jpg Fig. 7. Dial on a Cylinder.—A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in. high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of tolerably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally out from the cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1½ in. When not in use the style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder. A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant intervals.[2] These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31; April 10, 20, 30, and so on,—always the 10th, the 20th, and the last day of each month. Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the length of the style—that is, the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder—and on the altitude of the sun at that instant. Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun, and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sunrise to sunset-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,—then it is obvious that the next year, on the same date, the sun's declination being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day. What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot be the method employed. The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation. Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark below the style for each successive hour. We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results will be sufficiently approximate. When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points, will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down, the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer, when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is better ensured in that way. Portable Dial on a Card.—This neat and very ingenious dial is attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was sometimes called the capuchin, from some fancied resemblance to a cowl thrown back. Construction.—Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at the points r, s, t, &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line through r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where it can be done without confusion. Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place, and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles to AD. Britannica Dial 8.jpg Fig. 8. With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it, extending from 0° at S to 23½° on each side at R and T. Next determine the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these crossings. The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations would be on the upper half. Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion, opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the sun-line at the top of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is exactly at right angles to the sun-line. Make a fine open slit c d right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short distance on the door,—the centre line of this slit coinciding accurately with the sun-line. Now, cut the door completely through the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a thread carrying a little plummet W and a very small bead P; the bead having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre of a small disk of card—a fraction of an inch in diameter—and, by a knot, is made fast at the back of the disk. To complete the construction,—with the centres F and G, and radii FA and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines; for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to noon, where it will always be uncertain. To rectify the dial (using the old expression, which means to prepare the dial for an observation),—open the small door, by turning it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincides with A. Britannica Dial 9.jpg Fig. 9. To find the hour of the day,—hold the dial in a vertical position in such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against which the bead P then rests indicates the time. The sun-line drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as a shadow-line. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre. Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time will the indication of the dial be in error. The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of the sun. The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results obtained. The theory of this instrument is as follows:—Let H (fig. 9) be the point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,—P, the bead, resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the hour-angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the sun-line, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the sun-line and the horizontal. Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N respectively. Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values will be readily deduced from the figure:— AD = a cos decl. DH = a sin decl. PQ = a sin alt. CX = AC = AD cos lat. = a cos decl. cos lat. PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX. NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin decl. sin lat. (∴ the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.) And sincePQ = NQ + PN, we have, by simple substitution, a sin alt. = a sin decl. sin lat. + a cos del. cos lat. cos ACX; or, dividing by a throughout, sin alt. = sin decl. sin lat. + cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX ... (1) which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead. To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10 represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the zenith and S the sun. From the spherical triangle PZS, we have cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS but ZS = zenith distance = 90° - altitude ZP = 90° - PR = 90°- latitude PS = polar distance = 90° - declination, therefore, by substitution sin alt. = sin decl. sin lat. + cos decl. cos lat. cos ZPS ... (2) and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun. Britannica Dial 10.jpg Fig. 10. A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree. If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the central line of light were made to fall on cm. Literature.—The following list includes the principal writers on dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct, others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times employed: Ptolemy, Analemma, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius, Architecture; Sebastian Münster, Horologiographia; Orontius Fineus, De horologiis solaribus; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, Horologi solari; Dryander, De horologiorum compositione; Conrad Gesner, Pandectae; Andreas Schöner, Gnomonicae; F. Commandine, Horologiorum descriptio; Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, De gnomonum usu; Georgius Schomberg, Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum; Joan. Solomon de Caus, Horologes solaires; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, Praxis horologiorum; Desargues, Manière universelle pour poser l'essieu, &c.; Ath. Kircher, Ars magna lucis et Umbrae; Hallum, Explicatio horologii in horto regio Londini; Joan. Mark, Tractatus horologiorum; Clavius, Gnomonices de horologiis. Also among more modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire, Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Müller; in English, Foster, Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See also Hans Löschner, Über Sonnenuhren (2nd ed., Graz, 1906). (H. G.) 1. In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known. 2. Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the construction.	<urn:uuid:c330fbab-175d-48a3-a825-6f5d252db959>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.05178588628768921, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.946090042591095, "url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Dial_and_Dialling" }
german oil shortage ww2 But Germany led the world in the production of synthetic fuels, which accounted for close to 40 percent of all its fuels. Similarly, the Allies realized that the destruction of the oil industry that fueled the German and Italian war machine would be a major step toward an Allied victory. Air University History Office Plus, their synthetic gasoline production was never quite adequate. Coal was the cornerstone of the German economy. In particular, the Allied operations staff began using aerial photographs to monitor the German reconstruction efforts and then would launch a new attack against a specific plant as it was nearing full production capability. World War II was the first fully mechanized war in history, and oil, both crude and synthetic, was a major factor in military planning. Shortages During World War II, the war caused a shortage of many items that people used on a daily basis. 4 out of 5 stars (4) Total Ratings 4, $21.49 New. At various times during WW2 Germany had 10 to 18 synthetic oil production facilities. [CDATA[// > Ethiopia Visa Requirements, Ecu Biology Major, Xu Bing Phoenix, Mskcc Gyn Onc, Mario Anzalone Stratford, Ct, 23 And Me Health And Ancestry Sale, 1989 World Series Game 1, Family Guy Peter Tells Stories, Trả lời	<urn:uuid:9bd3bea4-38f0-469c-a037-6f00a04fb838>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.05531716346740723, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9639555811882019, "url": "https://sinoshipnews.com/stillman-college-mwzls/de99e5-german-oil-shortage-ww2" }
machine learning Machine Learning Part 10 Naive Bayes #10 naive bayes Machine Learning 👉♡ supervised learning ♡ unsupervised learning ♡ reinforcement learning 🔖 types of supervised learning ✅ classification 📑 ✅ regression 📈 ✅ mixed ⚗ naive bayes classification ⚱ bayes theorem bayes theorem states that P(B\|A) = (P(A\|B) * P(B)) / P(A) Probability of B given A = … 🔎 naive comes from the fact that features have been independently chosen from a distribution ⚱ conditional probability that’s it, checkout dependent events’ probabilities. let us take a domino game. the probability taking out a piece containing one after having taken a piece containing a 6. in this example, the taking of one is affected at the very least by the fact that the tiles have been diminished by 1 (7/28 × 7/27). similarly naive bayes allows us to guess events more precisely by adding known events in the game. ⚱ are you ill? a famous use of the theorem is to find out whether you are ill given you have symptoms of a disease. the formula tells us that only looking if you have symptoms is not enough. le us say that a new disease named scarius is out. now you check out the symptoms, brr you have those it seems … but do you really have the disease? P(scarius given symptoms) = (P(symptoms given scarius) * P(scarius))/P(symptoms) if symptoms is fever, P(symptoms) is P(fever) i.e. the probability that a person gets fever on any day. P(symptoms given scarius) will be high since when you are ill you will get symptoms. let us say 0.96 P(scarius) ah let us say that disease is rare, 0.0001 p(fever) let us say 0.1 our P will be (0.0001 × 0.96) ÷ 0.1 = 0.00096 so, without taking in consideration those 3 probabilities, you’d make an erroneous guess ⚱ one interesting article ⚽️ exercise see the theorem’s derivation by using sets via a venn diagram	<urn:uuid:59613efd-fb5c-4afc-94a0-0dbfcdbf30e5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.0752328634262085, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9212541580200195, "url": "https://www.pythonkitchen.com/machine-learning-part-10-naive-bayes/" }
The crucial hours that shape you Alizée Lacroix Inspired byCarmina Perez Romero (doctorante à la McMaster University/UPMC) Tuteurs : Cécile Fradin (professeur à la McMaster University) and Nathalie Dostatni (professeur à l'Institut Curie – PSL et UPMC). Les heures cruciales qui vous façonnent Have you ever wondered how a single cell can become a full grown organism? Well it starts when an egg and sperm fuse together making a single cell as time passes it start dividing over and over again, until they form an organism. During this developmental process, somehow the cells know exactly where they are and what they need to become, so that they form the organism. However, we don’t fully understand this process and this is what our research hopes to answer: how the cells know where they are? What they need to become? We study this process in fruit fly, although fruit flies might not look a lot like us, during early embryonic development we are quite similar, so we can try to answer this questions in fruit flies and what we find might be relevant to other organism like us. During development the first thing that an embryo needs to know is the orientation of the body, where the top and bottom, the left and right and the back and front of the body will be. We concentrate on studying how does the “head to tail” axis, which we call the anterior-posterior axis, form. To know where the head is going to be, the embryo releases proteins called morphogens that broadcasting instruction to other genes so that the cells know where they are and what they should become. This morphogen is called Bicoid, its concentration is much higher at the head of the embryo and lower as you move towards the tail, you can see this on the Movie 1 where Bicoid is labeled in green using a green fluorescent protein. Bicoid activates Hunchback, which end up diving the embryo in two parts the top and bottom. However Bicoid’s is message fades away after each cell division, so we don’t know how is the message relayed over time? Well we believe cells have memory, they know who their mother was and remember the instruction so that they know where they are and what they will become. To study this hypothesis, our laboratory has worked in trying to see Hunchback expression in real life, so that we can get information about how it is activated and to follow it over time. In Movie 2 you can see in green is Hunchback RNA being activated, and in red the DNA histones and we can follow this over time. With these movies we can start to study if a mother was activated and a daughter is activated, and finally see if cells have memory. Watch the project's video More information	<urn:uuid:95c3011f-af1e-45b9-8d2c-f4419a1484b4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.4830748438835144, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9421484470367432, "url": "https://institut-curie.org/page/crucial-hours-shape-you" }
Establishment of British Rule in India Before the beginning of the formal rule of the Britishers in India, there was a background of Indo-European economic relationship. The British East India Company sometimes referred to as "John Company", was a Joint-Stock Company established in 1600, as The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies. During this time, other trading companies, established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were similarly expanding in the region. The British Company gained footing in India in 1612 after Mughal emperor Jahangir granted the rights to establish a factory (a trading post) in Surat to Sir Thomas Roe, a representative diplomat of Queen Elizabeth Ist of England. The formal British rule in India is understood to have commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company. Henceforth the British Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to a political entity which virtually ruled India. Now it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, until its dissolution in 1858 when, consequent to the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India.	<urn:uuid:8a296e37-2466-4d20-843d-bbc9200782b0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.03125, "fasttext_score": 0.3693782687187195, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9464865922927856, "url": "https://www.studypage.in/indian-history/establishment-of-british-rule-in-india" }
Children of Ancient Rome This article is about children in ancient Rome. Pregnancy and birth Funeral monument of a Roman mid-wife In ancient Rome, childbirth brought upon high risk to both mother and child due to a greater chance of complications which includes infection, uterine hemorrhage, and the young age of the mothers. Women relied mainly on the religious and superstitious practices associated with medicine at this time. After conception, women would rest in bed to “preserve the seed.”[1] To treat pregnancy symptoms they would eat a bland diet of eggs or rice and would be massaged with olive oil. Plants and herbs such as dittany leaves, scordotis in hydromel and the root of vervain were used for relief during labor. Also, methodologies such as a drink powdered with sow’s dung to relieve labor pains and fumes from hyena loin fat or placing the right foot of a hyena on the woman to induce an easy delivery were of use. The development of midwives greatly improved the birthing process for Roman women. Midwives assisted births in the home and prepared the mothers with oil for lubrication, warm water, sponges, and provided bandages for the newborn. During difficult births tools with sharp hooks would be used to extract the baby. Once the baby was born the midwife would cut the umbilical cord, remove the placenta and then they would decide if the child was worth keeping. Once declared fit to live, the midwife would place the child on the ground for the head of the house hold to raise up the child and claim to rear it as a Roman ritual.[1] Infants in ancient Rome were not named until days after they were born (females 8 days, males 9 days) due to a high infant mortality rate. On the 8th or 9th day a gathering would occur consisting of family and friends bearing gifts. Then a sacrifice would be made and the child would be named and given a bulla to identify him or her as freeborn.[2] Childhood stages Roman girls playing Romans kept track of the passing of time by celebrating their birthday every year. These celebrations consisted of wine, garlands of flowers, ritual cakes, and fire on the domestic altar. A child who reached its first birthday (stage known as anniculus) was able to have legal privileges and the parents could apply for full Roman citizenship for their child. The ages of 5-7, children were seen to have more rational minds and were expected to take on responsibility around the home such as taking care the animals, gathering materials, and general chores around the house. Also during these years, children considered to be aware of social and sexual roles and children’s groups were organized by gender at that time. The age of 7 was around the end of what was considered to be the infant stage (infantia). At this age Romans knew children were able to understand speech, making them eligible for betrothal. Roman law classified some ages at which a child can have social, moral, or criminal responsibility.[2] Under the age of 14, a child was considered to be doli incapax (incapable of criminal intent). A child older than 10, however, still had the possibility of being held responsible for a criminal act if it could be proven that they understood their offense. The age of marriage for girls could be as young as 12 and for men, around 25 years of age. By the age of 15 boys undergo a ritual transitioning them into manhood. The ceremony involves them removing their bulla and the tunic they wore through childhood and put on a man’s toga while accompanied by their fathers and other relatives. The stages of life the Roman state took note of were birth and coming of age for males, and death. On these days taxes and financial offerings were due.[2] See Family and Marriage in ancient Rome. Daily Life Roman boys playing ball games, 2nd century CE Roman children had different clothing from adults until they came of age or were married. Children’s education was normally practiced at home. When children were not being educated their play time consisted of a variety of toys such as rattles, dolls made of cloth, clay, or wax, toy weapons, letter blocks, tops, balls and hoops made of sticks. Dogs were also common pets that children played with. Roman children were not allowed to bathe in the Roman baths, instead, they bathed at home.[2] Death and Burial Due to disease, epidemics, and high mortality in the Roman world, children experienced death regularly. Children were very much a part of the funeral process with the death of close family. There is no findings that suggest that children were not present during the required purification of the death a family member. They were also allowed to participate in Parentalia in February which was a time to visit the graves remember the dead. Because children were memorialized on tombstones it shows that they were recognized as an individual when they died though they had a better chance of being commemorated after surviving infancy.[3] Older children were commemorated in the Roman religious tradition but babies that were less than 40 days of age were usually buried instead of cremated and were to be buried within the city walls under the house because they were considered not developed enough to negatively impact Roman religion for not burying them outside the walls. Babies were at very high risk of death the first few days after birth or around four to six months and there was no formal mourning period for an infant less than 1 year of age. As children got older their mourning period grew longer until they were 10 years old and had the same mourning period as an adult (10 months).[3] See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Children in ancient Roman art. 1. 1 2 Todman, D. (2007), Childbirth in ancient Rome: From traditional folklore to obstetrics. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 47: 82–85. 2. 1 2 3 4 Rwason, Beryl. Children And Childhood In Roman Italy. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2003. eBook Academic Collection(EBSCOhost).Web. 7 Nov.2015 3. 1 2 Bradley, KR. Discovering the Roman Family: Studies in Roman Social History. New York:Oxford University Press, 1991. 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NCERT Class VI Science Solutions: Chapter 8 – Body Movements Part 3 (For CBSE, ICSE, IAS, NET, NRA 2022) Question 12: Given below is a list of different types of movements in animals. Running, Jumping, Walking, Slithering, Crawling, Flying, Swimming, Creeping Write the types of movements seen in each animal. 1. Duck 2. Kangaroo 3. Snake 4. Human beings 5. Horse 6. Snail 7. Fish 8. Cockroach 1. Duck – flying, walking, swimming. 2. Horse - running, walking. 3. Kangaroo - jumping, walking. 4. Snail – creeping. 5. Snake – slithering. 6. Fish – swimming. 7. Human being – walking. 8. Cockroach - walking, flying. Various Animals Question 13: Boojho fell off a tree and hurt his ankle. On examination the doctor confirmed that the ankle was fractured. How vas it detected? The doctor must have observed a swelling and taken an X-ray of the ankle. X-ray images confirm injuries/fractures in bones. Question 14: Bones are hard structures and cannot be bent. But, we can still bend our elbow, knee, etc. How is this possible? Elbow and knee are not made tip of a single bone, but two or more bones which are joined to each other by a joint (Hinge joint) . This joint along with the muscles help us to bend the elbow and knee. Question 15: Which type of movement would have been possible if. 1. Our elbow had a fixed joint. 2. We were to have a ball and socket joint between our neck and head. 1. We would not be able to bend/fold our arms. 2. We would be able to rotate our head . Question 16: Earthworms are known as ‘farmer՚s friends’ . Why? An earthworm eats its way through the soil. Its body excretes the undigested materials that makes the soil fertile.	<urn:uuid:cf9ea85c-0fcf-4484-86e0-d76e8f91d9d5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.529755711555481, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9352939128875732, "url": "https://www.flexiprep.com/NCERT-Exemplar-Solutions/Science/Class-6/Ch-8-Body-Movements-Part-3.html" }
Native American language Native American tribes Native American art Onondaga Indian Fact Sheet Native American Facts For Kids was written for young people learning about the Onondagas for school or home-schooling reports. We encourage students and teachers to visit our Onondaga language and culture pages for in-depth information about the tribe, but here are our answers to the questions we are most often asked by children, with Onondaga pictures and links we believe are suitable for all ages. Photographs are the property of the sources we have credited. Sponsored Links Onondaga Tribe Lacrosse player Onondaga child How do you pronounce the word "Onondaga"? What does it mean? Onondaga is pronounced "ON-on-DAH-gah." It comes from their own tribal name, Onundaga'ono, which means "people of the hill." Where do the Onondagas live? The Onondaga tribe originally lived in New York state. Many Onondaga people still live there today, though others fled to Ontario, Canada in the 1700's. Are the Onondaga Iroquois people? Iroquois flag Yes, the Onondaga nation was one of the original members of the Iroquois League, or Kanonsionni in their own language ("league of clans.") The other member nations were the the Senecas, Cayugas, Oneidas, and Mohawks. Later a sixth tribe, the Tuscaroras, joined the confederacy. Today these long-term allies refer to themselves as the Haudenosaunee ("people of the longhouse") or Six Nations. How is the Onondaga Indian nation organized? The Onondaga nation had a tribal council chosen by the Onondaga clan mothers (matriarchs, or female leaders.) But the Onondagas were also subject to the Iroquois Great Council. Fourteen Onondaga chiefs represented their tribe's interests in the Iroquois Council. This is similar to American states which each have their own government, but are all subject to the US government. In fact, the Iroquois Confederacy was one of the examples of representative democracy used as a model by America's founding fathers. Today the Onondaga tribe lives on a reservation in New York. A reservation is land that belongs to an Indian tribe and is under their control. The Onondaga Indian tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. In fact, they still have a traditional tribal council of men who are elected by Onondaga women. But the Onandagas are also US citizens and must obey American law. Other Onondaga people live on the Six Nations Reserve in Canada, which they share with members of the other Iroquois nations. What language do the Onondagas speak? Most Onondaga people speak English today, but some Onondagas, especially in Canada, also speak their native Onondaga language. Onondaga is a complex language with many sounds that are unlike the sounds in English. You can hear Onondaga being spoken here. If you'd like to know a few easy Onondaga words, "sge:no" (pronounced similar to sgay-no) is a friendly greeting, and "nya:weh" (pronounced similar to nyah-wenh) means 'thank you.' Today Onondaga is an endangered language because most children aren't learning it anymore. However, some Onondaga people are working to keep their language alive. What was Onondaga culture like in the past? What is it like now? Here is the homepage of the Onondaga Nation School, where you can learn about the Onondaga community past and present. Sponsored Links How do Onondaga Indian children live, and what did they do in the past? Cornhusk doll They do the same things any children do--play with each other, go to school and help around the house. Many Onondaga children like to go hunting and fishing with their fathers. In the past, Indian kids had more chores and less time to play, just like early colonial children. But they did have corn husk dolls, toys, and games, such as one game where kids tried to throw a dart through a moving hoop. Lacrosse was a popular sport among Onondaga boys as it was among adult men. Onondaga mothers, like many Native Americans, traditionally carried their babies in cradleboards on their backs. Here is a page of Indian cradle board pictures. What were men and women's roles in the Onondaga tribe? Onondaga men were in charge of hunting, trading, and war. Onondaga women were in charge of farming, property, and family. These different roles were reflected in Onondaga government. Onondaga clans were ruled by women, who made the land and resource decisions for each clan. But the chiefs, who made military decisions and trade agreements, were always men. Only men represented the Onondaga Nation at the Iroquois Great Council, but only women voted to determine who the Onondaga representatives would be. Both genders took part in storytelling, art and music, and traditional medicine. What were Onondaga homes like in the past? Iroquois longhouse sketch The Onondaga people lived in villages of longhouses, which were large wood-frame buildings covered with sheets of elm bark. These longhouses were up to a hundred feet long, and each one housed an entire clan (as many as 60 people.) Here are some pictures of an Iroquois longhouse like the ones Onondaga Indians used, and a drawing of what long houses looked like on the inside. Today, longhouses are only used for ceremonial purposes. The Onondagas live in modern houses and apartment buildings, just like you. What was Onondaga clothing like? Did they wear feather headdresses and face paint? Onondaga headdress Onondaga boy Onondaga men wore breechcloths with leggings. Here is a website with more information about the Iroquois breechcloth. Onondaga women wore wraparound skirts with shorter leggings. Men did not originally wear shirts in Onondaga culture, but women often wore a long tunic called an overdress. The Onondagas usually wore deerskin moccasins on their feet. In colonial times, the Onondaga tribe adapted European costume like cloth shirts and blouses, decorating them with beadwork and ribbon applique. Here is a webpage about traditional Iroquois dress, and here are some photographs and links about North American Indian clothes in general. The Onondagas didn't wear long headdresses like the Sioux. Men wore traditional Iroquois headdresses, which were feathered caps with a different insignia for each tribe. (The Onondaga headdress has one eagle feather standing straight and one trailing behind.) Women sometimes wore beaded tiaras. In times of war, Onondaga men often shaved their heads except for a scalplock or a crest down the center of their head. This style is popularly known as a Mohawk haircut, but warriors in all the Iroquois tribes wore their hair this way. Sometimes they would augment this hairstyle with splayed feathers or artificial roaches made of brightly dyed porcupine hair. Here are some pictures of these different kinds of American Indian headdress. Onondaga women only cut their hair when they were in mourning. Otherwise they wore it long and loose or plaited into a long braid. Men sometimes decorated their faces and bodies with tattoo art, but Onondaga women generally didn't paint or tattoo themselves. What was Onondaga transportation like in the days before cars? Did they paddle canoes? Iroquois snowshoes Sometimes--the Onondaga Indians did use birchbark boats for fishing trips, but usually preferred to travel by land. Originally the Onondaga tribe used dogs as pack animals. (There were no horses in North America until colonists brought them over from Europe.) In wintertime, the Onondagas used laced snowshoes and sleds to travel through the snow. What was Onondaga food like in the days before supermarkets? Iroquois farmers The Onondaga Indians were farming people. Onondaga women planted crops of corn, beans, and squash and harvested wild berries and herbs. Onondaga men hunted deer and elk and fished in the rivers and the shores of Lake Ontario. Onondaga Indian recipes included cornbread, soups, and stews, which they cooked on stone hearths. Here is a website with more information about Indian farming. What were Onondaga weapons and tools like in the past? Iroquois war club Onondaga hunters used bows and arrows. Onondaga fishermen used spears and fishing poles. In war, Onondaga men used their bows and arrows or fought with clubs, spears and shields. Here are pictures of a ball headed war club like the ones used by the Onondagas. Other important tools used by the Onondagas included stone adzes (hand axes for woodworking), flint knives for skinning animals, and wooden hoes for farming. The Onondagas and other Iroquois were skilled woodworkers, steaming wood so that it could be bent to make curved tools. Some Iroquois artisans still make lacrosse sticks this way today. What are Onondaga arts and crafts like? Iroquois beadwork The Onondaga and other Iroquois tribes were known for their tribal masks, which are considered such a sacred art form that outsiders are still not permitted to view many of these masks. Beadwork and porcupine quill work are more common Onondaga crafts. The Onondagas also crafted wampum out of white and purple shell beads. Wampum beads were traded as a kind of currency, but they were more culturally important as an art material. The designs and pictures on a wampum belt often told a story or represented a person's family. What was Onondaga music like? Iroquois water drum The two most important Onondaga instruments are drums and flutes. Iroquois drums were often filled with water to give them a distinctive sound different from the drums of other tribes. Most Onondaga music is very rhythmic and consists mostly of drumming and lively singing. Flutes were used to woo women in the Onondaga tribe. A young Onondaga man would play beautiful flute music outside his girlfriend's longhouse at night to show her he was thinking about her. What other Native Americans did the Onondaga tribe interact with? The most important neighbors of the Onondaga tribe were the other Iroquois nations: the Cayuga, Seneca, Oneida, and Mohawks. Before the Iroquois Confederacy existed the Onondagas sometimes fought with the other Iroquois tribes, but once the alliance was formed they were loyal to each other. The Iroquois were fierce warriors who fought with most of the other eastern tribes, particularly the Wabanaki, the Anishinaabe, and the Mohicans. The Onondagas also engaged in trade with their neighbors, exchanging corn and woodcrafts for furs and quahog shells. What kinds of stories do the Onondagas tell? There are lots of traditional Onondaga legends and fairy tales. Storytelling is very important to the Onondaga Indian culture. Here is an Onondaga story about the origin of the Pleiades. Here's a website where you can read more about Iroquois mythology. What about Onondaga religion? Spirituality and religion were important parts of Onondaga life, and some people continue to practice traditional beliefs today. It is respectful to avoid imitating religious rituals for school projects since some Onondaga people care about them deeply. You can read and learn about them, however. You can visit this site to learn more about Iroquois beliefs or this site about Religions of Native Americans in general. Can you recommend a good book for me to read? One book about the Onondaga tribe for younger readers is The Onandaga, which has many photographs about traditional and contemporary Onondaga life. Lacrosse: The National Game of the Iroquois is a lively look at the origins of this traditional sport and Iroquois culture in general, tracing the lives of three generations of Onondaga lacrosse players. Legends of the Iroquois is a good collection of traditional Six Nations stories, retold by an Iroquois author. Wampum Belts of the Iroquois is an interesting look at the symbolism and significance of the different wampum belt designs used by the Onondaga and other Iroquois peoples. Or If You Lived With The Iroquois provides a good look at daily life in the Iroquois tribes in the old days. You can also browse through our recommendations of Native American history books in general. Disclaimer: we are an Amazon affiliate and our website earns a commission if you buy a book through one of these links. Most of them can also be found in a public library, though! How do I cite your website in my bibliography? Thanks for your interest in the Onondaga Indian people and their language! Sponsored Links Learn More About The Onondagas Onandaga Indian Tribe An overview of the Onandaga people, their language and history. Onondaga Culture and History Directory Related links about the Onondaga tribe past and present. Iroquois League Information and links about the Iroquois Confederacy. Onondaga Indian Words Onondaga Indian vocabulary lists. Return to our Native American website for children Return to our menu of Native American cultures Native Languages Native roots * Native American names * Pottawatomie * Indian quilt	<urn:uuid:78a9650c-dd3f-4bb0-bd06-e74f7dca69e7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.288155734539032, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9639946818351746, "url": "http://www.bigorrin.org/onondaga_kids.htm" }
Henrik Ibsen 's A Doll 's House 1775 Words8 Pages The play A Doll House was written and published in 1879 by Henrik Ibsen and is set in 19the century Norway. Having discussed Norway’s perception of women, religious beliefs, political and economic development over the 1800s as well as the life of Ibsen himself and his play’s influence on feminism in Norway. Personally, I found that I lacked cultural knowledge of women in Norwegian society during this time while reading the play. I learned that women in Norway’s patriarchal society lived their lives according to the societal expectations at the time. They were expected to tend to their husbands or fathers needs but had to make sure to be independent on male figures. Both married and unmarried women had gender-specific roles and responsibilities whereby they had little rights to do otherwise until well into the 20th century. This led to the discussion of feminism in Norway. The subject of feminism was mentioned to have been increasing in popularity since the mid-1800s. Since Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House was written for the cause of women, it had a huge influence on progression of feminism into the 20th century by raising awareness on contradicting Norway’s society norms. It was important to discuss the culture and context of the play since its plot and premise was based on a real-life event because Nora was based on a friend of Ibsen’s, Laura, whose husband sent her to an asylum following her fall into debt on his behalf. Political and economic development of the time was More about Henrik Ibsen 's A Doll 's House Open Document	<urn:uuid:514aa454-c694-4ea9-b735-9d2a8ad5f774>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.050339341163635254, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9875672459602356, "url": "https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Henrik-Ibsen-s-A-Doll-s-House-FKJDX3ECF9LX" }
Blowing horn Blowing an ox horn in a Basque festival The blowing horn or winding horn is a sound device that is usually made of or shaped like an animal horn, arranged to blow from a hole in the pointed end of it. This rudimentary device had a variety of functions in many cultures, in most cases reducing its scope to exhibiting, celebratory or group identification purposes. On the other hand, it has kept its function and profile in many cattle raising, agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies. The horn attributed to the 10th–century Magyar chiefrain Lehel, kept in Jászberény, Hungary. The oldest ones were wood and animal horns (usually ovids and bovids). The earliest findings in Europe are Bronze Age metal horns, the strength of which resulted in its better endurance of the rigours of time. As a result, previous traces of other materials have vanished, so the oldest surviving animal horn dates back to the Late Iron Age in Visnum, Sweden.[1] As big horned animals are rarely found in Scandinavia, blowing horns are often made from wood, wound birch bark or bout, called a "lur". Many horns have been used as sounding cries by ancient societies. A modern day descendant of the horn, the bugle, is used to call out orders in military camps. The hunting horn was used to communicate on a hunt and is still used today in some places. In Biscay, territory of the Basque Country, following an old tradition, a practice is being restored to blow the horn from five mountains in the province once a year. These mountains, namely Gorbea (4,859 ft.), Sollube (2,251 ft), Oiz (3,376 ft.), Ganekogorta (3,274 ft) and Kolitza (2,884 ft) are dubbed the montes bocineros, meaning the 'hornblower mounts'. According to historic evidence, up to the late 16th century the Biscayne were summoned to the General Council of the Domain of Biscay to be held in the town of Gernika by playing horns from the summits. A like function may be attributed to the pututu, the sound instrument from the Andes. The device, usually made of a shell or hollowed out cow horn, is used to summon people to a meeting or a festival. In the Inca period, the messengers spreading throughout Empire known as chaski carried along a pututu, which was blown to herald their arrival to a particular place. In the United States, it is common for a traditional horn to be blown to signify the serving of a buffet. This is a typical lunch time tradition in Kentucky.[2] Cheap plastic vuvuzelas achieved fame and controversy in the hands of football supporters during the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. One of the more widespread uses for blowing horns today is the shofar, a ram or Kudu horn with a hole drilled through it. The shofar is used mainly for Jewish ceremonies such as Rosh Hashana. Horns are sometimes used in the other two abrahamic religions also. Similarly, the dungchen is a ritual horn used in Tibetan Buddhism. In modern paganism the blowing horn is used to call the Horned God. 1. ^ "Blowing horns". Ancient Music. Retrieved 2008-01-29. 2. ^ "Calling Lunch". Kentucky Nutrition Council. Retrieved 2012-07-13. Hunting calls for fox & deer	<urn:uuid:5d5f9abd-e38b-4e6b-9b78-3a76c911fb15>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.37404245138168335, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9408314824104309, "url": "http://1066.co.nz/Mosaic%20DVD/stamford%20bridge/Blowing%20horn.htm" }
Native American Music Read Ch. 2 Native American Music. Describe the following terms/questions: Describe the general locations where the majority of the Sioux, Iroquois, Zuni, and Navajo tribes live. Tribal music Cadential phrase Singing societies Stomp Dance Asymmetrical repetition Describe the general Navajo lifestyle. Talk about their work, recreation, schools, religion, clothing, transportation, etc. Yeibichai song Enemyway ceremony Describe 2 major characteristics of circle dance songs in Native American Tribal music Intertribal music Revitalization movements Water drum Describe the difference between competition powwows and traditional powwows. Describe some general features of the Northern powwow singing style. Who are Bear Creek? Describe their singing style. Describe the (general) physical set up of people at a powwow event. Describe what you may find at a craft booth of a powwow event. When do powwows typically occur? Describe a general schedule of events at a powwow. How are dance competitions organized? What are specials? What do mens and womens fancy style dances emphasize? Describe the different types of regalia between men and women. When and where did the Native American Flute Revival begin? Who is known for making the Native American flute more popular worldwide? Describe some of his major accomplishments. What significant developments in the 1990s helped promote Native American Music to broader audiences? Ch. 4 Black America 1. Describe the differing functions of work songs, religious songs, and blues songs. 2. Explain why it is necessary to understand African American life experiences in order to understand African American music. 3. Discuss the historical development of blues music in North America. What types of music did it influence? 4. Who was Ma Rainey? What impact did she have on the American blues? 5. Who was Bessie Smith? What impact did she have on American jazz movement? 6. What is a jug band? 7. What was the main purpose on a work song? 8. What genres of music are known as roots, or Americana music? 9. Name some other types of roots music. 10. Name at least 3 blues singers as mentioned by the textbook. 11. Who was Bill Lucas? Describe what his version of “Poor Boy Blues” represented to Black America. 12. When did the first Blues revival occur? What happened during this revival? 13. Describe some important characteristics of the blues scale. How is this different from a typical major and minor scales? 14. How did the songs of early African Americans get passed on to others? Was the music notated? 15. What major technological development(s) helped in the spread of African American music? 16. What is a diddly-bow and how is it played? 17. What was the main theme of blues lyrics? 18. Where did downhome blues originate? 19. Where did delta blues originate? 20. Describe some characteristics of urban blues. 21. Describe some characteristics of Chicago blues. 22. Why did African Americans start to signify their music by using language codes? Calculate Price Price (USD)	<urn:uuid:a9539cab-7cf2-4756-bf58-ed6f97bd1964>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 1.0000100135803223, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9237536787986755, "url": "https://assignwriters.com/native-american-music/" }
Elementary Geometry for College Students (7th Edition) Published by Cengage ISBN 10: 978-1-337-61408-5 ISBN 13: 978-1-33761-408-5 Chapter 7 - Section 7.1 - Locus of Points - Exercises - Page 327: 15 The locus is a point in between all three of the given points. Work Step by Step Recall, a locus is equidistant from the points no matter where you are. Therefore, first construct the original points. Then, draw a point (which is red in the diagram) that is equidistant from the points. There is only one point that satisfies this requirement. Update this answer! Update this answer	<urn:uuid:4d1a44bd-54fc-4b4c-8fed-452cb53edeba>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.28125, "fasttext_score": 0.06699210405349731, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8435702323913574, "url": "https://www.gradesaver.com/textbooks/math/geometry/CLONE-df935a18-ac27-40be-bc9b-9bee017916c2/chapter-7-section-7-1-locus-of-points-exercises-page-327/15" }
The Universal Postal Union Founds International Parcel Post Service 1878 to 1896 "The term "parcel post" refers to the sending of packages through the mail service. In 1878, the Congress of the Universal Postal Union established an international parcel post system. Four years later, the British parliament approved a bill implementing domestic, colonial and foreign parcel post services. Other countries quickly followed suit. The US Post Office Department agreed to deliver parcels sent into the country but refused to institute a domestic service. "In the late 1800's, the National Grange and similar organizations concerned with farmers' welfare lobbied Congress for the free delivery of mail to rural households. Many rural residents had to travel for days to retrieve their mail from distant post offices or pay private express companies for delivery. Finally, in October 1896, Congress approved the establishment of rural free delivery. It was a heady taste of life for rural Americans and soon increased the demand for delivery of packages containing foodstuffs, dry goods, drugs, tobacco and other commodities not easily available to farmers. "Private express companies and rural retail merchants fought tenaciously against parcel post but rural residents comprised 54 percent of the country's population and they were equally vociferous. While the question was still being debated in Congress, one of the major express companies declared a large stockholder dividend. Public indignation at the exorbitant profits spurred Congress to resolve the issue quickly" (, accessed 11-07-2013). Timeline Themes	<urn:uuid:073ff490-af7c-4659-a219-b110c2d04365>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.125, "fasttext_score": 0.0204848051071167, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9309461712837219, "url": "https://historyofinformation.com/detail.php?entryid=4172" }
Having sturdy jaws is essential for the small marine creatures known as bloodworms. The worms, which grow to about 15 inches in length, spend their lives burrowing through the muddy seafloor and hunting small crustaceans, molluscs, and other worms. “They need their jaws to kill the more active prey,” says Herbert Waite, a marine biochemist at the University of California, Santa Barbara. “They also use the jaws to fight each other off because they’re not very sociable, and occasionally the worms will collide in the burrows.” The jaws must be both very sharp and very tough because bloodworms only make them once during their lifetimes, Waite says. The key to this fearsome maw lies in a unique mix of copper, melanin, and a protein with some impressive chemical properties, he and his collaborators reported on April 25 in the journal Matter. The worms’ efficient jaw-building process may hold insights for improving how composite materials—which are made from a mix of different substances—are manufactured, the team concluded. Each bloodworm sports a proboscis with four black jaws to grasp other animals and inject them with paralyzing venom. These hollow fangs are lightweight but can withstand a lot of wear and tear thanks to their melanin and copper components, Waite and his colleagues wrote in the new paper. These are unusual ingredients for animal jaws. Copper is “usually quite toxic” to animals, Waite says, and melanin is a pigment that rarely serves as a structural element. “We’ve had an interest in how different marine invertebrates make load-bearing structures for survival, and this one stood out in particular because it was one of the only ones reported to have high copper content,” he says. Scientists aren’t sure why the worms opted for copper rather than another metal more typically used by marine invertebrates, such as iron or zinc. However, one possibility is that the copper reacts with the venom stored in the fangs. “The worm has the luxury of storing these toxins in some kind of less harmful or inert form and they become toxic as they move through the channels in the jaw on their way into the prey,” Waite says. [Related: Surprise: Ants have teeth. Here’s how they keep them sharp.] To investigate how bloodworms put their distinctive fangs together, Waite and his team identified the genetic sequence that codes for the main protein in the jaws. They found that the protein’s chemical composition was fairly simple, with about 80 percent represented by two amino acids. The team then made an artificial version of the molecule, which they named “multi-tasking protein,” in the lab. Next the researchers performed a simplified version of the jaw formation process. They added copper to the beakers with their artificial multi-tasking protein and observed that the two materials become concentrated into little droplets. When the researchers added a molecule called Dopa (which other animals often convert into melanin), the droplets turned darker and formed a dense film. “We noticed that if you put a pin tip into the brownish-black film that formed on the surface you could actually pull fibers out of that film and then test them mechanically,” Waite says. “It turned out that the fibers resemble nylon, and that’s a pretty strong fiber.” The experiment indicates that a single protein plays multiple vital roles in bloodworm jaw formation: binding to copper, concentrating itself into droplets, converting Dopa to melanin, and ultimately forming a composite material. This is much simpler than what must take place to form industrial composites such as fiberglass or reinforced rubber. [Related: This cone snail’s deadly venom could hold the key to better pain meds] “What the worm is doing to form its jaws gives us a kind of blueprint for how composite materials can be made more sustainably and less reliant on heavy equipment, for example, mixers, blenders, extruders,” Waite says. “Certainly those don’t exist in the bloodworm system and yet a very organized material is forming.” The chemical reactions that bloodworms use to make their fangs are very sensitive to the acidity, salinity, and temperature of the surrounding seawater. This could mean that bloodworms are vulnerable to the effects of climate change, Waite says. Still, the bloodworms’ natural knack of creating tough materials offers a valuable lesson, says Waite. With their remarkable jaw-formation process, Waite sees similarities in some respects to the giant sandworms that populate the Dune novels. “These worms that lived in a wasteland produced something called spice that everyone in the universe wanted,” Waite says. “It’s been a reminder, in an exaggerated way, that simple organisms can harbor really useful technologies.”	<urn:uuid:5f3b76e8-1843-4e56-8e61-07343fd4d30b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.20620852708816528, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9556314945220947, "url": "https://www.popsci.com/animals/bloodworm-fangs-sustainable-materials/" }
Summary and Analysis of We Are Seven by Wordsworth INTRODUCTION TO WILLIAM WORDSWORTH-William Wordsworth is one of the major literary figures of all times, in the history of English literature. Wordsworth collaborated with Samuel Taylor Coleridge in ‘Preface to Lyrical Ballads’ marking the start of the Romantic era. William Wordworth’s works are enjoyed by both youngsters and adults and he surely remains as one of the most important and favoured poet. WE ARE SEVEN–“We are Seven” by William Wordsworth is a very simple composition that portrays the loving innocence of an eight-year-old girl. SETTING OF WE ARE SEVEN- The poem does not specify any physical location. It can be assumed that the poem is set in the countryside in Britain. ALLITERATION- “Yet ye are seven!–I pray you tell” BALLAD- The poem has been composed in the form of a ballad. “Seven in all,” “O Master! we are seven.” “I met a little cottage Girl: (A) She was eight years old, she said; (B) Her hair was thick with many a curl (A) That clustered round her head.” (B) The speaker of the poem begins by asking a simple question of what should an innocent child know about death. The speaker then starts by telling that he met a little cottage girl, she was eight years old and her head was covered in curly hair. The little girl was very beautiful, she smelled of woodland air and her eyes were crystal clear, she wore her heart in her eyes, “fair eyes” being an indicative of the innocence present in the child. The speaker asks the girl how many siblings does she have, she replies “we are seven” and looks at the speaker curiously. The speaker then asks the girl where her sisters and brothers are, she says there are seven of them, two are in Conway dwell (a town), two have gone to sea, two lie in the church yard while she lives near them in a cottage with her mother. The speaker then counts the number of siblings, excluding the two who have died, he asks the little girl that when two are in Conway, two in the sea, then how are they seven in number. The girl replies that they are seven boys and girls with two lying in the church yard beneath the church yard tree. The speaker then argues with the little girl, he says to the girl that she is alive, she has limbs and can run while two are lying in the church yard, that makes for five siblings. The girl argues that her siblings’ graves are green, they have grass and moss living on their graves, they can be seen side by side and reached if one goes about twelve steps from her mother’s cottage’s door. She tells the speaker that she often visits them, she knits her stocking and hangs her handkerchief there, she sits on the ground, singing them songs. She tells that often during night time, she takes her supper and eats while sitting beside her siblings. She informs the speaker that her sister Jane was the first one to die, she was sick and moaning in pain when God came and took her with him. She and her brother John used to play around her grave that was covered with dry grass. She then tells that during winters, she used to play, slide and run in the snow with John but he got sick too and was forced to go, he now lies at Jane’s side. The speaker then asks her that when two are in heaven, how many siblings are they, the girl quickly replies “we are seven”. The speaker irritatingly argues saying that they are dead, their spirits are in heaven, but the girl adamantly says, “Nay, we are seven”. Also Read: Summary and Analysis of To Helen by Edgar Allan Poe This beautiful composition by Wordsworth portrays the innocence, love and the optimism a child has. The poem understood from both the views, that of an adult and a child, provides varying perspectives of the most grieved and feared, death. TONE OF WE ARE SEVEN- The tone of the poem is calm, sweet and assertive in the dialogues of the little girl, while it is calm and at times expressing frustration and irritation in the dialogues of the speaker. CONCLUSION- This beautiful poem makes the readers see the perspective of an innocent child towards death, her love and her ever lasting bond with her siblings invokes the feelings of happiness, hope, and positivity. Contributor: Radhika Goel	<urn:uuid:ff008ee5-407b-4470-acc3-3bf6547ee896>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.09310925006866455, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9726304411888123, "url": "https://beamingnotes.com/2017/08/02/summary-analysis-seven-wordsworth/" }
From Cliché to Archetype Bromide [broh-mahyd] in literary usage means a phrase, cliché, or platitude that is trite or unoriginal. It can be intended to soothe or placate; it can suggest insincerity or a lack of originality in the speaker. It can also refer to a commonplace or tiresome person, a bore. A now outdated usage of ‘bromide’ is a photographic print, stemming from the use of silver bromide in photographic films, emulsions and papers. Its original usage was as a chemical term, referring to bromine salts. Bromide has both literal and figurative meanings. The word originally derives from chemistry in which it can be used to describe a compound containing the element bromine, especially as a salt or bonded to an alkyl radical, which was was discovered in 1825. By the 1870s silver halides, such as silver bromide, were in commercial use as a photographic medium. Over time, especially in British Commonwealth countries, the word ‘bromide’ came to mean a photographic print; exactly when this occurred is not clear. As digital photography replaced chemical-based photography at the end of the 20th century, this usage has declined. Bromine salts were discovered by the mid 19th century to have calming effects on the central nervous system. In 1857 it was first reported in a medical journal that potassium bromide could be used as an anti-epileptic drug. This action derived from the sedative effects that were calming and tranquilizing but not sleep inducing. Its medicinal use grew so widespread in the latter half of that century that single hospitals might use as much as several tons in a year (the dose being a few grams per day per person). American physician Silas Weir Mitchell, considered to be the father of neurology, also reported lithium bromide to be an anticonvulsant and hypnotic in 1870; and later advocated use of all the bromides to calm ‘general nervousness.’ Sodium bromide had a narrower range of safety and efficacy but it was an ingredient in remedies such as Bromo-Seltzer that were popular for headaches and hangovers, in part due to the sedative effects. By the turn of the 20th century, ‘bromide’ was widely understood in the context of a being a sedative or being sedate. In 1906, American humorist Gelett Burgess published an essay in ‘The Smart Set,’ a magazine edited by George Jean Nathan and H. L. Mencken, called ‘The Sulphitic Theory.’ It was here where Burgess is credited for coining the usage of bromide as a personification of a sedate, dull person who said boring things. Later that year, he published a revised and enlarged essay in the form of a small book, ‘Are You a Bromide?’ (Burgess is also credited for coining the term ‘blurb’ at this same time.) The book’s subtitle was ‘The Sulphitic Theory Expounded and Exemplified According to the Most Recent Researches Into the Psychology of Boredom: Including Many Well-known Bromidioms Now in Use.’ In these works he labeled a dull person as a ‘Bromide’ contrasted with a ‘Sulphite’ who was the opposite. Bromides meant either the boring person himself or the boring statement of that person, with Burgess providing many examples. This usage persisted through the 20th century into the 21st century. Some well known quotes (or bromides) in current usage that appeared in Burgess’ ‘Are You a Bromide?’ include: ‘I don’t know much about Art, but I know what I like;’ ‘… she doesn’t look a day over fifty;’ ‘You’ll feel differently about these things when you’re married;’ ‘It isn’t so much the heat… as the humidity….’; ‘You’re a sight for sore eyes.’ Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:7e4c3639-2033-4cfc-a8a0-38c7a0389170>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.18537569046020508, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9598398208618164, "url": "https://thedailyomnivore.net/2019/11/17/bromide/" }
Judging by the number and variety of `giant insect' horror movies, there is something primal about the human fear of bugs, especially really big ones. Imagine having to dodge the attack of an ancient dragonfly with a wingspan of nearly a meter! Giant insects were common during the late Paleozoic era. Luckily, there appears to be a size limit on modern insects that keeps them from becoming the stuff of science fiction, but the nature of this limitation is as of yet unknown. One major difference between the late Paleozoic and modern times is the amount of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. Back in the time of giant insects, oxygen comprised about 30% of the Earth's atmosphere,compared with about 20% today. Some believe that the higher levels of atmospheric oxygen in the Paleozoic period allowed insects and other creatures to grow to sizes much larger than currently possible by allowing higher rates of oxygen delivery to the tissues. In their recent PNAS paper, Alexander Kaiser and coworkers from Midwestern University and Arizona State University set out to test the validity of this `oxygen limitation hypothesis' by measuring the relationship between insect body size and the tracheal system to see if the oxygen delivery system could limit insect size. The team used synchrotron x-ray phase contrast imaging to non-invasively measure the volume of the tracheal system in live, but immobilized beetles. They investigated four species of darkling beetles that differed in their body mass by three orders of magnitude. The team found that in the largest beetles about 4.8% of their total body volume is composed of the tracheal system, while in the smallest beetles the tracheal system accounts for only about 0.5%. They also noted that different body compartments appeared to be under different constraints. Tracheal volume increases in a roughly equal relationship to body mass in the head region, and they concluded from this that oxygen delivery to the head is not likely to limit body size. However, oxygen delivery to the legs is a different story. In smaller beetles the tracheal tube occupies only 2% of the leg orifice, while in larger beetles about 18% of the opening is occupied by the tracheal tube,leaving precious little space for all the other parts to operate. These results suggest that larger beetles must devote a greater proportion of their body volume than small beetles to the tracheal system for gas exchange purposes. This relationship appears to be especially important in the supply of oxygen to distant and isolated parts of the body such as the legs. The team suggests that the increased proportion of space occupied by the tracheal system in large beetles will likely impose tradeoffs in other physiological systems, and may eventually lead to a constraint on maximal body size. Based on the data presented for oxygen supply to the legs, the authors predict a maximal beetle body length of around 16 cm, which closely matches the 17 cm size of the largest living beetle Titanus giganteus. An increase in atmospheric oxygen concentration such as that experienced in the late Paleozoic era would certainly help to alleviate constraints on body size imposed by the tracheal system in modern insects, by simply delivering more oxygen to the tissues per unit of air exchanged. Maximal body size in insects may very well be limited by oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere. So for now we can all breathe easy knowing that giant insects are a thing of the past. However, don't be surprised if the opening scene of the next big horror movie spotlights an ordinary cockroach scurrying into an oxygen bar! Kaiser, A., Klok, C. J., Socha, J. J., Lee, W.-K., Quinlan, M. C. and Harrison, J. F. ( Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA	<urn:uuid:7df2f4f4-d128-4583-9767-c4e1811b65b5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.6076127290725708, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9500263929367065, "url": "https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/211/1/vi/17463/ON-THE-LEGS-OF-GIANTS" }
Exploring the Fibonacci Sequence With Python (Overview) The Fibonacci sequence is a pretty famous sequence of integer numbers. The sequence comes up naturally in many problems and has a nice recursive definition. Learning how to generate it is an essential step in the pragmatic programmer’s journey toward mastering recursion. In this video course, you’ll focus on learning what the Fibonacci sequence is and how to generate it using Python. In this course, you’ll learn how to: • Generate the Fibonacci sequence using a recursive algorithm • Optimize the recursive Fibonacci algorithm using memoization • Generate the Fibonacci sequence using an iterative algorithm Sample Code (.zip) 2.4 KB Course Slides (.pdf) 9.4 MB Become a Member to join the conversation.	<urn:uuid:847525f6-6313-4a17-8677-8707501cddee>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.4890984296798706, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8271819949150085, "url": "https://realpython.com/lessons/python-fibonacci-sequence-overview/" }
School Logo Witton Middle School Today you will be evaluating a short superhero story. TASK 1 - Start by reading 'Ultra-Man' below. What did you think of the story? What features were included in the superhero story? TASK 2 - Write a list of features that you think would be included in an effective superhero narrative. Can you identify any in 'Ultra-man? TASK 3 - Decide on your final list of features and justify why you think they are important in a superhero short story. Superpower Ultra Man Toto was a totally normal boy, and was paddling in the sea one day when a sea urchin stung him. At that precise moment, when he was rubbing his foot, he was simultaneously attacked by an octopus, a mosquito and a parrotfish, while being whipped by the tail of a platypus and having a seagull poop on his head.... From such an unlikely confluence of events there could only emerge a new superhero, with impressive superpowers: Superpower Ultra Man! Such were his powers that he immediately thought he should not waste them on little things, and Superpower Ultra Man began hunting danger and threats to the world, so he could save us from the worst of the worst. But the more he searched with his super-sight, the more he travelled the world with his hyper-velocity, and listened to the skies with his multi-frequency digital hearing, he found no one trying to conquer the galaxy or attempting to blow up the planet. He couldn’t even find some villain planning to drain the seas or plunder a mountain. It seemed as though everyone, the good and the bad, were busy with much more mundane things, and they only had normal problems. So Superpower Ultra Man spent his days bored, exploring the skies in search of missions impossible that were deserving of a superhero of his calibre. He got so very bored that when they offered him a television program to do, to demonstrate his abilities, he accepted, though he would only get the chance to rescue a few dozen people. And when, finally, his moment of glory arrived, about which every superhero dreams, his demonstration turned into a complete disaster. Superpower Ultra Man was so used to thinking of things on a grand scale that he didn’t know how to grab and rescue a single person. He did everything to the max, without controlling his strength or his speed, so the whole thing ended up as a painful mix of blows, bruises, scratches, shouts, broken bones and torn clothing. Hurt and half naked, the “saved” ended up calling the superhero everything under the sun, amid the loud laughter of the public and journalists. Today you are going to plan your own superhero short story. Include the superhero/villain that you designed last week and now bring him or her to life. Use the planning template to map out your ideas. Wednesday & Thursday You have two days to write your short story. Remember you are just writing about one of your superhero/villain's adventures (not all of them). You will need to include a title and all the key stages from your plan. Have a look at the success criteria sheet in Friday's lesson; this will tell you what you need to include. Today is all about editing and improving. Read back over your story and self assess against the success criteria below. Being able to self check and improve your work is an important part of the writing process and your teachers would like to see your marksheet and changes you made highlighted/written in red. PLEASE SUBMIT THIS TASK ON EPRAISE FOR YOUR TEACHER TO OFFER FEEDBACK.	<urn:uuid:00c2f257-abeb-429a-abc0-3684f0325e05>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.02146291732788086, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9606400728225708, "url": "https://www.witton.worcs.sch.uk/english-47/" }
From Nordan Symposia Revision as of 01:32, 13 December 2020 by Mywikis (talk \| contribs) (Text replacement - "http://" to "https://") Jump to navigationJump to search Middle French or Medieval Latin; Middle French, from Medieval Latin signatura, from Latin signatus, past participle of signare to sign, seal • 1 a : the act of signing one's name to something b : the name of a person written with his or her own hand • 2 : a feature in the appearance or qualities of a natural object formerly held to indicate its utility in medicine • 3 a : a letter or figure placed usually at the bottom of the first page on each sheet of printed pages (as of a book) as a direction to the binder in arranging and gathering the sheets b : one unit of a book comprising a group of printed sheets that are folded and stitched together • 4 a : key signature b : time signature • 5 : the part of a medical prescription that contains the directions to the patient • 6 : something (as a tune, style, or logo) that serves to set apart or identify; also : a characteristic mark • 7 : fingerprint A signature (from Latin signare, "to sign") is a handwritten (and sometimes stylized) depiction of someone's name, nickname or even a simple "X" that a person writes on documents as a proof of identity and intent. The writer of a signature is a signatory. Similar to a handwritten signature, a signature work describes the work as readily identifying its creator. Function and types of signatures The traditional function of a signature is evidential: it is to give evidence of: For example, the role of a signature in many consumer contracts is not solely to provide evidence of the identity of the contracting party, but rather to additionally provide evidence of deliberation and informed consent. This is why the signature often appears at the bottom or end of a document. In many countries, signatures may be witnessed and recorded in the presence of a Notary Public to carry additional legal force. On legal documents, an illiterate signatory can make a "mark" (often an "X" but occasionally a personalized symbol), so long as the document is countersigned by a literate witness. In some countries, illiterates place a thumbprint on legal documents in lieu of a written signature. There are many other terms which are synonymous with 'signature'. In the United States, one is John Hancock, named after the first of the signatories of the United States Declaration of Independence. The signature of a famous person is sometimes known as an autograph, and is then typically written on its own or with a brief note to the recipient. Rather than providing authentication for a document, the autograph is given as a souvenir which acknowledges the recipient's access to the autographer. In the United States, some states’ legal definition of a signature defines a signature to mean "any memorandum, mark, or sign made with intent to authenticate any instrument or writing, or the subscription of any person thereto." In the context of one particular statute, a signature doesn’t have to be the popular notion of a written name, but may be other methods of authentication; the intent of any mark or memorandum makes a signature. Many individuals have much more fanciful signatures than their normal cursive writing, including elaborate ascenders, descenders and exotic flourishes, much as one would find in calligraphic writing. As an example, the final "k" in John Hancock's famous signature on the US Declaration of Independence loops back to underline his name. This kind of flourish is also known as a paraph.	<urn:uuid:b3b99e4f-46e3-4802-bfbf-8aad96daaaa3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.0978056788444519, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9344660639762878, "url": "https://nordan.daynal.org/w/index.php?title=Signature&oldid=133115" }
Submerged in ten centuries of history, the beautiful Coombe Abbey has witnessed some of the most significant moments in history. From housing royals, being surrendered by Henry VIII as part of the dissolution of the monasteries, and playing a pivotal role in the Gunpowder Plot. Set in the heart of Warwickshire’s countryside, the story of our historical Coombe Abbey and its land begins in 1066. Take a step back in time as we uncover the history of Coombe Abbey: Founding ‘The Abbey of Cumbe’ Coombe Abbey illustration Illustration by John Ingram, 1892 The land on which Coombe Abbey now stands was owned by an Anglo-Saxon named Harding in 1066. This territory was quickly captured by King William I during the ‘Domesday Survey’ in 1086. It was described as the manor of ‘Smitham,’ and it encompassed two villages, Over and Nether Smite (named after the Smite creek). With 720 acres including mile long and wide woodlands, the land was valued at £6,000. The history of Coombe Abbey itself dates from 1150, and it was the largest and most influential monastery in Warwickshire during the 12th century. Long before it became the historical hotel it is today, it was known as the ‘Abbey of Cumbe’. Originally, the location was part of the mediaeval Abbey of Cumbe’s monastery domain, which was founded by Cistercian monks. The Abbey was devoted to the Blessed Virgin and was located in a wooded valley in Lower Smite. Powerful monks and royal rulers Between its establishment to the dissolution of the monasteries in 1539, the Abbey was primarily engaged in the golden age of English wool production. Sheep farming was the main occupation of the countryside which lasted from the 1200s to the 1320s, with the shepherd playing an important role in mediaeval life. The monks ruled throughout this period of textile manufacturing which suffered severe challenges due to bad weather and cold winters. This essentially ruined the harvests, resulting in seven years of sterility. Despite the monks’ reputation for giving generously to the poor, their new glazed cloister only lasted 30 years when Tudor king, Henry VIII, ordered the Abbey’s closure. A significant moment in the history of Coombe Abbey was when Henry VIII gained the allegiance of the high social classes by selling them land formerly owned by the church. He did this with the aim of securing his upstart dynasty by enriching the crown. The Abbey was then purchased by Sir John Harrington in 1581 following a long and varied history that saw it pass from the hands of the monks to King Henry VIII. The Gunpowder Plot Coombe Abbey was once one of Warwickshire’s most prominent stately homes, and after purchasing the Abbey for his family, Sir John Harrington retained most of the old building’s features. Princess Elizabeth, James I’s daughter, arrived in Coombe Abbey in 1603, where she was raised and educated for five years. Here she was schooled in history, geography, theology, music and foreign languages, at which Elizabeth became especially proficient in. During her time at Coombe, Princess Elizabeth also kept several pets and had an aviary built and a ‘fairy farm’ stocked with miniature breeds of cattle and sheep. In 1605, she was, however, prominently featured in Guy Fawkes’ ill-fated Gunpowder and Treason plot. Following her father’s attempted assassination, gunmen attempted to kidnap her and place her on the throne. Despite knowing the outcome of the treacherous plot, the infamous story continues on and is a pivotal moment in Coombe Abbey’s history The Craven family The Coombe Abbey estate was sold to Elizabeth, Lady Craven for the considerable sum of £36,000. The Abbey was later acquired by the Craven family in 1622, when it was purchased by Sir William Craven’s mother, and stayed in the family for over 300 years. Sir William Craven, a London merchant and financier, was one of the most well-known rags-to-riches stories of his generation. Today, our Lady Craven Grand Feature Bedchamber is one of our most luxurious suites, named after the family. The Abbey was then extended during the Craven tenure with several new buildings, including the West Wing in 1677. Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown was commissioned to rebuild the surrounding gardens to modernise the scenery surrounding Coombe Abbey. Brown restored the park, removing the magnificent Elizabethan gardens and added a serpentine lake, expansive views, and fresh plantings. Having such a significant role in the beautiful history of Coombe Abbey, our Grand Feature Capability Brown Bedchamber offers a sumptuous stay. The home was then altered by William Eden Nesfield, who took care to integrate a Gothic Revival design. The East Wing and parts of the North Wing were removed and rebuilt because of this brief. Coombe Abbey’s rooms were created with historic honouring in mind, and our Grand Feature Nesfield Room offers an opulent break away. Coombe after the Cravens The Countess made the tough decision to sell the estate after Lord Craven’s unfortunate death in 1921. A builder named John Gray purchased the house and its grounds in 1923. The Abbey and its 150-acre estate were taken up by Coventry City Council in 1964, and following a series of restorations, the magnificent Regional Park was opened to the public in 1966, soon followed by the hotel in 1995. A hotel echoing history Coombe Abbey history The Abbey, as well as the other buildings surrounding it, bear witness to Coombe’s illustrious past. With just one step inside, you’ll be taken back to mediaeval times, when kings and queens resided at our historic hotel. The rich history of Coombe Abbey is brought to life in the beautifully medieval-inspired rooms. Embellished with warm oak, velvet furniture and breathtaking decor, overlook the expanses of Coombe’s green parkland. A visit to Coombe Abbey is unlike no other, radiating the fascinating history that stretches back ten centuries. With quirky bedchambers and comfy features such as four-poster beds, Victorian roll top baths, and stunning vistas, experience an opulent stay. Whatever the reason for your visit, it’ll be one to remember. Step back in time and experience a magical time steeped in history. Book a stay at Coombe Abbey and immerse yourself in the stories and medieval tales that echo throughout our beautiful hotel and grounds.	<urn:uuid:d3774aa4-5e32-404f-90d9-0eecfcf62b04>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.890625, "fasttext_score": 0.05109727382659912, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9705996513366699, "url": "https://www.coombeabbey.com/blog/how-well-do-you-know-the-history-of-coombe-abbey/" }
Catfish Research Paper 643 Words3 Pages In the freshwater biome, the catfish has a unique role in many cycles and systems. The catfish is a predator for many organisms, but is also hunted by other animals. A catfish eats phytoplankton, zooplankton, frogs, insects, and chironomids, creatures similar to mosquitos. Catfish are hunted by humans, herons, ospreys, eagles, and some types of sunfish. When a catfish is decomposed, bacteria breaks it down into a simpler form of matter. The producers, phytoplankton, are eaten by the catfish, the consumer, who also eats other consumers, chironomids, frogs, and insects, and the catfish, after death, is decomposed by the bacteria present in the biome. Bacteria in the biome also decomposes all of the other organisms, whether they are consumers or producers. In the…show more content… The presence of catfish lower the presence and amount of prey the catfish has. When catfish are removed from the biome, the prey population increases due to the lack of predatory creatures. The predators to the catfish also have their population lowered because of the lack of food. Catfish that have a territory that they are protecting, limit the amount of territories are available to other catfish. Catfish have many adaptations that enable them to survive. One adaptation that catfish have are their three barbels that give them protection. When the barbels come in contact with another organism, they sting the creature. The catfish has a great sense of smell, sight, and taste that help them navigate through murky waters. The good sight allows them to see clearly, the good sense of smell allows them to smell other organisms in the water, and the catfish has taste buds all over its entire body, allowing it to sense what is around it. The catfish is a unique organism because of its interdependence in the biome, roles in systems and cycles, interactions in the population, interactions with other populations, and how it adapts to biotic and abiotic More about Catfish Research Paper Open Document	<urn:uuid:ee909fec-2326-4626-a2ba-181aba03da1e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.4077703356742859, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9565026164054871, "url": "https://www.ipl.org/essay/Catfish-Research-Paper-PCEWNDVB8AB" }
What was the very first note in the sofa syllables? Never say never in writing jobs What was the very first note in the sofa syllables? What was the very first note in the sofa syllables? 2. The note that comes right after Mi is So. What solfege syllables does the Kodaly method starts with? The Kodaly method either starts by teaching Sol-Mi or by starting with Do-Re-Mi. The difference is largely up to teacher preference, but in general, those who start teaching solfege in first grade will use sol-mi, and those who start in second grade or higher will use Do-Re-Mi. How do you write solfege? Step 1: Identify the key from the key signature. Step 2: The name of the key is the name of do. Step 3: Write out the major scale with corresponding solfege syllables. How do you identify so fa syllables? The so-fa names are so-fa syllable written as do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, Do. These so-fa names are arranged in ascending or descending order. While thecorresponding numbers are equivalent, numbers of both so-fa names and pitch names. A. Who uses Do Re Mi? The United States uses only A, B, C, (etc) and many European countries use “do, re, mi etc”. The rest of the world is a mix. But, it really depends on where you are and the teacher you are studying from. So, don’t take this as a 100% truth. What are the principles of the Kodaly method? The Central Principles of Kodály Kodály believed that music was among, if not the most important subject to teach in schools. Music should be taught in a logical and sequential manner. There should be a pleasure in learning music; learning should not be torturous. The voice is the most accessible, universal instrument. Do Re Mi Fa So Meaning? Do re mi fa sol la ti do. Do re mi fa sol la ti do. Do Right and Kill Everything. do right by. do right by (someone) What is the hand sign for music? The music sign is made by taking your non-dominant forearm and holding it across your body. Then, take your dominant hand and wave it back and forth above your other forearm, as if conducting an orchestra. Do Re Mi vs ABC? ABC is what musicians call musical notation or ABC notation. These are the common letter names for specific note frequencies and where they fit on the staff. Do re mi are solfege notes which help train ears to better hear pitch relationships and intervals. What are the 7 musical notes? What is the use of Solfa hand signal for singers? Solfege, Curwen, or Kodaly hands signs are a system of hand symbols representing the different pitches in a tonal scale. They’re used to provide a physical association of a pitch system to help connect inner hearing and reading of pitches with musical performance. How do you teach solfege? Use a simple sol-mi pattern or expand it to sol-mi-do or a descending 5-note scale (sol-fa-mi-re-do). Use call and response patterns to develop listening skills (try choosing tonal patterns from a new anthem). Call on a few children to be leaders and sing a pattern for the group to echo back. Play a solfege game. What are so fa syllables? : the syllables do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, used in singing the tones of the scale. Is it so or sol in music? This seems strange, though, since I’ve almost always heard it pronounced like “so”, but “sol” is still a pretty common spelling. For instance, in these two pretty popular songs, it’s pronounced “so” (but then again, the lyrics don’t write it as “sol”): The Sound of Music – Do Re Mi: “sew, a needle pulling thread” How many notes are in do Fa? Seven Notes of Music and Two Systems to Name Them There are seven notes of music and two different systems to name the music notes: A B C D E F G and DO RE MI FA SOL LA SI. What are the seven solfege syllables? The tonic sol-fa method popularized the seven syllables commonly used in English-speaking countries: do (or doh in tonic sol-fa), re, mi, fa, so(l), la, and si (or ti), see below. What does solfege mean? 1 : the application of the sol-fa syllables to a musical scale or to a melody. 2 : a singing exercise especially using sol-fa syllables also : practice in sight-reading vocal music using the sol-fa syllables. Do Re Mi do notes? Do Re Mi or ‘Tonic Sol-fa’ is a traditional and very effective way to teach the concept of intervals and the sound of each note of the scale. It helps build an understanding of how to pitch notes and know how they should sound. Why do we learn solfege? Solfege (also called solfa, or solfeggio) provides a framework for melodies by establishing recognizable relationships between pitches, and training your ear to hear patterns. It is an excellent system for learning the architecture behind music, and is a fundamental concept of ear training. What is the Kodaly method of teaching music? The Kodály method is an approach to music education rooted in the idea that music should be a social and cultural experience. The Kodály approach to teaching music asserts that musical concepts, creativity, and collaboration are best taught in group music lessons, particularly for young children. Is C always do? In “Fixed Do”, “Do” is always “C”, no matter what key you are in. With “Movable Do”, “Do” is the tonic note. For example, in the key of “C Major”, “Do” is “C”, but in the key of “F Major”, “Do” is “F”. Some countries don’t even have letter names (“A, B, C”), there are only solfege names (“Do, Re, Mi”). Do Re Mi notes piano? Looking for music notes in ‘Do Re Mi’ format? » • C D E C E – C E. Doe, a deer, a female deer. • D E F F E-D F. Ray, a drop of golden sun. • E F G E G E – G. Me, a name I call myself. • F G A A G F A. Far, a long, long way to run… • G C D – E F – G A. Sew, a needle pulling thread. • A D E F G – A B. • B E F G A B ^C. • ^C B A F B G ^C G E D.	<urn:uuid:4f9b92c6-76cc-41a2-8ff8-b15cb0ff44f6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.7749069929122925, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9090810418128967, "url": "https://www.meatandsupplyco.com/what-was-the-very-first-note-in-the-sofa-syllables/" }
SSC History Sample Paper NCERT Sample Paper-2 • question_answer Each grade in Mansabdari system had two aspects to it, Zat (personal) and Sawar (cavalryman). Which of the following statements correctly describes their significance? A) The Sawars a person was required to maintain depended on his Zat B) The Zat of a person was determined by the number of Sawars he was required to maintain C) Zat fixed the personal status of a person and his salary, while Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen he was required to maintain. D) A Mansabdar was required to maintain as many Sawars as indicated by his Zat rank. Correct Answer: B Solution : [b] Mansabdari system was the generic term for the military -type grading of all imperial officials of the Mughal Empire. The mansabdars governed the empire and commanded its armies in the emperor's name. Though they were usually aristocrats, they did not form a feudal aristocracy, for neither the offices nor the estates that supported them were hereditary. There were 33 categories of mansabdars. The Mansabdars were differentiated by the Zat and the Sawar Rank. The Zat referred to rank maintained by the mansabdar and the Sawar referred to the number of horseman maintained by the mansabdar. It was dependent on whether the king ordered the mansabdar to maintain more horses than his rank. Instituted by the Mughal emperor Akbar, mansabdari was a system common to both the military and the civil department. Basically the Mansabdari system was borrowed from Persia. It was prevalent during the reign of Babur and Humayun. Akbar made some important changes to the system and made it more efficient. Mansabdar was referred to as the official, rank, or the dignity. You need to login to perform this action. You will be redirected in 3 sec spinner	<urn:uuid:4cdde3ec-8a8e-4837-996c-0c59fb53304b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.911794900894165, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9724504351615906, "url": "https://www.studyadda.com/sample-papers/ncert-sample-paper-2_q9/832/377523" }
Forest Fire Preparedness? It would be informative to have a professional opinion on the wild fire threat and our preparedness to deal with it. There have been large fires some years back in dry summers and it is predicted that climate change is going to result in even hotter and drier summers. When we first began to think about coring the lake, we wondered if we would see evidence of historical fires. A significant fire would perhaps show up as an ash layer in the sediment core, and hopefully would be visible to the naked eye. To this end some inquiries were made to find out more about local fire history. The following map shows the various fire locations since 1976 that are within 5 km of the Chandos lake shoreline (MNR private communication). An unofficial historical fire database held by the MNR indicates that there were fires in the area in 1921, 1923, 1924, 1941 and 1949. In 1923 there were four large fires. There were no obvious ash layers seen in the cores. Perhaps if we had measured % inorganics down the core and performed a 210Pb dating analysis, there might have been some correlation with the fire years but it is doubtful that the dating precision would be closer than 5 -10 years, given all the variables involved. (All such analysis is expensive and a lot of work, and in our case offers little real value). Paleoecologists usually look for charcoal in cores to infer a region’s fire history over very large time periods See charcoal in lake sediments. (As an interesting aside, huge volcanic eruptions spread tephra ( basically ash) in great quantities over a large region. These layers have been highly valuable in dating and correlating past events. tephrochronology is a technique for carrying out this kind of paleo research. In our area, one can see a 400 million year old, 2 inch wide, white layer of volcanic ash in a road cut on Highway 7 immediately west of Marmora.) (see Nick Eyles’ book “Road Rocks Ontario”, p.121. used with permission) (As another aside, if one were testing down the core for Cesium (137Cs), a very sharp peak occurred in 1962. This can usually be seen in northern hemisphere sediments and thus acts as a decent geochronological marker. The Cesium isotope 137Cs was distributed worldwide through stratospheric nuclear testing in the form of radioactive debris fallout. In 1963 the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed, after which tests were conducted underground) Putting all the above asides aside, we were surprised by the number of fires that the region has sustained, as shown on the above map, in a relatively short period ( eg 40 years). Given the frequency of small fires, and what with global warming and the potential for hot dry spells, for certain there is a big fire in our future. Adding to the risk is the amount of underbrush that has accumulated since the last major fire swept through here several decades ago. Thus the following thoughts and comments are presented for wider discussion. Volunteer MARINE fire brigade? Perhaps a feasibility study should be carried out to see how better to protect our lakeshore from fire. There are approx 1200 lakefront properties on Chandos, likely in worth approaching a billion dollars. Could we justify and support a trained volunteer lake emergency response team that can come by boat(s) with pumps and hoses and their own power source to protect any cottages in imminent danger? The purpose would be to contain fires from spreading rather than (for reasons of personal safety) actually saving a structure already on fireIt would operate during July and August. Would a municipal levy of about $100/yr per cottage over 1200 cottages be sufficient to support such an operation, and would it be acceptable to council and residents? Would it be possible to get some sponsorship from Insurance companies? At any given time volunteers would have to indicate their availability/unavailability. The fire equipment could possibly reside at each of the 3 marinas. My immediate thought is to have three PWC’s, one at each marina, for the first responders. A marine fireboat would be at one marina, or some central location. The PWC’s would be 2-man, speedy, and specially kitted (shovels, buckets, axes, fire extinguishers, first aid, protective gear), and all 3 PWC’s would be dispatched simultaneously at the sound of an alarm. This would be followed by the marine fireboat, which is typically built on a landing craft platform with a pumper, hoses, etc. (see here for examples.) The North Kawartha Fire Chief would have authority and responsibility for this volunteer operation. There may be other emergencies on the lake as well that such a unit could be the first responder for. I have no information on the size, cause, exact location, or timing of the fires on the above map, but such an analysis would be informative. However it would seem prudent that anyone renting out their cottages for the summer should either discourage outdoor burning, or be taking active steps to make sure that the occupants are able to look after a fire properly. The owner should be aware of any fire bans, and should be able to immediately communicate such bans to their tenants. Note that a burn permit is required…. these can be obtained online at: burn permit application In addition, property owners should make sure that their fire pits are properly located and constructed and that they are in compliance with all relevant by-laws. (fire department assessment/permits along side smoke detector checks?) The closest fire hall is in Apsley on Hwy 28. There is a second one at Woodview on Northey’s Bay Road. The 3rd, on Cty Rd 504 near Glen Alda, is not in service at this time. Response times to a fire on the lake from Apsley are likely in the order of 30-40 minutes, depending on location, and then getting to a lakeside fire source from the road can sometimes present a formidable challenge. Douro-Dummer Fire and Rescue, McCracken’s Landing, Stony Lake Perhaps the CLPOA’s pontoon boat can be kitted out to act as a “first responder” type of craft.	<urn:uuid:54384b0b-bfca-47ed-b682-a9a4f79a5701>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.045712172985076904, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9557706117630005, "url": "https://chandossier.com/forest-fires/" }
Dispossessing the Senecas Handsome Lake’s message spread, and without question sparked something of a reformation in the morals and conduct of his adherents. But he could do nothing to stop the relentless pressure exerted by outsiders to acquire the Senecas’ lands in western New York. Big Tree was a blow to the Senecas, but they preserved the right to hunt and fish on all the ceded lands, something that very closely approximated Seneca understandings of land ownership. In 1802, those who sought Seneca lands tried again on two separate occasions.Oliver Phelps, of the Phelps and Gorham purchase, was involved in the purchase of Little Beard’s Town along the Genesee in June of 1802. In return for twelve hundred dollars, a handful of Chenussio Senecas sold to Phelps, Isaac Bronson, and Horatio Jones “Little Beard’s Reservation…bounded on the east by the Genesee River and Little Beard’s Creek, on the south and west by other lands of the said parties of the second part, and on the north by the Big Tree Reservation, containing two square miles, or twelve hundred and eighty acres, together with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances whatsoever, thereunto belonging, or in anywise appertaining, to hold to them.” The other sale involved a strip of land along the Niagara River. Little Beard’s Town was a major Seneca settlement that predated the Revolution. It had been burned by Sullivan in 1779, but the Senecas reoccupied it a short time later. The Senecas believed that they were selling a two square mile chunk of land along the Genesee and a mile strip along the Niagara River to the United States. This land, over which they previously had a recognized right to free use and enjoyment thereof, in American eyes they possessed title too no longer. Nonetheless, they made the sale on condition that they would still have access to the river as they traveled through the region. So what changed? Very little. The Senecas still retained the right to hunt and fish wherever they needed to. While their aboriginal right of occupancy may have been eliminated to one of the reservations recognized in 1797 and a strip along the water to the west, they still retained a recognized right to use the land. This is such an important point. Both sides understood that the Senecas reserved rights in the lands sold in 1802. Red Jacket could not have made this more clear. During the council in Albany that led to the sale of the mile strip, he addressed John Tayler, the federal commissioner, and New York’s governor George Clinton. He insisted that We proposed to sell you the whole tract, with the reservation however of all of the islands; the line to the edge of the water, but the use of the river to be free to you—We wish to reserve also the privilege of using the beach to encamp on, and wood to make fires, together with the uninterrupted use of the river for the purpose of fishing; and likewise the privilege of passing the bridge and the turnpike, when made, free from toll, and keeping a ferry service across the river—for the whole tract we ask $7500. We think this is reasonable, and that in a few years it will refund you much more than this sum.” In the 1802 mile strip treaty, the Senecas reserved “to themselves…the right and privilege of encamping their fishing parties on the beac ohf said river, for the purpose of fishing, which is the common right of both parties, and to be enjoyed without hindrance or interruption from either; and while there encamped, to use the drift-wood for fuel, but not to trespass on or injure, the proprietor or proprietors of the adjacent lands.” They also reserved the right to cross on any ferries and any bridges to be built in the future without tolls. No force played a larger role in Seneca dispossession, than David A. Ogden, who acquired from the Holland Land Company in 1810 the pre-emptive rights to purchase the eleven Seneca reservations remaining to the tribe after the Big Tree Treaty of 1797. The Wadsworth family, whose estate dominated one end of Main Street in Geneseo, was heavily invested in Ogden’s venture. Ogden and his associates wanted to remove the Senecas to some location in the west, whether Mississippi or Arkansas or someplace “in the neighborhood of Green Bay.” Their goal was always, among other things, to completely erase Seneca land-holding in the western part of New York State and in the Genesee Valley, that part of the state that soon would become Livingston County. The well-connected Company called upon its allies for help. With Company support, Jasper Parrish, the federal agent charged with protecting Seneca lands, traveled to Washington in 1817 to persuade Secretary of War John C. Calhoun that removal was in the Indians’ best interest. The agents lacked the power to preserve order, and frontier pressure on Seneca lands “causes the agents considerable time and trouble to settle with and satisfy the injured person, so as to preserve our peace and friendship unbroken.” Parrish, like a growing number of Americans, believed that “under these circumstances I think it would be for the interest of the United States, and also for the welfare and the happiness of the Six Nations could they be persuaded to concentrate themselves.” Removal he saw as a means to protect the Indians from the citizens of the state of New York, who encroached upon their lands, stole their possessions, and threatened the safety of all concerned. Ogden, meanwhile, painted a bleak picture of the Senecas’ future if they remained in New York State. “The History of every Indian tribe on the Atlantic Coast,” Ogden wrote, “proves that they cannot long exist in their savage character in the Neighborhood of civilized Society, that becoming partly Christian, partly Pagan, partly civilized, and partly savage, they are rendered more and more debased and degenerate and finally become extinct, without having rendered themselves capable of any national enjoyment, or having contributed in any degree, to the stock of the public good.” Ogden hoped that the President would get his point: “The Savage,” he said, “must and ought to yield to the civilized state, and that this change cannot be effected otherwise than by the Agency of the Government.” Ogden found allies in the New York State Legislature. Some of the most powerful men in New York State had their eyes fixed on Seneca country, on the lands that would soon be set aside as Livingston County. Regarding the Indians, a legislative committee asserted in 1819 that “their independence as a nation ought to cease,” and “they ought to yield to the public interest, and by a proper application of power they ought to be brought within the pale of civilization and law and if left to themselves will never reach that condition; that such bodies retaining such savage traits ought not to be in an independent condition and that our laws and manners ought to succeed theirs; suitable quantities of lands to be reserved for them.” Think for a second what Liancourt said about one the county’s founding fathers, Mr. Livingston, whose house he was as a noisome hovel. Native peoples may have lived lives less different from the growing numbers of white farmers than many Americans think. The State Senate, shortly afterwards, nonetheless requested that the governor “cooperate with the Government of the United States in such measures . . . to induce the several Indian tribes within this State to concentrate themselves in some suitable situation.” The Senate, however, in a statement that aptly characterized the state’s approach to dealing with its Indians, insisted that the Governor take these actions “either with or without the cooperation of the government of the United States.” Rhetoric such as this from New York State mirrored the arguments occurring at the same time in the southern states, where a states’ rights ideology nourished disputes over federal Indian policy. As the federal government and its agents among the Creeks and Cherokees sought, half-heartedly and ineffectively, to protect Indians from their neighbors, and as missionaries and philanthropists promoted their “civilization” and “improvement,” southern state legislatures and courts argued that all who resided within a state, including Indians, must conform to its laws. The United States Supreme Court, later, would reject this limited federalism, but southerners had the power to blithely ignore officials of the national government. The resolution of 1819 shows that New Yorkers shared a similar states’ rights ideology when it came to native peoples. The Senecas, and the rest of the Six Nations of the Iroquois, faced a relentless and grasping foe determined to drive them from their homelands. Many forces conspired for their removal. Secretary of War Calhoun believed that Indians depended on the United States like a child relied upon its parents. Removal seemed to Calhoun a logical solution to the “Indian Problem.” If they relocated to the western side of the Mississippi River, they would distance themselves from the unsavory influence of frontier whites, and gain additional time to become “civilized.” Taking once again became giving. He believed that the United States, rather than the tribes themselves, must decide what was in the Indians’ best interest. Morris Miller, the United States agent appointed by Calhoun to negotiate on the Ogden Company’s behalf, told the Senecas that the President sees “you scattered here and there, in small parcels everywhere, surrounded by white people. He sees,” Miller continued, that “you are fast losing your national character, and are daily more and more exposed to the bad examples of your white Brothers, without the restraint of their laws and religion. He sees that this frequent and uncontrolled intercourse, instead of doing good is doing injury to you and to them. Your great Father sees all these things, with grief and concern. He lays them much to heart; and thinks it impossible for you, under such circumstances, to retain the character of an independent nation.” Removal was in your best interest, Morris told them. But the Great Father must look after his white children as well, Miller continued, and from them he heard their discontent “at seeing the lands in your occupation remain wild and uncultivated; neither paying taxes, nor assisting to make roads and other improvements; nor in any way contributing to the public burthens, as white peoples’ lands do.” The President knew “that you occupy more land than you can advantageously till, or use for any valuable purpose; whilst at this same time the scarcity of game prevents your engaging in those pursuits, to which your fathers were accustomed.” The solution was simple. The President, Miller told the Senecas, desires “that you should live at a greater distance from white people, so that you may be more secure in the enjoyment of your property. And that he can with greater convenience, and less expense cause you to be instructed in agriculture, and the useful arts; and your children to be taught to read and write, and that your nation may thus be rendered an industrious and happy people.” The Senecas rallied to oppose land cessions. Quaker missionaries, too, supported the Senecas. Led by Red Jacket, the Senecas refused to sell to the Ogden Company in 1819, and successfully resisted the Ogden Company’s efforts to acquire their largest reservations. It was not “savage” Senecas that the land barons worried about, but those who had adopted selectively elements of the Quakers’ civilization program to strengthen their hold on a homeland increasingly surrounded by white New Yorkers. If the Friends hoped to preserve the Senecas by insulating them from corrupting outside forces and transform them into a nation of self-sufficient subsistence farmers, the Senecas made choices designed to protect their independence. To make a living and to acquire cash, some Senecas sold alcohol in western New York that they acquired downstream in Pittsburgh. Others continued to hunt. Even as the white population in western New York increased, Seneca hunters still found deer plentiful, as well as raccoon, mink, and muskrats, all of which seemed to thrive as the white population increased. According to the Mohawk John Norton, who visited the Senecas in 1809, they could “conveniently take skins, meat and timber to Pittsburgh, where they generally get a good price for these articles.” The trip downriver took only two or three days. Seneca farmers found markets for their crops. The flax Seneca farmers planted they sold to whites rather than use it for themselves or their families. Non-Indian observers writing during the War of 1812, a time of scarcity in western New York, reported buying corn from Indian women. The Senecas used their land, one observer noted, “not only for their own subsistence but sell considerable to white people.” At Allegany, eighty Seneca families consisting of 439 individuals possessed 479 cattle, 58 horses, 350 hogs, and 699 acres of improved land in which 70 acres of meadow is included.” Some of the swine kept by Senecas they butchered and salted for family consumption but much of the rest they sold for cash. The Quakers encouraged the Senecas to acquire livestock, for food and as draft animals. But the Senecas, much to the concern of at least some members of the Society of Friends, seemed more interested in acquiring horses than oxen. The Senecas’ white neighbors used horses for labor and transport in their lumbering activities; Quakers, who were concerned about the Senecas’ participation in the timber economy, thus viewed the growth of the Senecas’ horse herds as a potential problem. Senecas frequently asked the Quakers to assist them in erecting sawmills. Cornplanter operated the first sawmill in Cattaraugus County beginning as early as 1795. Friends helped the Senecas operate their own mills, too, where they cut their timber, formed them into rafts, “and float them down to Pittsburgh, at the time of high water.” The Senecas carried with them “their Peltry, furrs, and good canoes, to push up their return cargoes.” The Senecas’ desire for clearing land, which the Quakers mentioned frequently, was less about readying fields for the plow than it was about selling lumber for a profit. The Quakers could only appeal to them and ask them to consider “whether you would not have been in a better situation generally if you had employed the same time which you have spent in cutting and rafting timber in cultivating your good land.” By the 1820s, Senecas interested in participating in the timber trade cut trees, hauled the logs to the Allegany River, and rafted the unmilled logs downstream to Warren, Franklin, and Pittsburgh, in Pennsylvania. Some Senecas earned reputations as especially skilled pilots, a talent for which they were well-paid. As with the sale of their agricultural produce, Seneca timbermen, floating downriver with their logs and other items, participated in a complex regional economy. Senecas traveled widely to exchange raw materials in the form of unmilled logs, processed items like furs and salted pork, and finished goods like moccasins, shingles and finished lumber, for cash and goods unavailable to them locally. In parts of Livingston County, they interacted peacefully with local settlers. The first settlers in the region, like James Calder and his wife Elizabeth, natives both of Sterlingshire in Scotland, took up land along one of the many well-recognized “Old Indian Trails” that passed through town. They frequently encountered Senecas as they traveled the region. According to Mary Root’s 1940 history of the Town of York, David Piffard, after whom the Livingston County town is named, arrived with his young wife in 1825. “Mrs. Piffard was an accomplished musician and brought the first piano into our town,” Root wrote. “It has been told me that one day, in Mr. Piffard’s absence, she was sitting at the piano, playing and singing, when she suddenly felt or sensed that there was someone in the room. Glancing around she discovered that quite a number of Indians were in the room, having entered noiselessly. Naturally she was frightened stiff, expecting any minute to have a tomahawk cleave her head, but continued playing and occasionally singing. Finally, her husband returned and taking in the situation, went to his wife’s side, and she promptly fainted in his arms. The Indians were very friendly and came many more times to hear her play.” While elements of this story are reasonably questioned, it is interesting to note that decades after the Treaty of Big Tree, and at the same time that the Ogden Land Company clamored to acquire the Senecas’ Genesee Valley lands, Indigenous peoples still passed through Livingston County to visit with settlers. Indeed, early Anglo-American settlers in Livingston County used Indigenous places as points of reference. The cheese factory on the Upper Mount Morris Road, for instance, was described in the nineteenth century as being located close to where one of Mary Jemison’s sons was killed. White settlers knew where they were by reference to Native American spaces. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the Quakers’ contributions to Seneca economic life. But the Senecas always engaged with the missionaries on their own terms. They accepted elements of the Friends’ technology and advice and much of the economic change that they advocated, but they did not become Quakers. They did not alter their religion. They engaged selectively with the market economy, preserving much of their freedom of movement, a significant degree of their autonomy, and their connections to Iroquois people living on their reservations and elsewhere. Seneca resistance to the Ogden Company was strongest on these western reserves, but along the Genesee River in the newly-created Livingston County the Company enjoyed more success. A little background might be in order. The Ogden Company operated essentially in two parts of the state: around the larger reservations in the west—Allegany, Cattaraugus, Buffalo Creek, and Tonawanda– and in the Genesee Valley, where the lands set aside at Big Tree in 1797 were much smaller. In the west, Senecas had forcefully resisted any attempt to purchase their lands. In the Genesee Valley, this resistance was more difficult to maintain. Horatio Jones (1763–1836) Owing to bribes paid out by Horatio Jones and Jellis Clute, and the pressure white squatters placed on Seneca lands in the Genesee Valley, by the middle of the 1820s, some there were willing to contemplate a sale of lands. Indeed, in 1823 in Moscow (today’s Leicester, NY), Mary Jemison ceded all but two square miles of the Gardeau Reservation to John Greig and Henry Gibson. Greig was an employee of the Ogden Land Company. The cession, acquired for $4286 (less than .30 an acre) was never submitted to the Senate for ratification. How did this happen and how did Mary Jemison have the standing to make this sale? In April of 1817 Micah Brooks and Thomas Clute successfully persuaded the New York State Legislature to pass a bill making Jemison a citizen of the State of New York and confirming her title to the Gardeau Reservation. Four days after this bill was passed, according to Hauptman, in return for $3000 and a mortgage to secure $4286, the aged Jemison executed a deed of seven thousand acres on the east side of the reservation to the same Micah Brooks and Jellis Clute. At the urging of John Jemison, Mary’s son, Mary agreed, because of her advanced age and her inability to manage her property, to hire Thomas Clute as her guardian. In payment for his services Thomas Clute was given a great deal of land on the west side of the Gardeau Reservation. On August 24, 1817, Mary Jemison leased all of the remaining Gardeau reservation, except for four thousand acres and Thomas Clute’s lot, to Micah Brooks and Jellis Clute. Jemison’s words are revealing about this transaction: ‘Finding their [Brooks and Clute] title still incomplete, on account of the United States government and Seneca chiefs not having sanctioned my acts, they [Brooks and Clute] solicited me to renew the contract, and have the conveyance made to them in such a manner as that they should thereby be constituted sole proprietors of the soil.” In the 1823 cession, the Senecas relinquished to Grieg and Gibson all but two square miles of the reservation, which would remain Seneca property “in as full and ample a manner, as if these presents had not been executed: together with all and singular the rights, privileges, hereditaments, and appurtenances, to the said hereby granted premises belonging or in anywise appertaining, and all the estate, right, title, and interest, whatsoever, of them the said parties of the first part, and of their nation, of, in, and to, the said tract of land above described.” In February of 1824, Secretary of War Calhoun wrote to Jasper Parrish and informed him that the Gardeau purchase did not require Senate ratification “because it was ‘considered in the nature of a private contract [that] does not require the special ratification of the Government as in treaties between the Indians and the United States.” Calhoun believed that as a result, “there is nothing to prevent its execution by the parties concerned, as soon as they may think it proper.” Three years later, the commissioner of Indian affairs wrote the secretary of war, indicating that the Gardeau deed did not need Senate approval because it was “esteemed to be a useless ceremony; the President approving it only.” All this was prelude to the disastrous and corrupt treaty of 1826, a signal event in the history of Livingston County. In May of 1826, the House Committee on Indian Affairs published a report with the title, “To Hold a Treaty with the Seneca Indians.” In it, the House committee members claimed that most Senecas wanted to sell their lands, that they wanted to become “civilized” on an American model, and that a federal commissioner should be appointed by the president to negotiate with them. Oliver Forward, a Buffalo politician, was appointed federal commissioner. The treaty council, which was held at Buffalo Creek, was a debacle. The treaty was signed at the end of August in 1826. In it the Senecas’ ceded all their lands along the Genesee to the Ogden Land Company. Furthermore, the size of the Buffalo Creek, Tonawanda, and Cattaraugus Reservations was reduced significantly as well. All told, the Seneca estate had been reduced by 86,887 acres, being, Forward said, “something more than one third of the lands they own in the western part of this state. In exchange for this enormous cession, the Ogden Company agreed to deliver over a sum of $48,260, “lawful money of the United States.” As with the Big Tree Treaty of 1797, most of these funds were invested, with the annual interest earned on the purchase price paid out to the Seneca. This annual payment, calculated at an interest rate of 6% per year, came to be known as the Greig and Gibson annuity. Although the treaty said nothing about it, the Ogden Company apparently agreed to pay as well certain life annuities to Seneca leaders who aided in the negotiation of the agreement. Ten Seneca leaders received payments each year totaling $460.00. Addressing concerns about these payments in a letter to Commissioner of Indian Affairs Thomas L. McKenney, Jasper Parrish said that the negotiations had “been conducted with perfect fairness, openness and propriety,” and that “no threats, or menaces, or bribes were made use of to my knowledge: but, as in every case of the kind, certain gratuities were made, after the conclusion of the treaty.” Only $43,050 was ever invested, leaving close to $5000.00 from the purchase price missing. The Senecas and their supporters immediately challenged and contested the legality and the morality of the treaty. Some Senecas opposed the treaty, while others sent petitions and memorials to Washington supporting it. To sort all this out took some time. Those who signed the treaty, according to the author of the best account of the period, did so because they feared that if they did not sell, they would lose their lands outright to the squatters that nobody seemed able to control. Some of the chiefs who signed the treaty, moreover, believed that by doing so they would satisfy the Ogden Company’s voracious appetite for Seneca lands. They sold lands to avoid the prospect of removal to the west. They expected that after this cession, which they agreed to reluctantly, the Ogden Company would leave the Senecas in peace upon their remaining lands. The United States Senate finally voted on the treaty in late February of 1828 but the vote was a 20-20 tie. John C. Calhoun, now vice-president, was not in attendance to break the tie. The agreement thus did not receive the two-third vote required by the Constitution for ratification, but the Senators, apparently in an effort to clarify the reason for their vote, passed an unprecedented resolution that read that “by the refusal of the Senate to ratify the treaty with the Seneca Indians, it is not intended to express any disapprobation of the terms of the contract entered into by individuals who are parties to the contract, but merely to disclaim the necessity of an interference by the Senate with the subject matter.” Viewed by more than twenty senators as a private agreement between the Ogden investors and the Senecas, they apparently believed that no reason existed for them to interfere. Protests from Red Jacket, from the Quakers, and from others continued, however, and they finally had an effect on President John Quincy Adams. He ordered his secretary of war to conduct an investigation. Richard Livingston undertook the task. He conducted his investigation, and found evidence of considerable corruption and fraud at the treaty council. According to Seneca informants, the interpreters at the council threatened the gathered Indians with removal if they refused to sell. Jasper Parrish, an employee of the United States in Indian affairs, reportedly offered bribes to certain Senecas in return for signatures. As a result, the flawed treaty was never resubmitted to the senate, and it never received proper ratification. Still, the damage had been done, and by doing nothing, the United States government in effect acquiesced in a fraudulent, unethical and illegal treaty that carved a huge gash of territory out of the Seneca estate. What was the Ogden Company trying to accomplish? Its understanding of the treaty is best seen in an 1819 memorial that Thomas L. Ogden sent to President James Monroe. In that document, Ogden referred to himself as the “proprietor” of the lands presently “occupied by the Remains of the Seneca Nation of Indians.” Ogden, four years before the Supreme Court’s decision in Johnson v. McIntosh, asserted that he was the titleholder to the remaining Seneca reservations in the state of New York, and the Indians mere occupants. It is clear that the Senecas did not share this view. Ogden wrote to Madison in the aftermath of Seneca refusals to sell their lands. Indeed the Senecas seemed uninterested in listening to the Ogden appeals to sell, and seemed genuinely offended by the Ogden men. In the Memorial, Ogden seemed surprised that the Senecas asserted “an unqualified title to the lands they occupy.” To prove their points, the Senecas produced their copy of the Treaty of Canandaigua, and cited it as evidence of their title to their lands. The Ogden Company’s position had supporters within the United States government. Shortly after Ogden’s memorial, Attorney General William Wirt wrote an opinion addressing the question of the Senecas’ land title. He said that their right to the land, “however narrow,” was still “a title in fee simple” that the Senecas held as “a title of perpetual inheritance because it will be admitted on all hands that neither the present occupants nor their heirs so long as the nation subsists can be rightfully driven from their possessions.’ But that ‘fee simple’ title was qualified in some way, and Wirt saw it as “legal anomaly” because the Senecas, he believed, lacked the ‘right of alienation.” Wirt asserted that the Senecas had a right to lease as well as to sell their land, and he endorsed significant restrictions in the ways that Senecas might legally use their property. He wrote, “They have no more right to sell the standing timber, the natural production of the soil as an article of traffic than they have to sell the soil itself.” Wirt believed that the Senecas might use their land for “the purpose of subsistence,” but not a type of property they might exploit, use or develop for their community’s good. Cutting and selling timber would “waste” or destroy the value of their reserves; therefore, not only was logging without the Senecas’ permission illegal—it was “a trespass against their right”—but even timber harvesting by the Senecas themselves or their lessees was prohibited because it violated the rights of preemption title holders. However, Wirt’s view was not accepted by all inside the government. Robert Montgomery Livinston, appointed by President John Quincy Adams to investigate charges of bribery, corruption and coercion in the negotiation of the 1826 treaty, argued that “It cannot be that the Company can say to the Indians ‘when the right of preemption was granted[,] your Hunter condition was a Guarrantee to the purchasers that you should always remain wandering & never till the ground or cut the timber (which until recently was as valueless except to cover the game—as the game is now & could not have entered into the estimate at the time of the Purchase).’’ It is a fascinating statement. Livingston recognized Seneca social and economic transformation, and the importance of land in that process. Remember, the final article of the Canandaigua treaty: it provided an annuity to be paid in livestock, tools, and supplies to help the Indians make the transformation to an agrarian style of life similar to that of white American farmers. Statements from Washington, Henry Knox, and many others echoed this desire. Indians would stay on their lands, and in the eyes of the United States become “civilized.” Livingston recognized that the Senecas were doing just that. “The Company seeks to restrict the Indians to their aboriginal use of their acknowledged right of occupancy. I assumed the liberty of telling the Indians that they had the right of occupancy in perpetuity unrestricted as to the mode of occupying and that as they had left the Hunter state & adopted the agricultural they had the right to fell their trees to make room for the plough—that it would be advancing their interests to do so—that the trees cut with such intentions would be theirs.” Free use and enjoyment, right? This is all spelled out in Livingston’s report on the 1826 treaty, which you have in the uploaded materials. It is important to realize that despite this defeat in a rigged game, the Senecas did not give up. They had reserved the right to the “free use and enjoyment of their lands” in 1794 at Canandaigua. At Big Tree, which extinguished the “Indian title” to a large chunk of those lands, the Senecas retained the right to hunt and fish throughout the vast region. In 1802, as well. And 1826 did nothing to take away that right belonging to the Senecas. So in August of 1826, Senecas along the river ceded their land to the Ogdens and agreed to reductions in the size of the Buffalo Creek, Tonawanda, and Cattaraugus reservations. They sold more than one-third of their remaining lands. But the sale, it turned out, did not represent the wishes of the majority of the Senecas, and they and their supporters immediately contested the legality and the morality of the treaty. Many of those who signed it, the Senecas argued, feared that if they did not sell they would lose their lands outright to squatters that nobody seemed able to control. Others believed that by signing the treaty they would satisfy the Ogden Company’s voracious appetite for Seneca lands. Some of them hoped that after this cession, which they agreed to reluctantly, the Ogden Company would leave the Senecas in peace upon their remaining lands. Other Senecas, however, painted a much more sinister portrait, and their numerous protests finally caught the attention of President John Quincy Adams. According to Seneca informants, the interpreters at the council threatened the gathered Indians with removal if they refused to sell. Jasper Parrish, the federal agent, offered bribes to certain Senecas in return for their signatures. This disturbing evidence delayed the treaty’s consideration by the Senate, and the agreement never received proper ratification. But the government did nothing more, and in effect acquiesced in a fraudulent, unethical and illegal treaty that carved a huge gash of territory out of the Seneca estate. Acquiring Indian land was the goal, and too often the corrupt means used to obtain it were ignored entirely. Nearly all the Senecas in Livingston County departed for Tonawanda, or Allegany, Cattaraugus or Buffalo Creek to the west. The Senecas worked within a system of rules they had not chosen. Indian land sales involved elements both of choice and coercion. Indians simply could not afford to ignore the efforts of their white neighbors to purchase their lands. It is in this light that we ought to view the several treaties and deeds which representatives of the Seneca nation signed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. If the Senecas, and native peoples similarly situated, refused to sell their lands, they faced losing them outright to the squatters, outlaws and speculators that regularly exploited the weakness of government on the frontier. And whether or not the preemption-holders paid a fair price, the Senecas did receive payments for “the use and benefit of the nation” in exchange for their lands. The funds held in trust by the President of the United States as part of the 1797 treaty at Big Tree, the Senecas argued were so held because “our Father,” the President, “loved his red children, and would take care of our money, and plant it in a field, where it would bear seed forever, as long as trees grew, or water run.” Federal Indian agent Erastus Granger believed that an efficiently expended and applied annuity would help the Senecas live better on less land, and “might be used to great advantage in furthering agriculture and in generally ameliorating the condition of the Indians.” When Congress or the state of New York failed to appropriate the necessary funds, or other factors delayed or prevented the timely payment of annuities, the Senecas suffered. “Our money,” a group of Seneca chiefs wrote in a petition to the President, had been of great service to the nation. “It has helpt us to support our old people, and our Women and children,” they wrote. The Senecas’ agent in 1838 asserted that “the annuities paid to them by the United States and the state of New York constitute a considerable portion of their means of living.” It was a struggle to remain where they were. In an 1810 address urging the Secretary of War to honor Seneca treaties, Red Jacket said that “For three years past we have received injuries from the white people. Our cattle and horses,” he continued, “have been stolen and carried off; and although we have made complaint to your agent yet we have not received any compensation for our losses.” New Yorkers, who sat on juries, seldom convicted their peers of these crimes.Indeed, the Senecas’ reservations, Jasper Parrish observed later, “are surrounded by settlements of whites.” The result, he said, is “frequent depredations, petty thefts, and trespasses committed on each other by whites and Indians; most frequently commencing on the part of the former.” Parrish, and others, saw in the inability of frontier agents to protect the Iroquois from the worst abuses of the white frontier population an important rationale for the removal of the New York Indians. But the Senecas did not want to relocate, and despite bitter factionalism at times, and the pressure placed upon them by land speculators, settlers, missionaries, and government agents, they found a way to resist their complete dispossession and wholesale removal to the west. In New York, the Senecas continued to contend with their “steady enemy,” the Ogden Land Company. Aided by Quakers who opposed Jacksonian Indian policy, the Six Nations put up a courageous fight. The chiefs and warriors of the Senecas, Oneidas and Onondagas at Buffalo Creek asked the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to inform President Jackson that they “were fully satisfied with our present location, and prefer to remain on these lands which the Great Spirit gave to our fathers.” Owing to their efforts no one in Washington with even a passing familiarity with Indian affairs could doubt that the majority of Iroquois did not want to leave western New York. But Indian removal was not about what Indians wanted. The Ogden Company appealed to the interests of land hungry frontier settlers. They appealed to the benevolence of reformers as well, arguing with no apparent sense of contradiction that removal would benefit the Indians by isolating them from the unsavory influence of those land hungry settlers. This was an old argument indeed: we must remove the Indians to save them. If we do nothing, they will become extinct and pass into history. The Ogden Company had too much invested to rely solely on arguments. Prior to the 1838 Buffalo Creek Treaty and after its revision by the Senate in 1839, the Company’s agents bribed Indians to persuade their brethren to accept relocation in the west. They met in a tavern, the better to “facilitate” negotiations with gifts of alcohol. They used threats of violence. Seneca chiefs learned that “if we do not consent to emigrate to the West, that measures will be taken by the General and State Governments by which we shall be made to remove.” A number of Seneca chiefs who had opposed any removal were alarmed to find that they had signed statements indicating that they understood and approved of the Buffalo Creek Treaty. How did this happen? According to the Seneca chiefs in question, “the agents of the Ogden Land Company,” they said, “have taken private Indians to the Commissioners pretending to him that they were chiefs & have hired them to misname themselves by adopting the names of chiefs in the opposition & have so obtained many names now affixed” to the treaty. They found imposters. The American commissioner, the chiefs added, was “as ready to deceive as any agents of the Company.” Through the fraudulent Buffalo Creek Treaty, the Senecas relinquished all their remaining lands. All the Indians living at Buffalo Creek, Tonawanda, Cattaraugus and Allegheny would remove to new homes in the Indian Territory within five years. After a long debate, President Van Buren proclaimed the accord in 1839, but he did so reluctantly, and a powerful protest campaign led by the Senecas and their Quaker allies prevented the implementation of the treaty. Senecas sent delegations to Washington, and they confiscated the timber cut by trespassers on what they still considered their lands. They lobbied, and acted with determination to defend their nation’s interests. In 1842, the Quakers and officials from the Ogden Land Company broke the impasse and negotiated a supplement to the Buffalo Creek Treaty. Both parties understood that the Senecas disliked the 1838 treaty. The Indians would reluctantly have given up a portion of the lands on each of their remaining reservations, but they never would have consented to relinquishing any of them in their entirety. Under the 1842 Supplemental Treaty, however, that is precisely what happened. The Cattaraugus and Allegany reservations, where Quaker missionary activities were strongest, would be returned to the Senecas; Tonawanda and Buffalo Creek would remain in the hands of the Ogden Company. After a long hard fight the Tonawanda Senecas would in 1857 “win” the right to purchase back a portion of their original reservation, even after they had opposed all attempts to acquire their lands. Buffalo Creek, already overrun by white settlers, and close to the growing city of Buffalo, was gone. Most of the Indians there removed to Cattaraugus. In 1846, a man named Abram Hogeboom traveled to the remaining reservations in New York State. He had authorization from the United States government to recruit Indians to relocate to the Indian territory. Hogeboom, with some difficulty, gathered 192 prospective immigrants, among them 66 Senecas. They appear to have desired, not to assimilate, but to continue to live their lives as Haudenosaunee away from the aggressive New Yorkers. All but one of the immigrants survived the arduous process of moving across the country, an incredible stroke of good fortune, but they found life once they arrived at the Osage Agency in Kansas tough. The new arrivals began to die rapidly. They buried 82 of their fellow emigrants between 1846 and 1847. After this they wanted to go home. 94 of the original 192 emigrants arrived back in New York in 1847. Only a handful chose to stay behind. Only a small number of Senecas moved west, and most of the survivors of that horrible year returned home where “with scarcely an exception” they “lived in a destitute condition, and many of them are yet suffering from disease.” As these emigrants conducted their odyssey into the west, political ferment manifested itself on the Seneca reservations in New York State. Fearful, according to their Quaker supporters, “lest again, these remnants of their land might be wrongfully wrested from them,” a group of Senecas petitioned the New York State legislature for a law to protect them “from their own chiefs.” The petition, according to the Quakers, presented “to the world, the curious spectacle of a nation seeking from a foreign state, a security against the officers of their own government.” The Senecas had made considerable adjustments to their way of life in order to survive in western New York. They grew corn, oats, wheat, potatoes, and a variety of garden crops. Thousands of fruit trees stood in Seneca orchards. They raised cattle and kept hogs, horses, and sheep. According to Henry Schoolcraft, who visited them in 1846, “the style of their buildings, fences and household furnishings,” he wrote, “as well as the dress of the males, is not essentially different, and little, often nothing at all, inferior to that of their white neighbors.” In addition to their agricultural pursuits, the Senecas lived by renting land to their white neighbors, selling timber and finished lumber, fishing and hunting, and working as agricultural laborers. And they looked to the future as well. A small number of Senecas had acquired “a collegiate or academic education,” and 350 children attended various “private or missionary schools” near the reservation. They hoped to stay on their lands. Yet to many Senecas, their traditional chiefs had failed them during the removal crisis. Some had taken bribes. Some misused the Senecas’ annuity funds, the monies the Senecas had received for the sale of their lands. The New York State Legislature in May 1845 enacted a law “for the protection and improvement of the Seneca Indians.” Through the enactment, the state of New York determined a framework of government for the Seneca reservations that bore little resemblance to Seneca tradition. The state certainly had no legitimate right to do this, for the law interfered with Seneca internal affairs and seemed to violate the 1794 Canandaigua treaty. But, very quickly, the Senecas began to organize into “Law” and “Anti-Law” factions, based on whether or not they approved of the state’s handiwork. The conflict lasted until 1847, when the state amended its original law to allow for the popular election of the officers it identified initially in 1845. In the meantime, the United States allowed for the payment of all annuities “to the heads of families and other individuals entitled to participate therein.” These legislative enactments provided the backdrop against which the Senecas acted out their Revolution in 1848. The chiefs traditionally had received and distributed annuities, and they resisted any change in that arrangement. As Quaker observers reported, “to be deprived of the power to handle the people’s money was more than they could bear.” The majority of the Senecas, however, “became convinced, that neither peace nor security could be enjoyed by the people, until the chiefs should be shorn or every vestige of their official power.” Thus a national council late in 1848 declared itself a constitutional convention and announced the creation and founding of the Seneca Nation of Indians. The constitution that this convention produced described the failure of the chiefs, and the delegates present declared that “we cannot enumerate the evils growing out of a system so defective, nor calculate its overpowering weight on the progress of improvement.” In particular, the chiefs had withheld portions of the annuity for the purposes of government, calling the withholding of the annuity a “tax.” The manipulation and improper use of the annuity funds led to the overthrow of government by the chiefs. The Senecas had suffered much. All native peoples had. Here, however, was evidence of a native nation organizing and acting to protect its interests within the American republic. The new Seneca constitution, which both the State of New York and the United States recognized, established a government consisting of an elected council presided over by an executive department consisting of a President, a Clerk, and a Treasurer. It marked the transformation of the Senecas from a kinship-based community to a territorial government based on residence at the two remaining Seneca reservations (the Tonawanda Senecas remained apart from the Seneca Nation of Indians and a member of the Iroquois League). By the mid 1850s, the Seneca Constitution had achieved legitimacy. Though political contests could be as partisan and competitive as those in the surrounding non-Indian communities, and though the Senecas might disagree deeply over the course the Seneca Nation should follow, all grew to accept a constitution that emerged from a conflict over how the nation’s lands ought best to contribute to the survival of the nation. Further Reading: Conable, Barbara M. “A Steady Enemy: The Ogden Land Company and the Seneca Indians,” Ph.D dissertation, University of Rochester, 1994. Haake, Claudia B. “Appeals to Civilization and Customary ‘Forest Diplomacy: Arguments against Removal in Letters Written by the Iroquois, 1830-1857,” Wicazo Sa Review, 30 (Fall 2015), 100-128. Harris, George H. “The Life of Horatio Jones,” Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society, 6 (1903), 381-526. Hauptman, Laurence M. Conspiracy of Interests: Iroquois Dispossession and the Rise of New York State, (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997). Houghton, Frederick. History of the Buffalo Creek Reservation. In Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society, Vol 24, Frank H. Severance, ed., (Buffalo: Buffalo Historical Society, 1920. Isaacs, Hope L. “Orenda and the Concept of Power among the Tonawanda Senecas,” in Raymond D. Fogelson and Richard N. Adams, eds., The Anthropology of Power: Ethnographic Studies from Asia, Oceania, and the New World, (New York: Academic Press, 1977). Mt. Pleasant, Alyssa. “After the Whirlwind: Maintaining a Haudenosaunee Place at Buffalo Creek, 1780-1825,” Ph.D dissertation, Cornell University, 2007. Oberg, Michael Leroy. Professional Indian: The American Odyssey of Eleazer Williams, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015). Ryan, Beth. “Crowding the Banks: The Historical Archaeology of Ohagi and the Post Revolutionary Haudenosaunee Confederacy, ca. 1780-1826,” Ph.D. diss, Cornell University, 2017. Saunt, Claudio. Unworthy Republic: The Dispossession of Native Americans and the Road to the Indian Territory, (New York: Norton, 2020).	<urn:uuid:b647fda4-22e2-4126-be0c-1a838fdaf77e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.03502017259597778, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9719425439834595, "url": "https://chenussio.geneseo.sunycreate.cloud/dispossessing-the-senecas/" }
Peat Bogs Are Freakishly Good at Preserving Human Remains By: Mark Mancini \| body bog The Tollund Man was discovered in a Denmark bog in 1950 with skin so well-preserved, the wrinkles on his face are still clearly visible. Flickr/CC BY-SA 2.0 Bogs are monuments to death; they're created by generations of dead, buried plants. They're also havens for mummies. Artifacts buried beneath bogs — including human bodies — may be kept in astonishingly good condition for thousands and thousands of years. They've all got stories to tell, and today we'll look at the weird science that makes their preservation possible. Common in cool, wet parts of the world, bogs are waterlogged grounds that form when decaying plant matter — known as peat — accumulates in a low-lying areas. Bogs are usually found in cool climates and often in lake basins created by ice age glaciers that no longer get a steady flow of river or stream water. Over time, mosses cover the heap like a blanket, and in most cases, this mossy layer is primarily made of sphagnum. Sphagnum moss has the power to transform an entire landscape. Water or dirt caught beneath sheets of it will stop getting a normal supply of oxygen from the atmosphere. Also, sphagnum soaks up calcium and magnesium, which makes the underlying soil and water mildly acidic. Since bacteria and fungi find those conditions inhospitable, the dead vegetation decomposes at a phenomenally slow rate. Instead of breaking down right away, it lingers. Piling up over time, masses of the botanical waste gradually turn into peat, a soggy, mud-colored substance. Peat can be used as animal bedding and as a fossil fuel, which makes it an important commodity in places like the Irish midlands. But to archaeologists, peat is a lot less valuable than the Homo sapiens corpses that sometimes come with it. Iron Age CSI Bogs have long fascinated humans not just for their fossil fuels. The spongy soil, which often burns, has intrigued people as far back as the Bronze Age. Many people died in these bogs or were placed there after their deaths. And these bog bodies, as they're known, have been found all over the world. The wetlands of northwestern Europe, for instance, is a bog body hub. Hundreds of these corpses have turned up in Germany, England, the Netherlands and neighboring countries. In 2011, peat harvesters working in Ireland's Cúl na Móna Bog accidentally ran over a Bronze Age corpse with a milling machine. Dubbed the "Cashel Man," the harvester found all that was left of an adult male who'd probably died in his 20s. His body was riddled with injuries, including a broken arm and a nasty cut across the backside. Some of these may have been caused by the compressing weight of the bog moss above him — or the blades of that milling device. Nevertheless, archaeologists have reason to suspect that the Cashel Man was a ritualized sacrifice victim. (Stab wounds, slit throats and evidence of torture have been observed on other European bog bodies. Historians think the local wetlands were once a hotbed for religious sacrifices.) Carbon dating tells us the Cashel Man perished about 4,000 years ago, seven centuries before King Tut was born. To date, he's the oldest European bog body on record with intact skin. That's right: The corpse of somebody who's been dead for four millennia still has its skin attached. And this isn't a fluke. Lots of bog bodies retain some or all of their original skin. The Tollund Man, a 2,300-year-old corpse recovered from a Denmark peat bog in 1950, has skeletonized hands, but elsewhere his skin is so well-preserved that little details like the wrinkles on his forehead are still visible. body bog The Graubelle Man was found in a Denmark bog in 1952 and was believed to be a victim of sacrifice. His preserved hair shows how the sphagnan in the moss can change the color to red. Skin Care Secrets Although the Tollund Man's skin didn't rot away, the mummification process did change its appearance and texture. Like the Cashel Man, the Haraldskjaer Woman and lots of other bog bodies, he's got quite a tan going on. Bog mummies often sport leathery, dark brown skin. (Some of them also have preserved hair that was dyed red after death.) This is most likely caused by sphagnan, a recently discovered polymer that seeps out of dead sphagnum moss. Leather is made through a process that strengthens the bonds between some of the natural fibers in animal hides. As a tanning agent, sphagnan has the same effect on human skin, rendering it tough and tea-colored. Sphagnan also binds with nitrogen, which bacteria need to survive. So by removing nitrogen from the environment, sphagnan helps prevent the spread of microorganisms that would normally be breaking down human and animal remains. And furthermore, sphagnan — along with the acid that it turns into — pulls calcium right out of dead bodies. Bones get weakened in the process. Although sphagnan does a fine job of preserving skin, its calcium-thievery isn't great for skeletons. Mummies have been found in certain bogs with soft, extra-flimsy bones that are about as sturdy as cardboard and that have been distorted by heavy peat. But that's assuming the decalcification process doesn't altogether eliminate them. Lots of bog bodies have been found missing bones, and some of the mummies are totally boneless. The latter are basically human-shaped bags of leathery skin wrapped around some pickled organs. Boning Up Not all bogs are so hostile to bones, though. The water's acidity level varies from bog to bog, and this impacts corpse preservation. Archaeologists have discovered that in really acidic peat bogs, the resident mummies have lots of skin and soft tissue, but weak or nonexistent bones. But there are some boggy places with relatively alkaline — or "basic" — water. Here, the environment pretty much has the opposite effect on corpses. Look at the Windover Archaeological Site, a peat-bottomed pond in Florida that became the final resting place for dozens of Native Americans between 6,990 and 8,120 years ago. Skeletal remains from 168 people have turned up in the peat. A large deposit of crushed-up snail shells lying under the pond supplies the water with magnesium and calcium carbonates. That makes the water more alkaline, neutralizing the sphagnan to an extent. Instead of mummified skin bags, the bog is rife with naked bones and skeletons. Bare as they are on the outside, the ancient bones had a big surprise in store for scientists: Brain tissue was found in more than 90 of the Windover pond skulls. Originally Published: Jan 23, 2019	<urn:uuid:f5e7a644-66e3-435d-9760-55a0db609881>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.0527653694152832, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9645557403564453, "url": "https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/archaeology/peat-bogs-are-freakishly-good-at-preserving-human-remains.htm" }
Lost Village of Hochelaga Contributor: Suzanne Riordan. Lesson ID: 13325 Would you like to visit the National Historic Site of the Iroquois village of Hochelaga in Canada? Sorry, you can't. No one knows for sure where it is, and some people doubt that it ever existed! learning style Kinesthetic, Visual personality style Lion, Beaver Grade Level Lesson Type Dig Deeper Lesson Plan - Get It! In the city of Montreal, Canada, there is a large hill (or small mountain) called Mount Royal. From this mountain, you can look out over the whole city. It's a beautiful, peaceful, quiet spot in the middle of a bustling city. Mount Royal, Montreal Many years ago, this hill may have overlooked a busy Iroquois village. However, there are no remains or physical evidence that the village ever existed. • So, why do historians think it was there? In the year 1535, French explorer Jacques Cartier visited the area that is now Montreal. Jacques Cartier, 1844 Image by Théophile Hamel after François Nicholas Riss, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain. Cartier and Hochelaga Cartier wrote to King Francis describing a large Iroquois village that he visited there and the friendly reception he received from the natives. Jacques Cartier at Hochelaga, 1933 Image by Lawrence R. Batchelor, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain. Cartier described a circular village with about 50 longhouses and 45-foot high palisade (a defensive wall made of pointed wooden stakes). wooden palisades The name of the village, Hochelaga, comes from the Iroquois words meaning either "beaver path" or "large rapids". Click the blue audio button below to hear its pronunciation: Cartier saw a mountain nearby, which he named Mount Royal. Cartier even drew a map of the village: map of Hochelaga Image from the National Archives of Canada, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain. This is a model based on Cartier's descriptions: model of Hochelaga by Michel Cadieux Image by Pierre5018, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license. • It seems as if Cartier was pretty clear about the layout of the village, its location, and its people, right? However, although Cartier returned to the area, he never mentioned visiting Hochelaga again. In 1603, almost 70 years later, another French explorer named Samuel de Champlain came to the area. statue of Samuel de Champlain Image by D. Gordon E. Robertson, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license. However, de Champlain could not find the village Cartier had described, which made some people question whether it ever existed. • If there had been a village there, what happened to it and all the people who lived there? Let's take a moment to learn about them. St. Lawrence Iroquois The St. Lawrence Iroquois is the name given to a group of native tribes that farmed the area near the St. Lawrence River from about 1200 - 1600 AD. They occupied a wide area, from New York to Vermont and into Canada. This map shows where they lived: approximate area occupied by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians in 1535 Image by Joseph B, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 2.5 license. The name Canada, in fact, comes from a word in the Iroquois language meaning "settlement". Historians believe the St. Lawrence Iroquois were not one group but were made up of about 25 different tribes with a similar culture and language. It's thought that they numbered up to 10,000 people. Historians have several theories as to why the village of Hochelaga disappeared: • The people could have been wiped out in wars with other tribes. • European diseases could have killed many of them. • They may have migrated westward. • Another tribe may have absorbed them into their own. Hochelaga is considered important because it's the origin of modern-day Montreal. Jacques Cartier's descriptions of the well-organized village and friendly people helped to draw settlers to the area and helped grow a great city. In 1920, Hochelaga was named a National Historic Site by the Canadian government. It was the first Historic Site named in Montreal. In 1925, a memorial stone commemorating the lost village was placed on the campus of McGill University in Montreal: Hochelaga National Historic Site, McGill University Image by Daderot, via Wikimedia Commons, was released into the public domain. Head over to the Got It? section to review what you learned and find out why the Hochelaga rock was moved almost 100 years after it was placed! Elephango's Philosophy	<urn:uuid:aa724460-35d5-48bb-86ab-904c881f2e38>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.02115422487258911, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9517397880554199, "url": "https://www.elephango.com/index.cfm/pg/k12learning/lcid/13325/Lost_Village_of_Hochelaga" }
Pigeons are intelligent Frodes Young Birds, Pigeons are intelligent Abilities of Pigeons In a famous article in 1995, Watanabe, Sakamoto and Wakita described an experiment which showed that pigeons can be trained to discriminate between paintings by Picasso and Monet. The birds were first trained on a limited set of paintings: when the shown painting was a Picasso, the pigeon was able to obtain food by repeated pecking; when it was a Monet, pecking had no effect. After a while, the pigeons would only peck when shown Picasso paintings. They were then able to generalize, and correctly discriminate between paintings of the two painters not previously shown, and even between cubist and impressionist paintings (cubism and impressionism being the two stylistic schools Picasso and Monet belong to). When the Monet paintings were shown upside down, the pigeons were not able to properly categorize anymore; showing the cubist works upside down did not have such an effect. In 1995, the authors won the humorous Ig Nobel Prize in psychology for this work. In a later paper, Watanabe showed that if pigeons and human college students undergo the same training, their performance in distinguishing between Van Gogh and Chagall paintings comparable. Frodes Young Birdsi Similar experiments had shown earlier that pigeons can be trained to distinguish between photos showing human beings and those that do not, and between photos showing trees and those that do not, among many other examples. In all these cases, discrimination is quite easy for humans, even though the classes are so complex that no simple distinguishing algorithm or rule can be specified. It has therefore been argued that pigeons are able to form “concepts” or “categories” similar to humans, but that interpretation is controversial. Nevertheless, the experiments remain important and often cited examples in cognitive science.have featured in numerous experiments in comparative psychology, including experiments concerned with animal cognition, and as a result we have considerable knowledge of pigeon intelligence. For example, available data shows: • Pigeons have the capacity to share attention between different dimensions of a stimulus, but (like humans and other animals) their performance with multiple dimensions is worse than with a single stimulus dimension. • Pigeons can be taught relatively complex actions and response sequences, and can learn to make responses in different sequences. Blind Dates Parents • Pigeons readily learn to respond in the presence of one simple stimulus and withhold responding in the presence of a different stimulus, or to make different responses in the presence of different stimuli. * Pigeons can discriminate between other individual pigeons, and can use the behaviour of another individual as a cue to tell them what response to make. • Pigeons readily learn to make discriminative responses to different categories of stimuli, defined either by arbitrary rules (e.g. green triangles) or by human concepts (e.g. pictures of human beings). • They do less well with categories defined by abstract logical relationships, e.g. “symmetrical” or “same”, though some experimenters have successfully trained pigeons to discriminate such categories. • Pigeons seem to require more information than humans for constructing a three-dimensional image from a plane representation. • Pigeons seem to have difficulty in dealing with problems involving classes of classes. Thus they do not do very well with the isolation of a relationship among variables, as against a representation of a set of exemplars. • Pigeons can remember large numbers of individual images for a long time, e.g. hundreds of images for periods of several years. All these are capacities that are likely to be found in most mammal and bird species. In addition pigeons have unusual, perhaps unique, abilities to learn routes back to their home from long distances. This homing behaviour is different from that of birds that show migration, which usually occurs over a fixed route at fixed times of the year, whereas homing is more flexible; however similar mechanisms may be involved. Additionally pigeons may be among the very few animals to pass the mirror test[1] — which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself — along with common chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, dolphins, elephants, and humans. However, the tests which purported to show that pigeons could pass the mirror test have been criticized by many scientists Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:9a47dc40-3bb1-4832-80c6-8b8e7d7f89d1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.04875677824020386, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9592584371566772, "url": "https://pigeonvitality.com/pigeons-are-intelligent/" }
Dudeney Dissection What is the minimal number of parts an equilateral triangle should be cut into so that a square can be formed rearranging them? This problem was offered as a challenge to the readers of the Daily Mail newspaper issued as of 1st and 8th February 1905. Among hundreds answers obtained, only one was right: four parts are enough. How can one guess such a dissection? Take a triangle and a square of equal area and make two regular stripes, repeating each of the shapes. Putting the stripes above one another so that the maximum number of one's side midpoints matches the sides of the other, the desired dissection is obtained. This is in a way a general method of finding dissections of equal area polygons. Solving such problems is the subject of Harry Lindgren's ”Recreational problems in geometric dissections and how to solve them” book. Dudeney writes: ”I add an illustration showing the puzzle in a rather curious practical form, as it was made in polished mahogany with brass hinges for use by certain audiences. It will be seen that the four pieces form a sort of chain, and that when they are closed up in one direction they form the triangle, and when closed in the other direction they form the square”.	<urn:uuid:aa7aa5a8-ca43-45fc-9ef5-e909528c7dc4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.6038891673088074, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.933907687664032, "url": "https://icm2022.etudes.ru/en/dudeney-dissection/" }
The story of bicycling in the United States begins in the years just after the Civil War. In the mid-1860s, French mechanics working in blacksmith and carriage shops helped develop machines known as “velocipedes” (from the Latin words velox pedis, or “swift of foot”). Early champions hailed the new technology largely for its utility. Calling it the new “poor man’s horse,” such early “velocipedestrians” promised an end to transportation dependency. The new machines gave individuals a safe, efficient, and reliable private transportation option that did not require food or much by way of everyday maintenance and upkeep. Following a wave of demand, a handful of velocipede makers shipped their new inventions to the United States where they fostered a veritable “velocipede mania” between 1868 and 1869. From New York to San Francisco, new velocipede rinks opened, offering people a chance to see the new machines in action. Though the velocipedes were prohibitively expensive and unwieldy, they helped develop the origins of a new and popular sport. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, a new word arose to give the machines a new name: bicycle. Bicycling technologies, demographics, and the geographic reach of the bike “boom” all rapidly expanded. At the same time, the sport became less synonymous with appeals to fostering a “poor man’s horse” and more a sport of recreation, leisure, and daredevil competition, as in venues such as short-track and long-distance races. The bikes themselves also remained well out of the reach of most middle-class consumers. Hi-wheel bicycles of the 1870s and 1880s were difficult and often dangerous to ride. Upstart organizations such as the League of American Wheelmen (LAW, founded 1880 in Rhode Island) embraced the exclusionary technology and thus helped white and predominantly upper-class bicyclists push back against demands for better access to the sport routinely called for by women, workers, and non-whites seeking more practical and utilitarian points of entry. Wheelmen built elaborate new clubhouses throughout the country to house their bikes and equipment and provide a space to their bicycling clubs. Yet access to these places was never equally shared. Continuing innovations in technology, along with challenges to the sport’s culture of exclusion, helped vastly expand the availability, safety, and practicality of bicycles in the early 1890s. This led to bicycling’s first real mass democratization in the United States during the early and middle part of the 1890s. Bikes after the introduction of the “safety” model in England in 1885 became affordable and practical for the first time to large numbers of middle-class and working-class consumers. Anxious about what this might mean in a nation where women and non-whites were systematically assigned lesser status, white male elites took a number of steps to secure the benefits of the sport for themselves. In addition to more formal measures such as bans on membership, they also voiced deep resentments toward these riders and communities in bicycling magazines and newspapers. Chicago’s Bearings and Milwaukee’s Pneumatic invited riders to Wheelmen-hosted minstrel shows and other community events that routinely mocked the poor and other marginalized groups while also using the events to raise funds to build new Wheelmen clubhouses and leverage increased political access. Critics were deeply concerned that the bicycle would afford greater mobility, privacy, and political power. The League thus stepped up its exclusionary efforts after 1893. These labors culminated in a ban on African American bicycling following a League meeting in Louisville, Kentucky, in 1894. This added to the existing yet usually informal or implicit bans women had long endured in their claims for equal access to Wheelmen clubhouses, events, and other popular (and profitable) early bicycling venues. White male claims to the sport were routinely challenged, however. Women writers such as Frances Willard (President of the Women Christian Temperance Union) and Maria Ward were important early female advocates of bicycling who used print venues to challenge the culture of early men’s cycling magazines. As bikes became more affordable and more accessible to women during the height of the 1890s boom, Willard celebrated the sport’s emancipatory promise in her book, A Wheel Within a Wheel: How I Learned to Ride the Bicycle, With Some Reflections by the Way (1895) while Ward hoped to teach women important practical skills, such as how to use bicycling tools, in her Bicycling for Ladies (1896). African Americans, meanwhile, purchased their own clubhouses and helped to organize the “First World’s Tournament of Colored Riders” at St. Louis in 1895, a year after the LAW officially segregated the sport. In the late 1890s and early 1900s, famous racers such as Marshall Walter “Major” Taylor helped claim a space for African Americans at the most elite levels of the sport. Throughout the late nineteenth century, the dominant white cycling culture defied such perceived intrusions, and remained committed to protecting bicycling’s benefits for an elite set. This sheet music from the Library of Congress, showing a gendered “Jim Crow” as “Lily Crow” on a bicycle, helps illuminate the entangled racist and sexist appeals made by bicycling’s early elite. Bicycling clubs of the late nineteenth century helped transform the national landscape in a variety of ways, but often through appeals originating from their exclusionary politics. Through efforts such as the Good Roads movement of the 1890s, for example, bicyclists helped constitute a powerful voice and lobby for improved national and state road infrastructures. Good Roads advocates working in large part through the cycling community expanded a national network of paved highways and side paths. They also provided white middle and upper-class bicyclists (and later, automobile drivers) with a network of hotels, restaurants, rail lines, and shops that uniquely catered to the bicycling community. Many of the men who got their start as bike mechanics soon found themselves a home in the tremendously profitable auto and aviation industries, including Henry Ford and Orville and Wilbur Wright. Yet improved roads were usually first built outside the factories of major bike makers, bike retailers, and along important routes of commerce, both to help speed workers to their jobs, and to provide employers with better infrastructure for trade. Local, state, and then national traffic laws all had important precedents take root in early contests to decide where and when bicyclists ought to be allowed to ride. The bicycle remained popular in Europe and throughout the world after 1900, but fell into disfavor in the United States because of the automobile’s rise. Philip Mason has estimated the existence of several million bike riders in the United States by 1900, of which roughly 103,000 became full-blown members of the LAW during its peak membership year in 1898. By 1905, that number shrunk to a paltry 3,000 members. By the end of World War Two, most U.S. residents saw the bicycle as a child’s toy, not as a serious transportation alternative for working and recreating adults. Their precipitous decline after 1900 troubled many early 20th century commentators. It was the lack of bicycles in the United States that worried diplomat and adviser George F. Kennan. In 1938, Kennan crisscrossed his home state of Wisconsin on a bicycle. He described deserted highways and grew apprehensive over the spirit of self-centered individualism he saw the new automobile culture generating. The bicycling community had helped generate America’s burgeoning love for privatized, individual transportation options. These two clips make the long legacies of bicycling’s early culture of exclusion clear. “How A Bike is Made” (1946) shows bicycling manufacturing to be dangerous, heavy-duty work, much like it was during the last half of the nineteenth century when child laborers were not an uncommon sight in early bike factories. Women remain marginalized, and are assumed only interested in cycling for domestic chores like shopping – what “mother” does – as the young boy notes in conversation with his father and the factory guide. The Walt Disney character, Jiminy Cricket, who made his first appearance in Pinnochio (1940), also occasionally offered young viewers public service announcements. One of his lessons from 1956 offered an introduction to bicycle history. The segment makes it clear just how deeply aligned the bicycle had become with youth culture by the time of the Cold War. It also suggests just how marginal the bicycle had become to the ways Americans thought about their transportation story. The bicycling community nonetheless began a dramatic turnaround in the United States beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, and sales again skyrocketed—for kids and adults. A new boom in bicycling interest means bicycles are once again front and center in a number of ongoing policy and public health discussions. Still the most efficient means of transportation available, the bicycle, nearly 150 years after its first appearance, remains the world’s most popular transportation choice. Diverse groups of Americans are still working to re-claim and re-appropriate the benefits of the sport from its divisive and troubled origins. Organizations like Black Women Bike: DC; Red, Bike, and Green; and the Major Taylor Association are helping to not only remind people of the historic presence of these communities in the early cycling boom, but also helping to make people of color and women both bicycling’s largest growing demographics. Advocates are also re-imagining certain vestiges of the first boom and updating them for the 21st century. Tweed Rides and new bike routes are just two examples of a long string of new bicycling events and venues to have emerged over the past decade. Yet it remains to be seen just how long the current boom might be sustained and where, ultimately, the road ahead might lead. The past suggests a more inclusive bicycling future would not only be an important corrective to past wrongs, but an important first step in re-imaging the democratic possibilities that have too often been overlooked in the bicycle’s long and remarkable story. Jesse Gant (@GantJesse) is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the co-author of Wheel Fever: How Wisconsin Became a Great Bicycling State. During the 2013-2014 academic year, he is working as a pre-doctoral fellow at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History, where he is writing his dissertation on the formation and development of the Republican Party, 1854-1870. Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:c1e69633-f734-41a8-b543-05b020edf5d8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.03545963764190674, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9637759923934937, "url": "https://ushistoryscene.com/article/early-bicycling/" }
Mars Express Challenges 1 - 8 LEGOCAD is a software program that allows students to design or reproduce their LEGO models on a computer, which will create a permanent copy of the model. Teachers can write their own adventures to fit their curriculum and/or interests. The following story line was written by Sharon Simon and Linda Hamilton as part of their LEGO program. Teachers interested in using LEGOCAD software may feel free to download the .leg files for their own use. Please email us a copy of models and solutions your students produce. We would also be interested in exchanging other models of interest. LEGOCAD Mars Challenges 1 � 8 Design Challenge 1: Get to the Surface of Mars Design and build something to move the crew and as many salvaged supplies as possible from the spaceship, Mars Express, and transport the crew to the surface of Mars below. Design Questions What are some ways to get things to the escape pods? How many trips do you think you will need to make? What items will float in space and how can that help us? How big are the items you want to bring? How much do they weigh? Well, the Mars Express space ship survived the terrible meteor storm, but that was only the beginning of our story. The crew of astronaut specialists are stranded on board with failing on-board computers and precarious oxygen levels. Our crew has to abandon ship and reach the surface of Mars to survive. They do have a little time to plan what items from the space ship they can pack into the escape pods and take with them to the surface. They will have to figure out how to build a survival colony. Our crew's first challenge will be getting supplies from the ship to the surface, and getting out of the Mars Express into the escape pods and navigate their way to terra firma below. This is what they did... LEGOCAD Mars Express Design Challenge 2: Providing Oxygen for the Mars Express crew Design and build something to produce a continuous supply of oxygen. Design Questions: What are some ways to produce oxygen and what do you need to do it? How will you distribute the oxygen? Where will you build the oxygen producing machine? How much and how long will your machine work? How must it be maintained? Surviving the terrible meteor storm is only the beginning of our story. We have been stranded on what seems to be a deserted, desert planet. Fortunately, the wreckage of The DC Mars Express is able to give us valuable parts for salvage and survival. Our second challenge was getting a design and building a machine to produce oxygen. This is what we did... LEGOCAD Mars Express Design Challenge 3: A Shelter on the Surface of Mars Design and build a shelter to protect the Mars Express crew and the salvaged supplies. Design Questions: What are the yearly average temperature, wind conditions, radiation count, and current conditions? What shapes are used in shelters to make them sturdy and rigid? How are structures held together? In what special ways are the LEGO structures held together? We thought that getting things into the escape pods and navigating the crew to the surface of Mars was tough, then we found surviving after that was the real job ahead. Building our home on Mars will be a real challenge. First, we had to decide where it was going to be located. What will we use as building materials? What do we have from the salvaged ship to help us? We also had to consider things such as protection from radiation, meteorites, dust storms, high winds, and other unknown dangers. So... LEGOCAD Design Challenge 4: Quench the Mars Express Crews' Thirst Well, at least we are safe and sound for the time being. Accomplishing that was not easy. Our Mars Express crew should be proud of ourselves. Now that we are warm and dry on the surface of Mars, we realize we are thirsty. We need a supply of water or some liquid that contains water to survive. Someone in the crew remembers that plants and other items were salvaged from the agricultural garden on board our space ship. The plants would require some kind of fresh water supply. Can we design and build something that will produce a steady supply of water and distribute it automatically among the crews' quarters? We will need to find a way to produce water and develop a way to get a steady supply for human use as well as plant production. This is what we did . . . Design Questions: Where is the machine and minerals to produce water or liquid located? Where is the Mars Express Mars Colony shelter in relationship to the liquid? Does the liquid stay in one place or are we planning on moving it around to the crews' quarters? Try this. Draw part of your system. Pass it to a friend and have them add something. Go back and forth among your crew until it is done. What do you think? Try it! This adventure is turning out to be more work that we ever dreamed. First, the meteor storm destroys our space ship. Then gathering supplies, getting them into the escape pods with the crew and on the surface of Mars, and, finally, building a shelter on the surface of Mars. Now finding and/or producing water. I think... LEGOCAD Design Challenge 5: Is that Thunder or is Our Stomachs Rumbling? The Mars Express crew needs food to survive. What kinds of food do can we choose from? Does anyone think we will find any of those foods among the plant stock and/or seedlings rescued from the agricultural farm? Perhaps there is even some fresh fish available in the oceanic experimental lab that we salvaged. Have a look around. We might find there is a wide variety of food available. There might be a suitable site on Mars to set up a farming site. Did we find any grains among the salvaged plants? The crew needs a balanced diet. Everyone knows the five food groups are essential for good health! How can we harvest or capture food? Good luck. Hope you aren't too hungry yet! Design Questions: What type of food do we want to get? What do we have to do to get it? What machine(s) can help make getting it easier? We have learned that finding food in the agricultural section of the Mars Express space ship and getting it to reproduce on Mars are two very different things. We wanted to eat something good so we decided to... LEGOCAD Design Challenge 6: Is Anyone Out There? The Mars Express crew has satisfied the basic needs for shelter, water and food. Now it is time to look for others; maybe someone out there can help us get home to Earth. Think of ways to signal to others who might be passing by in space ships of their own, or perhaps, in a surveillance ship or satellite. It's time for an SOS! Design Questions: What type of communication do we want to use (sounds, words, pictures)? Can we use a combination of methods to make the model more effective? Well, I've done everything I could to survive on the surface of Mars, but we need to do more! Now it's time to get off of this Martian surface and speed away to Earth. We don't know if there is anyone else on the Martian surface, or passing by in space. We'd love to find some help. We don't know if there is anyone else here. We are trying to signal other people using... LEGOCAD Design Challenge 7: Take a Look Around Mars Express Crew Surviving on the surface of Mars We are bored and anxious waiting for help to escape the dusty, wind blown surface of Mars and begin our six month journey home to Earth. Exploring the Martian surface is a good idea. It keeps us busy and who knows: we may find someone or something to help. What kind of vehicle can be designed to travel on the Martian surface? How can we avoid or overcome obstacles along the way, such as gullies, large boulders, dust storms, cliffs, radiation poisoning? What about supplies for extended travel? Design Questions: Where are we going to travel? What types of terrain might we travel through? What other problems can we anticipate? What can we prepare to help the crew with those problems? Well, things are beginning to look up. We've built a vehicle from some of the extra supplies and set off to explore parts unknown. While exploring, we... LEGOCAD Design Challenge 8: Energy to the Rescue Let's review all that the Mars Express crew has done. After surviving the meteor storm, the crew managed to get themselves and some supplies to the escape pods, and then to the surface of Mars. Next, the crew built a shelter, a way to collect water, a way to gather or capture food, a communication system, and a vehicle to explore the surface of Mars. That's the good news. The bad new is that the Mars Express crew is still on Mars! Using all of the skills developed, design a way to leave the Mars and travel home. Or, if the crew wants to, you can continue your trip! Design Questions: What type of transportation will be designed? What type of energy does it use? How will the flow of energy be controlled? We have finally found it within ourselves to venture away from the shelter of the Mars Express colony and try to make it home to Earth. We are going to use the things we have learned in this space adventure. Our rescue device is... LEGOCAD Teacher Notes This information is for Teachers, Curriculum Developers, and others who may wish to create sample files for use by others. Several features of LEGO CAD are available to aid in the development of supporting curriculum. These include the following: Information Editing Save Selected Parts Connections to other software Information Editing: The text in the Information Window is normally not editable, however you may wish to create text here for the development of problems in the style of the Design Challenges. A special technique allows you to start up the program with an Information Window which can be edited. To start the program this way on a PC, use the command-line switch /E. Instead of double-clicking on the icon in Windows 3.1 or using the Programs Pop-up menu in Windows 95, use Run... instead, from the Program Manager File menu in Windows 3.1 or from the Start menu in Windows 95. In the box, using all caps as shown below, type the following: If you have installed LEGO CAD onto a different drive or directory, type these instead. When the program starts, you will be able to type in the Information Window. When you save your file, the text in this window is saved with your model, and appears the next time the file is opened. Save Selected Parts Only: You may select a number of parts that you wish the student to use, then Save the model. When this file is opened, the parts will be pre-selected and ready for building. This is a good technique for limiting the number of parts or for making suggestions as to which parts might be best. You can clarify your intentions in the Information Window, as discussed in the previous section. The Parts Reporting feature provides an opportunity to further develop a scenario by requesting reports on cost, weight, scarcity, or other measures which might be applied to the parts. The custom descriptors and column headings allow the reports to be tailored to fit a particular teaching goal or content overlay. Connections to other software: LEGO CAD offers the ability to integrate your LEGO activities with other programs your students may be using. Bitmaps may be copied to the clipboard for immediate pasting into other software or saved as files for later import or direct manipulation. The LEGO EXCHANGE program gives your students the ability to further develop their LEGO CAD models in Autodesk 3D Studio or any program which supports 3D DXF files. The Journal Window Some models that you Open may have text-based information which appears in the Journal Window. This text may have been attached to a model which came with the program, or it may have been entered by you or another user. The text in this window can be edited. The text may be printed by selecting Journal from the dialog box which comes up when you select the Print command from the File menu. This window contains a scroll bar for scrolling the text up and down, and the window may be resized by dragging the bars which separate it from the Model Window above and the Information Window to the left. The display of this window may be toggled on and off with the Journal command in the Window menu or from within the Preferences Window under the File menu. The text in this window may be saved with your model by checking the Journal box in the dialogue box which comes up when you Save your model, and journals from other models may be loaded by checking the same box during an Open command. File Names: Currently, file names are limited to eight characters each, not including the .LEG extension. The combination of the directory and file name into a path may be longer, for example: Windows 95 at 640 x 480: When running LEGO CAD under Windows 95 at 640 x 480 resolution, the last button on the Tool Bar may run off the edge of the screen slightly if the Windows 95 taskbar is on. If you would like to get this button fully onto the screen, you may hide the taskbar by clicking on Start button, then Settings and Taskbar..., and make sure that Always on top box is NOT checked. This will make a little more room on the screen, which will allow six (rather than five) selected parts to appear, and the buttons on the Tool Bar will slide to the left a little. You will also get a little more room to build! Save Bitmap: Bitmap files are saved in Windows .BMP format, and may be examined and edited with Windows Paint or other painting and image-based software. Photographs of Mars These photographs of Mars were taken from various probes, satellites, and telescopes. They also represent different seasons and areas of Mars. Essentially, Mars is a desert planet. Ideas About Mars These are drawings showing possible solutions to the problem of traveling, landing, and living on Mars. The photograph to the right shows a real agricultural garden in the atmosphere of a spaceship. All drawings are based on known scientific knowledge of Mars. Davis Creek Elementary DC LEGO Site Map LEGO Links of Linda Hamilton Created 6 / 26 / 2004 S. Simon ( ssimon@access.k12.wv.us ) L. Hamilton ( hamilton@marshall.edu )	<urn:uuid:1cdf9cf3-d11f-4624-a5dc-f03514b79886>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.030410051345825195, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.928849995136261, "url": "https://netapps.marshall.edu/lego/legoCAD/Mars/legocadmarschallenges.htm" }
Aerial photo of the lower Manhattan skyline, including the Twin Towers. Aerial photograph of lower Manhattan, undated. Collection 9/11 Memorial Museum, Gift of Keystone Aerial Surveys, Inc. The History of the World Trade Center What was the World Trade Center and why was it important? The original World Trade Center was a 16-acre complex in New York City, comprising seven buildings that housed more than 430 businesses from around the world. The Twin Towers, two 110-story skyscrapers at the World Trade Center, dominated the Manhattan skyline for three decades before their destruction in 2001. Although initially criticized for their audacious height and severe architectural style, the buildings took on iconic status in the public imagination, becoming emblematic of New York City and America as a whole. Their fame and symbolism made the Twin Towers the targets of two terrorist attacks. The first took place on February 26, 1993, when a van loaded with approximately 1,200 pounds of explosives was detonated in the public parking garage beneath the World Trade Center. The second took place on September 11, 2001, when members of the terrorist group al-Qaeda flew two hijacked planes into the buildings, leading to their collapse. Primary Sources These primary sources include speeches, executive orders, legislative acts and debates, and government reports. History of the Port Authority of NY & NJ Port Authority’s history of the WTC Program from the World Trade Center dedication ceremony on April 4, 1973 List of World Trade Center tenants Suggested Reading List The Man Who Walked Between the Towers Mordicai Gerstein. Square Fish, 2007. (Kindergarten–Grade 3) Three World Trade Center Was Our Home Isabelle Tadmoury Florjin (author), Annerose Wahl (illustrator). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013. (Grades 1–2) James Glanz and Eric Lipton. Times Books, 2004 Twin Towers: The Life of New York City’s World Trade Gillespie, Angus. Rutgers University, 1999 Symbolism and the city: From towers of power to ‘Ground Zero’ Robert Patrick and Amy MacDonald. Prairie Perspectives: Geographical Essays (Vol: 15), 2012. Related Resources These related resources include lesson planspast public programs, and feature galleries on Inside the Collection.	<urn:uuid:be5e21b6-880e-4c46-95e3-a2e7c641bd3c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.027438104152679443, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8922739624977112, "url": "https://911memorial.org/learn/resources/911-primer/module-3-history-world-trade-center" }
Making a Hero of Harriett Tubman 766 Words3 Pages Many people think Batman and Superman are heroes because of their bravery and daring personalities but they are not true and honorable heroes. True and honorable heroes have to sacrifice for others, have good intentions to their actions, and make a difference in other’s lives. Others may argue that there is more to a hero than those traits or that you only need one of the traits but you can’t be a hero without all three traits even if you have other good traits to make up for it. A hero is selfish if they do not sacrifice for their task. Even if they have done something good for another person, they can’t be a hero because they didn’t jeopardize themselves for the good of others. To be sacrificial, one has to expose themselves for the well-being of others. Some could argue that you could save other people without making an actual sacrifice and that the person is still helped or saved but then the person was only lucky to be helped or saved and that does not make the other person a hero. Harriet Tubman is a good example of sacrificing for the good of others, “…Tubman escaped to Philadelphia, then immediately returned to Maryland to rescue her family. Slowly, one group at a time, she brought relatives out of the state, and eventually guided dozens of other slaves to freedom.” (p1, ¶3) as stated by Wikipedia editors, 2014. Harriet’s life and new-found freedom were at risk because she chose to go back to the home of the people who had owned her for her entire life. She was a More about Making a Hero of Harriett Tubman Get Access	<urn:uuid:07e8b0e2-200c-49f8-b012-104fb8af4906>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.11969411373138428, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9714614152908325, "url": "https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Making-a-Hero-of-Harriett-Tubman-F3WRT94J8B6A" }
In George and the Stolen Sunny Spot, George is accidentally hauled to town in a load of hay. He is able to find a spot between the small square bales where he can hide. Farmers and ranchers bale hay in the summer to feed their livestock during the winter. They might make square bales like those that George used for hiding, but most likely they will be baling large, round bales. A large hay bale will feed more livestock than a small one so the work goes faster. A tractor can easily pick up and carry large bales. Here some people are loading small bales onto a trailer by hand. It takes a lot of muscle to move them around! To make hay, a farmer or rancher will cut his or her grass or alfalfa with a special kind of mower, then let it lay on the ground for awhile to dry. When it’s dry enough, he or she will rake it into long lines called windrows and perhaps let it dry some more. It’s important that the hay be dry enough that it won’t get moldy after it’s baled, but it can’t be too dry or it will crumble. When the hay has just the right amount of moisture, the farmer or rancher will pull his or her baler down the windrows with a tractor. The baler picks up the hay then spins and compresses it until the hay bale is the right size. Then the baler opens and pushes out the bale. Later the farmer or rancher will come back with a tractor and move the bales off of the field and into storage for winter feeding. It takes a lot of power to move a large hay bale! George would rather sit on the hay bale than try to move it.	<urn:uuid:535f361a-9a3f-450e-9c52-a9b72a07004a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.19759398698806763, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9272607564926147, "url": "https://www.kristinganoung.com/georges-world/hay/" }
Book Clasps book claspsThe use of book clasps appears to be as old as the codex itself. In its earliest form, which was Coptic bindings, the book clasp consisted of a strap attached to the fore edge of the upper cover and wound around the book over the fore edge several times, the bone attached to the end of the strap being tucked between the strap and the lower cover. Another method, which may actually have been used more often than the strap, consisted of the plaited thong with loops which fit over bone pegs at the edge of the lower cover. Book clasps of this type seems to have been used in England at least as early as the 12th century. The strap was fastened to the fore edge of the upper cover, and the end, which had a metal-rimmed hole, was taken around to the middle of the lower cover and was attached to a metal pin. English book binders of the 14th century began using two straps instead of just one, something which had been done earlier and more often on the Continent of Europe. The hole and pin type was more or less abandoned early in the 14th century and replaced by clasps and catches attached to the fore edge. Initially, each clasp consisted of a strip of leather having a metal hook on one end. Later, the metal part of the clasp was the full thickness of the book and was sometimes attached to the board by means of a metal hinge. In bindings of the 15th and 16th centuries, and probably earlier, the location of the book clasps is a reasonably accurate indication of the country of origin. English and French bindings usually had them attached to the upper cover with the catch on the lower, while bindings of the Netherlands and Germany had the catch on the upper cover. Italian binders often attached the clasp to the upper covers and often used as many as four clasps. book claspsThe velvet-covered books of the royal collection in England in the 15th and 16th centuries often had ornamental gilt clasps, which were often combined with elaborately ornamented gilt corner pieces and centerpieces which helped prevent abrasion of the velvet. The use of metal clasps began to decline early in the 16th century, probably because they could not be securely attached to the pasteboards which were replacing boards made of wood. The weight, size, and material of the books being published at that time did not require clasps, and clasps were no longer economically feasible for the normal run of books. In most cases they were replaced by Ties . Clasps made of brass were still used in the 16th century for some books which were bound with boards of wood, and silver clasps and corner pieces were often used on small Bibles and other devotional works as late as the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In certain German bindings, however, e.g., Bibles, clasps were used continuously until the end of the 18th century. This was notably true in America, for example, where almost all German-American bindings, e.g., the Saur Bibles, were issued in calfskin over wood with two heavy clasps attached to the lower cover. Brass clasps were revived during the latter part of the 19th century, mainly for Bibles and prayer books, but also for photograph albums, diaries, and the like. They were often attached to metal frames which protected the edges of boards. book claspsThere are very few suppliers of book clasps and related fittings. In Europe; the Muller Bindery in Germany produces certainly the most comprehensive range of reproduction period fittings in the world, here is a picture representative of the range they carry. book claspMost book binders at some stage put their hands to making book clasps themselves, I made the fittings for the book shown on the left, but their is no quick fix when it comes to making clasps like this. It takes time to make clasps like this out of brass and cut with a jewelers saw and small files. The thongs are made from alum tawed leather, backed with vellum to prevent stretching and give extra strength. book claspbook clasps These clasps are a pleasure to make, I used silver wire hammered flat and plaited with vellum, they should prove to be extremely durable. Please note there is a free tutorial available from this site which shows you in detail how to make a set of silver book clasps like these. book clasps In the USA Joycelyn Merchant is also making book clasps. After a 25 year career as a jewelry designer and metal smith she became interested in the Book Arts. She now teaches classes and gives a workshop on making metal book clasps in which she teaches bookbinding students enough simple metal working techniques to enable them to easily make their own clasps using readily available tools and materials. Bookbinding and the Conservation of books. A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology Matt T. Roberts and Don Etherington nick cowlishaw dvd book clasps cold gluing machines sheepskin skiver book binding	<urn:uuid:3acbae29-b915-4213-816a-3c238bbf579d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.02473384141921997, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9749027490615845, "url": "http://www.edenworkshops.com/book_clasps.html" }
When a mechanical stress is applied to an ionic crystal, in a direction that generates a separation of the centre of positive and negative charges, an electric polarization (dipole) is generated. This is the direct piezoelectric effect. Conversely, the application of an electric field gives place to a mechanical strain. Piezoelectricity is an anisotropic effect, which only takes place in some directions of the crystal. Fig. above shows the subdivision of piezoelectric crystals into pyroelectrics, in which a spontaneous electrical polarization appears when the crystals are either heated or cooled : this spontaneous polarization changes with the temperature, following the changes of the crystal structure. Pyroelectrics in turn, are subdivided into ferroelectric crystals, whose polarization can be reversed by an electric field. Ferroelectrics present a hysteretic loop of polarization versus electric field, and a transition at a high temperature, to a non-polar, paraelectric phase. Polycrystalline materials, such as ceramics and many of the functional thin films, have randomly oriented grains. They are isotropic and centrosymmetric materials, thus, non-piezoelectric. Piezoelectric ceramics and thin films are built from ferroelectric crystallites, whose polarization can be oriented by an electric field, in the so-called poling process. Poling induces a cylindrical symmetry with a preferential axis, commonly referred to as 3 axis, being orthogonal to axis 1 and 2. Poled ferroelectric ceramics are non-centrosymmetric and piezoelectric. Piezoelectric ceramic domains can be imaged using Piezoresponse Force Microscopy. Piezoelectric ceramics and thin films, due to their ferroelectricity, are an important class of multifunctional materials whose properties have been exploited in a wide number of applications. Additionally, ferroelectrics have high dielectric permittivity and are used in capacitors. They present non-linear properties and an electro-optic effect, that can be applied to optical storage and optical switches. The polarization reversal allows the establishment of two stable orientations under an electric field, therefore, ferroelectric materials can be used for the fabrication of computer memories (FERAMs). Piezoelectric materials Most piezoelectric devices are based on oxide piezoelectric materials. Lead zirconate titanate (Pb(ZrxTi1-x)O3, abbreviated PZT), is the most widely used piezoelectric ceramic. The crystalline structure of PZT and of many other useful piezoelectrics is the perovskite structure or a derivative of perovskite. For some years, the relaxor-ferroelectrics have attracted much attention. Some of the relaxor-ferroelectrics have very high piezoelectric coefficients and, in mono crystalline form, when used in a specific configuration, they are very efficient in converting electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa. Although lead-free materials are preferred, the lead containing perovskites such as PZT are by far the best performing for actuators, transducers and a range of sensors. A large number of lead containing perovskites, called relaxors, show anomalous characteristics, typified by a strong frequency dispersion of their permittivity. Examples are lead magnesium niobate (PbMg1/3Nb2/3O3, PMN) and lead zinc niobate (PbZn1/3Nb2/3O3, PZN). These materials have many useful properties: a) very high permittivity over a wide temperature range, b) large electrostrictive strains, c) strong piezoelectric activity when the material is under a dc bias field, and d) strong electro-optic activity. In the present context, greatest interest is in the first three of these characteristics. Electrostriction in relaxors like PMN, give strain levels similar to that obtained by strong piezoelectrics like PZT, whilst the response is non-hysteretic. This is advantageous for some actuator applications. On the other hand, the electrostriction is quadratically dependent of the applied field. Therefore, for linear response, which is sometimes desired, additional electronics are needed. Another point requiring attention when using relaxors, is the strong temperature dependence of the obtained strain. However, piezoelectric activity under low E-field can still be of interest in micro-devices, where <10 V DC is sufficient to provide the necessary bias. This feature opens up some interesting possibilities, in particular, in transducer arrays, where it is possible, in principle, to activate selectively the different elements, thus avoiding cross talk. The high permittivity of relaxors is also advantageous for impedance matching of miniaturized transducers. Solid solutions of relaxors and normal ferroelectrics, called relaxor-ferroelectrics, (for example PMN-PbTiO3, and PZN-PbTiO3), show remarkable properties in the single crystal form. In direction <100>, PZN-PT has an exceptionally high coupling coefficient, reaching 0.94 and a d33 coefficient of 2000 pC/N in some off-polar directions. Strains as high as 1.7% have been obtained at high fields. A comparison of obtained strains is illustrative of the exceptional properties of relaxor-ferroelectric single crystals. In the ceramic form, these materials are similar in performance to soft PZT, although the permittivity is higher. Lead-free piezoelectrics Replacement of PZT with lead free piezoelectric material will considerably affect many industrial applications. For example, fuel injection actuators for engines are today based on PZT, as are nearly all probes for non-destructive testing and ultrasonic medical imaging. Replacement is not straightforward – the alternative lead-free material must possess very specific properties, be reliable and stable during exploitation, and still remain cost-effective. Research and development of lead-free piezoelectric materials is presently amongst the hottest topics in the field of piezoelectricity. There are two reasons for interest in lead-free piezoelectric materials, one is scientific and technological, the other is related to environment and health. The scientific challenges in developing lead free materials includes the following questions : (i) is the presence of Pb cation essential for high piezoelectricity? ; (ii) can lead-free systems exhibit properties comparable to those in lead-based systems? ; (iii) is it possible to find other mechanisms, besides MPB (morphotropic phase boundary), which would lead to significant enhancement of desirable properties ? Presently examined lead-free systems, such as (K,Na)NbO3 and (Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3 based materials, have properties inferior to that of lead based materials, and are difficult to process. One huge advantage of PZT and related systems, is that this one family, with minor modifications, is suitable for nearly all applications. The environmental and health issues related to Pb-based materials are obvious. According to RoHS, any homogeneous component containing more than 0.1 weight % of lead is subjected to restrictions. PZT and PMN-PT contain about 60 weight % Pb ! Presently, piezoelectric devices are exempted from the ban because there is no satisfactory replacement. However, reports from Japan and Europe, show that for some specific applications, it is possible to develop lead-free materials competitive to PZT. If such replacements become more widely available, PZT and related materials will have to be replaced. The present state of the research indicates that replacement of PbTiO3-based materials is done on a case-to-case basis – this is the present day approach in Japan. That is, a lead-free composition is developed for certain niche applications (one for motors, another one for ultrasonic applications, yet another one for a certain type of actuators, and so on). It is clear that such approach is not cost efficient. Thus, concentrated scientific effort is still required in order to fully understand the origins of high piezoelectricity, as well as technological effort towards solving the processing and reliability problems associated with lead-free piezoelectric materials. High temperature piezoelectrics High temperature piezoelectrics are needed in a number of key industries, including monitoring pressures in nuclear reactors, monitoring vibrations in aircraft engines and rockets, measuring pressures and vibrations in turbines, and in the materials processing industry generally. There is great advantage in placing sensors directly at the location where a mechanical signal should be measured (eg: in the engine cylinder, for example), rather than away from it. This is not often possible however, since, for example, pressure sensors cannot withstand elevated temperatures – the most widely used piezoelectric materials, based on PbTiO3 (such as PZT), are limited to temperature of around 200°C to 300°C, whilst present day requirements demand operation at temperatures up to 900°C or more. Development of new, high temperature piezoelectric materials is exceedingly challenging: Not only must the candidate material possess stable piezoelectric properties at high temperatures and high pressures, but they must often also operate in a harsh atmosphere (e.g., low partial pressure of oxygen, to protect electrical parts). In such atmosphere, many piezoelectric materials become conductive and thus the piezoelectric signal can become noisy or lost altogether. There are number of possible solutions to operation at high temperatures and under other extreme conditions. One approach is operation under resonance conditions, where resonance parameters are monitored as a function of the mechanical signal. This helps reduce sensitivity to conductivity changes – most often the most significant problem at high temperatures. But the most urgent need is to explore modified and new piezoelectric materials compositions, and to reduce the susceptibility of piezoelectrics to degradation (e.g. depoling, conductivity). There are a few lead-free single crystal materials that are possible candidates for high temperature applications (e.g., tourmaline, quartz, GaPO4), but their sensitivity is low and single crystals are expensive. One set of alternatives are Aurivillius structure materials, based on bismuth titanate, which are not only lead-free, but also exhibit piezoelectric coefficients that are several times higher than most single crystal candidates. Boracites are also possible candidates among single crystals. Piezoelectric single crystals Recent discovery of large piezoelectric coefficients (d33>2000 pC/N), and high electro-mechanical coupling coefficients (k > 0.9) in single crystals of Pb(Mg,Nb)O3-PbTiO3 and Pb(Zn,Nb)O3-PbTiO3, has caused a revolution in the research and applications of piezoelectric and ferroelectric materials. These high performance single crystal piezoelectrics exhibit excellent properties for ultrasonic imaging (better bandwidth and resolution than PZT ceramics-based probes), and for actuators (displacement several times higher, absence of strain-field hysteresis), as well as for some other applications. As the production of single crystals becomes more economical, one can expect an even wider use in medical and non-destructive testing probes, as well as in different type of actuators, scanning systems, and sensors. Interestingly, except for few isolated cases, research and development of high performance single crystals piezoelectrics has been limited to USA, Korea and Japan, while Europe has, so far, been left behind. Thus, Europe’s major producers of medical ultrasonic probes (e.g. Philips) are acquiring single crystal piezoelectrics in USA or Korea. However, there are still not enough producers to make supply reliable and affordable. One disadvantage of these materials (PMN-PT, PZN-PT) is that they are Pb-based, and are thus subjected to RoHS restrictions. Lead-free alternative must therefore be investigated, and for niche applications (e.g., single element probes for high frequency ultrasonic medical imaging), such crystals are already available in Europe. Piezoelectric polymers Piezoelectric polymers occupy a special place among piezoelectric materials, due to their softness and the possibility of making large area thin films. Even though many polymers can exhibit piezoelectric and even ferroelectric effect, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and its copolymers are presently the only polymers used as piezoelectric materials. The reason for this is that PVDF has relatively large piezoelectric activity, is easy to prepare, and is chemically stable. PVDF and related copolymers are excellent materials for some applications, in which low acoustical impedance is needed (coupling to air, water, biological tissues). But, besides these classical applications, new needs are emerging in the large area of biotechnology and research of processes within living systems. The potential here is enormous, both in terms of the possibility of designing new materials based on biological polymers (e.g., polypeptides), as well as in using piezoelectricity and polar properties of living systems for controlling physiological functions (e.g., osteogenesis, gene expression). It is of particular interest that many biological polymers also exhibit piezoelectric and pyroelectric effects, but little is known as to whether, or how, this electro-mechanical activity plays any physiological role. In fact, some amino acids, the building blocks of living systems, exhibit piezoelectricity, and accordingly, interest in the non-centrosymmetric properties of polymers has been renewed – most particularly because of the promise of polymers suitable for use in for example, energy harvesting and biotechnology applications. Some polar polymers have even been investigated for possible use in memory devices. In fact, the field of piezoelectric polymers is a highly multidisciplinary field, that will require close cooperation of materials scientists, chemists, physicists, and biologists. This field is still in its infancy and will require cooperative multidisciplinary efforts in answering questions such as : (i) what is the role, if any, of electro-mechanical activity in physiological processes ? (ii) if this role is not naturally present, can one benefit from mechanically generated charges, to control biological processes ? (iii) is it possible to design synthetic polypeptides with useful piezoelectric, dielectric and electrical properties? High dielectric constant & high coupling piezoelectric ceramics Current state of the art, high dielectric constant and high coupling piezoelectric ceramics, are based on perovskite Pb(ZrxTi1-x)O3 (PZT) at the morphotropic phase boundary (MPB), that occurs for x<0.53; rather, the MPB is more of a compositional region, than a simple, well defined x value. The highest coefficients are obtained by higher valence substitution (for instance : Nb5+ for Ti4+/Zr4+). This is the basis of commercial soft PZT, with d33 coefficients up to 600 pC N-1. There is an industrial demand for piezoelectric ceramics with dielectric constant and electro-mechanical coupling coefficients similar or higher than those of soft PZT, whilst at the same time, exhibiting lower losses. Such materials are sought after in order to enable the next generation of high sensitivity and low power devices, entering new application fields, like energy harvesting. This search has fostered an interest in alternative MPB materials, that present higher single crystal piezoelectric coefficients than PZT. Amongst such materiials, relaxor based Pb(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3-PbTiO3 and Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-PbTiO3 stand out, with d33 values above 2000 pC N-1. Ceramics of (1-x)Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-xPbTiO3 at the MPB (x<0.35) present a d33 of 700 pCN-1, and this has been further increased, up to 1500 pC N-1, by texture engineering. Another relaxor based MPB material with similar characteristics is Pb(Ni1/3Nb2/3)O3-Pb(Zr,Ti)O3. Until now, a large number of systems have been proposed, but ceramic processing is complicated, and their characterisation incomplete. Lead free perovskite solid solutions with MPB are also attracting increasing research activity, and systems like (Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3-BaTiO3 and (K,Na,Li)(Nb,Ta)O3, are promising candidates to replace PZT. Such increasingly extensive materials research efforts are of great potential. Chemical design of MPB systems needs to be further developed in order to enlarge the spectrum of candidate materials. Reliable and up-scalable concepts for the processing of the different materials also have to be defined, most particularly for texturing of low tolerance factor perovskites, and lead-free materials. Other major research trends include studies of grain size effects, down to the sub-micron and nano scales, that is being driven by the desire for miniaturisation of ceramic devices, and for producing thin film effects, in the context of integrated technologies like MEMs. Dielectric and pyroelectric materials The possibility of producing piezoelectric “bulk” ceramics lies in the possibility of breaking the symmetry properties of the ceramic, via the application of a high strength electric field (poling process). This is possible due to the ferroelectric nature of the crystallite grains, of which ceramic is composed. The ferroelectric nature of these crystallites implies an increase in the functional physical properties of the ceramic, including amongst others, pyroelectricity. In addition, ferro-piezoelectric compounds also present characteristics of high dielectric constant (K) due to the strong lattice polarizability, as well as an increased polarizability due to the presence of domain walls. Dielectric materials The dielectric properties of the ferro-piezoelectric (FEP) ceramics have been used with success for the fabrication of ceramic capacitors with high volumetric efficiency. Depending on the material used, “stable Mid – K” class II X7R (EIA Specifications) and “high – K” Z5U and Y5V quality capacitors can be fabricated. Traditional compositions used are based on the BaTiO3 (BT) perovskite, with tailored doping to reduce the K change, due to the phase transition and conductivity. Ferroelectric relaxor materials can also been used, due to their larger K. In order to increase the volumetric efficiency, multilayer capacitors (MLCs) were developed early on. The preparation of MLCs implies co-firing of the electrodes with the ceramics, thus lowering of the processing temperature has become a major research topic. This has made necessary the introduction of fluxes to reduce the temperature, in order to open the possibility of using non-noble metal electrodes like Ni or Cu. The degradation of the conductivity of MLCs is also an important area of research. The preparation of thin film capacitors based on FEP phases is also interesting for integration strategies, making it suitable for applications in Gbit DRAMs and high frequency devices. In integration applications, the influence of the interfaces, and also the size effects, are of even greater importance. For these applications, the necessity for high conductivity and for high diffusion barrier capabilities of the electrode arre crucial issues for research. Lowering the preparation temperature is also important for the integration of FEP materials compatible with silicon technology. Any increase in the volumetric efficiency of multilayer capacitors is based on a reduction in the thickness of the dielectric layer, which can approach 1 micro-m. Such a reduction in thickness implies a reduction in the grain size to sub-micron range, approaching the nanoscale, thus justifying detailed study of the size effect on the dielectric properties, as a fundamental research issue. Other possible applications of the dielectric capabilities of FEP materials are the fabrication of embedded capacitors using polymer ceramic composites and the fabrication of capacitors on flexible polymer substrates. This has potential for the future development of flexible micro and nanoelectronic systems. Pyroelectric materials The characteristic that accounts for the performance of a pyroelectric material is the total pyroelectric coefficient, PT. This is defined as the ratio between the change of electrical polarization of the material with respect to the change of temperature. Usually, pyroelectric devices work under constant stress conditions, thus an important contribution to PT comes from a piezoelectric contribution due to thermal expansion. This contribution, termed secondary pyroelectricity, is only possible in poled FEP and pyroelectrics, and is not exhibited by simple piezoelectrics. Technological applications of pyroelectric materials, in both “bulk” ceramics and in thin films, are mainly within the realm of thermal radiation detection. Thermal detectors measure infrared (IR) radiation through temperature change due to infrared absorption in the 10 mm wavelength range. The integration of FEP materials in thin films for pyroelectric applications, presents mostly the same research issues as do dielectric applications. Following a change of temperature of a pyroelectric, a depolarizing electric field appears, both inside the pyroelectric and outside its edges (the edge depolarizing electric field (EDEF)). The EDEF extends outwards, up to a distance of the order of magnitude of the pyroelectric element width. This strong EDEF (104 ¸ 106 V/cm), penetrating into the surrounding medium, creates a variety of physical effects. Such effects include the acceleration of charged and neutral, polarizable particles, in vacuum, and in gases. As a consequence, pyroelectric crystals have been used to ionize gas and to accelerate ions to energies up to 200keV at room temperature. Another notable research topic in this field, is the search for lead free materials for pyroelectric applications. Compositions based on mixtures of Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3 and BaTiO3 (BNT-BT) and alkaline niobates, are examples. Like piezoelectric conversion, energy harvesting by pyroelectric energy conversion can also be exploited. Polymer/FEP particle composites for pyroelectric applications are also the subject of research interest, due to their increased figure of merit. Multiferroic materials Multiferroics are an interesting class of materials that display at least two of the ferroic ordered states: electric, magnetic or elastic. Such materials are therefore, able to respond simultaneously to multiple stimuli at once (e.g. magnetic fields, electric fields, mechanical stress, etc), by changing their physical properties. For example, electric polarization can be altered by the application of a magnetic field, and conversely, the level of magnetization of the material can be altered by the application of an electric field. The interplay between electric and magnetic states is realized via the magneto-electric (ME) effect, that is defined as the coupling between electric and magnetic fields in matter. Although this coupling can have non-linear components, the ME effect is usually described mathematically by the linear ME coupling coefficient (), which is the dominant coupling term. The linear ME coupling coefficient (α) can be induced either electrically (αE = dM/dE), or magnetically (αH = dP/dH ε0εrdE/dH), where M is the magnetization, E is the electric field, P is the electric polarization, H is the magnetic field and ε0, εr, are respectively, the dielectric permittivity of the vacuum and of the medium. Knowledge of these relationships is essential for the design and functionality of ME devices (eg. ME sensors). Magnetoelectric multiferroics are the most common group of multiferroics, where the two-ferroic orders are ferromagnetic and ferroelectric. In these materials, the internal magnetic / electric fields are enhanced by the presence of the multiple long-range ferroic ordering, which in turn, produces large ME coupling effects. In addition, this ME coupling can be stress mediated in samples exhibiting piezo-effects, especially when the two ferroic phases are separated, as in multiferroic composites, or when they coexist within a matrix. In such cases, the ME coupling effect is described by an enhanced effective ME coupling coefficient (at room temperatures) , that entails both the linear effect and the stress mediated component. Although multiferroic materials have been known for a long time, the field is in its infancy, and multiferroics are re-emerging as materials with strong potential for a range of applications. The recent increased research interest in multiferroics is due to the following trends: 1) The potential for composite forms of such materials, that allow optimisation of their magneto-electric coupling strength and their operating temperature, by tuning the individual phases of the composite. 2) The development of thin film multiferroic structures, that makes them the best candidates for vertical integration at wafer level. The availability of high-quality thin-film multiferroics makes it easier to tailor their properties, through epitaxial strain, atomic-level engineering chemistry, and interfacial coupling, and is a prerequisite for their incorporation into practical devices. Relaxors are a special class of polar dielectrics that are characterised by their very high, dispersive, polarisability. The temperature dependencies of the dielectric permittivity, and of the losses, present broad maxima at temperatures Tm, that increases with frequency. A model relaxor is perovskite Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3, that shows a maximum in relative permittivity of ~20000eo at -8 ºC and 1 kHz. That shifts to 20 ºC with frequency in the radio range. Moreover, relaxors present slim polarisation hysteresis loops. These electrical properties are due to the presence of polar nano-regions (PNRs), immersed in a paraelectric matrix, and to their particular dynamics. One opopular applications of relaxors is electrostrictive actuation in servo-displacement transducers, due to their hysteresis free electromechanical response, that is particularly advantageous for applications such as adaptative optics. 0.9Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-0.1PbTiO3 is the material that presents the best electrostrictive characteristics, and it is the basis of electrostrictive multilayer actuators. A major research trend, is in the development of novel lead free relaxors, with high electrostrictive strain, required to meet both industrial demand, and RoHS regulations. Although materials with polarisation coefficients similar to those of 0.9Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-0.1PbTiO3 have been obtained, their permittivity was significantly lower. There is also a large potential market for integrated technologies, and a lot of activity focuses on relaxor films. Relaxor films generally present lower permittivity than bulk materials however, and this is currently not well understood. A number of fundamental scientific questions remain. These include: the precise mechanisms responsible of the appearance of PNRs, those responsible for their dynamics, and those responsible for the relaxor to ferroelectric transition. Tunable Ferroelectrics at microwave frequency The permittivity of ferroelectrics, especially at temperatures not too far from the ferroelectric phase transition, is strongly dependent on the prevailing electric field. Therefore, a ferroelectric capacitor can in principle serve as a varactor, (voltage dependent capacitor), fulfilling the same function as an rf-MEMS switch or semiconductor varactor. In comparison to rf-MEMS, (capacitor switches), tunable ferroelectric capacitors do not have mechanical parts and their response is faster. Whilst such materials are not standard IC materials, and whilst they still require further detailed research and development, the technology itself is really rather simple. Tunable ferroelectrics are attractive for applications above ≈ 10 GHz, where pin diodes show relatively high power consumption, and MEMS switches relatively slow response. Electro-optic materials Traditionally, the intrinsic electro-optic (EO) effect in transparent non-centrosymmetric materials is considered as a fundamental phenomena, investigated in crystals, ceramics and thin films. The electro-optic response of materials is indivisible from the piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and non-linear optical properties of piezoelectrics, since these materials essentially belong to the same family of non-centrosymmetric crystallographic classes. Exploitation of the electro-optic properties of materials represents a major step forward in the development of new mutltifunctional devices. Such devices would combine various material intrinsic properties (like piezoelectric and electro-optic, magnetic and electric – multiferroic), that would be tailored for specific applications.	<urn:uuid:fd061449-1bb0-4187-83ce-c1f49853c681>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.02007734775543213, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9141712188720703, "url": "https://electrosciences.co.uk/materials-science/materials-types/piezoelectric-materials-types/" }
80-20 Rule Details The 80/20 Rule, or Pareto Law, lends itself to just about any discipline. Also called Pareto Distribution or Pareto's Principle of Unequal Distribution, Vilfredo Pareto first described the law in 1896. His work was further developed by Joseph Moses Juran. This Romanian-American engineer and management consultant coined the phrase "the 80-20 rule." The 80-20 rule helps us understand why there's an uneven distribution of "things," including wealth. This would explain an individual's unequal contribution to a whole. The fact that 80 and 20 equal 100% is a complete coincidence. The numbers are meant to demonstrate uneven distribution, not just that the two parts equal 100%. Your inputs and outputs (your 80 and 20) do not have to equal 100. The formula states that N represents the number of people with wealth larger than the income limit x. A and α are constants. Therefore, the formula is: N = A/xα. As a result, log(N) = log(A) − α log(x) You plot these logarithms (log)—which are the number of times you need to raise a number to achieve a certain number—of the number of people who receive an income above definite amounts against the logarithms of the amount of these incomes. Real-World Example of the 80/20 Rule The Bracken Company was concerned because their productivity was down. They were always missing output goals, and the delays were costing the company orders. They hired a consultancy firm, Stark Stearns, which did an efficiency study on the company's data before and after the company missed its goals. Stearns found that the main difference after the delays began was that staff shortages were higher after the lower productivity began. So they applied the 80/20 rule and found that roughly 80% of the absences were among 20% of the employees. The consultant met with management and human resources to address the situation. They considered: 1. The number and percentage of employees who were absent on any shift. 2. The attendance record of each employee and the reasons for their absences. 3. The overall trend in the reasons for absences. 4. Whether the company needed more employees for adequate coverage in every shift. 5. The 20% of employees who were absent the most and their general work records. HR targeted these employees for special interviews. In these interviews, they asked employees what they could do to improve their attendance. The overall finding was that the company needed cross-trained per diem employees who could come in for the day. After the company made the necessary changes, Stearns reassessed. They found that 20% of employees who had been absent the most were now attending more frequently. Some follow-up interviews indicated that the reason they came to work more often was that employees felt that management was listening to their needs. They also stated that work, in general, was less difficult as a result. Significance of the 80-20 Rule The 80/20 rule is important in a variety of ways and can benefit any entity that considers applying it. For example, a charity might find that 20% of its donors give 80% of the fundraising campaign's proceeds. So obviously, focusing on that 20% is an effective use of the organization's limited time and outreach. Investors use the 80-20 rule when constructing a safe portfolio rather than a risky one. The general rule states that 80% of the assets are placed in less volatile areas such as index funds and treasury bonds. Investors put the remaining 20% towards a riskier area of potentially high growth stocks. This risky 20% can only do a controlled amount of damage, should the bottom fall out beneath those investments. Meanwhile, 80% will attract a moderate return. The 80-20 rule can also help prioritize just about anything and help save money itself. Better use of both time, staff, finances, and other resources can all result from its application.	<urn:uuid:88b48595-568f-4825-be8f-346465ef8862>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.9249927401542664, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9764533042907715, "url": "https://www.ibtimes.com/terms/123/80-20-rule" }
Identify the causes of the crisis of absolutism in France 1) defeat in the Seven Years War, loss of colonial possessions; 2) loss of the king’s authority due to huge spending on entertainment; 3) loss of the king’s reputation as the highest impartial judge (he became the object of ridicule); 4) the failure of the reformist policy of Jacques Turgot; 5) lean years, famine and “grain riots” in the country; 6) the spread of the ideology of the Enlightenment. In 1774, Louis XVI began to pursue a policy of reform. He restored the Parisian parliament and appointed Jacques Turgot as finance minister. Turgot proposed not to introduce new taxes, abolished fixed prices for grain, was going to abolish the seigneurial rights of the nobility and the church. 1774 turned out to be a poor harvest, the prices of bread rose sharply, the people demanded that Turgot be dismissed. The king was hesitant, Turgot was removed from his post, and the reforms were canceled.	<urn:uuid:8369fb64-e2f2-4bbc-ad49-9f91989baac5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.17497599124908447, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9591678380966187, "url": "https://www.bystudin.com/identify-the-causes-of-the-crisis-of-absolutism-in-france/" }
01993 810 210 43 – 1649 The Romans, from a city state in what is now Italy, arrived in Britain in the year AD43. By the end of the 2nd century most of Britain was ruled by the Romans. The Romans had to fight to keep control and built forts and walls to guard the lands they had conquered. The most famous of these is Hadrian’s Wall, which stretches 73 miles across the north of England. The Romans built towns and villages which became places like St Albans and Colchester. Evidence of the Romans living in Oxfordshire has been discovered by archaeologists. They discovered a Roman villa at North Leigh and a fort the Romans built a fort near what is now the town of Bicester. The fort was called Alchester and was built on the crossroads of two Roman roads. One of the roads was between two important towns in Roman Britain, Cirencester and St Albans. When archaeologists dug up the Roman ruins at Alchester they found a gravestone of a Roman soldier, it had been smashed up to make a wall. A copy of this can be found in the garden of the museum in Woodstock. Things to Do Print your own worksheet to write down your answers on (Click Here - PDF) How many years ago did the Romans Arrive in Britain? How many years did the Romans control Britain for? In which century did the Romans leave Britain? Can you write the answers to the above in Roman numerals? Can you find North Leigh on a map? Why might the Romans build a villa here? You can use this link to Google Maps, or challenge yourself to find it on a Road Atlas! Making a Roman Mosaic Romans would decorate their buildings with statues, paintings and mosaics. Mosaics are pictures made up of small squares of coloured stone. They are laid out to make patterns or pictures. Roman Mosaic, photo by RGY23 from Pixabay Design Your Own Mosaic You can make your own mosaic using squares of paper. Use different coloured paper and chop them up into squares. They don’t need to be exactly the same, just roughly square and roughly the same size. Draw a frame for the mosaic, use some graph paper, or Download a Mosaic Sheet to build your Roman mosaic. Place your squares of paper to make a picture or design. When you are happy with your design glue the squares on to the paper. If you would rather draw your mosaic, you can colour in your mosaic grid instead. Helpful Hint #1: Roman Numerals Roman numerals are made up of the following symbols/letters with these values I = ONE 1 V = FIVE 5 X = TEN 10 L = FIFTY 50 There are never more than 3 Roman numerals in a row so to write numbers like 4 or 9 a subtraction system is used. For example: 4 is written as IV 9 is written as IX 40 is written as XL The year 1919 would be written as MCMXIX Helpful Hint #2: Years, decades and stuff • A year is the time it takes for the earth to orbit the sun, it is 365 days long. • A decade is 10 years. • A century is 100 years. • A millennium is 1000 years. Names of years The name of the century is always one number before the actual number of the year. For example, the 1900s was the 20th century. This happens because the 1st century was made up of the years 1 – 99. That meant the 100 – 199 became the 2nd century. AD or BC? BC – BC stands for ‘before Christ’, the time before Jesus Christ was born. AD – stands for ‘Anno Domini’ which is Latin for ‘in the year of the Lord’. This is the year that Jesus Christ was born. BCE – stands for Before Common Era, can be used instead of BC CE – stands for Common Era, can be used instead of AD Years in BC/BCE count backwards so 100BC comes before 10BC, it is the opposite for AD/CE which go up so 100AD comes after 10AD. After the Romans left there were invasions by Saxons and in the 11th century the Norman Conquest of Britain. Oxfordshire was not really troubled by war until the 17th century and the English Civil War between the King and Parliament. A civil war is a fought between 2 sides from the same country. In this case the Members of Parliament (MPs) did not like the way the King, Charles I was ruling England and Scotland. The King introduced taxes that were unfair and did not allow people to follow the Christian religion in their own ways. The war in 1642 started when the King tried to arrest 5 MPs. The two sides became known as Roundheads and Cavaliers. The Parliament’s soldiers were called Roundheads, a name given to them by the King’s men. It was a rude name based on their short haircuts. The Cavaliers got their name from their long flowing hair, a sign of wealth and privilege. It was also meant as rude name but was taken on by the King’s men themselves. The King used Oxford as his base from 1644 onwards. The Roundheads attacked several times and Oxford surrendered in April 1646. However, the King was not caught as he had escaped disguised as a servant. The King surrendered to the Scottish at Newark in Nottinghamshire. The Scots handed the King over to the Parliamentarians and he was imprisoned by them in different parts of the country. • First near Holdenby in Northamptonshire, followed by… • Newmarket in Suffolk • Oatlands near Weybridge in Surrey • Hampton Court in Surrey • Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight • Hurst Castle in Hampshire • Windsor Castle in Berkshire King Charles I was found guilty of treason and was executed on 30 January 1649 at Westminster in London. Fun with Flags - Design Your Own! Flags were used on the battlefield to show where your soldiers and were and where the enemy was. This was the Royal Standard or flag of King Charles I: Each symbol on the flag stood for one part of the kingdom, 3 Lions for England, harp for Ireland and the Red Lion for Scotland. A lion is an example of how the symbols on a flag can represent things such as strength and bravery. Designing Your Own Flag – Things to Think About Shape – flags can be rectangular, square, triangular or a unique shape like the flag of Nepal. The two triangles represent the mountains of Nepal, the Himalayas. Colour – strong colours work well, like red, blue, yellow. Some colours like black make people think of pirates so choose carefully. Some countries use blue to represent the sea. Symbols – animals represent things. For example, an owl may mean wisdom, as do stars, or crosses. Some countries have used symbols such as tools to suggest hard work, for example, Angola. The cog is for workers, the machete for farmers. Things to Do Using a road atlas of Great Britain complete the following tasks. 1. Find all the places that King Charles was kept prisoner. Write down the Grid Square reference for each place. Look below for Helpful Hint # 3 where we have used Holdenby as an example for you to follow. Newmarket in Suffolk Oatlands near Weybridge in Surrey Hampton Court in Surrey Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight Hurst Castle in Hampshire Windsor Castle in Berkshire 2. Starting at Holdenby Hall in Northamptonshire write down the direction that the King travelled in between each place. Road atlases will have a map of the counties of England. Newmarket in Suffolk Oatlands near Weybridge in Surrey Hampton Court in Surrey Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight Hurst Castle in Hampshire Windsor Castle in Berkshire Helpful Hint #3: Map Skills The best thing to use for these activities would be a road atlas of the United Kingdom. Finding the Places Let's use Holdenby as an example. Use the index to find the places and make a note of the map coordinates for Holdenby. Road atlas coordinates will use letters and numbers. For example: Holdenby House Soldiers of Oxfordshire Museum Park Street Oxfordshire OX20 1SN Phone and Email: General Enquiries & Event Tickets: 01993 810 211 Privacy Policy Terms and conditions	<urn:uuid:ada759da-1a03-405c-9c2d-df25f0ee6068>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.1588355302810669, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9513709545135498, "url": "https://www.sofo.org.uk/learning/romans/" }
Understanding Wireless (WIFI) Wireless communication is all around us. This communication platform can be found in sophisticated devices such as a smartphone or satellite array. It is also found in IoT (Internet of Things) devices such as smartwatches and even in modern children’s toys. It’s available in televisions, automobiles, kitchen appliances, and entertainment devices. Wireless technologies have enabled many regions around the world to communicate over long distances allowing the consumption of news and entertainment. Firstly, wireless communications standards were developed by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) group and designated as 802.11. You may be surprised to know that Wi-Fi is a coined term invented by a company called Interbrand which means that Wi-Fi does not stand for anything except that it is the common term used when referring to something that can communicate wirelessly. Interbrand was hired to come up with a marketing scheme that would be catchy and easy to remember. Thus, Wi-Fi was born and with it a new group called the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed in 1999. Did you know that each device with the official Wi-Fi logo from the Wi-Fi Alliance group has undergone certification to meet the standards? Each device must meet the following requirements in order to become certified: They must conform to the IEEE 802.11 wireless radio standards, the WPA and WPA2 security standards, and EAP authentication standards. Older security standards such as the use of a WEP key are obsolete and no longer considered secure. The WEP key was commonly associated with 802.11b and 802.11g wireless devices and need to be replaced. Next, Wireless standards have been amended, ratified, and evolved over the years. One of the earliest forms of modern Wi-Fi technologies was given a designation of 802.11b. This wireless ‘B’ standard allowed for communication bandwidth up to 11Mbps. The next standard was called 802.11a which could carry 1.5 to 54Mbps bandwidth. Continuing up the ladder there are a few more standards that were created to increase bandwidth and performance. 802.11g supporting 3 to 54Mbps with implementations later that allow up to 108Mbps. 802.11n supporting 72 to 600Mbps (also referred to as Wi-Fi 4). 802.11ac supporting 433 to 6933 Mbps (also referred to as Wi-Fi 5). 802.11ax supporting 600 to 9608Mbps (also referred to as Wi-Fi 6) Furthermore, in the most basic sense, wireless technologies require two main devices in order to communicate with each other. Those devices are transmitters and receivers. The ability to transmit or receive data is accomplished by antennas. For example, a cellullar phone or modern smartphone is connected to a wireless (or cellular) provider that sends (or transmits) data to your device which receives the data and through the magic of programming, the device interprets the data so that your phone can display the information. Let’s look at the devices in your home. A wireless network in your house will consist of a wireless router (transmitter) and any number of devices (receivers). These receiving devices could be a computer, laptop, smartphone, gaming console (XBOX, PS4, Nintendo Switch), television, etc. When you have questions or would like professional help installing or troubleshooting your wireless network, give Lucas Marketing & Tech Services a call at 239-351-5517 send your message HERE.	<urn:uuid:148705dc-85da-48fa-910e-e186561e7df7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.15336161851882935, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9341437220573425, "url": "https://www.lucastechservices.com/understanding-wireless-wifi/" }
Why is Alabama's state flag a red X? Origin, history and controversy surrounding its shape Alabama flag.JPG The history of Alabama's state flag and its red-X design dates back to 1895. Have you ever wondered about the red-X design featured on Alabama's state flag? Alabama's state flag was , featuring a " The bill was sponsored by Rep. John W. A. Sanford Jr., who served in the 60th Alabama Infantry Regiment during the Civil War and The design seemed pretty straight-forward with the exception of one important distinction. Should Alabama's state flag be square-shaped to adhere to Confederate battle flag standards or rectangular? According to the Alabama Department of Archives and History, the flag was probably supposed to be square-shaped based on the intent to preserve In 1987, after years of speculation regarding the flag's shape, the state attorney general's office issued establishing that Alabama's modern-day state flag should be rectangular.	<urn:uuid:846ce0a2-03e1-4beb-82fe-1038c5706e3a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.032539308071136475, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9374945163726807, "url": "https://www.al.com/living/2014/09/why_is_alabama_flag_a_red_x.html" }
Take informed decisions with IIFL Insurance: Know All About Doppler Test For Heart What is the Doppler Test? Doppler ultrasound test is a type of imaging technique that employs sound waves to visualize blood flow through blood arteries. A conventional ultrasound may also make images of structures inside the body using sound waves, but it cannot reveal blood flow. Doppler ultrasound test detects sound waves reflected from moving objects, such as red blood cells, and measures them. The Doppler effect is the name for this phenomenon. A handheld instrument transmits sound waves that bounce off moving things, such as blood cells, during a Doppler ultrasound. The image of the blood flow is created by the reflected sound waves. By monitoring the rate of change in pitch, a Doppler ultrasound can measure how fast blood flows (frequency). A technician trained in ultrasound imaging (sonographer) presses a small hand-held instrument (transducer) against your skin across the area of your body being checked, moving from one area to another as needed, during a Doppler ultrasound. A Doppler ultrasound is a low-risk, low-pain treatment that requires very little preparation. The test informs your doctor about blood flow across your major arteries and veins. It can also indicate blocked or diminished blood flow in the arteries, which can lead to a stroke. Different types of Doppler ultrasound tests Color Doppler: A computer is used to convert sound waves into distinct colours in this sort of Doppler. In real-time, these colours depict the pace and direction of blood flow. Power Doppler: Color Doppler is a newer form of Doppler. It can provide you with more information about blood flow than a typical colour Doppler scan. However, it is unable to display the direction of blood flow, which is critical in some circumstances. Spectral Doppler: Rather than colour graphics, this test displays blood flow data on a graph. It can assist in determining the extent to which a blood vessel is obstructed. Duplex Doppler: Ultrasound imaging of blood vessels and organs is used in this examination. The photos are then converted into a graph by a computer, similar to spectral Doppler. What is the use of the Doppler test for the heart? Doctors use the Doppler ultrasound test to check for: • Harm to the blood vessels • Abnormalities in the heart’s structure • Deep vein thrombosis. • Any alterations in heart function, which are frequently done in conjunction with an ECG. • Any alterations in blood flow as a result of surgery • Any abnormalities in blood flow in the fetus or during pregnancy Procedure for Doppler ultrasound test? Doppler ultrasound is a noninvasive, painless, and risk-free treatment. A person may be able to have it done at their doctor’s office, or they may need to go to a hospital’s radiology department. A person may need to remove clothing or jewelry from the portion of the body being scanned, which is usually the arms or legs, prior to the ultrasound. After that, they will lie down on a bed or an assessment table. Blood pressure cuffs may be applied to places such as the calves, ankles, or thighs by the ultrasound technician to monitor the pressure in different sections of the arms or legs. They next lubricate a transducer, handheld equipment that they glide over the skin to create an image of the blood flow beneath it. The entire treatment takes about 30–45 minutes, and patients are usually able to leave right away. After the procedure Following a Doppler ultrasound, there are no special requirements. Unless your doctor tells you differently, you can resume your normal activities straight away. Doctors can use the results of a Doppler ultrasonography to check the health of veins and arteries. The images should reveal no blockages or constriction of blood arteries if the results are normal. If the technician discovers an anomaly, it could mean one of the following: • A blood clot. • An obstruction in a vein or artery is caused by, for example, an accumulation of cholesterol. • A blood vessel narrowing • A coronary artery spasm occurs when an artery in the heart constricts, possibly as a result of stress. The results of a Doppler ultrasound can be skewed by a number of circumstances, including: • Obesity. • Irregular heartbeat. • Coronary artery disease • smoking before the ultrasound The technician will not speak with the individual about the results. The results will be sent to the doctor, who will respond to any inquiries. If an irregularity is identified by the technician, the doctor will discuss the following actions. A Doppler ultrasound is used to look for problems that could obstruct blood flow. It’s a painless process that requires little if any, advance planning. A Doppler ultrasound can be done in a doctor’s office or in a hospital’s radiology department. The ultrasound technician will submit the results to the patient’s primary care practitioner, who will discuss the results and any next steps with them. Buy Insurance - 18002101330	<urn:uuid:4f5b28c2-51d8-4780-a274-c985947e92a7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.018626034259796143, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9168998003005981, "url": "https://iiflinsurance.com/knowledge-centre/health-and-wellness/know-all-about-doppler-test-for-heart" }
Black and white photo of Jane Addams with her name and "1860-1935" in the bottom left corner, and the SCA Pride rainbow logo in the bottom right corner. Secular PRIDE History: Jane Addams Throughout the month of June, we will be sharing information about historic American figures who were involved in both secular and LGBTQIA+ spheres. Jane Addams (1860-1935) was a pacifist and feminist activist, an international humanitarian, and a Nobel laureate. The social settlement she co-founded and ran, Hull-House, was an early institution of secular community service, and she had multiple long-term relationships with other women throughout her life. Born in Cedarville, Illinois, Addams grew up during the peak of “social Christianity,” a Christian movement that taught social responsibility through community service. But while Addams’s religiosity declined during and after her studies at the Rockford Female Seminary (where she graduated valedictorian in 1881), her commitment to service only grew. Hull-House, founded by Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in Chicago in 1889, was a decidedly secular alternative to similar “social settlements” being established around the country (and the world) at the time. Addams described the mission of Hull-House as “to provide a center for a higher civic and social life; to institute and maintain educational and philanthropic enterprises and to investigate and improve the conditions in the industrial districts of Chicago.” In practice, this meant that the educated women who lived at Hull-House provided a myriad of social services to the community without a religious influence, including kindergarten and day care programs, English and citizenship classes for neighborhood immigrants, a job-placement bureau, a boarding school, and a labor museum. Among the early trustees of Hull-House was Mary Rozet Smith, who had financially supported the settlement’s growth and would become Addams’s long-term partner. The two would spend the rest of their lives together, traveling and owning property together and referring to each other as if they were married. In the twentieth century, Addams would steadily broaden the scope of her activism. On a national scale, she advocated strongly for progressive causes including women’s suffrage and ending child labor, and was a founding member of both the ACLU and NAACP. She became an international peace activist during World War I, founding the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, for which she served as president until 1929. For her activism, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. By the early 1930s, the pair’s health had been steadily declining. Mary Rozet Smith died in 1934 of pneumonia, and Jane Addams would die of cancer one year later in 1935. In her obituary, the New York Times lauded her as a “friend of the poor and foe of war,” paying tribute to the monumental legacy her work has left behind. Spreading Happiness Sign up to receive updates and action alerts! Scroll to Top	<urn:uuid:a41dfb5a-a6e8-4f26-ae55-5fc4a4db33ca>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.21309536695480347, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9564811587333679, "url": "https://secular.org/2022/06/secular-pride-history-jane-addams/" }
Classroom or small group presentations: - Pedro's Pan This presentation would include a read aloud of Pedro's Pan, a discussion of the life of a prospector, my experiences and the emotional journey that Pan goes on. There will also be time for a Q&A and a signed copy of the book for the class. Approximate time: 45 minutes. Geared towards K-2. -The Craft of Writing I will discuss with a class the process of writing including the various forms of Children's Literature. I will discuss the process I used to write a picture book as well as other forms of writing. It will include a short story writing session with prompts and guidance. Approximate time: 1 hour. For all school age kids. Can be adapted for longer duration to include revision and editing. Time varies. Geared for 2nd grade and up. -How To Pan For Gold A hands on exploration of how to pan for gold. We will explore the properties of gold and gravity by allowing each child to pan for their own bits of "gold." I will provide small tubs for panning in, dirt and "gold" to pan, small pans for panning, and small vials for kid to take their "gold" home in. This activity will need space that can get wet, access to water to fill tubs, and a bucket load of fun! Time varies on class size, but estimated to an hour. Great fun for all ages! -Where Does Gold Come From A STEM based study on the history of mining gold and the scientific explanation of what gold is, where did it originate from, how it ended up in creeks, and its modern importance. Approximate time is one hour. Material adapted for 3rd grade and up. -Who Was Felix Pedro? This discussion looks briefly at who Felix Pedro was, the Alaskan Gold Rushes, and the importance of immigration on America and Alaska. We will explore some of the stories of early prospectors triumphs and failures. We will discuss the importance of the Gold Rushes and how they shaped Alaska. Approximate time: 45 minutes. Geared towards 4th grade and above. -Gold Rushes of North America This presentation looks at the importance of the 5 major gold rushes in North America and their impact on the expansionism of the United States, the acquisition of new territory, as well as the negative consequences to the indigenous peoples who lived there. Approximate time: 1 hour. Geared for 5th grade and above. For Pricing information, please see the Presentations page.	<urn:uuid:6fc3396f-2758-4f5d-8df9-2980898eff87>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.0413169264793396, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.928815484046936, "url": "https://www.matthewlasley.com/classroom-or-small-group" }
Skip to main content Swimmer's Itch Swimmer's itch (sometimes called schistosome dermatitis or cercarial dermatitis or sedge pool itch) is a skin irritation caused by immatures (cercariae) of certain species of nonhuman blood flukes (parasitic flatworms of the Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Trematoda) belonging to the famly Schistosomatidae. The cercariae can penetrate the outer layer of skin of people who are wading, swimming, or floating on inner tubes in infested waters. During skin penetration, an itching or stinging sensation may develop and persist for up to one hour. A skin eruption may occur at the site of penetration and a more diffuse reddish rash may occur during this phase. After penetration, the cercariae die, causing an allergic reaction characterized by intense itching and the formation of papule irritations or small blisters in sensitized individuals. The condition usually subsides after several days to one week. However, problems can persist for more than a week if secondary infection occurs. The small (less than 0.04 inches in length) cercariae which penetrate human skin die because people are not suitable hosts. However, various birds and small mammals are suitable hosts for these flukes. If cercariae successfully penetrate a suitable host (i.e. duck), they enter the circulatory system, where they grow and become adult schistosomes. These adults are wormlike and usually less than 0.5 inches in length. The adult female may mate and produce eggs which are passed with the duck's feces. If the droppings fall into the water, then the egg hatches into a larval form called a miracidium. The free-swimming miracidium can only survive if it penetrates an aquatic snail (the intermediate host). Miracidia give rise to sporocysts (in the snail tissue) which can produce cercariae. The cercariae burrow out of the snail and swim away. If the cercariae contact a warm-blooded animal, they penetrate the skin. If the animal is a suitable host, the life cycle is continued. If medical personnel have not identified cercariae in the skin of individuals who have developed swimmer's itch symptoms after being in lake or pond water, other possible causes of skin irritation might be considered. Some species of algae reportedly can irritate the skin but this has not been identified as a problem in Lake County. In other areas of the United States (i.e. Louisiana), roundworms (nematodes) in the water can penetrate human skin and cause severe inflammation and itching (sometimes called "nutria itch"). These roundworms probably do not occur in Clear Lake. Backswimmers (Notonectidae), toe-biters (Belostomatidae), and some other aquatic insects which can inflict painful bites on swimmers occur in some ponds and lakes in Lake County. These insect bites can cause acute temporary pain, but swimmer's itch cercariae can cause more prolonged allergic reactions. • Do not feed ducks or geese near swimming areas. Increased numbers of waterfowl in an area can result in increased swimmer's itch problems. • Do not swim in areas frequented by large numbers of ducks or geese. • Avoid swimming in areas where recent swimmer's itch problems have been reported. • Swim in relatively deep water. The cercariae are usually found in shallow waters and most easily attach to inactive bodies. Babies sitting along the shoreline are especially vulnerable to swimmer's itch. • Swim in open water areas and do not approach areas infested with aquatic weeds and snails. • Upon exiting the water, rubbing the skin with a rough dry towel may dislodge cercariae. • Swim for short periods of time (i.e. 10 minutes or less). If the skin becomes soft due to excessive time in the water, it may be easier for cercariae to penetrate. • If skin develops symptoms of swimmer's itch, antiseptic anesthetic lotions or ointments may provide some relief. • Keep affected skin clean and do not scrach to avoid the possibility of secondary infection. • If swimmer's itch symptoms persist, consult your family physician. • Be aware that schistosome dermatitis cannot be transferred to other parts of the body or to other people by skin contact.	<urn:uuid:b6fbb9a3-87fc-4972-9bfa-e138b6873043>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.024400293827056885, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9262105822563171, "url": "https://www.lcvcd.org/swimmer-s-itch" }
Chromatic Scale The chromatic scale is the one that consists of playing all the musical notes (in the European system) so that between note and note the tonal distance is that of semitone or a semitone. Like all stairs, we can touch it upwards and downwards. I always try to get my students to think of the notes as sustained (#) when they touch it upwards, and in flats (b) when they touch it downward. In other words that is: Mi-Fa-Fa # -Sol-Sol # -La-La # -Si-Do-Do # -Re-Re # -Mi // (when we touch it upwards) Mi-Mib-Re-Reb-Do-Si-Sib-La-Lab-Sol-Solb-Fa-Mi // (when we touch it downward) That's exactly why the book “The Clarinet and I Vol. 3” emphasizes not harmonizing notes. Then I leave you 2 videos explaining finger positions on the color scale. I repeat that I prefer to think of the notes going up as sustained (Fa # o La #) and going down like flats (Solb o Sib). This is not the case with videos, but what really interests us is learning the positions so that we can make the chromatic scale. Clarinet keys numbering Chromatic scale on the clarinet Clarinet positions How to learn the clarinet key's to the rap's rhythm…… Hits: 1774 2 votes	<urn:uuid:1299a456-3bea-42e8-9118-9968e64a05f4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.06881570816040039, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8902469873428345, "url": "https://clarinet.es/escala-cromatica-2/?lang=en" }
5) The Přemyslid dynasty and the forming of the Czech state Libice acropolis - church floorplan The Czech state began to form around the 9th century AD. This process was crucially influenced by the Přemyslids, Bohemia’s ruling dynasty which had control over Czech territory for more than 400 years. But what do we actually know about this period? How can archaeology help us understand it? And what were the key moments in the Přemyslid quest for power? The Central Bohemian Přemyslid heartland The iconic image of Prague Castle, perched atop a dominant hill overlooking the Vltava River, is not just a postcard favourite, but perhaps also a national symbol for many a Czech who looks up at it. It is, after all, almost as old as the nation itself. Jan Mařík \| Photo: Loreta Vašková, Radio Prague International Those who have visited Prague Castle may recall the Plečnik Obelisk on the third courtyard, which stands around the spot that was once called Žiži, where Přemyslid rulers would be sworn in and sat upon a crowning stone. It is also around this area that the oldest church in Prague, the Church of Saint Mary, was built shortly after the first Přemyslid duke converted to Christianity. If one turns around, on the other side of the Vltava river stands the Vyšehrad hill, a place that is steeped even more in national legend. Around the Czech capital lie further mythical and historical centres that are tied to the beginnings of the Czech state – Libušín, Levý Hradec and Budeč, which houses the oldest preserved church in the country. All of these places have one thing in common – they seem to have been part of the early domain of the Přemyslid dynasty at least by the 9th century when the historical Czech state began forming under this family’s leadership. Dr Jan Mařík, the head of the Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, explains why this is important to both historians as well as people of his profession. “We build upon information that is rigid and told from the perspective of the victorious Přemyslid dynasty.” “This is a time when we know that some sort of power was being formed here and that it was able to represent the Czech lands as a single entity. We can start talking about a state administration that the Přemyslids applied here. It was this dynasty that was in charge during this crucial formative period for the Czech state. Great advances were made, but there were also errors and great tragedies. “This is very interesting for us, because it gives us the chance to compare. We can also gather material that may give us a better understanding of how other state structures may have formed during similar periods.” The area of Central Bohemia surrounding Prague has therefore interested many generations of archaeologists, with excavations taking place already since the 19th century. The two languages of history and archaeology Church of Saint Mary at Prague Castle (painting by V. Kubašta) \| Photo: Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences According to Dr Jan Mařík, the most valuable pieces of information about this key formation period in Czech history can be found in what were then fortified population centres – places exactly like Prague Castle or Levý Hradec. “These are the most important, monumental pieces of architecture that were built here at that time and that have been preserved in some form or another. “When it comes to how we can interpret the findings we make here, we basically operate on the basis that both history and archaeology talk about the same period, but through a different language and with different materials. “From the 1950s to the 1980s, archaeologists got themselves a bit caught in a trap, because they were digging to find confirmation of historical events. They tried to prove concrete events by specific excavations, but that is not how it works. Archaeology tells us more about ordinary life and the economic realities of the time. It can help us form an idea of the place itself, but it can’t identify specific episodes in history.” Dr Mařík says that not realising this difference between history and archaeology led to a lot of misunderstandings, manipulations and disappointments in the past. What has also changed is the way that archaeology is conducted. “There were a lot of raids against the pagans at that time, so the baptism request may have served to protect the Czech lands.” As we saw in our previous episode, where we delved into archaeological analysis techniques, the application of natural sciences is becoming increasingly important in the discipline. Digging up ordinary artefacts, ceramics and animal bones is gradually becoming insufficient. Methods such as isotopic and genetic analysis can tell us previously unimaginable details about the people who lived in the past, the tools that they used and the supply networks that would have existed during their time. Nevertheless, Dr Mařík says that modern day archaeologists still have one debt to the past. “That is to go back and critically analyse the material that we dug up during the early- to mid-20th century. There is a lot of unpublished and unevaluated material from that time, which was found in areas such as Prague Castle, Budeč, Libice nad Cidlinou, or Libušín. A lot of excavations took place there but much of the material is still waiting to be evaluated.” Baptism of Ludmila and Bořivoj \| Source: Wikimedia Commons, public domain But what does the archaeologist make of the other part of our sources, the written details that have survived about this period? “Everything that we know about the earliest history of the Přemyslids, about the history of the family that is so closely tied to the Czech nation, is based on legends and medieval chronicles. These were often written long after the event in question took place and we only know of those that the chronicler wanted to write down, in other words the ones that he wanted to keep. When it comes to hagiographies things get a bit more complicated, says Dr Mařík, because they were written according to certain rules regarding the depiction of saints and their lives. Writers would often incorporate tales from other legends into them. “We cannot be sure about what events had a fundamental influence on the formation of the Přemyslid duchy, later kingdom and state. Many of these events took place without us being able to gauge their actual importance. We build upon information that is rigid and told from the perspective of the victorious Přemyslid dynasty. “All that said, we do have some moments that we could perhaps describe as turning points. One of them is the baptism of Duke Bořivoj in Moravia. This is a fundamental event because it brought Bořivoj and his descendants into the community of Christian rulers.” Libice nad Cidlinou - Acropolis of the hillfort from the east \| Photo: Jan Mařík, Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Key moments in Přemyslid state building The baptism of the first historically verifiable Přemyslid duke seems to have taken place sometime during the turn of the 870s to 880s. The sources that we have about Bořivoj, two chronicles (one Bohemian and one Frankish) and two hagiographies (focusing on the life of Bořivoj’s wife Ludmila), are precisely the types of documents that Jan Mařík says need to be taken with a grain of salt. “There was a whole array of other fortified settlements which evidently seem to have been under the control of these other non-Přemyslid Bohemian princes.” However, it should be noted that one of these sources, the Frankish Annals of Fulda, provide an even earlier mention relevant to Bohemia. In January 845, it says, 14 Bohemian princes were baptised at the court of Louis the German, the king of East Francia, in Regensburg. Virtually no more detail is provided in what is just a sentence-long note, but Czech historians have theorised what may have happened, says Dr Mařík. “It is an event that tells us that there is an effort in the Czech lands to get closer to the Christian world and become a part of it, which would likely have in turn led to a lesser likelihood of military conflict between the two power entities. There were a lot of raids against the pagans at that time, so the baptism request may have served to protect the Czech lands. “Yet at the same time it tells us that the Přemyslids were certainly not alone. They were the local leaders and they do seem to have ruled the Czech lands, but they were also relying on a certain group of 14 or 15 other tribal rulers who controlled certain regions within the Czech territory. “Aside from the Přemyslid centres of power in Central Bohemia there was a whole array of other fortified settlements which evidently seem to have been under the control of these other non-Přemyslid Bohemian princes.” Czech tribes (6th - 10th century AD) \| Source: Daemon2010, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 CZ Historians such as Dušan Třeštík have hypothesised the names and locations of the fiefdoms that these “princes” (knížata) would have ruled. These include the Doudlebové tribe to the south of Prague. There were also the Lučané to the north, who were made famous by the legendary Lučan War (Lucká válka), mentioned by the 12th century Bohemian chronicler Kosmas, in which Bořivoj’s mythical grandfather, Neklan, is said to have waged war with the Lucian Prince Vlastislav. Finally, there were also the Croats (possibly White Croats) in the east of Bohemia, who some historians believe were ruled by the Slavníkid family – the great rivals of the Přemyslid dynasty. The Slavníkid family was famously murdered almost to a man in what can be roughly described as a Czech equivalent of the Red Wedding, except that it took place while the family was in prayer. This at least according to the Chronicle of Kosmas. Dr Jan Mařík says that the Slavníkids would have been just one of many families that the Přemyslids would have been in rivalry with, but how significant was its demise for the evolution of the Czech state? “We can work as a sort of bridge between the West and the East. I think that the Czech Republic still retains that role today.” “The wiping out of the rival Slavníkid dynasty may have been very important. This date, September 28, 995, is presented as a key moment for unifying the state under Přemyslid rule. “We can’t be certain about that. It may have just been an altogether unremarkable bout of violence, or it could have been the moment when the Přemyslids became the dominant power. “Personally, I think they had already achieved dominant power and the whole action was more important for the Slavníkid family, rather than for Bohemia itself.” In general, Dr Mařík says that the key moments in the formation of the Bohemian state during this period related to dynastic and marriage politics. At the same time, Přemyslid dukes would have had to carefully navigate the network of alliances in their region, balancing these with relations towards the Holy Roman Emperor and fellow imperial dukes. This became increasingly important after the year 895, when the Přemyslids managed to wean themselves out of the influence of Great Moravia and reorient towards the west. Budeč \| Photo: Miaow Miaow, Wikimedia Commons, CC0 However, some historians have speculated that there may have been a conflict of opinion within the Přemyslid dynasty during this time about whether to focus more on the east and the still pagan Slavic tribes that lived there, or towards the Kingdom of East Francia, their powerful neighbour to the west. In fact, this is one of the hypothetical reasons for the murder of Saint Wenceslas by his brother Boleslav I in the early 10th century. Ironically, this event would later serve as a major prestige boost for the Přemyslid dynasty, as they would be able to claim descent from a saint. At the same time, the significance of marriage politics would also be shown during Boleslav I’s reign. He would marry his daughter Doubravka to the founder of the independent Polish state, Mieszko I, and shortly after the marriage Mieszko would adopt Christianity. Libušín - St George church with a wooden bell tower located on the acropolis \| Photo: Z. Kačerová, Archeologický atlas ČR Dr Mařík says that while the Přemyslid dynasty was not unique for its time in Central Europe. Indeed, similar national dynasties with semi-mythical founders that ruled for hundreds of years can also be found in Poland and Hungary. However, their efforts did have an influence on the establishment of the region of East-Central Europe as we have known it since then. “One more aspect where I would say that the Přemsylids played an important, indeed crucial, role for us was that they formed some basic regional ties within Europe. And we have been more or less following those ties up until today. “We are a country that has close ties to the Western world (medieval western Christendom), yet at the same time we are on its periphery and we can work as a sort of bridge between the West and the East. I think that the Czech Republic still retains that role today.”	<urn:uuid:093f0176-47f3-4997-a770-160024d8934c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.984375, "fasttext_score": 0.0863237977027893, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9756709337234497, "url": "https://english.radio.cz/czech-archaeologys-greatest-discoveries-8748606/5" }
The Hyphasis Mutiny Philip Mathew published on 06 November 2020 The so-called Hyphasis Mutiny was a conflict between Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) and his army following their victory at the river Hydaspes in 326 BCE. Alexander voiced plans for further conquests in the Indian subcontinent, however, when his men reached the river Hyphasis, there was an open revolt. The mutiny ended with Alexander giving in to his men's wishes and turning back; he did not venture further into the Indian subcontinent as he intended. Over the years, historians have examined the importance of this moment of tension between a king and his army. This includes the issue of whether the term “mutiny” can truly apply to this incident. Head of Alexander the Great from Pergamon Head of Alexander the Great from Pergamon Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) The Indian Campaign When Alexander marched across the Hindu Kush to India in 327 BC, the denizens of Bazira feared for their lives, fled to the Aornos Rock, reputed to be impregnable so that not even Heracles was able to capture it. Alexander had difficulty getting to the rock and started building a mound, then gained a foothold on a hill. When the Indians noticed the Macedonians closing in, they surrendered. Alexander placed a garrison on the abandoned portion of the Aornos Rock. Remove Ads At the river Hyphasis, the men reached a consensus; they did not want to follow Alexander further into Indian territory. The city of Nysa asked Alexander to recognize their freedom and independence, which Alexander granted and made allies of them, acquiring 300 horsemen. He also had a base in Taxila, after promising to help Taxiles against his enemy, King Porus. Alexander met Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BCE, which included war elephants. After the battle, Porus was allowed to continue ruling his kingdom and became an ally of Alexander, and Alexander continued to march further into India. Following Alexander's victory at the Siege of Sangala, he and his men reached the river Hyphasis, alternatively known as the Beas. According to Arrian: Remove Ads The country beyond the Hyphasis was said to be prosperous and its inhabitants able farmers and brave fighters. ... These Indians also had many more elephants than any other of their countrymen, and what is more, elephants of surpassing size and courage. These reports stirred Alexander's desire to go farther. But the Macedonians had by now grown quite weary of their king's plans, seeing him charging from labor to labor, danger to danger. (227) The men reached a consensus; they did not want to follow Alexander further into Indian territory. Diodorus Siculus adds to the feelings of the soldiers: Alexander gave a speech, summarizing all their exploits throughout the Persian campaign and explained how upon completion of the conquests, their empire would stretch from India to the Pillars of Heracles. A universal empire was just within their grasp. He further added that too many warlike peoples would remain unconquered between the Eastern Sea and the Hyphasis if they turned back. He warned of rebellion and instability within the empire if they were left unchecked. He was hoping to outdo Heracles and Dionysus or achieve glory on par with these mythical figures. Alexander went on to remind his troops that, on equal terms, he fought alongside them and was willing to share the spoils of war with them. If any left now, they would not partake in the wealth. Love History? Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter! Map of Alexander the Great's Conquests Map of Alexander the Great's Conquests US Military Academy (Public Domain) Then Coenus, son of Polemokrates came forward and spoke for the troops. Coenus reminded Alexander of the Greeks and Macedonians who were wounded, killed, or left behind in the Asian settlements. He stated that many of them had grown weary and homesick. Coenus urged Alexander to return home and refresh the army with new recruits. He also warned Alexander “not to count on continued success, for the army would be lost if he were to meet with misfortune” (Arrian, 230-231). Upon seeing his officers cheer for Coenus, Alexander threatened to go on and leave those unwilling to venture with him behind. However, he withdrew to his tent for three days and sensed a change of heart within his army. Alexander claimed the omens were unfavorable for further advancement into India and so he ended his march. The army rejoiced at this news. Alexader had them build twelve great altars to the Olympian gods and left King Porus in charge of this easternmost territory. Remove Ads Discipline in the Macedonian Army In the Macedonian army, soldiers swore an oath to their king-commanders, but that oath focused on the general allegiance of troops to their respective commanders rather than obedience to certain orders. If oaths were not an important aspect of the army's discipline, training and drill undoubtedly were. Alexander's father, Philip II of Macedon (r. 359-336 BCE) demanded an unprecedented degree of training in the Hellenic world, a policy his son would continue. According to Elizabeth Carney, Philip II had his men “carry a thirty-day ration of flour on their backs, to train by forced marches carrying full rations and equipment. He also forbade wheeled transport and drastically limited the number of support people allotted both infantry and cavalry" (30). The Alexander Mosaic The Alexander Mosaic Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA) In addition, Philip and Alexander employed a system of punishments and rewards. The troops retained much booty and the king would give gifts of cash and land, often determined by rank, after victories and when troops had been sent home. Other benefits offered by Alexander included gold crowns, martial leave for a newly married soldier, monthly rations for women and children traveling with his army, payment of debts, taxes, and other obligations for the survivors of dead. Plunder and booty made paying for these perks possible. It was important for maintaining discipline and morale. However, Alexander's adoption of Persian customs and eagerness to conquer all the known world sparked friction between the king and his army. The latter was the case with the Hyphasis mutiny. His men were tired and battle-weary, not wanting to venture further into India. The Opis Mutiny Another mutiny that took place later in Alexander's career was the Opis Mutiny. At Opis in 324 BCE, Alexander tried to decommission his aging and unfit Macedonian veterans, but the Macedonians did not take kindly to this. According to Arrian, the king's character was adversely affected by the obsequies brought upon him by his Asian subjects, and the Macedonians believed they were being replaced by foreign troops. Alexander waded “into the rebellious throng and orders the immediate arrest and execution of thirteen of its leaders” (Arrian, 283). Alexander next gave a speech of how far he and his men progressed together from his father's leadership to a global empire. Three days later he appointed his Persian commanders to high command positions. The Macedonian officers rushed to the palace asking the king to readmit them. Alexander shortly thereafter reconciled with his men and arranged for a banquet to celebrate the harmony between the Macedonians and Asians. Remove Ads While the reasons for the two mutinies were different, “these two events caused Alexander problems as both king and commander….because they were quarrels that poisoned the relationship between the king/commander and his troops…and thus threatened to compromise future control of the army”(Carney, 42). However, there has been much debate among scholars over whether the Hyphasis incident could truly be considered a mutiny or a revolt. According to Elizabeth Carney, “the concept of mutiny assumes that military discipline is centered on obedience to commands; that is why disobedience to a specific command is seen as so grave an action” (20). Applying this term with its modern associations to the Macedonian and Greek world creates difficulties. Mutiny assumes two things absent in Macedonian military affairs: very consistent and considerable emphasis on absolute obedience to orders, even in peacetime situations, and a clear distinction between the behavior and rights of Macedonian soldiers and subjects. Indeed, none of the primary sources uses a term that translates into “mutiny.” In his book A King and His Army, Waldemar Heckel also points out that Alexander's skills as a general were lacking at the Hyphasis incident. Furthermore, he claims that Alexander's men were still loyal to their king, their words were not those of mutineers but of men who begged their king to consider their predicament. Nevertheless, the Hyphasis mutiny remains a significant event in Alexander's campaigns as it clearly demonstrated friction between the king and his army. Alexander had lost in a test of wills against his own army at the Hyphasis, and with great reluctance, he put an “eastern terminus” to his campaign of conquest (Arrian, 139). This halted further expansion into India and changed the course of Alexander's campaigns. Did you like this article? Remove Ads About the Author Philip Mathew Ancient Historian and Professor Free for the World, Supported by You Become a Member Recommended Books Cite This Work APA Style Mathew, P. (2020, November 06). The Hyphasis Mutiny. World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from Chicago Style Mathew, Philip. "The Hyphasis Mutiny." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified November 06, 2020. MLA Style Mathew, Philip. "The Hyphasis Mutiny." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 06 Nov 2020. Web. 03 Jul 2022.	<urn:uuid:3d55abb9-466d-4aef-b801-0a7843d90989>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.022406458854675293, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.977550745010376, "url": "https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1630/the-hyphasis-mutiny/" }
Hindi Notes NCERT Solutions for Class 9 English Beehive Chapter 2 The Sound of Music(Thinking about the Text) Evelyn Glennie Thinking about the Text (Page 20) I. Answer these questions in a few words or a couple of sentences each. Question 1. How old was Evelyn when she went to the Royal Academy of Music? Evelyn was not even seventeen when she went to the Royal Academy of Music. Question 2. When was her deafness first noticed? When was it confirmed? Her deafness was noticed when she was eight-year-old. It was confirmed by the time she was eleven. II. Answer each of these questions in a short paragraph (30-40 words). Question 1. Who helped her to continue with music? What did he do and say? Ron Forbes helped her to continue with music. He spotted her potential and said, “Don’t listen through your ears, try to sense it some other way.” He began by tuning two large drums to different notes. Question 2. Name the various places and causes for which Evelvn nerforms. Evelyn performed free concerts in prisons and hospitals. She made music her life and performed many regular concerts. III. Answer the question in two or three paragraphs (100-150 words). Question 1. How does Evelyn hear music? Evelyn became deaf by the time she was eleven. But she did not give up. She was determined to lead a normal life and pursue her interest in music. Ron Forbes, a percussionist spotted her potential. He asked her not to listen through ears but try to sense it some other way. She realized she could feel the higher drum from the waist up and the lower one from the waist down. Forbes repeated the exercise and soon Evelyn discovered that she could sense certain notes in different parts of her body. She learnt to open her body and mind to sounds and vibrations. She herself explained, “It pours in through every part of my body. It tingles in the skin, my cheekbones and even in my hair.” When she played on the xylophone, she could sense the sound passing up the stick into her fingertips. By leaning against the drums, she could feel the resonances flowing into her body. On the wooden floor she used to remove her shoes so that the vibrations may pass through her bare feet and up her legs. Bismillah Khan Thinking about the Text (Page 25) Question 1. Tick the right answer. 1. The (shehnai, pungi) was a ‘reeded noisemaker.’ 2. (Bismillah Khan, A barber, Ali Bux) transformed the pungi into a shehnai. 3. Bismillah Khan’s paternal ancestors were (barbers, professional musi-cians). 4. Bismillah Khan leamt to play the shehnai from (Ali Bux, Paigambar Bux, Ustad Faiyaaz Khan). 5. Bismillah Khan’s first trip abroad was to (Afghanistan, U.S.A., Canada). 1. Pungi 2. A barber 3. Professional musicians 4. Ali bux 5. Afghanistan Question 2. Find the words in the text which show Ustad Bismillah Khan’s feelings about the items listed below. Then mark a tick (✓) in the correct column. Discuss your answers in class. Bismillah Khan’s feelings aboutPositiveNegativeNeutral 1. teaching children music 2. the film world 3. migrating to the U.S.A. 4. playing at temples 5. getting the Bharat Ratna 6. the banks of the Ganga 7. leaving Benaras and Dumraon 1. Positive 2. Negative 3. Negative 4. Neutral 5. Positive 6. Positive 7. Negative Answer these questions in 30-40 words. Question 1. Why did Aurangzeb ban the playing of the pungi? Aurangzeb banned the playing of the pungi because it had a shrill and unpleasant sound. Question 2. How is a shehnai different from a pungi? Shehnai is a pipe with a natural hollow that is longer and broader than a pungi. It has seven holes on the body of the pipe. Question 3. Where was the shehnai played traditionally? How did Bismillah Khan change this? The shehnai was played traditionally in the temple at the royal courts and on the occasion of weddings. The credit must go to Bismillah Khan to take this instrument onto the classical stage. Question 4. When and how did Bismillah Khan get his big break? Bismillah Khan got his big break with the opening of the All India Radio in Lucknow in 1938. Question 5. Where did Bismillah Khan play the shehnai on 15 August 1947? Why was the event historic? Bismillah Khan played the shehnai on 15 August 1947 at the Red Fort. He was the first Indian to greet the nation with his musical instrument. This event was historic because We got independence on that day. He poured his heart out in the presence of a large number of people including Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru. Question 6. Why did Bismillah Khan refuse to start a shehnai school in the U.S.A.? He refused to start a shehnai school in the USA because he never wanted to leave India. He loved India so much and he did not want to settle anywhere except India. That is why whenever he was in a foreign country, he kept yearning to see Hindustan. Question 7. Find at least two instances in the text which tell you that Bismillah Khan loves India and Benaras. Bismillah Khan loves India and Banaras The sound of Music 197 from the bottom of his heart. He says that he misses the holy Ganga and India when he goes abroad. While in Mumbai, he thinks of only Benaras and the holy river. And when he is in Benaras, he remembers the unique mattha of Dumraon. Post a Comment	<urn:uuid:cd66a20c-e8d4-40b4-89f0-fa208e792f82>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.7287200093269348, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9643120169639587, "url": "https://www.mgsgyanbook.com/2021/10/ncert-solutions-for-class-9-english_35.html" }
You asked: What was the significance of Virgin and Child mosaic in the apse of Hagia Sophia? What do the mosaics represent in the Hagia Sophia? Hagia Sophia’s mosaics mostly portray the imperial families, images of Christ, and the Virgin Mary. Who made the Virgin and Child Mosaic Hagia Sophia? On the left, emperor Justinian, who built Hagia Sophia between 532–537, offers a domed model of Hagia Sophia—the very church in which this mosaic is located—to the Virgin and Child. What was the symbolic importance of the mosaic over the southwest entryway to Hagia Sophia? What was the symbolic importance of the mosaic over the southwest entryway to Hagia Sophia that depicted Constantine presenting models of Constantinople and Hagia Sophia itself to the Virgin Mary and Jesus? It represented the growing together of Christian and imperial culture. Where is the Virgin and Child Mosaic? The Virgin and Child mosaic, 9th century CE, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey. The mosaic is located in the apse semi-dome of Hagia Sophia. In the mosaic Mary is enthroned and she puts her right hand on the shoulder of the Child Christ who is seated in her lap. IT IS INTERESTING: How do you embroider on small fabric? What is the most famous mosaic in the Hagia Sophia? The Deësis mosaic in Hagia Sophia The monumental Deësis mosaic depicts Christ flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist approximately two and a half times larger than life. The looming stature of these three figures reflects their importance in Byzantine culture. What was the first mosaic? When was the Virgin and Child mosaic created? English: The Virgin and Child mosaics are located in the half dome of the apse of the Hagia Sophia. This was the first of the post-iconoclastic mosaics. It was inaugurated on 29 March 867 by Patriarch Photios and the emperors Michael III and Basil I. What is Byzantine art history? Byzantine art, architecture, paintings, and other visual arts produced in the Middle Ages in the Byzantine Empire (centred at Constantinople) and in various areas that came under its influence. … The result was a sophistication of style and a spirituality of expression rarely paralleled in Western art. What is the importance of the Theotokos mosaic? The Theotokos mosaic of the Virgin and Child, in the central apse of the Hagia Sophia, is believed to reconstruct an earlier sixth century mosaic destroyed during Iconoclasm. It combines the Early Byzantine style with the new development of softer folds, increased modeling, and the addition of perspective . IT IS INTERESTING: Quick Answer: How fast can I learn to knit? Does the Hagia Sophia still exist? The complex remained a mosque until 1931, when it was closed to the public for four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by the secular Republic of Turkey. According to data released by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Hagia Sophia was Turkey’s most visited tourist attraction in 2015 and 2019. What does Justinian’s Halo represent? What does Justinian’s halo signify? His association with Christ, who is also haloed and who also wears purple robes. The dual political and religious role of the Byzantine emperors is emphasized. What is the significance of the Hagia Sophia? It served as a center of religious, political, and artistic life for the Byzantine world and has provided us with many useful scholarly insights into the period. It was also an important site of Muslim worship after Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453 and designated the structure a mosque. What religious theme unites the mosaics in the church of San Vitale? A major theme of this mosaic program is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history. Who is depicted in the Theotokos mosaic located in the Hagia Sophia? Mosaic panel located at the southwestern entrance of the basilica Hagia Sophia (Istanbul) depicting the emperor Constantine I holding a model of the city of Constantinople (right), the emperor Justinian I holding a model of Hagia Sophia (left) and the Virgin Mary holding the Child Christ on her lap, 10 century CE. What happened above Hagia Sophia on May 28 1453? On May 28, 1453, the Byzantine emperor Constantine XI entered Hagia Sophia, “the church of the divine wisdom,” to pray. … Twenty years after its completion, two major earthquakes shook Hagia Sophia and destroyed its eastern arch. After extensive renovation, it reopened in 562 A. IT IS INTERESTING: Is Lion brand jeans yarn being discontinued?	<urn:uuid:fa15c914-c3d9-468b-9500-37a7deebc2dc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.40210312604904175, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9491451978683472, "url": "https://perkyhobby.com/sewing/you-asked-what-was-the-significance-of-virgin-and-child-mosaic-in-the-apse-of-hagia-sophia.html" }
While flu and cold season may have passed, many people are still suffering from allergies that cause them to sneeze constantly. Sneezing is a reflex we simply cannot control and can actually occur in several different forms. Your McAllen sinus specialists at the Glatz Group of Valley ENT would like to share some fun facts about sneezing. How Fast Does a Sneeze Travel? Sneezes can travel up to 100 mph but are generally between 30 to 35 mph. Unfortunately, the speed at which they travel means germ-ridden sneezes can cover a lot of ground. Sneezes generally spread in about a five-foot radius, but a powerful sneeze can land as far as 30 feet away. The Reason We Sneeze The biological reboot signaled by the pressure force of a sneeze is similar to a computer quickly rebooting. Sneezes reset the setting within our nasal passageways, helping to remove the contaminants in our airways. The microscopic hairs that line our nasal cavities help to moderate sneezes. Photic Sneeze Reflex Did you know sunlight makes us sneeze? A reaction referred to as a photic sneeze reflex causes some people to sneeze because of sunlight. Though not fully understood, it’s believed that the signal the brain receives to shrink the pupils when near bright light may run into the message the brain is given to sneeze. Why We Close Our Eyes When We Sneeze There’s little you can do to keep your eyes open if you’re about to sneeze. The buildup to a sneeze includes closing the eyes as part of the message the brain gets. Does Your Heart Skip a Beat When Sneezing? Your heart actually doesn’t skip a beat when you sneeze, contrary to popular belief. The stimulation of the vagus nerve that takes place during a sneeze is a result of the deep breath most people take prior to sneezing. Holding In a Sneeze It is best to stop attempting to stuff that sneeze back in. While it is rare, trying to hold a sneeze can actually result in serious injuries. Stopping a Sneeze We happen to be capable of stopping the urge to sneeze. There are a couple tricks that may cause a sneeze to pass if you’re getting a light tingle. Rubbing your nose, pressing on your upper lip under your nose, or forcing a big, deep breath out your nose can help stop a sneeze. Why We Usually Sneeze in Twos and Threes There are times when particles that are stuck in the nasal passageways need some extra help getting removed from your airways. More often than you would assume, it takes more than one attempt to get all of those irritants out, which is why we generally sneeze several times in a row. Get nose & sinus relief with the help of the Glatz Group of Valley ENT. Our McAllen ENT specialists are ready to help with all your sinus relief needs. While sneezing is common, it can be an indicator of another problem. If you are dealing with allergies, reach out to our ENT office in McAllen to diagnose the issue and help you find the relief you deserve. Set Up Your Appointment Today	<urn:uuid:c5fc01e5-e253-4bf1-8c16-edd6af7fe5ba>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.21166640520095825, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9149801731109619, "url": "https://glatzyoudid.com/fun-facts-about-sneezing/" }
The Origins of Carnival Culture I Oxford Open Learning Carnival Culture The Origins of Carnival Culture This August bank holiday would traditionally have seen Notting Hill explode with life, as the annual Carnival event swept the streets in a flurry of vibrant colours and infectious energy. In light of this I decided to look into the history of carnival culture and its origins. Carnival originated in the Caribbean as a blend of the music, dance, and festival traditions of the wide variety of Africans brought to the West Indian islands by the slave trade. African culture then combined with European influences in a process named creolisation, which resulted in a huge number of varying carnival traditions that featured a cultural blend of dance and music. Performances were filled with social commentary and took great influence from contemporary themes such as conflict, culture, politics, economics, religion and ancestral worship. Jamaican Junkanoo is a major form of Caribbean carnival with a longstanding history. It is said that Junkanoo was a reference to John Conny, a chief on the Gold Coast who defended Fort Brandenbrugh against the Dutch in the early 18th century. Men would dress with ox horns and boar tusks to represent the fierceness of the chief. Junkanoo later saw the influence of British kings and warriors but he always remained a masked figure with exaggerated facial features and strange clothing. It is argued that this represented the inversion of social norms and the revolutionary potential of carnival in physical form. Conflict was also embodied in carnival music. The main instrument used were African drums, which were feared by Europeans for their unfamiliarity and potency in signalling revolt during revolutions. Drumming was hence strictly prohibited and highly politicised. It is also argued that bashing and beating drums was a sonic representation of the brutality of slavery, meaning the music by which carnival was accompanied was heavily characterised by conflict. Dance and carnival traditions were also influenced by the West Indian economy, as many carnivals were held based around the plantation calendar. For example, due to the early consolidation of sugar production in Barbados, the main Bajan dance festival became the enthusiastic celebration of the ending of the sugar crop in summer. Meanwhile in Jamaica, the Christmas period became significant for carnival culture as this was the year end, during which time the crops needed least attention. The musical element of carnivals was also heavily influenced by the slave economy, with the call and response rhythms of work songs continuing from plantations into carnival singing traditions. The loud music and wild movements were also said to be demonstrations of autonomy and a rejection of slaves’ classification of property; loud music and wild movements showed that slaves were very much energetically alive, in resistance to the subhuman state in which they were kept. Carnival Culture and Politics Cultural events were also often mimicked in Caribbean carnival. Satirical commentary drew heavily upon politics, with leaders represented as clumsy and tyrannical. Plantation wives were also portrayed in a grotesque light, with affairs and occasions represented through dance and costume mimicry. For example, European elites attempted to represent carnival as indecent and vulgar in the Port of Spain in 1838, resulting in controls on carnival procedures. However, the authorities’ attempts to abolish and control carnival throughout the century only ever resulted in riots. The immediate satirisation of these riots in carnival illustrates the highly current and topical nature of its influence. Another key feature underpinning carnival traditions was religion. Slaves were permitted to celebrate carnivals such as Junkanoo at Christmas as this marked the celebration of Jesus’ birth and slavers would allow their slaves time off work to celebrate. Certain carnival traditions were also performed during the Catholic fast of Lent, meaning these types were only found exclusively in colonies practicing Roman Catholicism. Religion was also a great influence on the characters that were celebrated through carnival traditions. In the Jamaican Junkanoo, it is believed that the word originated from ‘dzonc’, meaning magician or sorcerer, and ‘kunu’, meaning terrible or deadly. Therefore, historians have also theorised that the figure, here named John Canoe, was originally a witch doctor or spiritual leader. Particular dance styles also saw strong religious characterisations. Kromanti dance of the Jamaican maroons was also based on religion, as it featured a ceremony in which dancers were ‘possessed’ by spiritual ancestors in order to resolve issues in the community. Ancestors were also called upon during the ceremony to protect against evil spirits, thus showing the highly spiritual nature of this form of carnival. Final Word Carnival culture has come a long way since it first originated and has seen many further adaptations in the various countries in which it is practiced. For more information on the Notting Hill Carnival and the particular influences which have formed this specific culture, head to the NHC 2020 website to find out more. See more by Having recently returned to the UK after a ski season in the French Alps, Hannah has decided to swap the skis for her laptop keys. As a History graduate from the University of Leeds with an Exchange BA from the University of Rochester, New York, she has always had a passion for writing. She has written musings for magazines, copy for companies, and is now braving the blogs. She hopes you enjoy her work.	<urn:uuid:a3ed7d73-bc9c-4a04-a99e-62539509f0b7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.04026651382446289, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9814932346343994, "url": "https://www.oxfordhomeschooling.co.uk/blog/the-origins-of-carnival-culture/" }
Michael Brown Control Engineering CC Practical Process Control Training & Loop Optimisation The P Term Figure 1 shows a simplified P only controller. The P term may be considered as a pure amplifier that multiplies the input error signal by whatever gain (Kp) is set in the controller to produce the controller’s output signal (PD). The bias allows the output to be manually adjusted either up or down between 50% and 100%. Figure 2 shows a recording of a test on a P only controller with Kp = 4, with the controller mounted in the test rig as described in Part 2 of this series. A setpoint (SP) change of 10% has been made, which gives a step change of error of 10%, and the PD has immediately stepped up by 40%. As there are no standards in PID controllers, manufacturers use various units for the P term. Probably the most common is “gain”, which as mentioned above is the amplifying factor, and is defined as the size of the output step divided by the size of the input step. Another term used by quite a few manufacturers is “proportional band”. The relationship between gain and proportional band is: Proportional Band = (1/Gain) x 100 % Proportional band is sometimes a useful concept in aiding one in explaining controller responses, as it may be considered as a graphical representation of the control range. This is illustrated in Figure 3, where a gain of 2 has been entered in a P only controller. The proportional band works out at 100/2 = 50%. This can be drawn as a band of 50% width lying around the setpoint. Note that the band need not be equidistant around the setpoint, but can in fact move around the setpoint. However in ordinary controllers the band normally can never move away from the setpoint. (The position of where the setpoint lies within the band is in fact set by the value of the bias). Assume that at a particular moment of time the PV value was sitting on the bottom edge of the proportional band. This would mean that at that time the valve would be at one of its extremities, either fully open or fully shut. If the measurement were then to move up to the top of the proportional band, then the valve would have moved through its range to the opposite extremity. Thus the proportional band represents the control range, as control can only be achievable between the two valve extremities. This leads to an interesting thought. In the first article in this loop signature series, it was mentioned that control performance or variance is a measure of error effectively totalised over a period of time. If we were able to put more gain into a controller and make the proportional band narrower, then it is feasible to believe that the variance would improve, as errors should be smaller in a narrower proportional band. Therefore the smaller the band, the better the variance, provided we could in fact achieve control within that band. Taking this concept to a ridiculous extreme we could speculate that if we were to put an infinite gain into the controller, and make the proportional band infinitely small (i.e. zero), then we should have zero variance, as there should then be no control error. Infinite gain is of course ON/OFF control, and as we know, ON/OFF control is in fact in a continuous cycle, either switching the final control element fully on or off, as the PV rises and falls through setpoint. This results in very poor variance. In reality as the gain is increased in the controller, the loop will eventually start reacting to changes in setpoint or load with a cyclic response, and this will get worse as the gain is increased. Therefore for minimum variance there is a balance between the amount of gain we can insert in a controller, and the amount of cycling that we would be prepared to tolerate in any particular control loop. The actual limit in practice would be where the gain in the controller would give rise to a quarter damped amplitude response on a step change in setpoint. To explore the limitations inherent in a P only controller, take the practical case of such a controller that is often still encountered in level controls in plants. This is the ball valve. The ball valve and level process make up a complete feedback control loop. The ball is the measuring element. The arm connecting the ball to the valve is the proportional control mechanism, and the valve the final control element. Imagine the system illustrated in Figure 4 is being used for controlling the level in the reservoir feeding water to our plant. When we come to examine the system, let us imagine that we find that the inflow and outflow are equal. The level is therefore constant at some particular point. Let us call this point our desired level, the setpoint. We then proceed to perform a little experiment, and open the manual valve controlling the flow of water to our plant by 10%. As the valve opens, the flow increases and the level starts dropping. As it does so, the ball drops with it and opens up its valve, which in turn increases the flow of inlet water. Eventually the inflow will equal the outflow at which point the level stops dropping, and will remain constant. The control system is now in equilibrium, and the level will remain at the new value, as long as no further changes are made to the manual valve. The level is again under control, but is no longer at setpoint, and we say that we are now controlling the level with an “offset”. Offset is the main drawback to P only control. There is nothing in a P only controller that can do anything to permanently eliminate the offset. For practical purposes one can generally assume that a P only control system will almost definitely control with offset at some stage or other. In certain instances one can tolerate a certain amount of offset. However the majority control loops are there to keep the process at the setpoint. The best one can do with a P only controller is to minimise offset. This can be achieved in two ways. Firstly if the controller gain is increased, the offset will decrease proportionally. Secondly, one can bring the process to the setpoint by adjusting the valve position manually. In the example of the ball valve above, one could physically bend up the arm between the ball and the valve to allow the level to come back up to the setpoint. In a real controller the same effect can be achieved by adjusting the bias. This adjustment is often called “manual reset”. The problem with manual reset is that if you had reset the offset at a particular point in time, then when changes occurred in the process again, another offset would result. In practice, manual reset is used only for initially setting up P only control systems. In the real world of industrial process control, P only control should only be used on processes that are tuned with a large P gain value. It would generally be impossible to use it where the P value is small, as large offsets could result. Therefore one normally only finds P only controllers on integrating loops such as level controls where high controller P gain is normal. Integrating loops are in actual fact better without the I term in the controller. There are two reasons for this. The first is that as mentioned in previous articles, any hysteresis on a valve on an integrating process that is controlled with P+I control will result in continuous cycling. The second reason is that the I term introduces a second integral term into the combined loop process transfer function, and prevents perfect pole cancellation tuning from being achieved. Therefore the only reason that one should technically ever use the I term in the controller on an integrating process, is if the possible offset is unacceptable. However, in reality, most people don’t like processes being controlled with offset, even if it is actually acceptable, and as a result one finds that the I term is used on most integrating processes.	<urn:uuid:492f63ea-aea8-4dcf-ac45-fc3c6344445a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.10392224788665771, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9363572597503662, "url": "http://controlloop.co.za/ls/ls11.htm" }
Encyclopedia … combined with a great Buyer's Guide! Sponsors: and others Volume Bragg Gratings Acronym: VBG, VHG Definition: Bragg gratings written into some bulk material Alternative term: bulk Bragg gratings More general term: Bragg gratings German: Volumen-Bragg-Gitter Category: photonic devices How to cite the article; suggest additional literature URL: https://www.rp-photonics.com/volume_bragg_gratings.html Volume Bragg gratings (also called volume holographic gratings) are Bragg gratings which are written inside some transparent material, e.g. in the form of a cube or a parallelepiped – in contrast to diffraction gratings made on the surface of an optical element or fiber Bragg gratings, where the grating is written into the core of an optical fiber. Typically, such gratings are written into some photosensitive glass, and sometimes into crystal materials. They are also called bulk Bragg gratings or volume holographic gratings. Some typical properties of volume Bragg gratings: volume Bragg grating Figure 1: A volume Bragg grating within a glass block reflects an incident beam, if the Bragg condition is met (left-hand side). For a different angle of incidence, hardly any reflection occurs. • Typically, one uses a very small grating period of e.g. below 1 μm, so that one can obtain reflection of light in some narrow optical bandwidth (e.g. 0.1 nm or 0.01 nm) – either directly back into the incoming beam or under some angle. However, there are also transmitting Bragg gratings (TBG), where the diffracted beams on the same side of the device is the transmitted beams. • The peak reflectance is sometimes only a few percent, in other cases more than 99%. In case of an unchirped grating, it is determined by the length of the grating and the magnitude of the refractive index modulation. • The shape and width of the reflection spectrum (filter shape) can be tailored to some extent. • The thickness of such devices (typically several millimeters) is sufficient for allowing substantial beam radii of e.g. a few millimeters. The large beam area in combination with the relatively high optical damage threshold of e.g. multiple J/cm2 then allows for very high peak powers. • Optical losses related to absorption or scattering of light are usually at a very low level. Therefore, such devices can also be operated at fairly high average power levels. • Normally, a device contains only a single grating. However, it is possible to have two or more Bragg gratings within the same volume of material. • There are chirped volume Bragg gratings (CVBG, CBG), i.e., devices where the Bragg wavelength is not constant, but varies continuously along the device. The purpose of the chirp can be e.g. to obtain a large reflection bandwidth or to obtain some amount of chromatic dispersion. Fabrication of Volume Bragg Gratings A volume Bragg grating is some transparent medium where there is a periodic modulation of the refractive index in some region (principle of a volume hologram). Such an index modulation can be produced by irradiating over some time interval a photosensitive (photorefractive) glass (e.g. silica containing some dopants) with ultraviolet light in the spatial shape of a standing wave pattern (→ interference). Essentially, two narrow-linewidth ultraviolet light beams are superimposed in the material, having somewhat different propagation directions. The angle between the two beams, together with the optical wavelength and the refractive index of the glass, determines the period of the obtained interference pattern. Some thermal development may follow the irradiation. In many cases, the end faces of the volume Bragg grating are optically polished and anti-reflection coated in order to avoid parasitic reflections. The grating lines can be parallel or perpendicular to the input and output faces, or have any other orientation. An alternative method is the direct laser writing technique, using tightly focused ultrashort pulses with high peak intensities. Applications of Volume Bragg Gratings Wavelength Stabilization of Lasers A typical application of volume Bragg gratings is the wavelength stabilization of lasers, most often of laser diodes. For that purpose, a grating is usually placed not directly in front of the laser diode, but after a collimating lens (at least a fast axis collimator). With in some narrow optical bandwidth, it provides additional optical feedback to the laser diode, which forces the diode to emit light only within that bandwidth. In effect, the mean wavelength of the obtained optical spectrum is more or less fixed, whereas without the optical feedback it would substantially depend on the junction temperature of the diode and might increase with continued aging. At the same time, the optical bandwidth of the emission is substantially reduced, e.g. from a few nanometers to a small fraction of 1 nm. This is important, for example, for pumping of certain solid-state lasers, where the laser crystal exhibits efficient pump absorption only in a narrow wavelength range. Notch Filters Volume Bragg grating can be used in laser beam as a notch filter: light in some narrow wavelength region is reflected out of the beam, while other light can pass with very low losses. Spectral Beam Combining Spectral beam combining is a method for combining several laser beams with slightly different wavelengths into one beam. In the simplest case, two beams are combined, where one is transmitted and the other one is reflected by the grating. Using several superimposed gratings, more beams can be combined. Another possibility is to have all beams reflected on a single grating, each one at a different diffraction angle according to its wavelengths. Wavelength Division Multiplexing Volume Bragg gratings can be applied in the context of optical fiber communications with wavelength division multiplexing. Although fiber Bragg gratings would appear to be a more natural choice for system based on fiber optics, these have the disadvantage of allowing only retro-reflection, but not reflection as some angle; one then often requires Faraday circulator for extracting the reflected beam. The disadvantage is avoided by the volume Bragg grating. Such a device can also have multiple gratings within a single glass piece, allowing for quite compact packaging. For coarse WDM (CWDM), where the past spans are several nanometers white, one typically uses transmitting gratings. For dense WDM (DWDM), narrowband reflections are utilized. Injecting Pump Light into Laser Resonators As the reflection occurs only in a short wavelength range, the volume Bragg grating can also be used for injecting pump light into a laser resonator: even if pump and laser wavelength are very close together, the grating may reflect laser light and transmit pump light, or vice versa. Dispersive Pulse Compression and Stretching Another common application is dispersive pulse compression. For that purpose, one uses chirped volume Bragg gratings (see above). The operation principle is essentially the same as for chirped mirrors (see the corresponding article), although the parameters are quite different: the refractive index modulation is typically much weaker, but extends over a much longer length. As a result, the obtained range of group delays can be far larger – for device length of the order of 100 mm, as are already possible with sufficiently high precision, ≈ 1 ns stretched pulse duration is possible [11]. The group delay dispersion can also be far larger. Depending on the orientation of the device, the group delay dispersion for reflected light may be positive or negative. Sometimes, one uses slightly different transverse positions in a single volume Bragg grating for the pulse stretcher and pulse compressor in a chirped-pulse amplification (CPA) system. Typically, one has only limited control over the variation of grating period and grating strengths over the length of the grating. Therefore, the chromatic dispersion versus wavelength may exhibit substantial oscillations, which can be problematic. In this respect, chirped dielectric mirrors allow a much finer dispersion control because of the precise control of layer thickness values. The device length of volume Bragg gratings is typically more limited than for fiber Bragg gratings, where it could easily be several tens of centimeters, but the advantage of volume Bragg gratings is that one can use laser beams with very much larger beam radius, so that the device can tolerate far higher peak powers. The RP Photonics Buyer's Guide contains 5 suppliers for volume Bragg gratings. Among them: Questions and Comments from Users Your question or comment: Spam check: [1]T. A. Shankoff, “Phase holograms in dichromated gelatin”, Appl. Opt. 7, 2101 (1968), doi:10.1364/AO.7.002101 [2]O. M. Efimov et al., “High-efficiency Bragg gratings in photothermorefractive glass”, Appl. Opt. 38 (4), 619 (1999), doi:10.1364/AO.38.000619 [3]L. B. Glebov, “Volume hologram recording in inorganic glasses”, Glass Science and Technology 75, Suppl. C1, 73 (2002) [4]K.-H. Liao, “Large-aperture chirped volume Bragg grating based fiber CPA system”, Opt. Express 15 (8), 4876 (2007), doi:10.1364/OE.15.004876 [5]N. Vorobiev et al., “Single-frequency-mode Q-switched Nd:YAG and Er:glass lasers controlled by volume Bragg gratings”, Opt. Express 16 (12), 9199 (2008), doi:10.1364/OE.16.009199 [6]J. Lumeau, L. Glebova and L. B. Glebov, “Influence of UV-exposure on the crystallization and optical properties of photo-thermo-refractive glass”, J. Non-Crystalline Solids 354, 425 (2008), doi:10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2007.06.082 [7]A. Sevian et al., “Efficient power scaling of laser radiation by spectral beam combining”, Opt. Lett. 33 (4), 384 (2008), doi:10.1364/OL.33.000384 [8]O. Andrusyak et al., “Spectral combining and coherent coupling of lasers by volume Bragg gratings”, IEEE Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 15 (2), 344 (2009), doi:10.1109/JSTQE.2009.2012438 [9]S. Tjörnhammar et al., “Numerical modeling and determination of limiting powers for volume Bragg gratings used in lasers for spectral control”, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 30 (8), 2326 (2013), doi:10.1364/JOSAB.30.002326 [10]D. Ott et al., “Scaling the spectral beam combining channels in a multiplexed volume Bragg grating”, Opt. Express 21 (24), 29620 (2013), doi:10.1364/OE.21.029620 [11]L. Glebov et al., “Volume-chirped Bragg gratings: monolithic components for stretching and compression of ultrashort laser pulses”, Optical Engineering 53 (5), 051514 (2014) (Suggest additional literature!) See also: Bragg gratings, diffraction gratings, fiber Bragg gratings, stabilization of lasers, laser diodes, optical filters, spectral beam combining, pulse compression, pulse stretchers, wavelength division multiplexing and other articles in the category photonic devices These sharing buttons are implemented in a privacy-friendly way!	<urn:uuid:6d38895d-a042-491d-ad52-f2d9040e6fb4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.020732223987579346, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.878162145614624, "url": "https://www.rp-photonics.com/volume_bragg_gratings.html" }
History of Hues: White This edition of History of Hues is all about white. The color that has no color. White objects reflect and scatter all visible wavelengths of light. On a phone screen or a computer screen, white is created by a mixture of red, blue, and green light. Who says white is “plain”? White is certainly basic but in the best way. There's a lot of power in that simplicity. The neutrality of white allows other colors and textures to shine through. But in a different space, white can act as a partner to the other colors in the space, much like the yin and yang. Because of this, there's nothing plain about decorating with white. It’s a wonderful way to express a sense of cleanness, freshness, brightness, and calm. At the drape, we see white for all that it can be, and embrace its potential to inspire! White is the color of sunny day clouds, fresh clean sheets, and wedding days. Its use in art can be traced all the way back to the earliest works of art, the Stone Age cave paintings made with kaolin or calcite. It almost seems unnecessary to say that white symbolizes purity, cleanliness, and light. In Feng Shui, white is connected to metal elements and is balance by wood and glass. Paleolithic artists used white to draw bulls and other animals in the Lascaux Cave in France. These drawings were created between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago using the mineral calcite. The mineral calcite is a kind of limestone. Originally, limestone was deposited under the sea as the scales of tiny microorganisms called coccolithophore. This is what was used to create the first white pigment that the cave artists used. Fabric in its natural state is called greige fabric. Before bleach, the process to clean and whiten the fabric was called Fulling, and the people who did this job were called fullers. The earliest fulling mill dates back to 1086 in Normandy France. There are two steps to fulling: scouring and thickening. Scouring is conducted by standing ankle-deep in tubs of stale human urine and cloth. Walking around in these tubs was an act of"washing” the fabric. The urine was a source of ammonium salts that cleansed and whitened the cloth. The second step in the process is thickening. The fuller stomped the fabric in knee-deep stale urine for seven to eight hours. The cloth is then spread out on the ground to be bleached by the sun. After this, the cloth is rinsed and hung to dry. Thankfully, in modern textile production, the fabric is bleached. Oxidative bleaching is the process for natural fibers using sodium hypochlorite, sodium chlorite or sulfuric acid. For polyester and other synthetic fabrics, reductive bleaching is done with sodium hydrosulfite. To create a whiter white, an optical brightener is added. This is a chemical compound that absorbs light in the ultraviolet and violet region. White is versatile—its ability to go with everything is the result of the reflection of all the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum, allowing it to naturally coordinate with nearly any color. Using white provides space for bright colors to breathe. Pairing whites with soothing pastels creates a zen-like calm. The mood of a gloomy room can be lifted with the addition of white for the windows. Or go full out with a fashion-forward monochromatic all-white room that showcases your life with a curated, artistic feel. In a teeny-tiny room, pairing white or off-white walls with light, bright cotton panels adds the feel of more space. For an added illusion, hang the curtains all the way to the ceiling to draw the eyes upward and provide even more space. Does white sound like the right fit for your home? Wrap your windows in softness with our soothing white cotton canvas or add some texture using our white in the linen. Since your order is customized, you get to have the exact look you want. Do you want a clean, crisp tailored look, or the air of opulence that a pair of perfectly pooled drapes provide? We'd love to help you decide—just contact us! 13 views0 comments Recent Posts See All	<urn:uuid:e98aa430-81d9-4b5f-8c0d-798be9373b08>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.03545224666595459, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9427618384361267, "url": "https://www.thedrape.com/post/history-of-hues-white" }
Yanakuna were originally individuals in the Inca Empire who left the ayllu system[1] and worked full-time at a variety of tasks for the Inca, the quya (Inca queen), or the religious establishment. A few members of this serving class enjoyed high social status and were appointed officials by the Sapa Inca.[2] They could own property and sometimes had their own farms, before and after the conquest. The Spanish continued the yanakuna tradition developing it further as yanakuna entered Spanish service as Indian auxiliaries or encomienda indians. Etymology and spelling The word yana in Quechua, the main Inca language, means black, servant, and is possibly derived from the verb yanapa to help, Qosqo Quechua, yana, black, servant, partner, spouse, and paramour.[3] The -kuna suffix in yanakuna indicates the plural,[4] thus if yana is translated as "servant" yanakuna is "servants"[5] or "slaves".[6] Hispanicized spellings of yanakuna are yanacona and yanaconas. Inca Empire In the Inca Empire yanakuna was the name of the servants to the Inca elites. The word servant, however, is misleading about the identity and function of the yanakuna.[7] It is important to note that they were not forced to work as slaves.[citation needed] Some were born into the category of yanakuna (like many other professions, it was a hereditary one), some chose to leave ayllus to work, and some were selected by nobles.[8] They were to care for the herds of the nobles, do fishing, and were dedicated to other work, like the making of pottery, construction, and domestic service. Yanakuna were sometimes given high positions in the Inca government. Mitma is a term commonly associated with yanakuna, but its meaning is different, as the mitmaqkuna were used as labor for large projects. Yanakuna were specifically not a part of an ayllu and were relocated individually instead of in large labor groups. An example of the differences of the classes is that mitmaqkuna were labor that built Machu Picchu, but yanakuna lived and served the Inca there.[9] In Chile, the mapuche used this word to refer to alleged "traitors of their race". The concept of traitor was unknown to them, so when asked to translate the word from Spanish they referred to the Spanish native auxiliaries. Spanish Empire When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in modern-day Peru, the yanakuna assisted the Spaniards to take control of the empire. These people, who the Spaniards, during the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, began to use the name for the indigenous people they had in servitude, in encomiendas, or in military forces as indios auxiliares (Indian auxiliaries). After the conquest, as craftworkers and laborers, the yanakuna played a significant role in a variety of both rural and urban production sectors in Peru's colonial economy. First Decades of Colonization The Spanish initially exacted tribute from the indigenous peoples of Peru through the ayllu-based encomienda system, by which native subjects were forced to contribute labor and goods (increasingly in the form of silver money) in service of the Spanish crown.[10] Yanakuna, however, were separate from this system of obligation, and often performed different tasks. While the indios de encomienda fulfilled the most menial jobs in the Potosi silver mines, for example, yanakuna served as skilled artisans.[11] Some yanakuna did work in the mines themselves from their beginnings in the 1540s, but unlike the indios de encomienda, they worked as free wage laborers.[12] Yanakuna in Mining and the Mita Under the reforms imposed by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo (1569-1581), a system of draft labor known as the mita came to replace the encomienda system, by which villages within a several-hundred mile radius around Potosi had to send around one seventh of their male tribute-age population (from ages 18 to 50) each year to work in the mines. This change in labor organization occurred for a number of reasons: the Crown's explicitly stated preference for Peru to emphasize silver export and advances in mining technology increase the demand for labor; at the same time, the imposition of the mita allowed the Crown to push against the power of the encomenderos (Spanish recipients of encomienda grants), and offer native labor to non-encomenderos in Peru.[13][14][15] With this shift, yanakuna retained their place within the colonial economy of labor, and even grew in importance. As indios de encomienda decreased in number at Potosi, yanakuna increased. And, though mitayos (mita labor draftees) filled an important role in completing tasks undesirable to free laborers, they did not constitute a majority of laborers at Potosi— in 1603, for example, only 5,100 Indians out of 58,800 working at Potosi were mitayos.[16] The proportion of mitayos continued to decrease through the seventeenth century, as the proportion of yanakuna increased: in the latter half of the sixteenth century, yanakuna constituted less than 10% of tribute paying subjects, while they constituted about 40% of this population in the latter half of the seventeenth century.[17] A 1601 order from the Crown stated a preference for voluntary labor;[18] indeed, though the yanakuna may have been bound as servants, historian Raquel Gil Montero suggests that after the Toledo reforms, the tribute-paying yanakuna at Potosi could be considered "free laborers." It was to the natives' advantage to work for market-rate wages as a free laborer (as opposed to the below market-rate wages of the mitayos), considering the expectation of tribute in money form.[19] Yanakuna in Other Economic Sectors and Labor Arrangements As Spanish settlers brought European agriculture to Peru, yanakuna labor supplemented that of mita draftees on farms. In this context, "yanakuna" referred to laborers who permanently resided at their place of employment.[20] As an alternative to mita draftees, Spaniards preferred yanakuna were to African slaves, as the former were familiar with both indigenous and European methods, and did not need to be purchased.[21] As in the mines, yanakuna labor in some areas represented a significant proportion of the labor force. The historian Steve J. Stern has written that Spanish colonials in the Huamanga region of Peru increasingly depended on contracted yanakuna labor as the mita labor draft became less reliable, especially for less politically influential settlers (in part due to resistance and evasion from within ayllus, as well as indigenous population decline). This was the case not only in farming and mining, but also in ranching and manufactures.[22] In these contract relationships, a yanakuna promised labor services to a master in exchange for subsistence, as well as land and credit. Labor arrangements mimicking this yanakuna form— separate from the natives' ayllus— proliferated through the early seventeenth century, as Spanish employers sought to secure a labor force. In some cases, factory owners brought laborers from their ayllus to reside in situ like yanakuna; in others, contracts with free wage laborers came to resemble yanakuna contracts in their duration and reciprocal guarantees. What Stern calls "yanacona-like" relationships developed as a way for Indian workers to repay debts to a Spanish employer. And, due to labor demand, Spaniard's sometimes sought to convince Indians to voluntarily enter yanakuna contracts on farms with attractive wage offers. The need for coercion to secure labor indeed decreased, as the monetization of tribute, the associated integration of a commercial economy, and the burdens of the mita made ayllus less self-sufficient, and induced Indian members to seek subsistence beyond. [23] Though separate from their ayllus, yanakuna were not completely dislocated from community. Many still owned land, and some of those working on farms lived their with families.[24] In general, like other colonial-era migrants, yanakuna moved with their families and spouses.[25] In urban areas, yanakuna owned and passed down real estate. Unlike many other urban Indian laborers bound in servitude, often in domestic work, urban yanakuna maintained a more privileged status working as skilled craftspeople. Here, they were also distinguished by their comparably greater degree of acculturation to Spanish custom and language. Some scholars argue that this integration into urban colonial society by yanakuna actually represented an extension into a new context of older Andean practices of migration meant to fulfill different ecological niches.[26] The term yanakuna also was used during the conquest of Chile and other areas of South America, like the New Kingdom of Granada. Modern use In modern times people in Chile use "yanacona" as an insult for Mapuches considered to have betrayed their people.[27] Use of the word "yanacona" to describe people in the press have led to legal action in Chile.[27] See also 1. ^ Lewellen, Ted C. (2003). Political anthropology: An introduction. ABC-CLIO. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0-89789-891-1. 2. ^ Childress, D. (2000). Who's who in Inca society. Calliope, 10(7), 14. 3. ^ "yana - Quechua cuzqueño-Español Diccionario". Glosbe. Retrieved 2019-05-22. 4. ^ Alan L. Kolata, Ancient Inca, Cambridge University Press, 2013 5. ^ Garcilazo de la Vega, Primera Parte de los Comentarios Reales de los Incas(1609), available online 7. ^ The Inca and Aztec States 1400-1800. Anthropology and History by George A. Collier; Renato I. Rosaldo; John D. Wirth. 8. ^ Malpass, M. A. (1996). Daily life in the inca empire. (pp. 55). Greenwood Publishing Group. 9. ^ Bethany L. Turner, George D. Kamenov, John D. Kingston, George J. Armelagos, Insights into immigration and social class at Machu Picchu, Peru based on oxygen, strontium, and lead isotopic analysis, Journal of Archaeological 10. ^ Gil Montero, Raquel (2011). "Free and Unfree Labour in the Colonial Andes in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries". International Review of Social History. 56 (S19): 303–305 – via Cambridge Core. 11. ^ Gil Montero, "Free and Unfree Labour in the Colonial Andes in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," 303–305. 12. ^ Bakewell, Peter (1984), Bethell, Leslie (ed.), "Mining in colonial Spanish America", The Cambridge History of Latin America: Volume 2: Colonial Latin America, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, vol. 2, p. 127, doi:10.1017/chol9780521245166.005, ISBN 978-0-521-24516-6, retrieved 2020-11-30 13. ^ Gil Montero, "Free and Unfree Labour in the Colonial Andes in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," 298, 305-307, 317. 14. ^ Bakewell, "Mining in colonial Spanish America," 124. 15. ^ Sempat Assadourian, Carlos (1992). "The Colonial Economy: The Transfer of the European System of Production to New Spain and Peru". Journal of Latin American Studies. 24, Quincentenary Supplement: The Colonial and Post Colonial Experience. Five Centuries of Spanish and Portuguese America: 58–59 – via JSTOR. 16. ^ Gil Montero, "Free and Unfree Labour in the Colonial Andes in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," 307-308, 314. 17. ^ Ibid., 315-316. 18. ^ Bakewell, "Mining in colonial Spanish America," 126. 19. ^ Gil Montero, "Free and Unfree Labour in the Colonial Andes in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," 299, 316. 20. ^ Sempat Assadourian, "The Colonial Economy: The Transfer of the European System of Production to New Spain and Peru," 60-61. 21. ^ Stern, Steve J. (1982). Peru's Indian peoples and the challenge of Spanish conquest : Huamanga to 1640. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 141. ISBN 0-299-08900-2. OCLC 8176675. 22. ^ Stern, Peru's Indian peoples and the challenge of Spanish conquest : Huamanga to 1640, 139, 142-143. 23. ^ Ibid., 142-157. 24. ^ Ibid., 143, 155. 25. ^ Zulawski, Ann (1990). "Social Differentiation, Gender, and Ethnicity: Urban Indian Women in Colonial Bolivia, 1640-1725". Latin American Research Review. 25 (2): 100–101 – via JSTOR. 26. ^ Ibid., 99-104. 27. ^ a b "Audiencia en caso Mapuexpress: Querellante pidió censurar al medio a cambio de retirar la demanda". El Desconcierto (in Spanish). July 27, 2017. Retrieved September 4, 2019.	<urn:uuid:ab5f04aa-0521-4048-bed6-d0d4f1a77f28>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.020922303199768066, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9238128662109375, "url": "https://db0nus869y26v.cloudfront.net/en/Yanakuna" }
Homeward Bound winding road Homeward Bound This area formed between 50 and 70 million years ago when a major mountain building event in western North America, the Laramide Orogeny, reactivated an ancient buried fault in this region. Movement along the fault caused the west side to shift upwards relative to the east side. The overlying sedimentary layers were draped above the fault and formed a monocline. The rock layers on the west side of the fold have been lifted more than 7,000 feet (2,134 m) higher than the layers on the east. .To Acquire this image for your home or office click the button below You may also like Back to Top	<urn:uuid:99a1e99e-f778-4898-b971-964ba5b1ea57>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.020288467407226562, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9226038455963135, "url": "https://grandeallusions.com/homeward-bound" }
Cookies on this website Non-random usage of synonymous codons, known as “codon bias”, has been described in many organisms, from bacteria to Drosophila, but little is known about it in phytoplankton. This phenomenon is thought to be driven by selection for translational efficiency. As the efficacy of selection is proportional to the effective population size, species with large population sizes, such as phytoplankton, are expected to have strong codon bias. To test this, we measured codon bias in 215 strains from Haptophyta, Chlorophyta, Ochrophyta (except diatoms that were studied previously), Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, Ciliophora, unicellular Rhodophyta and Chlorarachniophyta. Codon bias is modest in most groups, despite the astronomically large population sizes of marine phytoplankton. The strength of the codon bias, measured with the effective number of codons, is the strongest in Haptophyta and the weakest in Chlorarachniophyta. The optimal codons are GC-ending in most cases, but several shifts to AT-ending codons were observed (mainly in Ochrophyta and Ciliophora). As it takes a long time to reach a new equilibrium after such shifts, species having AT-ending codons show a lower frequency of optimal codons compared to other species. Genetic diversity, calculated for species with more than three strains sequenced, is modest, indicating that the effective population sizes are many orders of magnitude lower than the astronomically large census population sizes, which helps to explain the modest codon bias in marine phytoplankton. This study represents the first comparative analysis of codon bias across multiple major phytoplankton groups. Original publication Journal article Journal of Marine Science and Engineering Publication Date	<urn:uuid:aea323e2-af21-4397-bc27-e3986d7de8b0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.19826042652130127, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9206331968307495, "url": "https://www.neuroscience.ox.ac.uk/publications/1241988" }
A Brief Illustrated History of Neuroscience: Chapter 2 Because bone structures are preserved after death and the rest of the body is not, trepanations are the oldest evidence of surgery among Homo Sapiens. But what could have led to a Homo Sapiens to pierce the head of another fellow Homo Sapiens? And what is more, what could have led to a Homo Sapiens … to let themselves have a hole drilled into them? There are many theories for this. One of them, is that the trepanators were leaders or doctors of the tribe and that the procedure was therapeutic. The trepanations could then have been done in head trauma or in individuals with neurological diseases such as epilepsy or psychiatric disorders. The skull hole could have allowed the “spirits” causing the disease to break free. For this reason, some researchers suggest that trepanation was the first “psycho-surgical” procedure. We will see later what psychosurgery is… One other theory is that the skulls of dead high-ranking individuals may have been trepanned, and these pieces of their skull taken as amulets or used in certain ceremonies. Whatever the purpose of the trepanations was, the truth is that they occurred in many parts of the planet, even among cultures that did not have direct contact with each other. Trepanned skulls have been found in Europe, Asia (Japan and Russia), South and North America. An interesting question is: How did they do it? To illustrate this, we will analyze step by step a trepanation procedure as it would be done nowadays, comparing the instruments that could have been used with the ones we use today. Step 1: Asepsis of the surgical area (that is, cleaning the area) Several ancient cultures made mixtures of plants with antibiotic properties. It is possible that the area to be operated was not prepared or that vegetable ointments were applied over the area to prepare it. Step 2: Anesthesia Many ancient cultures used alcoholic beverages, coca leaf or cannabis derivatives to alter consciousness and improve tolerance to pain. “Friend, drink this corn beer… we are going to take out that evil spirits that give you headaches“. Step 3: Skin incision Most probably sharp stones were used for this purpose. We know that primitive man made arrowheads and spears capable of piercing animal hide. He surely could have made some kind of scalpels out of stone. Step 4: Control of bleeding The Incas used rubber bands placed as a very tight headband that compressed the arteries that nourish the scalp. These reduced bleeding (this technique is still used today in wartime damage control to stop bleeding in the arms and legs…yes, a tourniquet). Step 5: Bone cutting The first trepanations date as early as the stone age, the techniques used back then were the scraping of the bone to wear it out; or the use of sharp pieces of stone to cut out the bone, also by friction. Later, when man discovered metals, instruments made of this were used. Step 6: Let the demons out Step 7: Closing the bone defect Many cultures did not, and the orifice made was not closed. The Incas, for example, placed gold molded plates on some skulls. Step 8: Closing the wound Needles made from plant thorns have been found and vegetable threads could have been used as a suture material. In South America, some cultures use beetle heads to close wounds! They make the beetle (or large ants) bite the two lips of the wound and then cut off its heads leaving them like surgical staples. Step 9: Postoperative care Probably a lot of bed rest… In 1953, a group of surgeons from Peru performed (successfully) the evacuation of an intracranial traumatic hematoma using old Inca instruments. We see that trepanation is fascinating but a lot of what we know is based on archaeology and educated guesswork. What is true is that, throughout history many cultures have made trepanations and that many individuals received more than one trepanation throughout their lives … and they survived. Fernando Martínez – Neurosurgeon @fermartneuro Luis Domitrovic – Neurosurgeon and Radiologist @ladvic English Translation Proofreading: Alex Alamri – Neurosurgery Trainee @AlexAlamri Did you like this? Leave a comment or share it! You did not read the chapter 1? Do not worry! [Here] is the first chapter of #ABIHNC. No Comments Post A Comment Related posts • Capítulo VIII: La Edad Media. Luego de la época Galénica hubo una especie de “breve pausa” en el avance del conocimiento anatómico, que duro cientos de años. Esto se debió a múltiples factores (entre ellos al propio Galeno), que veremos brevemente. Los escritos anatómicos,...... • While civilizations other than the Egyptians may have had some knowledge of neurological diseases (modern neurology and psychiatry), and of the form and function of the nervous system (anatomy and physiology, respectively), there are virtually no records of these. There are indirect indications that the...... • As we have seen in the first part, we have no record of man’s knowledge of the nervous system until writing was invented. Those who knew about the nervous system and recorded it were the Egyptians. But, as you can imagine, the knowledge of the...... error: Content is protected !!	<urn:uuid:19699bab-abc2-4058-8d81-28c05b146341>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.032417118549346924, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9435752034187317, "url": "https://ladvic.com/blog/a-brief-illustrated-history-of-neuroscience-chapter-2/" }
Threats to koalas \| Redland City Council Threats to koalas Redlands Coast is part of the wider south-east Queensland Koala Coast. The Queensland government first began monitoring Koala Coast koala populations in 1996. A survey in 2008 showed an estimated 64 per cent decline in koala populations throughout the Koala Coast. A follow-up study in 2015 showed an estimated 80 per cent decline in koala populations between 1996 and 2014. The largest declines occurred in bushland areas, as a flow-on effect from habitat loss and mortality in urban areas. The main threats to koalas include habitat loss and fragmentation, road mortality, dog attacks, disease, backyards and climate change. Key threats Habitat loss and fragmentation Koala habitat can be lost through: • clearing for urban development • broad-scale clearing in rural and peri-urban areas • bushland degradation from poor management, fire, or pest and weed infestations. Fragmentation happens when development creates barriers to movement, including the loss of stepping stone trees in the urban landscape. Habitat loss and fragmentation affect the genetics of koala populations by reducing genetic variation and gene flow. Death or injury from being hit by a moving vehicle is the second most significant threat to koalas. Although koalas spend most of their time in trees, they need to move between trees within their home range. This movement usually happens at night, but koalas can be active at any time. It’s also more common during breeding and dispersal season (August to December) when koalas are moving around more. Dog attacks have historically been the third most significant impact on koalas. These deaths are usually caused by domestic dogs, generally in suburban backyards. Attacks are more likely to happen during July to September, at the peak of breeding season when koalas are moving around more. It's also more common in areas with a higher density of dog ownership and there is an increased risk if there is more than one dog in a yard. Dog attacks occur with healthy koalas as much as sick ones. Even friendly and curious dogs can unintentionally harm a koala through play or stressing the koala. Several diseases are a threat to the resilience of koala populations. The two most common are: • chlamydiosis – symptoms include reduced fertility rates, blindness and ultimately death • koala retrovirus (KoRV) – an immunodeficiency that can be genetically transmitted both between koalas and from parent to offspring. High levels of infertility have been found in many koala populations, with levels of more than 50 per cent previously recorded in Queensland. This can lead to population decline. When koalas in urban areas are moving around their home range, or travelling through new areas during dispersal and breeding season, backyards can pose a serious threat. Fences that are not wildlife friendly can make it difficult for koalas to escape an enclosed yard, or an aggressive or over-enthusiastic pet. Pools are also a danger to koalas as they can quickly drown if they accidentally fall in and cannot escape. Climate change Climate change predictions for koalas include an increase in drought frequency and high fire-danger weather in many parts of Australia. This may force koalas to move more frequently in search of water or new habitats, increasing their vulnerability to predators and vehicles. It has also been predicted that increasing atmospheric CO2 levels will reduce the nutritional quality of eucalyptus leaves, which would compromise the ability of koalas to find enough nutrients to survive. Predictions also suggest south-east Queensland may become increasingly important to the long-term survival of Queensland's koala population, as the climate in other parts of Queensland becomes more hostile to their survival. Learn more Find out how you can help our local koalas. Learn more about our koalas, when they move around, what they eat and where they live. Find out what Council is doing to help protect our koalas.	<urn:uuid:c01ce425-0fe5-4f65-862c-db5c0e773f85>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.032624244689941406, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9495142698287964, "url": "https://www.redland.qld.gov.au/info/20301/koala_conservation/1042/threats_to_koalas" }
Who Has The Most Bones? • Cotton swabs (which represent bones) • Dishes (as many teams as there are) 1. Before class, spread the most cotton swabs to the ground. 2. Divide children into two or more groups. 3. Tell the children that at the start signal, they must pick up one cotton swab at a time and drop it off in the valley (a dish) belonging to their team. 4. The game ends when all the cotton swabs have been picked up. 5. The winning team is the one that has collected the most cotton swabs (the most bones). Even more resources on Social Medias! For all questions, write us:	<urn:uuid:4b7b99b9-3719-4ef6-bcbe-bf4557d27c80>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.4528510570526123, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9380149841308594, "url": "https://makingthebiblecomealive.com/en-e-ezekiel-physical-activity/" }
Tuesday, April 12, 2022 Pick a Proverb - Day 12 Happy Day 12 of National Poetry Month! April always brings poems, vases full of poems. And over at Jama's Alphabet Soup, Jama always generously shares the various projects happening around the Kidlitosphere during this time. Enjoy! For National Poetry Month 2022, I will share a daily poem inspired by a popular proverb. Dictionary.com defines a proverb as "a short, popular saying, usually of unknown and ancient origin, that expresses some commonplace truth or useful thought." A proverb might also be called a saying, an expression, a maxim, or an adage, and Merriam Webster notes that proverbs are "nuggets of wisdom" which often have popular opposites. Some of you may know the word Proverbs from the book of the Bible, but proverbs are not all from the bible - many come from daily life. My suggestion is that we write from proverbs in many ways: • Write a true story poem inspired by the proverb • Make up a story poem connected to the proverb • Write a poem agreeing with the proverb • Write a poem disagreeing with the proverb • Connect a fact or historical moment to the proverb • Take any one word or bit from the proverb and write from that • Anything else! Each day of April, I will share a proverb, the meaning of the proverb, and a poem inspired by that proverb. I will also share the the proverb which will inspire the next day's poem. I invite to you write from proverbs of your own choosing or to write proverb poems along with me. You can read some examples and learn a little more about this projects and my 2010-2020 poetry projects HERE. Here is the PICK A PROVERB LIST that I will write from throughout April 2022, and I will add to this as I discover more proverbs. As school districts block outside Google docs for student access, I welcome teachers to "Make a Copy" of this document and to share it with students from your school district accounts. And now, today's poem! Students - Today's proverb - Grief shared is half grief; joy shared is double joy - illustrates the idea that our sadness can be lessened when we share it with others and our joy multiplies when we share it. We can feel better by sharing both our sorrows and our happinesses. This poem uses two metaphors, or comparisons, to show depict grief (soup) and joy (wildflowers). I tried to think of two things that can be shared and that multiply, two things which gave me a feeling of grief and joy. Soup is not sad, but it is warm and we often eat it on cold days. Wildflowers are colorful and fragrant and can appear wildly happy. The last stanza brings these two things together because I do believe that grief and joy can exist at the same time. When my father died, I was very sorrowful...but joyful to have had so many good memories with him. A soup can might hold wildflowers. I could have written Grief IS LIKE a bowl of soup. And I could have written Joy IS LIKE a packet of wildflower seeds. Those would have been similes, comparing phrases which use the word LIKE or AS when bringing two things together. But I didn't. Instead I wrote Grief IS a bowl of soup. I wrote Joy IS a packet of wildflower seeds. These are metaphors, and they are a stronger use of language. You may wish to compare something to something else in a poem that you are writing. If you do, try making a list first, a list of everything you might compare object/feeling/idea one to. Then choose one something from your list and compare away. You may use LIKE or AS. Or you may not. It depends on how strongly you want to make the connection. This, as always, is your choice as writer. Tomorrow I will share a poem inspired by this proverb: Variety is the spice of life. I invite you to join me in writing about the above proverb using the suggestions listed above today's poem or in choosing your own proverb from the list linked above and in the sidebar here throughout April 2022. If you have a proverb to add to the list, please write to me with a parent or guardian or teacher through that adult's account. And if any classes of students are picking and writing proverbs along with me (or doing any connected work), I invite teachers to email me through my CONTACT ME button above. If you'd like, we can talk about publishing your students' work here at The Poem Farm. Please note that I do not respond to emails from students as I do not encourage writing to strangers online, but I do respond to students who correspond through parents, guardians, and teachers. It has been a joy to read the proverb poems that folks have shared, and I thank you for letting me peek into your interesting brains, just as you peek into mine! Maybe see you tomorrow for Pick a Proverb, Day 13! Please share a comment below if you wish. If you are under 13 years old, please only comment with a parent or as part of a group with your teacher and class. 1 comment: 1. In light of the fact that my husband's family had a sudden death, this poem is a beautiful reminder of how one feels at this time. Thank you, Amy.	<urn:uuid:cd92dab3-ce7d-4dc4-a103-18266cbaee11>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.0430375337600708, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9558722376823425, "url": "http://www.poemfarm.amylv.com/2022/04/pick-proverb-day-12.html" }
the goose that laid the golden egg storyworks the goose that laid the golden egg storyworks Put students in pairs to complete the activity. Betty: Another golden egg! 2, p. 132,, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 27 October 2020, at 13:53. S2: Their old horse takes one step, then another, struggling to pull the heavy load. This article will remind your students about the importance of helping others and offers suggestions for assisting those in need.Â Â Â, Moral of a story, vocabulary, fluency, descriptive details, compare and contrast, plot, character, inference, text features, how characters change, point of view, authorâs craft, narrative writing, Based on one of Aesopâs fables, the play illustrates what can happen when people become consumed by greed.Â. S2: The tailor arrives with his finest silks. I will collect more gold next week. Contoh Story Telling Bahasa Inggris: The Goose that Laid Golden Eggs. ANONYMOUS COMMENTS WILL NOT BE POSTED - please use either your real name or a pseudonym. Consider everything that Maple Rock and EdgePoint had to do to wrest control from ESW. These are 'Greed oft o’er reaches itself' (Joseph Jacobs, 1894)[4] and 'Much wants more and loses all' (Samuel Croxall, 1722). Pa: Yes, how foolish we were to kill the goose that laid the golden eggs. That RCK is cynically manipulated by people is clear. The poor man’s goose laid a golden egg everyday. With that said, the man is not just an average guy in a nursing home. Instead of having employees concentrated in expensive markets like Germany, CrossOver draws on a global network of remote contractors. Learning Objective:Â Students will read an adaptation of a fable by Aesop and identify its moral: that greed can lead to terrible decisions. They supposed that the Hen must contain a great lump of gold in its inside, and in order to get the gold they killed [her]. The Countryman took the eggs to market and soon began to get rich. But a resignation over a compensation dispute, especially in the context of ESW’s control and Royston’s ties to the firm? This is a lucky day. The CEO was ESW-affiliated. Sounds eerily familiar, no? Once in a village lived a poor man. A family suddenly becomes rich. S1: Ma, Pa, and Freddy gasp with delight. When first writing about the story in mid-July, analyzing Optiva from an outside perspective, I thought I had observed a few sparks and wisps of smoke. Check back soon for more announcements & tutorials, R.1, R.2, R.3, R.4, R.5, R.6, R.7, W.3, SL.1, L.6, RL.4.1, RL.4.2, RL.4.3, RL.4.4, RL.4.5, RL.4.6, RL.4.7, W.4.3, SL.4.1, L.4.6, RL.5.1, RL.5.2, RL.5.3, RL.5.4, RL.5.5, RL.5.6, RL.5.7, W.5.3, SL.5.1, L.5.6, RL.6.1, RL.6.2, RL.6.3, RL.6.4, RL.6.5, RL.6.6, RL.6.7, W.6.3, SL.6.1, L.6.6, 4.1a, c; 4.3a, b; 4.4; 4.6a, d, e, f, g; 4.7b, c, f, g; 4.8; 4.9a, c; 4.10d; 4.11; 4.12a, 5.1a; 5.3a, b, d; 5.4; 5.6a, d, e, f, g; 5.7b, c, f, g; 5.8; 5.9a, c; 5.10d; 5.11; 5.12a, 6.1a; 6.2a, b; 6.3; 5.5a, d, e, f, g; 6.6b, c, f, g; 6.7; 6.8a, c; 6.9d; Next day morning, the farmer went to the nest to check if the goose has laid any eggs. Iâm happy with what I have. Disclosure: the author owns shares in Optiva. However, RNS that RNS wrote that RCK was "trotted out" as though he were some sort of pony on display with no will of his own, and that's not only false, but insulting to boot. The rights offering through which ESW took its equity interest from 13% to 28% closed September 6, 2017. “The Goose That Laid the Golden Egg” 3 Viola is co-founder and Vice-President of Laughing Cow Productions, which was founded in Atlanta, Georgia, with her husband, Doug, in 2012. ESW takes control of Optiva then starts ZephyrTel, a telco-focused software company. The man thought there was a huge piece of gold inside her. To his surprise, the goose had laid a golden egg. That controlling shareholder ESW Capital might be attempting to take advantage of minority shareholders. Meanwhile, ZephyrTel began executing a roll-up of software companies serving the telecom market in 2018. box on page 25. The farmer went to the town and sold the golden egg for a good price. Funny, but he doesn't droop off. There was always a path to 100% ownership at Optiva. Obviously he was machmir and took lots of extra aravos. They can use what they wrote in the Skill Builder to help them. Just to give multiple examples for each: Cuomo was the first US Governor to sign an executive order that the state divest from companies supporting the BDS movement. Haven't signed into your Scholastic account before? It's worse than you write. All of these are quite uncertain. Royston gave a bearish investor presentation and outlined plans for a large dilutive financing while turning down funding offers on favourable terms from the company’s two largest shareholders. more valuable. When he left his home finally for the first time in August, when the pandemic was drastically slowing down, he caught coronavirus and sadly passed away on October 4th. Is she ill? The man thought there was a huge piece of gold inside her. Freddy, pick the rest of the corn. Too much greed always leads to great loss, Subscribe to stay updated with our new stories. You wanted too much and ended up with nothing. The theme of a duck, goose or hen laying a golden egg, but not the traditional plot line, was taken up in films in both the United States and Russia. Why worry about how your behaviour will look when exposed to the light of day if the odds of that ever happening are vanishingly small? After all, would you want one ring of power or one for each finger? This one is just fine. wondering if you could help me out so I can feed my family. The egg provided enough money for the farmer and his wife for their day-to-day needs. The basis is the Gemara that says שיירי מצוה מעכבין את הפרענות, although that in and of itself would not be a complete source.Of course, that does not mean that Rabbi K's leaf is any better than the leaf on your own set of Hoshanos, and many people that I know keep a leaf of their own Hoshanos in their car, house and/or office. Weâre sleeping in! Register to receive email notifications for new content. (Of course, this does raise some questions, such as how can the Kupa can be aiming for 1000 such donations when there are surely not that many leaves on his aravot bundle. Next day, they went to the nest and killed the goose and cut her open only to find that she was just like every other goose. We are staying in the barn while our new house is being built. Tailor: Thank you, madam. Unsurprisingly, the board rejected this demand and Royston resigned on May 11th. Seen through this lens, ESW could be forgiven for feeling secure in the assumption that they could behave with abandon. Why did they close down Shul? One day, while the farmer and his wife were talking, his wife said: "If we could get all the eggs that are inside the goose we could be richer faster”. On April 8, 2019, ZephyrTel announced a strategic collaboration agreement with Amazon Web Services: “We expect our cloud offerings to deliver Total Cost of Ownership savings to our customers of up to 90%…” says Shinya in the press release from that day. Click here to learn more aboutÂ Scholastic Classroom Magazines. . Call on a volunteer to read aloud the Up Close box for the class. So we have adopted an easy framework, so everyone feels confident we are making the right decision every time we select DevFactory to provide the service. S1: Ma, Pa, and Freddy gasp with delight.Â, S3: Nobody moves. The company gave no indication of potential revenue growth from the public cloud, only noting that it may take the better part of a decade for significant cloud revenues to materialize. Pair this story with another dramatic adaptation of a fable from Aesop: The Lion and the Mouse, from our September 2015 issue. The ensuing months were quiet from an outside perspective. That hate crimes unit hasn't done a thing, besides collect payroll checks for connected people, and minimize or hide several hate crimes. Maple Rock also wrote to the Optiva Board in November 2019 to offer up to $50 million of fresh equity capital at a price of C$60. Synergy Maritime Deck Cadet Salary, Espn New York Radio, Qatar Pharma Salary, Baker Beach Hours, Breathin Chords Easy, Jesus You're Beautiful Ukulele Chords, 2 Player Pc Games Offline 2020, Blue Diamond Emoji Copy And Paste, West High School Colors, Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:86e606a3-c74b-479a-9cba-956573cd81e5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.02498030662536621, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9574166536331177, "url": "http://smokeybandittransam.com/docs/6r2wcnj.php?e16c0c=the-goose-that-laid-the-golden-egg-storyworks" }
Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London (1618–81). The heavy glass known as flint glass or crystal was developed by 17th-century English glassmaker George Ravenscroft. It is a blown glass—a glass that is softened by heat and shaped by blowing through a tube. Both brilliance and dark shadow are typical of flint glass. Ravenscroft was born in 1618, but little is known of his early life. A group of English retailers called the Worshipful Company of Glass Sellers were dissatisfied with the quality of imported glass; they commissioned Ravenscroft to experiment in making glass using only raw materials from England. In 1674 he developed and patented flint glass, which resembled rock crystal. This glass was made from a formula that included transparent, black flint (a hard mineral of the quartz family, which he called flint crystalline). At first he found that his flint glass pieces tended to lose transparency several months after he manufactured them. To correct this problem, he added lead, usually red lead, to the formula. The new formula produced a heavier, denser glass with a darker color; when the hollow glassware was flicked by the thumb and forefinger, it made a resonant ringing sound. Ravenscroft marked pieces that he made by his new method with a small glass seal impressed with a raven’s head. Ravenscroft’s new, solid, durable glass gradually became more popular than the more fragile Venetian glass. New manufacturing techniques that were more suitable to flint glass began to replace methods that had been developed for Venetian glass. Ravenscroft died in 1681, a few days after his seven-year patent expired, and other manufacturers immediately began to make flint glass.	<urn:uuid:4b5a68db-c685-483d-9981-334a7620ce53>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.06964468955993652, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9822018146514893, "url": "https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/George-Ravenscroft/334225" }
Press "Enter" to skip to content Start Searching the Answers How do you address non-binary? What does MX as a title mean? What does MX mean in texting? Mx.: Defined as a title of respect prefixed to someone’s surname. It does not indicate a gender and may be used by a person with any or no specific gender identity, according to What is a title before a name? How do you write someone’s name and job title? When used in a sentence, professional titles should be uppercase before a person’s name and lowercase after. (When a title appears before a person’s name, it is seen as part of the name. When it appears after or on its own, it is seen as the name of the job and not the person, so it should not be capitalized.) Who is title? A title is a document that shows legal ownership to a property or asset. A title can represent ownership of a real asset such as a car or an intangible property or assets such as a trademark. Titles can be obtained by purchased or inherited as an estate. Legal ownership It belongs to the legal owner, i.e. the person who is registered at the Land Registry on the title deeds. Legal interest gives the owner a right of control over the property, which means they can decide to sell or transfer the property. Why is a title important? The title of your manuscript is usually the first introduction readers have to your published work. Therefore, you must select a title that grabs attention, accurately describes the contents of your manuscript, and makes people want to read further.	<urn:uuid:f93e2432-1967-4b33-91e3-15a1ef98439d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.9826045632362366, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9486908912658691, "url": "https://similaranswer.com/how-do-you-address-non-binary/" }
Weaning is defined as the point at which calves transfer from a liquid to solid diet. Weaning is successful when the rumen has developed sufficiently to support the fermentation and digestion of solid feed. How A Rumen Develops A dairy cow has four parts to the stomach. They are: rumen, reticulum, omasum and the abomasums (as shown in Figure 1 below). When a calf is born, the rumen is not fully developed and hence the calf only has the ability to digest milk through its abomasum. Hence, it is vital that the rumen of the calf is developed early so that the animal is able to utilise feed more efficiently. Another benefit of developing the rumen early is so that the occurrence of rumen health issues will be minimised later in the animal's life. Development stages of a rumen At birth, the abomasum accounts for approximately 70% of the volume of the entire stomach of the calf. However, as the calf ages, she will be encouraged to eat grain and the rumen will start to function and the size of rumen will gradually increased while the size of abomasum decreases. By the time the animal reaches maturity, abomasum accounts for less than 10% of the total volume while the rumen, reticulum and omasum will make up the remainder. Cross section of the rumen consists of three main layers: • a mucosal layer, which is the layer on the inside (as shown below). • a muscle layer, which helps to churn the contents of the rumen. This is vital as it keeps food particles in suspension, to expel gasses produced during digestion and to move digested material into the abomasum. • a tough, fibrous exterior layer to protect the whole organ. Changing the rumen from a small inactive organ to an organ that functions efficiently enough in order to supply the calf sufficient nutrients for maintenance and growth requires many changes. Firstly, the rumen must be enlarged. The walls must thicken and the papillae which are tiny finger-like projections which become part of the mucosal layer, must also develop and elongate. Research shows that the stimulus for these changes is the presence of butyric acid, which is an end product of the digestion of grain by micro-organisms in the rumen. Butryic acid is not produced by the digestion of forages such as hay which are commonly fed to calves as farmers believe that they will help stimulate the development of rumen. A good rumen development will turn the inside of the rumen from a smooth pale surface to a covulated, dark coloured surface with greatly increased surface area (papillae) and rich blood supply. This will help increase the ability of the rumen to absorb nutrients. Development of rumen in response to different diet Development Of Rumen In Response To Different Diet The figure above showed that forages - hay or straw, are not helpful in terms of rumen development in the early stages. In the pre-weaning phase, grain alone is sufficient to initiate the development process. After weaning, the forage becomes necessary for the musculature development of rumen when the calf is able to digest enough grain to survive and grow on. Calves requires high energy to function relative to their ability to consume dry food. Hence, if a calf consumes too much hay, this will affect the intake of grain or pallets, which will slow down the growth and rumen development of the calf. Water is crucial for the development of rumen. As seen from the figure above, milk does not help rumen development as it usually does not even enter the rumen. Calves should have sufficient supply of clean and fresh water at all times. Take a 90kg heifer for example, she will need around 12 - 15 litres of water on a 25°C day. The requirement for water will increase as the temperature of environment increases. Without sufficient water, the rumen cannot function properly.	<urn:uuid:83c5373f-0e5d-4704-aaae-e010e8617a05>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.03667497634887695, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9388521313667297, "url": "https://www.influxlipids.com/weaning" }
Bound To Stay Bound View MARC Record Migration (Explore the world with Gail Gibbons) Author: Gibbons, Gail Publisher: Holiday House (2020) Dewey: 591.56 Classification: Nonfiction Physical Description: 32 p., col. ill., col. maps, 26 cm BTSB No: 376352 ISBN: 9780823440658 Ages: 4-8 Grades: K-3 Animal migration Migratory animals Animal behavior Price: $22.78 A primer on sky, land, and sea animal migrations, exploring the many reasons why animals migrate and what their journeys are like. Kirkus Reviews (05/15/20) School Library Journal (+) (08/01/20) Booklist (12/01/20) Full Text Reviews: School Library Journal - 08/01/2020 K-Gr 3—Gibbons opens with a clear definition of migration and an enthusiastic invitation to readers. The subject of migration is easy to understand and will appeal to the demographic. Subtopics, such as migration routes and migration in the sky, on land, and in the water, are labeled in bold red letters and then explained. The text and the illustrations work beautifully together. Important vocabulary is introduced and then immediately used in the text. For example, after the word climate is defined, the text explains that animals often migrate to find climates that are more suitable for mating and raising their young. The text pulses with enthusiasm and also highlights the unknowns of science by referring to what scientists "believe" to be true. The illustrations, created with watercolors, black ink, and colored pencil, depict a variety of animals in migration. Maps show migration routes that include detailed captions. Gibbons's encouragement to "get going" is hard to resist. VERDICT Gibbons makes migration accessible and endlessly fascinating. An excellent addition to collections featuring scientific studies of animal behavior and language arts investigations of how to clearly present information with enthusiasm.—Myra Zarnowski, City Univ. of New York - Copyright 2020 Publishers Weekly, Library Journal and/or School Library Journal used with permission. Booklist - 12/01/2020 A horde of animals on the move is examined in prolific nonfiction author Gibbons’ attractive and fact-filled latest. In short, declarative sentences, Gibbons profiles migrating animals such as sandhill cranes, walruses, and reindeer. After a section on migration routes, in general, the animals are grouped according to how they migrate, with sections on “Migration in the Sky,” “Migration on Land,” and “Migration in the Water,” along with a closing “Let’s Get Going” offering extra facts. Packing the pages with a plethora of facts, Gibbons details how far each species migrates, why (for food, for a warmer breeding spot, etc.), and related tidbits—what the animals do when they arrive, for example. Children will be absorbed, too, in the pleasingly retro and vividly hued watercolors of the animals and their journeys. Covering whole double-page spreads, the illustrations also feature multiple maps showing each species’ route. A great addition to nonfiction shelves, especially where animal encyclopedias are popular. Pair it with the Children's Illustrated Animal Atlas (2017) for classroom units on migration and to introduce young readers to different kinds of nonfiction presentations. - Copyright 2020 Booklist. View MARC Record	<urn:uuid:4c2a647a-501f-4022-8bd1-c950df6bcf4b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.03799784183502197, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8510511517524719, "url": "https://www.btsb.com/utilities/BookDetails.php?TitleNo=376352" }
Home Page Log into and read with an adult How plants grow. Discuss the story and ask an adult to ask you questions on the story. e.g. During which season does a plant grow buds? What happens to the leaves during autumn? Make a number line at home. You can do it from 1-10, 1-20, 30-40 etc. Up to you. ask an adult to give you some addition questions and use your number line to help you. Children you may remember we did a little experiment involving bread to show us the importance of washing our hands. Picture 1 the bread was untouched. Picture 2 shows bread touched by hands that’s been washed with soap and water. Picture 3 shows bread touched by hands that’s had hand sanitiser. Picture 4 shows bread touched by dirty hands. Discuss with your parents what we did and look at the pictures. What can we learn from these pictures? Design a poster or make up a song to show the importance of washing your hands. Send me your songs or posters.	<urn:uuid:eb1f5ea1-f521-44a4-b53b-66485dafd34e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.3125, "fasttext_score": 0.030562102794647217, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9303504228591919, "url": "https://www.oaklandsprimary.co.uk/thursday-2/" }
• tara This Day in History: The surprising origins of Groundhog Day On this day in 1887, the first Groundhog Day is celebrated in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. The celebration seems so solidly American, doesn’t it? Yet it actually stems from old traditions carried across the Atlantic centuries ago. American adaptations were made, of course. In Europe, badgers or hedgehogs could be used to predict the weather. But in Pennsylvania, groundhogs were more plentiful. They’d have to do. How did it come to be that more sunlight equals more winter, while dreary weather means spring is on its way? It seems backwards, doesn’t it? One explanation looks to an old Gaelic festival celebrated at the halfway point between the winter solstice and the spring equinox. According to legend, if the goddess Cailleach intended for winter to continue, then she would make the day sunshiny and bright. It was an opportunity to gather more firewood. If winter was nearly over, then no such sunshiny day would be needed. Those traditions began to blend with another significant anniversary during the same week. February 2 was celebrated by Christians as Candlemas. It’s the 40th day in the Christmas-Epiphany season, and the Bible speaks of Mary’s visit to the Temple on that day. She and Joseph presented Jesus, as required by Jewish custom; Mary also went through a ritual post-childbirth purification. Candlemas was important to Christians, who brought their candles to church to be blessed before the last weeks of winter. Over time, people began to predict the weather based on the sunshine (or lack thereof) on Candlemas. One old English song reflects this sentiment: “If Candlemas Day be fair and bright, Winter will have another flight, But if it be dark with clouds and rain, Winter is gone, and will not come again.” The tradition expanded to Germany, and another twist was added. Germans began to look to animals (often hedgehogs) to help them predict the weather. If the hedgehog saw his shadow on a sunshiny day, then 6 more weeks of winter was coming. Otherwise, winter was wrapping up. When some Germans crossed the Atlantic and settled in Pennsylvania, the tradition was tweaked yet again. The new American settlers discovered that it was much easier to find a groundhog than a hedgehog in their new home. The tradition of watching groundhogs was born! Perhaps it is unsurprising that some entrepreneurs got a hold of this idea eventually? This is America, after all. In 1886, a newspaper, the Punxsutawney Spirit, first printed an item about a Groundhog Day observance. Just one year later, the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club held its first formal ceremony with Punxsutawney Phil. The celebrations grew, and each year’s events were immortalized in print by newspaperman Clymer H. Freas. “The little beast saw his silhouette reflected on the brown earth, chuckled malignantly, and scrambled back into his burrow,” wrote Freas one year. “This, of course, insures six weeks of very severe weather.” Freas’s descriptions became more and more elaborate. In time, others began to tune in to Punxsutawney for their weather news. Today, of course, the city’s celebration has become a multi-day event, with visitors pouring in from all over the country. Most of the time, Punxsutawney Phil makes an erroneous prediction about the weather, but you’d never know it from all the excitement surrounding Gobbler’s Knob this morning. Hmm. Entrepreneurs at work, seizing opportunity and turning something as simple as an animal’s shadow into a fun festival. What an AMERICAN thing to do. Primary Sources: Abigail Abrams, Here's How Groundhog Day Got Started (Time Mag., Jan. 31, 2017) Don Yoder, Groundhog Day (2003) Kat Eschner, Meet the Inner Circle That Runs Groundhog Day (Smithsonian Mag., Feb. 2, 2017) Punxsutawney Groundhog Club website Groundhog Day (National Centers for Environmental Information website) Patricia Monaghan, The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore (2004)	<urn:uuid:0c7978d7-8996-4b57-a752-4a13e2ce4182>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.03771013021469116, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9581743478775024, "url": "https://www.taraross.com/post/tdih-groundhog-day" }
Bean Internals «Prev Next» Lesson 1 Introduction to JavaBeans Internals This module takes you inside a Bean to learn about the structure and organization of data and methods, the two primary parts of a Bean. You learn all about properties, which model the public portion of a Bean's data and are accessible externally through accessor methods. You take a look at the different types of properties, including simple properties, indexed properties, bound properties, and constrained properties. Toward the end of the module you work through a practical exercise of creating a property and its associated accessor methods. Module learning objectives After completing this module, you will have the knowledge and skills necessary to: 1. Design and code properties for your own Beans 2. Define accessor methods used to access properties 3. Understand when and why to use indexed, bound, and constrained properties In the next lesson, the structural makeup of a Bean will be discused. Developing Java Beans The JavaBeans architecture is supposed to scale well from small to large; simple beans can be used to build larger beans. A small bean may consist of a single class; a large bean may have many. Beans can also work together through their container to provide services to other beans. Simple beans are little more than ordinary Java objects. 1. In fact, any Java class that has a default (empty) constructor could be considered a bean. 2. A bean should also be serializable, although the JavaBeans specification does not strictly require that. These two criteria ensure that we can create an instance of the bean dynamically and that we can later save the bean as part of a group or composition of beans. There are no other requirements. Beans are not required to inherit from a base bean class, and they do not have to implement any special interface. A useful bean should send and receive events and expose its properties to the world. To do so, it follows the appropriate design patterns for naming the relevant methods so that these features can be automatically discovered. Most nontrivial beans intended for use in a visual application builder IDE also provide information about themselves in the form of a BeanInfo class. A BeanInfo class implements the BeanInfo interface, which holds methods that describe a bean's features in more detail, along with extra packaging, such as icons for display to the user. Normally, this "bean info" is supplied by a separate class that is named for and supplied with the bean.	<urn:uuid:c4c6173f-d913-4d55-afa5-98554d2fc296>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.1741112470626831, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9158474206924438, "url": "https://www.j2eeonline.com/java-beans/module4/intro-bean-internals.jsp" }
The Evolution of Gigantism in Pterosaurs: The Ancestry of Anhanguera Earlier we followed up on a National Geographic article on how many generations it takes to create a blue whale and an elephant. Yesterday we looked at the evolution of the giant pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus. Today we’ll examine two ornithocheirids. Others consider toothy ornithocheirids, like Arthurdactylus and Anhanguera (Fig. 1), to be related to toothless Pteranodon based on the shared trait of a warped deltopectoral crest. The large pterosaur tree did not recover that relationship, but found that humerus warp to be a convergence. The beauty of the large reptile tree and the large pterosaur tree is the ability to trace the ancestry of any listed taxon back to the basal tetrapod, Ichthyostega. Today we won’t go that far back. Rather we’ll start with one of the smallest pterosaurs from the first Late Jurassic in the lineage of Anhanguera and Arthurdactylus. That pterosaur is a tiny specimen inaccurately referred to Pterodactylus? micronyx? TM 13104 (Winkler 1870, No. 34 in the Wellnhoger 1970 catalog), Fig. 1). The ancestry of Anhanguera and Arthurdactylus includes tiny TM 13104. Figure 1. The ancestry of Anhanguera and Arthurdactylus includes tiny TM 13104 (no. 34 in the Wellnhofer 1970 catalog). We’re often taught that as organisms grow larger they also become more robust, with stronger, thicker bones to withstand the effects of their greater mass and weight. Here, there’s more — and less — of a case for that. Giant Arthurdactyulus was more robust, especially in the wings than, no. 34. However the scapula + coracoid were not. The hind limb was ever so slightly more gracile (certainly not more robust). The torso was shorter with taller vertebral spines. Unfortunately the head and neck are unknown, but sister taxa, like Haopterus and Coloborhynchus, had a more robust neck and a longer skull (which may explain the more robust neck). The feet of Arthurdactylus were comparatively tiny! What a strange combination evolution has wrought here: more wing and head, less body and feet! The complete TM13104 and the skull of Anhanguera to scale. Figure 2. The complete TM13104 and the skull of Anhanguera to scale. Also shown in gray is a hypothetical skull of Arthurdactylus based on a stretched out Haopterus. What can we learn here? Between no. 34 (which was reduced from early Scaphognathus specimens) and basal ornithocheirds like Arthurdactylus and Haopterus, the proportions changed rather starkly. This is likely due to a distinctively different mode of flight. Over time and millions of generations, the lineage of Arthurdactylus gradually grew and reengineered itself to withstand the increasing stresses imposed by that growth. The wing became more robust. Here the time frame is only from the Late Jurassic, 150 mya to the Early Cretaceous Crato Formation, 112 mya, a time span of 38 million years. Then Along Comes Anhanguera Anhanguera was more derived than Arthurdactylus and it shows the “evolution engineers” were hard at work further lightening this aerial predator. Much larger than Arthurdactylus, Anhanguera had a relatively smaller diameter humerus, reduced to not much thicker than the femur at both of their smallest diameters. The rest of the wing followed suit. The pectoral girdle was reengineered with elongated processes to route the wing muscles more efficiently and provide larger areas for their insertion. Forelimb Take-Off Dr. Mike Habib (2008) has noted the greater size of the humerus vs femur in Quetzalcoatlus and other large pterosaurs. He didn’t mention no. 34, which does not have a humerus greater in diameter than the femur. Habib considered the more robust humerus a sign that pterosaurs used a vampire bat-like forelimb launch sequence demonstrated here, rather than a bird-like hind limb launch demonstrated here. Unfortunately, its all math at present. We know of no pterosaur take-off tracks, nor any that document the implantation of the wing metacarpal into the substrate. Rather only the fragile first three digits make any impression. Perhaps the increased size of the humerus in Arthurdactylus is a sign that the pectoral engine for wing flapping is much larger to drive the larger wings. The reduced size of the humerus in Anhanguera indicates a reengineered solution to flight: lighter and stronger. Campos, D de A and Kellner AW 1985. Un novo exemplar de Anhanguera blittersdorffi(Reptilia, Pterosauria) da formaçao Santana, Cretaceo Inferior do Nordeste do Brasil.” In Congresso Brasileiro de Paleontologia, Rio de Janeiro, Resumos, p. 13. Frey E and Martill DM 1994. A new Pterosaur from the Crato Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Aptian) of Brazil. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 194: 379–412. Habib M 2008. Comparative evidence for quadrupedal launch in pterosaurs. Pp 161-168 in Buffetaut E, and DWE Hone, eds. Wellnhofer Pterosaur Meeting: Zitteliana B28 Wang X and Lü J 2001. Discovery of a pterodactylid pterosaur from the Yixian Formation of western Liaoning, China. Chinese Science Bulletin 46(13):1-6. Wellnhofer P 1970. Die Pterodactyloidea (Pterosauria) der Oberjura-Plattenkalke Süddeutschlands. Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, N.F., Munich 141: 1-133. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:a40bad04-3713-44e0-953c-267d0838759c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.1224861741065979, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8443301320075989, "url": "https://pterosaurheresies.wordpress.com/2012/08/22/the-evolution-of-gigantism-in-pterosaurs-the-ancestry-of-anhanguera/" }
A.1.1.2 Numerical Data Number of letters in the family (last) name Below is a list of students in a class and the number of letters they have in their family (last) name: On average, how many letters are in the family (last) names for students in this class? Numerical Data The data in the table above is numerical because it is numbers. Other questions that would result in numerical data are: "On average, how many texts do students in this class send each day?" "On average, how many movies did students in this class watch this month?" Write your own question that would result in numerical data:	<urn:uuid:55640b2f-c844-4c8c-a79e-7b80f6cbb715>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.7089561820030212, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9536205530166626, "url": "https://beta.geogebra.org/m/gcuarjcp" }
Explore BrainMass Explore BrainMass Undistorted Sinusoidal Signals in a Diode Circuit In the diode shown, the diodes are ideal except that each is modeled by a voltage source of 0.5V in series with a (diode) resistance of rd = 20, when forward biased. A sinusoidal signal Vs with input impedance Rs=100 is connected to the diode circuit. Determine the maximum value of Vs such that Vo remains sinusoidal, with no distortion. Also, find the amplitude of the output signal Vo. Show how you arrived at your solution. Maximum value Vs(t) a. Vs(t) = -5cos(wt) b. Vs(t) = +5cos(wt) c. Vs(t) = -5sin(wt) d. Vs(t) = +9sin(wt) Amplitude of the output signal Vo. a. vo(t) = 0.3cos(wt) b. vo(t) = 0.3sin(wt) c. vo(t) = 3.33cos(wt) d. vo(t) = 5.0sin(wt) Solution Preview Maximum value Vs(t)= (d) Vs(t) = +9sin(wt) Amplitude of the output signal Vo = d. vo(t) = 5.0sin(wt) When Vo > +5V, D1 gets reverse-biased and so gets turned off while D2 is forward-biased ... Solution Summary The solution gives the final answers at first and then explains in detail how each was found, drawing on the theory and equations relevant to near-ideal diode circuits like the one described and the conditions keeping a sinusoidal signal distortion-free.	<urn:uuid:c3ba12e0-a368-472b-8a1f-404fe0da5c7c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.8494267463684082, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8141940236091614, "url": "https://brainmass.com/physics/circuits/undistorted-sinusoidal-signals-in-a-diode-circuit-22416" }
Estimated reading time: < 1 minute The Wikipedia article of the day for September 18, 2021 is Acamptonectes. Acamptonectes is a genus of ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur, a type of dolphin-like marine reptile that lived during the Early Cretaceous around 130 million years ago. The first specimen—a partial adult skeleton—was discovered in Speeton, England, in 1958, but it was not formally described until 2012. Acamptonectes had unusual adaptations that made its trunk rigid, including tightly-fitting bones in the occiput (back and lower part of the skull) and interlocking vertebral centra, likely allowing it to swim at high speeds with a tuna-like form of locomotion. Other distinguishing characteristics include an extremely slender snout and unique ridges on the basioccipital bone of the braincase. As an ichthyosaur, Acamptonectes had large eye sockets and a tail fluke. Its teeth, which were slender and textured with longitudinal ridges, were probably adapted for impaling prey such as squid and fleshy fish. By Håkan Dahlström Leave a comment	<urn:uuid:f139e587-6c7b-4981-932a-47d9ec391e83>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.890625, "fasttext_score": 0.2442987561225891, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9423738121986389, "url": "https://hakdah.com/2021/09/18/acamptonectes/" }
Clio Logo Historic Downtown Natchez Mississippi Walking Tour Item 11 of 15 The Mount Locust Inn and Plantation was built in 1780 and is one of the most ancient homes still in existence in the Natchez community. The house was bought by William and Pauline Ferguson in 1784 after the original owner was imprisoned after failing to carry out a successful rebellion against the Spanish. After William died in 1801 Paulina married another man by the name of James Chamberlain, and together they maintained the plantation and house until he too died after 1810. Five generations of the family lived here until 1944. The inn served as a resting place for several people passing through the area, allowed for an escape for the people of Natchez, and relied on the service of many slaves. In 1954, the National Park Service started to remodel the home to make it resemble its former 1820 design. • The Mount Locust Inn and Plantation hosted several travellers and Natchez residents seeking an escape from the city. • Today, visitors at Mount Locust can see the cemeteries that hold the resting places of the Ferguson-Chamberlain family and the slaves that worked on the property. • A sign at the slave cemetery at Mount Locust records the names of the slaves thought to be buried here. By 1785, several boatmen called the “Kaintucks” travelled down the Mississippi River as a route to sell products in Natchez and New Orleans, but they could not find a good way to travel back up the river to go home so they travelled north on foot along the Natchez Trace. This path led them right to Mount Locust; these travelers and more led William and Pauline Ferguson to open the home as a small inn. A significant corn crop allowed the Fergusons to feed their guests with corn mush and milk; places to sleep were created on the porches and grounds. As the Fergusons started to gain money, a four room, two story annex was built on the grounds and called Sleepy Hollow. The new building was unlike anything already built and available along the Natchez Trace. Guests were expected to pay 25 cents for their stay here. After William Ferguson died in 1801, Paulina married James Chamberlain who also passed on in the years after 1810. Despite becoming a widow for the second time and having 11 children between both husbands, Paulina continued to manage Mount Locust with the help of her children. The plantation and inn allowed the family to live in a financially stable state. By the middle of the 1820s the Natchez Trace was no longer needed by travelers thanks to the development of the steamboat and more roads. Therefore, after 1825, the inn provided an escape for those living in Natchez. Throughout her life, Paulina worked a corn farm that became a significant cotton planation; she passed away in 1849. After the Civil War, Mount Locust’s significance to the community started to fall with the end of the plantation system. With the plantation system style practiced on Mount Locust came the presence of slaves on the property. By 1820 the census stated that 26 slaves were present on the property and by the mid-1800s there were 51. Archeologists claim that 12 to 16 slave quarters existed at Mount Locust, with 4 to five slaves living in each quarter. On the west end of the property, a cemetery hosts the resting place of 43 slaves who worked on the property. There is a marker that records the names of the slaves thought to be buried there and one headstone labels the site. The Ferguson-Chamberlain family cemetery is located on the southwest end of the property. In 1905 the Mississippi Daughters of the American Revolution decided they needed to preserve the history of the Natchez Trace, and from 1908 to 1933 they built monuments in every county in the state that hosted part of the route. The 15 monuments that were built garnered a significant amount of media attention and heightened people’s interest in the area. In 1938, Congress made the Natchez Trace Parkway part of the National Park Service; the road preserves the history of the Natchez Trace by including parts of the old road, buildings, and landmarks. People visiting Mount Locust can take a tour of the grounds and view the slave and family cemeteries. Visitors can also see where slaves worked and can catch a glimpse of the people who stayed here whether during their travels or their vacations. "Kaintucks to Cotton." National Park Service. Accessed on April 20, 2018.	<urn:uuid:c0e3d30b-604e-44ad-aca0-8552cd494081>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.04369056224822998, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9728413224220276, "url": "https://theclio.com/tour/1690/11/reverse" }
Christians Who Changed Their World André and Magda Trocmé and the Village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon Glenn Sunshine Le Chambon-sur-Lignon is a small village in south-central France. Along with the surrounding villages, the total population of the area was about 5,000 in the 1940s. Yet these villages, under the leadership of their Huguenot (French Protestant) pastor André Trocmé and his wife Magda, was responsible for saving up to 5,000 Jews from deportation to concentration camps during World War II. André Trocmé was born in 1901. During WWI, he developed pacifist sentiments from meeting a young German pacifist who had come to Le Chambon looking for a place where he could live in peace without participating in the war. Trocmé was eventually ordained in the French Protestant Church. In 1938, he and fellow pastor Edouard Theis founded the Collège Lycée International Cévenol, a pacifist school that was intended to prepare country students for university studies. Saving the Jews In 1940, France was overrun by the Nazis and a collaborationist government was set up in the French city of Vichy. That winter, a woman came to their door. She was a German Jew fleeing the Nazis, and she thought perhaps the pastor would help her. The Trocmés took her in and fed her, and Magda realized the woman would need false identity documents to avoid capture. The next day, Magda approached the mayor to obtain the false papers, but he was concerned that if a German Jew were found in Le Chambon, the local Jewish community would suffer for it. As a result, he refused to issue the papers. Magda was devastated. She did what she could, giving the woman food and the names of some people who might be able to help her, but she was forced to send her away the next day. Inspired by this incident, Pastor Trocmé began to exhort his congregation to shelter the “People of the Book” who were fleeing Nazi persecution. He told them, “We shall resist whenever our adversaries demand of us obedience contrary to the orders of the gospel.” He led them in a variety of symbolic resistance activities—the staff of the school refused to pledge unconditional obedience to the Head of State, and he refused to ring the church bells to celebrate Vichy leader Marshal Petain’s anniversary—but he was particularly concerned about protecting the refugees who were coming into the area from France, Germany, and Central Europe. The Trocmés began to organize an underground network to protect the refugees and provide for them. The Collège Lycée International housed children, and the Trocmés identified families who would be willing to take in Jews. Magda was particularly active in making the arrangements, picking up Jews at the train station, and seeing that they were taken care of. When Jews arrived in Le Chambon, André would announce from the pulpit that X number of “Old Testaments” had arrived, and asked his congregation who would be willing to take them. There were always volunteers. Whenever the Nazis came through, the Jews went into the countryside; one villager later explained, “As soon as the soldiers left we would go into the forest and sing a song. When they heard that song the Jews knew it was safe to come home.” Some of the Jews stayed in Le Chambon for the duration of the war; others were smuggled out, usually to Switzerland, on secret paths through the mountains known only to the locals. We will return to these paths later in the article. The Response of the Vichy Government The Vichy government had a good idea of what was going on. They demanded that Trocmé stop his activities. His response was to the point: “These people came here for help and shelter. I am their shepherd. A shepherd does not forsake his flock. I do not know what a Jew is. I only know human beings.” The year 1942 saw the beginning of mass deportation of Jews to concentration camps. Trocmé urged his congregation to take in any Jews who came seeking help. In August, the Vichy government sent gendarmes to Le Chambon to round up the Jews that they knew (or suspected) were hiding in the area. Trocmé preached a fiery sermon on Deut. 19:2-10, which discusses the right of the persecuted to shelter, and urged his parishioners to “do the will of God and not of men.” The gendarmes left without finding a single Jew. In fact, during the war no Jews were captured in the Le Chambon area. Not all the Jews connected to the Trocmés were so fortunate. André Trocmé’s cousin Daniel Trocmé was sheltering Jews in a school in Verneuil, about 400 kilometers from Le Chambon. The Gestapo raided the school in 1943 and found the Jews. Daniel was not there, but he turned himself in, since he believed it was his duty not to abandon those he had sheltered. He died at the Majdanek death camp in 1944. André himself was arrested in February 1943, along with Edouard Theis and the headmaster of the school. They were taken to a detention camp near Limoges. The commandant demanded that Trocmé sign a document committing him to obey all government orders. He refused. Nonetheless, he was released after five weeks of imprisonment. When he was returned home, he went underground, but the community continued its work even without his visible leadership. Many Jews were thus saved and given the opportunity to live a relatively peaceful life through the end of the war. Virtually all the people in the region were involved in the effort one way or another, yet not a single person said a word about it to the Nazis. How do we explain the “conspiracy of goodness” at Le Chambon? The people in the area were taking great personal risks to save strangers of a different religion, and had the potential for great reward if they would betray the Jews to the authorities, yet no one did so. Why? At its most basic level, the answer is that they simply believed it was the right thing to do. A documentary titled “Weapons of the Spirit” interviewed some of the old people of the village to try to figure out why they did what they did. It is fascinating to watch the reaction. The couple that was interviewed was clearly uncomfortable in front of the camera, and it was obvious that on some level they did not even understand the question: It was the right thing to do, so why wouldn’t they do it? As another villager commented, “We didn’t protect the Jews because we were a moral or heroic people. We helped them because it was the human thing to do.” Yet so many others did not do “the human thing.” Another aspect of this is the history of the Huguenots in this region. Many Calvinist churches have been philosemitic (that is, they were pro-Jewish). The Huguenots even called their churches “temples,” and strongly identified with the Jews because of their own history of persecution. In the 16th century, there were a series of Wars of Religion in France between the Catholics and the Huguenots. King Henry IV tried to resolve the religious problem by issuing the Edict of Nantes (1598), which gave the Huguenots limited rights to worship. After his death, the terms of the edict steadily eroded. Louis XIV persecuted the Protestants so badly that many ended up converting to Catholicism to save themselves and their livelihood. Then in 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes on the grounds that there were no more Huguenots left in the country. In actuality, there were about 1 million Huguenots left. They went underground, establishing what they called the Church of the Desert in memory of the wanderings of Israel in the wilderness following the Exodus. In the area around Le Chambon, the Huguenots made secret rooms similar to the priest holes in England, and secret paths through the mountains to Switzerland to smuggle pastors and Bibles into France. Even after Protestantism was legalized, the people of the area kept the locations of these rooms and paths secret since they never knew when they would need them again. They were put back into service to save the Jews from the Nazis. The strong moral sense of the people of Le Chambon, fortified by their philosemitism and their history as a persecuted people, provided the motivation for their resistance to the Nazis and rescue of the Jews. The secret rooms and paths were providentially available to them for this task, but even without them, the villagers would have worked to save the targets of Nazi persecution. After the War After the war, Pastor Trocmé continued his ministry and his promotion of Christian pacifism. He was active in the International Fellowship of Reconciliation, and during the Algerian War, he and Magda set up a group called Eirene (Greek for “peace”) in Morocco to help French conscientious objectors. André Trocmé died in 1971; his wife Magda died 1996. Both of them and Daniel Trocmé were named among the Righteous among the Nations by the Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Memorial Authority in Jerusalem. Image copyright Chambon Foundation. • Facebook Icon in Gold • Twitter Icon in Gold • LinkedIn Icon in Gold Have a Follow-up Question? Want to dig deeper? 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суббота, 5 мая 2018 г. In Ancient Athens, citizens could vote to banish any person from the city-state for 10... In 5th century BC Athens, after the Athenians won the battle of Marathon against the Persians, the practice of ostracism began. It was a political procedure designed to curb the power of any rising tyrant without bringing any charges against him. By using this simple procedure any individual could be expelled from the city for ten years. The term ostracism was derived from ostrakon, referring to the potsherds or pieces of broken pottery that were used as the writing surface to nominate people for expulsion. It was installed in Athens by Cleisthenes after the expulsion of Hippias in 508 BCE, but it was used for the first time in 488–487 BC for the expulsion of Hipparchus, son of Charmus and a relative of the tyrant Hippias. Every year in January, the people of Athens were asked if they wanted to hold an ostracism. If they voted “yes” then around two months later they met again in the Agora where an ostracism would be held. Every citizen carried with him an ostrakon on which they had scratched the name of the person they wanted to be ostracized. In the period of around two months that followed after the citizens of Athens voted to hold an ostracism, a number of public campaigns were held in order to convince the citizens to ostracize a certain person. The public campaigns included prepared ostraka that were distributed among the citizens of Athens. Ostraca from 482 BC Some sources say that if 6,000 ballots were cast, the individual with the most votes was sent into exile for ten years, while others claim that in order to be ostracized the individual had to be identified in at least 6,000 votes. More than 10,000 political ostraka have been excavated in the Athenian agora and in the Ceramicus. The ostracized person had ten days to leave the city and suffered no other penalty, but if he returned earlier the penalty was death. The ostracized person was not formally deprived of his citizen status or his property. After ten years, he was free to return without stigma. In some cases, the assembly could recall an ostracized person ahead of time. This is how Pericles’ father Xanthippus, Aristides the Just, and Kimon returned to Athens before the 10-year period had expired. In a period of nearly one century (508-417 BCE) we know of fewer than twenty ostracisms. The last ostracism in Athens was that of the demagogue Hyperbolos that was probably held in 416–415 BCE. The question was put to the assembly each year but the procedure of ostracism was not implemented again. Source The Vintage News Комментариев нет:	<urn:uuid:33d50c04-783e-417a-b661-e82a5d13f33a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.21875, "fasttext_score": 0.05814003944396973, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9600092768669128, "url": "https://www.xissufotoday.space/2018/05/in-ancient-athens-citizens-could-vote.html" }
The happiest hour, the happiest day Deadline is approaching? Wait no more. Let us write you an essay from scratch Receive Paper In 3 Hours Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) was an American author and editor known for his story of suspense and macabre. He was a leading figure of the Romantic Movement and a pioneer in the genre of a crime story (Sova). This poem was published by Poe in 1827, the same year he left school. Edgar himself is the voice in this poem. The poem has a gloomy atmosphere that shifts to one of optimism halfway through the poem, then returns to a dark mood in the last stanza. In the first three stanzas, Poe recounts his discouraging and frustrating childhood but in the second half, Poe is seeing his freedom and realizing that he can follow his dream. However the last stanza returns to the dark mood as Poe realizes his happiness will be short lived. The poem is organized into six stanzas and which are divided into two sections. In the first set of three, Poe talks about his childhood where he remembers his foster father_x0092_s unsupportive attitude towards his writing during his unhappy childhood. In the fourth and fifth stanzas Poe talks about his newfound freedom after dropping out of school to follow his dream. The last stanza returns back to the mood of the first three as Poe realizes that his happiness will be short lived because he will have to endure an endless struggle. Poe in his poem employs mainly the use of metaphor and personification as the stylistic devices. Three of the styles are analyzed below._x000b_Personification This is where nature or human characteristics are attributed to something that is not human or simply the representation of an abstract quality in human form. Poe uses a number of metaphors to portray his feelings clearly. However the use of personification takes the poem to a whole new level. Poe in his poem personifies pride and power. In the first stanza, third line. _x0093_The highest hope of Pride and Power_x0094_ .He addresses Pride and Power as if they were human and friendly figures. He also talks of pride and power as having left, _x0093_they have varnished._x0094_ Poe gives them human characteristics where they can move. In the third stanza first line, _x0093_Pride, what have I now with thee_x0094_ Poe also addresses pride as a person with human characteristics. Poe also personifies hath as in the first stanza fourth line, _x0093_I feel hath flown._x0094_ He talks of hath as a fellow human being and also gives it the ability to flee away. Poe uses personification for example in the case of pride and power in his poem to mainly give the reader a visual sense of the increasing pride and power at the beginning of his poem. The images in this poem are portrayed mainly by metaphors and similes. Metaphor being a direct comparison between two things that are not similar, Poe uses a number of metaphors to portray his feelings clearly .In his poem, Poe uses metaphors like, _x0093_wing was dark alloy_x0094_ Here wings are likened to a dark alloy. This is because at the beginning of the poem Poe was riding on Pride and Power_x0092_s wing as they flew higher and higher. But when Pride and Power can_x0092_t fly any more, Poe is left to ride a metal wing falling to the ground and a very high rate (Myrodias). Poe in his poem also employs the use of assonance as a stylistic style. This involves the use of same vowel sounds within the same line or sentence in a poem. This are used in different stanzas in his poem for example the fifth stanza, in the third line _x0093_even then I felt that brightest_x0094_. The vowel sound _x0091_e_x0092_ is repeated in the words across this sentence. This sentence indicates that he use of assonance. Assonance in Poe_x0092_s poem is mainly employed or used in order to add rhythm and music. In conclusion, The Happiest Day, Happiest Hour poem by Allan Edgar Poe is a good poem that is build by use of some important stylistic devices mainly personification and metaphor as analyzed. Poe in his poem says that the emotional fall one takes after their happiest moment outweighs the overall happiness. The happiest moment Poe felt was the moment when his pride and power were at their highest (Sova). From Poe_x0092_s poem, we are warned that as Pride and Power fly higher and higher the imminent fall grows larger. And like anything else that falls from a great height, a crater is left, making the fall longer than the flight and harder to recover from. The poem plays a key role to remind us that when you are at your highest point, you are also at your most vulnerable. More analysis of Poe_x0092_s poem can also be done using the work of some literary editors like, Arthur Hobson Quinn, in his book, A Critical Biography and Dawn B. Sova_x0092_s book Critical Companion to Edgar Allan Poe; A Literary Reference to His Poetical Work among others. Works Cited Dawn, Sova. Critical Comparison to Edgar Allan Poe; A Literary Reference to His Life and Work Myrodias, Antonis. Visioning Five Nikes. New York: Google Art Project, 2013. Poe, Edgar Allan. The Poetic Principle. BiblioBytes, 1995. Let a professional writer get your back and save some time! Hire Writer Find Out the Cost of Your Paper Get Price Proceed to the form No, thank you Can’t find the essay you need?	<urn:uuid:70b203ba-9d56-4102-b0db-a612bc15183b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.5451923608779907, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9672099351882935, "url": "https://writinguniverse.com/the-happiest-hour-the-happiest-day/" }
Battle of Oranik (1448) First Battle of Oranik Part of Albanian-Venetian War (1447-1448) DateAugust 14, 1448 LocationOranik (Debar in modern day Macedonia) 41°31′N 20°32′E / 41.517°N 20.533°E / 41.517; 20.533Coordinates: 41°31′N 20°32′E / 41.517°N 20.533°E / 41.517; 20.533 Result Albanian victory League of Lezhë Ottoman Empire Commanders and leaders Skanderbeg Mustafa Pasha (POW) 6,000 15,000 Casualties and losses Unknown 3,000 casualties, fifteen standards, twelve major officers Location within Macedonia The First Battle of Oranik took place during the Albanian-Venetian War of 1447-1448, when the Republic of Venice allied with the Ottoman Empire against the League of Lezhë. The Albanian forces defeated the Ottoman army led by Mustafa Pasha during the battle and two months later peace was established between Albania and Venice. In 1447, Skanderbeg had gone to war with Venice. The Venetians had been using diplomatic tactics to weaken Skanderbeg's influence and power: they had been trying to convince the Ottomans to launch an incursion into Albania. The Ottomans, who had been besieging Svetigrad, could not peel away their forces to fight in the Albanian interior: Svetigrad blocked their way and Skanderbeg's army was camped nearby. Once the fortress had fallen, however, they could afford to send troops into Albania. Prelude and the battle Mustafa, after gathering his army, invaded Albania through upper Dibra. A guarding force was left under the command of Vrana Konti which was united by Skanderbeg's forces after leaving 5,000 troops to watch Dagno. The forces consisted of 15,000 Ottoman troops and 6,000 Albanian troops. The armies met and a battle between two champions took place with the Albanian champion winning. The armies engaged, but higher Albanian morale forced the Ottoman army to retreat. The Albanians chased the Ottomans, capturing Mustafa Pasha. Mustafa Pasha had lost 3,000 men as well as being captured including twelve high officers. Skanderbeg learned from these officers that it was the Venetians who pushed the Ottomans to invade Albania. The Venetians, upon hearing of the defeat, urged to establish peace. Mustafa Pasha was soon ransomed for 25,000 ducats to the Ottomans.[1] References and notes 1. Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero by Harry Hodgkison, page 89 External sources This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 6/8/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.	<urn:uuid:5a6a5077-f6a5-4a6f-922c-cea0cc478177>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.10908180475234985, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9497860670089722, "url": "https://bafybeiemxf5abjwjbikoz4mc3a3dla6ual3jsgpdr4cjr3oz3evfyavhwq.ipfs.dweb.link/wiki/Battle_of_Oranik_(1448).html" }
Muziris was an active port on the west coast of southern India in the 1st century BCE. Through many centuries, it became the region’s window to the world of different cultures, religions, and levels of development. Simultaneously, it was a welcoming port of call for travellers, who would later be followed by traders, evangelists and colonizers. It had its heydays when the place buzzed with activity, when businesses flourished, when new religions rubbed shoulders with the old, and new political powers sought to impose themselves on the existing ones. Perhaps the region reached its acme of prosperity when the merchants of Muziris established Indo-Greek and Indo-Roman-Egyptian trade with the Jews, the Arabs, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the Chinese, the British, and many others. Although archaeologists and historians have still not discovered when the city port was actually established, they are unanimous in their belief that Muziris was the headquarters of the early Chera dynasty. Viewed from the present times, Muziris earns another significance. It has the privilege of being a major signboard because its genesis marked the beginning of recorded history of the land of Kerala. The Name There is a kaleidoscopic variety to the word "Muziris" that lends it an ever-changing dimension of beauty, and mesmerizes the modern history-enthusiast. More significantly, the different names give a peek into the varied perspectives that our ancestors, native and foreign, adopted to look at the same land and the riches it offered. According to one version, the original name was derived from a Sanskrit word Maareecham which means "a clump of pepper vines". Indeed, the land on the west coast of southern India was so rich in this exotic spice that its fame spread far and wide, and men from faraway lands were prepared to brave long and treacherous sea voyages, and trade gold in order to purchase it. Little wonder that pepper came to be known in local parlance as karuthaponnu [black gold]! According to another version, it was originally "Muchiri pattanam" (muchiri means "cleft palate" and pattanam means "town"). The name referred to a port town that was located in a fork/cleft in Periyar river. The pronunciation of the Greeks and other Westerners who came to the port on business changed it to "Muziris". To the ancient Egyptians it was 'Machiri pattanam,' Mesori being the month they began their journey in, so as to take advantage of the monsoon winds for a safe and quick passage to the Arabian Sea. Variations of the name included "Mucirri", "Musiri", "Murachipattanam", "Marichipattanam", "Muzirikode", "Makothaipattanam", "Mahodayapattanam" and so on. In the Jewish Copper Plate of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (1000 CE) it is "Muyirikode". To the Arabs, the place was "Cyngilin" (derived from the Sanskrit word Shringhala meaning chain, as the goods were transported through a chain of canals from the sea to the hinterlands of Kerala). However, tragedy struck in 1341 when the course of the Periyar underwent a major change, causing floods and earthquake. The result was that Muziris dropped off the trade map of the world. In his account of his voyages, Niccolo de Conti, the 15th century Italian merchant and explorer, makes a mention of the place, and in the 16th century it came to be known as Cranganore. Today, Muziris is known as Kodungallur, and is situated in Thrissur district in central Kerala. The Political History of Muziris The records of Pliny (1st century CE) suggest that Thondi and Muziris were under the rule of Keralaputras, who were the Cheras of Karur. From them, it would appear that the Cheras took possession of the West coast much later. This view is supported by the statement that Musiri was at that time attacked by the pirates of Nitrias. Nitrias of Pliny and Nitran of Ptolemy is the modern port of Mangalapuram (Mangaluru of today), on the mouth of river Netravati. It was the principal port of Thondi and Musiri until the Cheras took possession of it in the first century. Sangham poetry further supports this view. The battles for ocean supremacy continued for centuries. The Cheras established outposts at Kodungallur and Thondi, and made them a province of the Chera country called Kudanadu, which meant the Western province. Later, Kodungallur became the capital of Kudanadu from where the Chera princes ruled until the end of the 12th century. The Perumals Sthanu Ravi was the first Perumal to be installed at Thirunavai in 887 CE. He and many of his successors were Cheras. His reign cannot have been earlier than the last quarter of the 9th century. Bhaskara Ravi Varman I who is said to have issued a Jewish copper plate from Musiri to Joseph Rabban the Jew, was not a resident of that place. It is clearly stated in the document that he was only camping there when he issued the document. Mushikas and Venadu kings were subservient to Karnataka and Pandya rulers respectively. The central region of Malainadu, viz., Kerala, continued as a province of the Chera kingdom. Hence Malainadu got the name Kerala and the institution of Perumal came to be known as Kerala Perumal. As Eastern Cheras were vassals of Karnataka, they were known as Kongu Cheras and that part of the Chera country came to be known as Kongunadu. This region which was the hinterland of Musiri, and Thondi helped in the growth of the two port cities. With the loss of that territory, the primacy of Musiri was lost and Thondi faded into oblivion. The Palace of the Perumals Cheraman Parambu is an important site included in the Muziris Heritage Project. During the time when the Cheras ruled over Kerala, they set up their palace at Cheraman Parambu in their capital of Kodungallur. Today it wears a deserted look, a far cry from a bustling centre it must have been in the ancient times. It is hard to believe that this nondescript stretch of land that has suffered years of neglect was once a busy hub, thrumming with all kinds of human activity. A reference to this palace can be found in a work titled Laghu Bhaskareeya Vyakhya written at around 870 CE. The work features a conversation between its author Sankara Narayana the poet and the Perumal of that time named Sthanu Ravi. The splendour of the place – reflected in the capital city, its streets, palatial buildings, royal residences and so on - finds special mention in it. The prosperous and majestic area was also known as Gotramalleswaram during that time. To the north of the palace was a temple known as Balakreedeshwaram, dedicated to Lord Ganapati. And close to it stood an observatory and certain yantras, which were used to tell the time, and view the stars. A title deed inscribed in copper plates (known as Veeraraghava pattayam) created in the 13th century indicates that the capital of the Chera Perumals was known by the name Perum kovilakam [the big palace]. But by the time Kokasandesham, a 14th century work of Tamil literature, was composed, the scenario had changed beyond recognition. The poem describes Kodungallur as a place that once rivalled the heavens in prosperity. By then, the fortune of the Perumals was on the decline, and the star of Cochin royal family was on the ascendant. Today, excavated remnants of gigantic walls, iron and copper nails, hooks and pillars bearing sculpted figures are all that exist to remind us of a period of glory and greatness that Kodungallur once enjoyed. Those palaces, palatial buildings, store houses, shops and markets have been washed away by the flood waters of time. What was once the capital city of the Perumals has dwindled into a waste land, overrun by weeds. It is only the signboard put up by the archaeological department of the state that gives the passing visitor a glimpse into the past – the story of a city that it was once a dynamic administrative centre during a glittering phase of the history of Kerala. The Paliam Family in Muziris History The history of the Paliam family should be read along with the history of Kerala. During the period following the break-up of the Kulasekhara empire in 1102 CE, Kerala lost its political unity. A number of independent swaroopams [dynasties] rose in different parts of the land. The Perumpadappu Swaroopam had its seat at Chitrakutam in the Perumpadappu village in Vanneri, Malappuram till the end of the 13th century. But its chief had a palace of his own at Mahodayapuram in Thrissur. When the Zamorin of Calicut invaded Valluvanad in the latter half of the 13th century, the Perumpadappu Swaroopam abandoned the Vanneri palace and shifted to Mahodayapuram on a permanent basis. The state continued to have its capital at Mahodayapuram till about 1405 when it was transferred to Cochin. Cochin had relations with Paliam from an earlier period. Along with Perumpadappu chief, Paliath Achan also started living in Thiruvanchikulam. Paliath Achans [patriarchs the Paliam family] held the position of Prime Minister in erstwhile Cochin state in Kerala for more than 150 years. The title Achan was handed down through generations to the eldest male members of the family. They enjoyed tremendous political clout and played a decisive role in the fortunes of the princely state. And for the same reason, Paliam holds a significant position in the Muziris Heritage Project. The Paliam family had three eminent Achans – Komi Achan I, Komi Achan II and Govindan Achan – who were the most remarkable figures in the history of Cochin. Komi Achan I is supposed to have gone to Colombo to seek help from the Dutch and signed a treaty with them, thus setting the scene for a long Paliam-Dutch friendship. Komi Achan II was a daring adventurer who mastered many languages and the use of weapons. Govindan Achan, well known as Govindan Valiachan, was the last to hold the office of the Prime Minister. It was he who retrieved the lost painting of the Virgin Mary and permitted the islanders to install it at Vallarpadam Church in Cochin. The practice of keeping alight the Kedavilakku [eternal lamp] donated by Achan to the Vallarpadam church with oil taken from Paliam, continued until recently. Kodungallur Kovilakam The rule of the Perumals lasted from the 9th to the 12th century CE. Following the decline of their power, many power centres sprung up. Each claimed to derive their exalted status from the erstwhile rulers and set themselves up as swaroopams. The swaroopam that ruled over the Kodungallur region was the Padinjattedathu swaroopam. Their headquarters came to be known as Kodungallur Kovilakam [royal quarters]. Kodungallur Gurukulam – An Ancient University The Kodungallur Kovilakam was unique in that it patronized learning as well as the arts, and continued to do so till the last years of the 19th century. It became famous as Kodungallur Gurukulam and even produced a new school of poetry. The Kodungallur Gurukulam was an inexhaustible mine of knowledge, which could very well be called the first university of Kerala. Scholars like Vidwan Kunjirama Varma, Kochunni Thampuran and Kunjan Thampuran were among the teachers who gave training here. Kodungallur Kovilakam was known as the ‘Nalanda of Kerala,’ an abode of preceptors, and followed a great tradition of imparting knowledge in different topics like grammar, literature, rhetoric, sculpture, astrology, Vedanta and the physical sciences. Separate buildings called the Old Bungalow, the New Bungalow, the Eastern Bungalow and so on were set apart for the pursuit of learning. Those who were denied entry into the royal buildings were given free accommodation in the outhouses. Students at the Gurukulam were free to choose the subjects of their liking. They remained in one class for a year during which they studied a single book. When they graduated to the next, a different text had to be mastered. Active teaching lasted only one-and-a-half to two hours each day. The rest of the time was used for rote learning, discussions, criticism, clearing of doubts and so on. If anyone found any subject too difficult, they had the freedom to choose another. Serious extra-curricular activities like Aksharashlokam [reciting of poems, according to certain pre-set rules] and enactment of plays were encouraged. Such was the generosity of the Kovilakam that each student was given free meals twice a day, four thorths [unstitched dhoti tied at the waist and reaching up to the knees] to wear, and a mat to sleep on. This atmosphere was conducive to genuine learning and deep scholarship. The most towering figure among the poets of the Kodungallur Kovilakam was Kunjikuttan Thampuran, one of the best and most talented writers of Malayalam literature. Kodungallur Kovilakam produced many promising talents who left their imprint in the literary history of Kerala. In those days, as poets had a deep association with the Kovilakam, and it was known under the label ‘Kodungallur Kalari’ [training centre]. Kodungallur was known for its tradition of sharing knowledge from the time of Kodungallur Vidwan Ilaya Thampuran (1800-1851). His disciple Kumbakonam Krishna Sastrigal later became a great grammarian. Valiya Thampuran and Ilaya Thampuran were experts in Astrology. Goda Varma Thampuran was another famous member of the Kovilakam. Vidwan Kunjirama Varma Thampuran (1850 – 1917) was a poet and grammarian. Kochunni Thampuran was an exponent in astrology and architecture, and Kunjan Thampuran was an expert in dialectics. Cheriya Kochunni Thampuran was a poet and Bhatta Sree Goda Varma Thampuran, an expert in legal science. All these members kept alive the glory of Kodungallur Kovilakam. Muziris in Mythology and Ancient Literature Muziris features in the ancient epic of the Mahabharata, though in a very indirect way. The Cheras who ruled the region had their headquarters in Muchiri and Kuroor. It is believed that the ancestor of the Chera king Chenkotuvan named Perunchottuthiyan Cheralathan was so prosperous that he fed the heroic warriors of the Kurukshetra war to their hearts’ content. In Valmiki’s Ramayana, Muziris is referred to as “Murachipattanam”. From very early times, Kerala had gain renown all around the world as the heart of India’s spice lands, and among the many ports it had, Muziris was considered the best. The true story of the birth, growth, prosperity and eventual decline of the port town of Muziris can only be deduced from extensive excavations in that area. But the significance of contemporary literary works in recreating a profile of the land of those times cannot be totally discounted. Many ancient Tamil songs make mention of its greatness. One among them carries the line: Muthuneer munthurai Muchiri which translates to “Muchiri is the best of all ports”. Sangam poets like Erukattur Thayankannannar and Paranar also make references to Muziris to which Greek ships, laden with gold, came calling. Muziris features in ancient Tamil literature like Sukasandesham, Unnineelisandesham, Kokasandesham. They are said to carry poetic descriptions of Kodungallur but they are not copious enough to render an accurate picture of the land or its unique features. One finds references only to the commercial power of the place. The land gets mention in the poems of Paranar and Erukattur Thayankannannar too. In one of his works, Paranar mentions the prosperity of the land like this: “The heaps of grain bought by selling fish are so mountainous in size that they dwarf even houses and rising boats. Houses are filled to overflowing with sacks of pepper. Small boats come ashore, bearing gold and other treasures from the ships. Muchiri echoes with the sounds of thunderous waves, and gives all the riches of the seas and the mountains”. In Tamil literature, Agam 149, there is a statement that refers to a Pandya King who led a large elephant army and invaded Kodungallur ruled by the Cheras, which indicates that the Pandya kingdom had extended up to river Periyar at that time. The much-quoted ‘Akananuru’ poem 140 mentions that the well-built crafts of the Yavanas or Yona [Greeks, Romans, Fenians, Arabs, etc.] had arrived along the Periyar river. ‘Purananuru’ 57 mentions that a Pandya king laid siege on the port of Musiri/Muziris. ‘Purananuru’ 343 graphically describes the backwater scenes around Musiri/Muziris. Pathirupattu 55.4 mentions the ‘Bantar’ where the ornaments that came through sea were stored. Many literary references can be found on Chendamangalam, a place that was part of the Muziris region. In the Kokasandesam of Uddanda Sastrigal, the place is referred to as ‘Jayanthamangalam’ which may have been the Sanskrit version of Chendamangalam. The place was noted for its opulence and the temple of Vishnu. A reference to the Vishnu temple can be seen in the Vishnu Vilasa Mahakavya by Ramapanivada who wrote it under the patronage of the Paliath Achan Ramakubera. Social Life in Muziris, reconstructed from Literary References The significance of the old Tamil songs lies in the graphic pictures they have painted of the social structure that prevailed in those times, and the lifestyles of the different communities of people. The region was seen as consisting of naanilam or four geographical areas. One, neythal or the coastal plains, which included places like Pattanam and Kodungallur, inhabited by people engaged in fishing, making salt, diving for shells and even pearls. It is believed that the pearls from this area had gained renown in the north of the country as well, during those times. Two, marutham or the hinterlands, which were used as farmlands. A social hierarchy seems to have been in existence in this area, consisting of the owners of the lands and the workers they employed. Living off this system were other communities like the velar and the paanar who, by working as oracles and wandering minstrels, were custodians of religious rites, songs, customs and rituals. Three, mulla or the meadows and the foothills. The meadow region supported grazing cattle. Cowherds formed the major community here and their produce included milk, curd, ghee and so on. Four, kurinchi or the hills and the forests. The forests were inhabited by communities like vedar, kuravar, kaanavar and others. Some of the main crops were pepper, cardamom, ginger. Grains were also grown. Hunting too was a serious occupation and there is proof that hunting of elephants was encouraged because much premium was attached to ivory. As no single community could lead a self-sufficient life, interactions for the sake of exchange of commodities was inevitable. This paved the way for the exchange market or Mattachanda where bartering would take place. Different varieties of fish and other marine products were brought from neythal to be given in exchange for paddy from marutham or dairy products from mulla or forest products from kurinchi. Old Tamil songs are replete with references to such interfaces, and it is believed that the earliest market was set up at Kottappuram in Kodungallur. As time passed, a certain degree of sophistication emerged. Rice grains and salt became the standard items to decide the exchange value of commodities, or a commodity-based common measure of value. In fact, the price of salt and paddy was the same. Newer strata also came into being like Kurunilamannanmaar and Mudivendanmaar. The former were princes of tiny areas and the latter, crowned rulers. As cattle and grains began to be perceived as indicators of wealth, and theft became rampant, yet another category of people rose into existence – the warriors who had to guard the treasures. Many songs got written, lavishing praise on the courage and the feats of these men. Historical References Many works written by Westerners also point to the richness of the land that could be accessed through Muziris. According to the first-century annals of Pliny the Elder and the author of Periplus of Erythrean Sea, Muziris could be reached in 40 days’ time from the Red Sea ports in the Egyptian coast, depending entirely on the monsoon winds. In fact, Pliny is critical of the economic losses suffered by Rome because of its overdependence on such items of luxury as the spices, silk, muslin and so on. Such was the Romans’ passion for pepper that the spice was called Yavana Priya [dear to the Romans] by the Sanskrit writers. The fact that there was extensive trade between Kerala and Rome became evident when Roman coins were unearthed in many parts of Kerala. Claudius Ptolemy, a Greco-Egyptian geographer, living in 2nd century CE, in Alexandria, Egypt, then part of the Roman Empire, mentions “muziris em.” which refers to Muziris ‘Emporium’, one of the wealthiest and most famous ports of India. The Tabula Peutingeriana (also known as the Peutingerian Tables), an illustrated ancient Roman road map showing the layout of the road network of the Roman Empire, indicates the exact location of a "Temple to Augustus" at Muziris, thus pointing to a dynamic trade relationship between Rome and India. What is even more fascinating about the Tabula is that it incidentally points to the fauna of the region too. Muziris gets included along with a phrase: “in this place elephants are born”. Another significant document is a Greek one, the Papyrus Vindobonesis, also known as the “Muziris Papyrus” which makes interesting allusions to the materials that were exported from Muziris to Rome. The cargo that a ship named Hermapollon contained included pepper, malabathron (an aromatic plant leaf and the ointment made from it), ivory and schidai (ivory of lesser value or fragments of ivory). Historical Evidences It is interesting to note that even when Muchiri is praised as being the best of the ports on the western coast of the Indian peninsula, nothing is known about the other ports except their names. At least three other names are mentioned – Thondi, Manthai and Panthar – as having existed in the same time period. Among them, Thondi is believed to have been located to the south of Kozhikode. During the reign of the Chera dynasty, the port witnessed active trade between the region and far-off places like Rome and the Arab countries. It fell into ruin when the Cheras lost power. Today, Thondi is known as Kadalundi, and is more famous as a port of call for migratory birds! Panthar was situated to the north of Kozhikode, and is the Panthalayini of today. Concrete historical evidence has been found only on Muchiri or Muziris. The Thalis At the time when Muziris / Kodungallur was ruled by the Perumals, it was customary for a group of brahmins called Thali (തളി) to maintain a check on the powers of the royal administrator. The leader of a Thali was known as Thaliyathiri. Kodungallur had its share of Thalis, and the temples they have left behind are eloquent reminders of the administrative system that prevailed during that time. The five that have continued to stay in our contemporary space and time are Melthali, Keezhthali, Nediyathali, Chingapurathuthali and Thrikulashekharapuram. A few of the Perumals were Shaivites, worshippers of Lord Shiva. Some others were Vaishnavites, worshippers of Lord Vishnu. Once Cheraman Perumal Nayanar or Rajasekhara (9th century CE), a Shaivite. and his close friend Sundarar went on a pilgrimage to Tamil Nadu to worship at the Shiva temples there. It is said that the Thiruvanchikulam Mahadeva Temple in Kodungallur, that draws devotees from far and wide even today, is an enduring symbol of Cheraman Perumal’s Shaivite devotion. Muziris The Salad Bowl of Religions Through the ages Muzris became the salad bowl of many religions, and played host to varied religious practices, all of which contributed to the shaping of its rich cultural and historical landscape. Until the time of the Cheras, the region followed Dravidian religious practices which included ancestor- and tree-worship, propitiation of totem gods, the spirit of Nature and so on. Jainism and Buddhism made their entry but did not strike deep roots. With the Aryanization of the land in the 8th century CE, Hinduism began to wield power. Simultaneously however, the Dravidian gods were accommodated into the fold. Thus along with Lord Vishnu and Shiva, Sastha, Kali, Durga and Bhagavathi also began to be worshipped. Its impact was naturally to be seen in Muziris too, as the sheer number of temples in the region indicate. One of the most prominent temples in Kodungallur then and now is the Sree Kurumbakkavu Kali temple. It existed even before the reign of the Chera Perumals. According to legend, Christianity reached the shores of Kerala during the time of Jesus Christ himself, when his follower St Thomas the Apostle set foot on the soil of Kodungallur in 52 CE. Besides being involved in conversion, he established churches along the Malabar coast. As a result, some of the oldest churches in Kerala are to be found in this region, particularly in places like Paravur and Chendamangalam. The rulers encouraged Christians in their trade too. The Copper Plate Grant of 1225 CE is evidence enough to show that ruler of Mahodayapuram granted a Christian merchant special rights and privileges. The first documented Jewish settlement in Kerala was in a village called Anjuvannam. It was gifted by King Bhaskara Ravi Varma of Kodungallur to the oldest ancestor of the Jews of Kerala, Joseph Rabban in 1000 CE. The famous Jewish Copper Plate Grant ratified the royal gift that gave Rabban special rights in perpetuity. In the years that followed, under the leadership of Joseph Rabban, the Jews prospered in the land and for many years since, Anjuvannam was known as the Jerusalem of the East. This led to the establishment of synagogues and cemeteries, and even to the assigning of their name to certain places (Jew’s Hill, Jew’s Tank, Jew Street and so on). The link between Kodungallur and Islam is also a very old one. According to historians, Islam may have been introduced to Kerala through Arab traders in the 7th or the 8th century CE. However, according to popular legend, Cheraman Juma Masjid is the greatest evidence of this hoary connection. It was the first Muslim house of prayer, set up as far back as 628 A.D., on the land donated by Cheraman Perumal, the first Indian to convert to Islam. While the story behind his conversion is a touching tale of faith and devotion to Allah, modern historians argue that there is hardly any concrete evidence to corroborate this story. A Jewish cemetery and the Chendamangalam synagogue are situated near the hillock of Kottayil Kovilakam, and enjoy proximity with the places of worship of three other faiths. The presence of a Sree Krishna temple, a mosque and a church within a distance of a few hundred metres of one another is the most ringing example of the strong culture of religious harmony that existed in the place.	<urn:uuid:911dca81-b852-429f-94ba-636cd421b58c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.03933131694793701, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9673293232917786, "url": "https://www.keralatourism.org/muziris/history" }
What is Molluscum? Can Molluscum Spread to Other Areas of the Body? Learning About Molluscum Contagiosum Molluscum contagiosum is a common, contagious skin infection caused by a poxvirus (molluscum contagiosum virus). The infection results in round, firm, painless bumps ranging in size from a pinhead to a pencil eraser. They usually appear on the face, neck, armpits, arms, or hands. Molluscum contagiosum can affect people of all ages and races. Molluscum bumps are usually flesh coloured and have a dimple in the centre. In some cases they may be red, pink or brown. If you have molluscum you may have anywhere from 1 to a large number of bumps on your body. The bumps can last anywhere from 2 months to 4 years or more. The bumps are usually not itchy and do not hurt unless you scratch them because this can spread the virus to other parts of your body. Molluscum contagiosum is a common viral skin infection that mostly affects children and people with weakened immune systems. Molluscum contagiosum is usually harmless, but it can be contagious and spread to other areas of the skin or to other people. Molluscum contagiosum looks like raised, flesh-colored bumps or flesh-colored warts. Sometimes the center of each bump looks dimpled. The bumps are usually between 2 millimeters and 5 millimeters wide. They can be anywhere on the body but are most common on the face, arms, hands, legs, torso (chest and back), and genital area in teens and adults. Molluscum contagiosum isn’t painful, but the bumps can become itchy and inflamed if they’re scratched. The bumps may go away without treatment in 6 to 12 months. However, molluscum contagiosum can last longer in people who have weakened immune systems (such as those with HIV) or eczema (a dry skin condition). Molluscum contagiosum is caused by a poxvirus called molluscipoxvirus. The virus spreads through direct contact with an infected person or through contact with contaminated objects such as clothing or Molluscum contagiosum is an infection caused by a virus that produces small, firm, raised lesions on the skin. The lesions are painless, but are sometimes itchy or swollen. They typically heal without scarring. Molluscum contagiosum is transmitted through direct contact with a lesion or with something that has touched a lesion. For this reason, it is considered contagious and can spread rapidly in group settings such as childcare groups and schools. As long as there are new bumps appearing (i.e., the virus is active), the condition is contagious. Molluscum contagiosum may affect children or adults, and appears most often on the face, trunk and limbs. Some people develop only a few lesions, while others may develop many of them. Most cases clear up within 6 to 12 months without treatment, but some can last for several years. There is currently no cure for molluscum contagiosum; however there are several effective treatments available to help manage the condition and prevent spreading the virus to other body parts and other people. Molluscum contagiosum is a common skin rash caused by a virus. It is easily spread and can effect people of all ages, but it is most common in children. The rash can affect any area of the body, but is most commonly found on the face, neck, armpits, hands, lower abdomen and genital areas. The rash can be spread through direct skin-to-skin contact or by touching objects that have touched infected skin. Sexually transmitted molluscum contagiosum (called “genital molluscum contagiosum”) is spread by sexual activity. Molluscum contagiosum begins as small white or pink bumps on the skin that gradually increase in size to become dome shaped with a central indentation. These bumps may itch or feel irritated. They generally range in size from 1 to 5 millimeters (1/32 to 3/16 inch). Occasionally they will be larger in adults than in children. In adults who are immunosuppressed because of disease or medication, the bumps may enlarge and become more numerous and widespread because their immune systems cannot fight off the virus that causes molluscum contagiosum. Your doctor can usually diagnose this condition simply by looking at your child’s skin. Sometimes Molluscum contagiosum is a common and highly contagious viral skin infection that causes small, raised, pink lesions with a dimple in the center. The infection occurs worldwide and is most common in children 1 to 10 years of age. Molluscum contagiosum is usually self-limited, but can persist for years. Molluscum contagiosum does not usually cause scarring, but the risk of scarring is increased if the lesions are traumatized. Molluscum contagiosum is caused by a DNA poxvirus that is transmitted primarily through direct person-to-person contact or fomites (eg, towels). The incubation period ranges from two weeks to six months. Lesions often appear on the face, neck, trunk, and extremities; they are less likely to appear on the palms and soles. Localized infections are more commonly seen in children, while disseminated disease is more common among adults who have atopic dermatitis and immunocompromised patients (including those infected with HIV). Molluscum contagiosum lesions may be single or multiple; they may be found anywhere on the body except on the palms of hands and soles of feet. Molluscum contagiosum is a viral skin infection that causes either single or multiple raised, pearl-like bumps (papules) on the skin. The bumps, which may be flesh-colored or pink, are typically small (1 to 5 millimeters) but may enlarge or multiply. They usually appear without other symptoms, but some people experience mild itching or discomfort. Molluscum contagiosum is caused by a virus that can be easily spread from one person to another. The virus can also be spread by touching infected objects such as clothing, toys, and towels. The molluscum contagiosum virus poses little risk to otherwise healthy people except for those with a weakened immune system. Molluscum contagiosum can present in children and adults in the following ways: Molluscum contagiosum is not serious and usually resolves on its own within a few months to a year or two. It can take longer to resolve in children who have weakened immunity due to conditions like eczema and AIDS. In children with otherwise healthy immune systems, symptoms of molluscum contagiosum typically disappear after about six months without treatment. However, if lesions persist for more than two years it is advised to seek treatment as Leave a Reply Your email address will not be published.	<urn:uuid:6925670e-de9c-4657-8f17-efd33d7bbf1e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.07221114635467529, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9525038003921509, "url": "https://www.whyskin.com/blog/what-is-molluscum-can-molluscum-spread-to-other-areas-of-the-body/" }
kids encyclopedia robot Barramundi facts for kids Kids Encyclopedia Facts Quick facts for kids Barramundi (in foreground) Conservation status Scientific classification • Holocentrus calcarifer Bloch, 1790 • Coius vacti F. Hamilton, 1822 • Pseudolates cavifrons Alleyne & W. J. Macleay, 1877 • Lates darwiniensis W. J. Macleay, 1878 The barramundi (Lates calcarifer) or Asian sea bass, is a species of catadromous fish in the family Latidae of the order Perciformes. The species is widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region from South Asia to Papua New Guinea and Northern Australia. Origin of name Aboriginal art barramundi rock art Indigenous Australian rock art depicting barramundi fish Barramundi is a loanword from an Australian Aboriginal language of the Rockhampton area in Queensland meaning "large-scaled river fish". Originally, the name barramundi referred to Scleropages leichardti and Scleropages jardinii. However, the name was appropriated for marketing reasons during the 1980s, a decision that has aided in raising the profile of this fish significantly. L. calcarifer is broadly referred to as Asian seabass by the international scientific community, but is also known as Australian seabass. This species has an elongated body form with a large, slightly oblique mouth and an upper jaw extending behind the eye. The lower edge of the preoperculum is serrated with a strong spine at its angle; the operculum has a small spine and a serrated flap above the origin of the lateral line. Its scales are ctenoid. In cross section, the fish is compressed and the dorsal head profile clearly concave. The single dorsal and ventral fins have spines and soft rays; the paired pectoral and pelvic fins have soft rays only; and the caudal fin has soft rays] and is truncated and rounded. Barramundi are salt and freshwater sportfish, targeted by many. They have large, silver scales, which may become darker or lighter, depending on their environments. Their bodies can reach up to 1.8 m (5.9 ft) long, though evidence of them being caught at this size is scarce. The maximum weight is about 60 kg (130 lb). The average length is about 0.6–1.2 m (2.0–3.9 ft). Its genome size is about 700 Mb, which was sequenced and published in Animal Genetics (2015, in press) by James Cook University. Barramundi perch 01 Barramundi piebald colour morph Recreational fishing Prized by anglers and sport-fishing enthusiasts for their good fighting ability, barramundi are reputed to be good at avoiding fixed nets and are best caught on lines and with fishing lures. In Australia, the barramundi is used to stock freshwater reservoirs for recreational fishing. These "impoundment barramundi", as they are known by anglers, have grown in popularity as a "catch and release" fish. Popular stocked barramundi impoundments include Lake Tinaroo near Cairns in the Atherton Tablelands, Lake Proserpine west of Proserpine, Queensland, Teemburra Dam near Mackay, Lake Moondarra near Mount Isa, Lake Awoonga near Gladstone, and Lake Monduran south of Lake Awoonga. Commercial fishing and aquaculture The fish is of commercial importance; it is fished internationally and raised in aquaculture in Australia, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Israel, Thailand, the United States, Poland, and the United Kingdom. A Singapore investment firm has invested in an upcoming barramundi fish farm in Brunei. The Australian barramundi industry is relatively established, with an annual production of more than 4000 tons. In the broader Southeast Asian region, production is estimated to exceed 30,000 tons. By contrast, the US industry produces about 800 tons a year from a single facility, Australis Aquaculture, LLC. In 2011, VeroBlue Farms in Iowa started and aims to produce 500 tons annually. Barramundi under culture commonly grow from a hatchery juvenile, between 50 and 100 mm in length, to a table size of 400-600 g within 12 months and to 3.0 kg within 18–24 months. Aquarium use Juveniles are a popular aquarium fish, and can be very entertaining, especially at feeding time. However, they grow quickly, so they are recommended to be kept in setups of 500 l or larger. In aquaria, they become quite tame and can be hand-fed; they are not aggressive, but their feeding reflex is violent and sudden, so they cannot be kept with any tank mates small enough to be swallowed. As food Barramundi are a favorite food of the region's apex predator, saltwater crocodiles, which have been known to take them from unwary fishermen. Nile perch—a similar fish found in the Afrotropical realm, or sub-Saharan Africa—is often mislabeled as barramundi. Australian cuisine Noosa - Barramundi and chips Barramundi and chips In Australia, such is the demand for the fish that a substantial amount of barramundi consumed there is actually imported. This has placed economic pressure on Australian producers, both fishers and farmers, whose costs are greater due to remoteness of many of the farming and fishing sites, as well as stringent environmental and food safety standards placed on them by government. While country-of-origin labelling has given consumers greater certainty over the origins of their barramundi at the retail level, no requirement exists for the food service and restaurant trades to label the origins of their barramundi. Bengali cuisine Locally caught bhetki (barramundi) is a popular fish among Bengali people, mainly served in festivities such as marriages and other important social events. It is cooked as bhetki machher paturi, bhetki machher kalia, or coated in suji (semolina) and pan fried. It is very popular among people who are usually sceptical about eating fish with a lot of bones. Bhetki fillets have no bones in them. In Bengali cuisine, therefore, fried bhetki fillets are popular and considered to be of good quality. The dish is commonly called "fish fry". Goan cuisine Locally caught chonak (barramundi) is a favourite food, prepared with either recheado (a Goan red masala) or coated with rava (sooji, semolina) and pan fried. The fish is generally filleted on the diagonal. It is eaten as a snack or as an accompaniment to drinks or the main course. It is one of the more expensive fish available. Thai cuisine Barramundi from local fish farms are known as pla kapong (Thai: ปลากะพง) in Thailand. Since its introduction, it has become one of the most popular fish in Thai cuisine. It is often eaten steamed with lime and garlic, as well as deep-fried or stir-fried with lemongrass, among a variety of many other ways. Pla kapong can be seen in aquaria in many restaurants in Thailand, where sometimes this fish is wrongly labeled as "snapper" or "sea bass" on menus. Traditionally, Lutjanidae snappers were known as pla kapong before the introduction of barramundi in Thai aquaculture, but presently, snapper is rarely served in restaurants in the main cities and in interior Thailand. United States In the US, barramundi is growing in popularity. Monterey Bay Aquarium has deemed US and Vietnam-raised barramundi as "Best Choice" under the Seafood Watch sustainability program. kids search engine Barramundi Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:62e44c72-abf9-4517-aa9c-c5a29d75572f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.021369099617004395, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9431257843971252, "url": "https://kids.kiddle.co/Barramundi" }
Tin is an ingredient in many different solders due to its low melting point. Tin plating is used on parts that are to be soldered such as PC boards, but pure tin has a tendency to grow whiskers that can short out electronic parts. All values except melting point are assumed to be at 25 degrees C, and may vary dramatically over temperature. Tin Trivia: Pure tin plating can create tin whiskers, which can short out your circuit board before its time! Lead is banned in Europe, so many vendors are going to pure tin. Here's an image we borrowed from http://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker: When someone says they are "tinning a lead", they are putting solder on it. In some cases, the solder contains no tin, and the "lead" is plated with tin... so they might be "leading a tin" instead! Formula or Composition: Sn Bulk Resistivity: 11.4 μΩ-cm Bulk Resistivity: 1.14E-7 Ω-cm Bulk Conductivity: 8.77E6 S/m Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity (TCR): 4700 ppm/°C Mass Density: 7.31 gr/cc Heat Capacity: 222.1 J/kg/°C Thermal Conductivity (k): 66.6 W/m°C Temperature Coefficient of Expansion (TCE): 20 ppm/°C Melting Point, °C: 232 °C Melting Point, °F: 450 °F Author : Unknown Editor	<urn:uuid:268ad047-0290-46be-b8d4-8fbb6341b7c5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.24005991220474243, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8995161056518555, "url": "https://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedias/tin" }
Korean War Legacy Project Mathew Thomas General Mathew Thomas was born in Chennaguur, Kerala, India, on March 11, 1928. He grew up in an educated family, as his father was a journalist. His family moved to Bangalore, India, where he and his siblings were educated at English schools. He graduated from St. Johns European High School in 1944. He recalls his world history studies were limited to the regions of the British Empire; however, he was able to identify significant countries–such as Korea–on a world map. He studied languages and mathematics at St. Joseph’s College for two years before seeing desperate signs around town recruiting soldiers for the Indian army. He decided to go to the services selection board to take tests to see if he could join the army. He then attended basic training at the Indian Military Academy and went to Korea after the armistice in 1953 as part of a medical unit. This unit was a part of a commission established by the countries of India, Sweden, Switzerland, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. Led by India and consisting of multiple battalions, the commission was established to look after the prisoners of war. The Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission was ordered for peace only, to commit no use of military force or coercion, and only worked in Korean water as well as within Korean neutral zones. He left Korea after nine months, in 1954. Video Clips Mission in Korea Mathew Thomas recalls his job description. He and his battalion were in charge of taking care of prisoners of war (POWs). He remembers the role being dangerous because some POWs were not checked for weapons when they were brought into the camp facility. He shares how there were times when POWs tried to escape. Tags: Panmunjeom,Fear,Impressions of Korea,Message to Students,North Koreans,POW,Weapons Share this Clip + Prisoners of War Mathew Thomas speaks about his experiences with prisoners of war (POWs). He recalls how some POWs did not want to return to their home countries and explains that some were left behind or even taken back to India. He shares that other POWs wanted to go to North Korea as they felt they might have a chance of reuniting with their families. Tags: Civilians,North Koreans,POW,South Koreans Share this Clip + Committee Mission Complexities Mathew Thomas talks about the committee's mission. He recalls how the Korean officials wanted the small number of remaining POWs released so they could return home; however, the United Nations orders were to not release the POWs. Instead, the orders were to hand them over to the United States command. He recognizes the complexities of the situation that are hard to decipher even today. He remembers leaving Korea in 1954 after nine months of service. Tags: North Koreans,POW,South Koreans Share this Clip + Life in the POW Camp Mathew Thomas discusses the living situation in the POW camp. He describes how they lived in wooden structures and canvas tents and remembers having heaters because it was very cold. He recalls eating goats, having good morale in the camp, and the bathrooms being outdoors. He shares he was able to mail letters home if he wanted. Tags: Cold winters,Food,Impressions of Korea,Letters,Living conditions,North Koreans,POW,South Koreans Share this Clip +	<urn:uuid:8e421a8e-d1dc-43b6-8b0b-7a28dd95325e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.0413547158241272, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9721344113349915, "url": "https://koreanwarlegacy.org/interviews/mathew-thomas/" }
Who Invented the First Radio? Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859-1906) May 7, 1895 designed the first radio receiver, which was used to receive and register signals from various sources, in particular from electrical discharges in the atmosphere.	<urn:uuid:e0c3ed0b-820e-4b51-9e7e-a5d8efd9335b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.5074596405029297, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9497117400169373, "url": "https://www.bystudin.com/who-invented-the-first-radio/" }
Loading please wait The smart way to improve grades Comprehensive & curriculum aligned Try an activity or get started for free The Sun and How Shadows are Made In this worksheet, students will be challenged to stretch their understanding of the Sun's movements and its role in forming shadows, leading on to an investigation into materials that form or do not create shadows. 'The Sun and How Shadows are Made' worksheet Key stage: KS 2 Curriculum topic: Light Curriculum subtopic: Shadows Difficulty level: Worksheet Overview The Sun is the source of life on our planet: it provides the light and the heat that power the processes on which life depends. Understanding how it moves and how the Earth moves is important because it affects life all around the planet. In the second half of the worksheet we'll look at how light is used to form shadows and how to investigate what sort of materials make what sort of shadows. Let's find out! What is EdPlace? Get started Try an activity or get started for free	<urn:uuid:9c443fe7-d46d-4795-9475-ede6f7b298b6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.1145511269569397, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8893091082572937, "url": "https://www.edplace.com/worksheet_info/science/keystage2/year3/topic/792/2548/the-sun-and-how-shadows-are-made" }
Honey has been used medicinally for thousands of years – Aristotle referred to pale honey as being “good as a salve for sore eyes and wounds” – but it is only more recently that significant research has been done on the different properties of honey. The use of honey in medicine has traditionally been categorised as ‘alternate medicine‘, although given the research below it could be argued in many areas it is becoming far more mainstream. The following article tries to highlight some of the health benefits non pasteurised (from our perspective ideally local honey) has to offer. There has also been some new research in 2019 which summarises and links out to several bits of further research. It can be accessed for free here. Is all Honey the Same? No, local honey is normally not pasteurised; that is it is honey that is sometimes called ‘Raw Honey’. Much commercial honey has been pasteurised, heated to a high temperature and flash cooled. This can remove some of the properties such as yeast found in Raw Honey. Honey is a good source of antioxidants Antibacterial /Antifungal Properties & Healing Wounds Research has shown that raw honey can kill unwanted bacteria and fungus. It naturally contains hydrogen peroxide, an antiseptic. Its effectiveness as an antibacterial or antifungal varies depending on the honey. Research has shown it is effective against dozens of bacteria strains, including E. coli and salmonella. A specific type of honey from New Zealand, called manuka honey, along with Malaysian Tualang honey, has been shown to fight Staphylococcus infections and the digestive bacteria responsible for peptic ulcers, H. pylori. What makes honey antimicrobic? Most bees deposit hydrogen peroxide into the honey as they synthesise flower pollen. Also because honey is naturally acidic, you have a recipe for antibacterial properties. This explains honey’s centuries-old role in speeding wound healing and treating gastric complaints. Honey has even been known to heal wounds that don’t respond to antibiotics, although care must be taken to be sure the honey itself is free of contaminants. Studies have also found that darker, more concentrated honey may be more potent and that the type of plants harvested by the busy bee affects the antibacterial qualities. It is also a potent probiotic, meaning it nourishes the good bacteria that live in the intestines, which are crucial not only for digestion but overall health. Phytonutrient powerhouse Phytonutrients are compounds found in plants that help protect the plant from harm. For example, some keep insects away or shield the plant from ultraviolet radiation. The phytonutrients in honey are responsible for its antioxidant properties, as well as its antibacterial and antifungal power. They’re also thought to be the reason raw honey has shown immune-boosting and anticancer benefits. Heavy processing, often done by commercial producers, destroys these valuable nutrients. Nutrition and is Honey Better than Sugar Research done at the sports nutrition lab at the University of Memphis found that honey was just as good or better than glucose, or sugar water in boosting the staying power of endurance athletes. Honey contains specific nutrients that can make it a healthful addition to the diet.The exact nutrition and chemical composition of raw honey varies between different countries and environments and depends partly upon which types of flowers the bees gather their nectar from. One tablespoon or 21 grams (g) of raw honey (not pasteurised) contains around 64 calories and 16 g of sugar. Natural honey contains small amounts of the following vitamins and minerals: • niacin • riboflavin • pantothenic acid • calcium • magnesium • manganese • potassium • phosphorous • zinc Honey naturally contains sugars. A little more than half of the sugar in honey is fructose. However, even with its fructose content, honey may be a healthier option than table sugar (sucrose). Some research suggests that honey may offer a protective effect against diabetes and some types of honey may help improve cholesterol levels Soothe a sore throat Honey is an often used as a sore throat remedy. Add it to hot drinks with lemon when a cold virus hits you. It also works as a cough suppressant. Research has suggested that honey is as effective as dextromethorphan, a common ingredient in over-the-counter cough medication. Just take one or two teaspoonfuls, straight. A study found that honey did a better job of easing night time coughs and improving sleep than both the popular cough suppressant dextromethorphan and the antihistamine diphenhydramine (Benadryl). Another study with children showed that buckwheat honey also outperformed dextromethorphan in suppressing coughs at night. Studies in Italy, using wildflower honey, and in Israel, using eucalyptus, citrus and Labiatae honeys, found that the gooey stuff outperformed placebos in reducing both night time coughs and sleeping troubles in children with respiratory infections. Honey and Hay Fever It is often said honey can help with hay fever. However there is no substantive research to support this across all hay fever types that honey can desensitise the allergic reaction. A 2002 study at the University of Connecticut compared locally-produced, unfiltered honey, with nationally-produced, filtered honey and honey-flavoured corn syrup. In double-blind trials, there was no difference between the three in reducing hay fever symptoms. The pollen in honey is nearly all the heavy, flower pollen that doesn’t cause hay fever. The pollen that sets your nose running is much lighter and comes from wind-pollinated plants, such as grasses and trees, that bees don’t visit. Dr Sarah Brewer says that “It does seem that in people with a true pollen allergy, using local honey may reduce hay fever symptoms – at least for birch pollen allergy. But local honey probably needs to be taken for at least five months before the pollen season is expected. It may also help to start at low, immunotherapy doses which are slowly increased to help the immune system tolerate them better.” Are there any risks in taking honey? In addition to beneficial probiotics and nutrients, raw honey can also carry harmful bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum. This is particularly dangerous for babies. Raw honey should never be given to an infant less than a year old. Symptoms of botulism poisoning in infants may include: • constipation • slow breathing • sagging eyelids • absence of gagging • loss of head control • paralysis that spreads downward • poor feeding • lethargy • weak cry In adults, symptoms can include an initial short period of diarrhea and vomiting, followed by constipation and more severe symptoms, such as blurred vision and muscle weakness. See a doctor if you experience any of these symptoms after eating raw honey.	<urn:uuid:cd6c7bbc-ef26-4b2e-9761-9328bf7a54da>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.02288597822189331, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9449159502983093, "url": "https://www.weybridgebeekeepers.org/health-honey" }
School Logo Junior School Interactive Bar Google Translate Google Translate Google Search Google Search Wednesday 17th June 2020. Today's work with still be on the film clip, "The Piano." The focus of this is to write a dialogue between the characters. You will need to use adequate punctuation and inverted commas. TOP TIP: Remember that each new piece of dialogue from a new speaker gets written on a new line. What would the old man in the film say to the ghost of his wife? Or to himself? What would he say to his dying brother in the trenches of war? What would he say to his grandson and what would his grandson say to him. You may need to rewatch the film to remind yourself or take another look at the photos that you described last week. Read the documents detailing how to use inverted commas properly to help you. Watch the bbc bitesize clip. Remember to use commas to separate the words spoken from the he said, she said part. Also, watch the twinkl videos to remind you. The inverted commas hug the spoken words. For example, "Remember to use a range of punctuation," reminded Mrs Greathead. "We will ," replied the enthusiastic voices of the children from Year Five!	<urn:uuid:46e565e3-2c29-4e92-bc5b-0569d1fa0966>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.1924370527267456, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9511052370071411, "url": "https://www.brooklandjm.herts.sch.uk/english-135/" }
• 11 Learning Opportunities You are a Middle-Age stonemason and you have to shape stones with a special ruler. The ruler uses anthropomorphic lengths: The (small) palm of the hand (its width) The full palm (from forefinger to little finger) The span (from thumb to little finger) The foot The cubit (from elbow to little finger) They have the following feature: A palm and a full palm are a span A full palm and a span are a foot A span and a foot are a cubit For this puzzle, we will place the units on a line, from left to right, the biggest on the left, the smallest on the right. The span is the central unit, the full palm is on its right and the foot on its left. Two following units have the same added length than the one on their immediate left, including subdivisions of the palm or of the bigger units. A rectangular stone whose dimensions are a palm and a full palm has got the same shape than a rectangular stone whose dimensions are a full palm and a span. It’s just the same stone but bigger. For the purpose of this puzzle, we won’t use their real name but their position in the set: The span in the centre, just call it C. The foot is one unit on the left of the span, call it 1L. The cubit is 2L. The full palm is one unit on the right of the span, it’s 1R and the palm is 2R. The unnamed units are 3L, 4R and so on. You only own one unit of each in your set. And you want the least amount of units used. You are given a multiple of the span, for example three spans, and you must measure it, using the set of units, but you must not use two adjacent units, because the previous one can replace it. For example, if you have to use a span and a foot, replace them by a cubit. set of units needed to measure the length A higher resolution is required to access the IDE codingame x discord Online Participants	<urn:uuid:9957449d-93be-4e22-b171-484e03dc7c98>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.314384400844574, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9102428555488586, "url": "https://www.codingame.com/training/medium/the-stonemason" }
The Origins of Father's Day Updated May 16, 2022 \| Infoplease Staff On Sunday, June 19, people in the USA, the United Kingdom, and around the world will honor their fathers, grandfathers, and father figures. Coinciding with Juneteenth celebrations, it is a special day in the calendars of many Americans. Father’s Day History A version of Father’s Day has been celebrated in some European countries for centuries. However, the history of Father’s Day in America does not stretch as far back, beginning in the early 20th century alongside the rise of Mother’s Day. What Are the Historical Origins of Father’s Day? The US’s first official service honoring fathers was held in July 1908 and was a consequence of a terrible and tragic event. In December 1907, hundreds of men (most of whom were fathers) were killed in America’s worst mining disaster at Monongah, West Virginia. A girl named Grace Golden Clayton, mourning her own father at the time of the tragedy, suggested a service be held to remember the men who had been lost. Though the service did not make a widespread or lasting impact, it’s widely considered to be the first Father’s Day celebration in America. When Was Father’s Day Invented? The seeds of Father’s Day as we know it were sown shortly after Clayton’s service, by a woman who believed fathers deserved a day of honoring and celebration, just as mothers did. The woman, Sonora Smart Dodd, and her five siblings had been raised solely by their father, a civil war veteran named William Jackson Smart, following the death of his wife in childbirth. Upon hearing about Anna Jarvis’s founding of Mother’s Day, she resolved to create a similar celebration for fathers. She persuaded the pastor of her church in Spokane, Washington to hold a special service on June 5, her father’s birthday. However, this was too soon for the church to make their preparations, so it was moved to the third Sunday of June, a date that has remained ever since. For several reasons, it was a long time before Father’s Day was widely accepted. Firstly, many people at the time viewed giving flowers and gifts as feminine and sentimental, thus men were often not keen on the idea. Also, several presidents tried to make the celebration official but were resisted by Congress and some of the American public on the grounds that it would become too commercialized. Indeed, early efforts to promote it were backed by businesses who would profit the most, such as manufacturers of Father’s Day cards and Father’s Day gifts. Today, many view it as one of several ‘Hallmark holidays’ (named after the famous greeting card manufacturer), whose main purpose is to generate income for gift retailers. President Woodrow Wilson and President Calvin Coolidge had both supported attempts to establish a day to honor fathers, the former speaking at a service in Spokane. However, it was not until 1966 when Lyndon B. Johnson made a presidential proclamation setting the third Sunday in June as Father’s Day. Finally, in 1972, President Richard Nixon made it an official national holiday. Father’s Day Traditions Around the World While many countries hold Father’s Day on the same date as the US, lots of others have different arrangements. This year, Spain, Portugal, and Italy held Father’s Day on March 19. It’s the same day as the Catholic celebration of the Feast of St. Joseph. In the Bible, Joseph was the earthy father of Jesus, and the day is used to celebrate fathers and fatherhood. In Germany, Father’s Day is celebrated on Ascension Day, the 40th and final day of Easter, when Jesus ascended to heaven according to Christians. It traditionally involved men heading off into the woods with a wagon filled with food, beer, and wine. Why is Father’s Day Important? Supporters of Father’s Day believe fathers deserve appreciation for the contributions they make to their families and to society, in the same way that mothers do. If Father’s Day encourages more people to show their appreciation to their father figures, then it’s worthwhile. Crucially though, there has to be real meaning in that recognition and gratitude. The empty sending of gifts achieves nothing except more profits for retailers. How to Celebrate Father’s Day There’s no need for extravagant spending to show your love for your father figure. And certainly no need for thoughtless gifts such as novelty ties or socks. Why not simply make some time for your old man - clear some time in your busy schedule and put him top of your list. A bit of time and effort goes a long way to making someone feel special. Father’s Day Activities There’s no need to spend a fortune, but if you want to splash out, at least make it personal and meaningful - a meal at his favorite restaurant, a bottle of his favorite liquor, tickets to his favorite team. Of course, there’s plenty you can do without spending anything: • Play some games - old family favorites • Cook his favorite dinner • Watch his favorite movie • Reminisce on good old times • Learn about his family tree • Find out if there are any services and/or events in your community Who Celebrates Father’s Day? Of course, everyone’s circumstances are different. The paternal figure in our lives might not be our father. Father’s Day is also a time to celebrate grandfathers, step-fathers, foster-fathers - the man who has been there for us, whoever they are. Maybe you don’t need a designated day to show your love for your father figure. But if you are celebrating on Sunday June 19, you still have plenty of time to prepare. Why not impress your old man with your knowledge of the event’s history. Our handy timeline will help with that. You could even try one of our Father’s Day quizzes together, or share some heartfelt quotes about fathers. Sources +	<urn:uuid:bbe16ef0-f1e0-4e97-82b2-641e17740cbc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4, "fasttext_score": 0.06465721130371094, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9676029682159424, "url": "https://www.infoplease.com/culture-entertainment/holidays/origins-of-fathers-day" }
Skip to Main Content WRI 101-01 (Webb, Spring 2022): Writing the Research Question 5WH Method • Who are the major figures associated with the topic? (e.g., Karl Marx, Albert Einstein, students, kittens) • What is the description of the topic? What is happening? • Where does the topic operate? (e.g., Eastern Europe, basal ganglia, California) • When is the timeframe for this topic? This can often be combined with “where” (e.g., Jurassic Era, antebellum American South, 21st-century inner-city Chicago) • Why is this significant to others in the field? Why is this happening? • How can your topic be tested? How do you describe the relationship between your concepts? Finding the Right Scope for Your Topic Narrow Your Topic It's very common to select a topic that's too broad. When the scope of your topic is too big, it's hard to dig through the huge volume of information available to find something relevant. It's also hard to write a paper or give a presentation of with any depth. Most scholarly research examines fairly narrow topics and looks at relationships between concepts. For example, COVID-19 is a huge topic, but looking at the relationship between COVID-19 and mask mandates might be a more manageable topic. There are many ways to narrow a topic that is too broad. Let's use COVID-19 as an example: • COVID-19 and the law (what) • COVID-19 and vaccine mandates (what) • COVID-19 and vaccine hesitancy (what) • COVID-19 and California (where) • COVID-19 and Mexico (where) • COVID-19 and the elderly (who) • COVID-19 and Latinos (who) • COVID-19 and African Americans (who) • COVID-19 and 2020 (when) Use these concepts develop a research question on the topic of COVID-19 • Has COVID-19 (or the pandemic) had any effect on medical education? • How have Latinos in California been affected by COVID-19? • What successful measures exist to combat vaccine hesitancy? Broaden Your Topic It is possible to generate a topic that's too narrow. When the scope of your topic is too small, there may not be enough information available for your paper or presentation. For example, this affirmative action-related topic is probably too narrow: Were Asian Americans in Fremont, California unduly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in the summer of 2021? To find enough information, you might need to broaden the who (change "Asian Americans" to "minorities") and the where (change Fremont to California) concepts in this question. You might also need to omit the limited time frame. "Unduly impacted" is too vague. What's "unduly?" You might solve this by making a comparison: Did Asian Americans have higher rates of COVID-19 than the rest of the population? What sort of "impact?" Unemployment? Rates of infection? Be specific. "Summer of 2021" is also too vague. Specify a date range. Here are a few more examples of narrowing a broad topic down to a manageable topic one step at a time. • political correctness > political correctness and universities > Are universities equally tolerant to politically correct and politically incorrect viewpoints? • social media > social media and bullying > The effect of social media on bullying behaviors among U.S. teenagers • academic freedom > academic freedom and politic* > Does academic freedom exist on both sides of the political aisle? Narrow your Research Question with the 5 Ws About Research Questions Forming a Research Question • By asking a research question, you are keeping an open mind about what the research may reveal. • As you develop a research question, consider these criteria. • If you have an existing research question, see if your question is TRUE for these five criteria. If so, then your research question is probably workable. thought bubble question Your research question ... 1. is not easily answered with a simple yes or no. It has some substance and requires explanation. 1. has an underlying problem with social significance (local, national or international). It is important to someone other than just you! 1. poses a genuine question and aims for neutrality. It avoids using loaded language or suggesting a pre-determined answer. 1. can be answered with reliable evidence. It is re-searchable. Others have already been contributing to this conversation. 1. has appropriate scope. It is not too narrow, nor too broad; it does not leave you with too much or too little information. Together: You will have to do some preliminary research to really discover if all of these statements are TRUE for your proposed research question. Topics, Concepts & Terms working with topics images from Quiz Question #1 Is this topic too broad, too narrow, or just about right? How did banks contribute to the 2008 international financial crisis? Quiz Question #1 Too broad: 13 votes (72.22%) Too narrow: 2 votes (11.11%) Just about right: 3 votes (16.67%) Total Votes: 18 Quiz Question #2 What impact do Olympic heroes have on youth sports programs in Rochester, New York? Quiz Question #2 Too broad: 1 votes (5.26%) Too narrow: 9 votes (47.37%) Just about right: 9 votes (47.37%) Total Votes: 19 Quiz Question #3 How does American food culture shape the eating behaviors of children? Quiz Question #3 Too broad: 3 votes (17.65%) Too narrow: 0 votes (0%) Just about right: 14 votes (82.35%) Total Votes: 17 Starting your research There's an excellent tutorial on beginning the research process, available here: . If you'd like to know more about writing a good research question, take a look at the module on developing a research question.	<urn:uuid:e92e1ce9-e4b2-4742-a40d-72c0a3e2ed96>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.03487938642501831, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9027878046035767, "url": "https://libguides.ucmerced.edu/c.php?g=1186717&p=8682444" }

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