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1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marrucini
MARRUCINI, an ancient tribe which occupied a small strip of territory round about Teate (mod. Chieti), on the east coast of Italy. It is first mentioned in history as a member of a confederacy with which the Romans came into conflict in the second Samnite War, 325 B.C., and it entered the Roman Alliance as a separate unit at the end of that war (see further Paeligni). We know something of the language of the Marrucini from an inscription known as the “Bronze of Rapino,” which belongs to about the middle of the 3rd century B.C. It is written in Latin alphabet, but in a dialect which belongs to the North Oscan group (see Paeligni). The name of the city or tribe which it gives us is touta marouca, and it mentions also a citadel with the epithet tarincris. Several of its linguistic features, both in vocabulary and in syntax, are of considerable interest to the student of Latin or Italic grammar (e.g. the use of the subjunctive, without any conjunction, to express purpose, a clause prescribing a sacrifice to Ceres being followed immediately by pacr si ut propitia sit). The earliest Latin inscriptions are of Ciceronian date.
The form of the name is of considerable interest, as it shows the suffix -NO- superimposed upon the suffix -CO-, a change which probably indicates some conquest of an earlier tribe by the invading Safini (or Sabini, q.v.).
For further details as to Marrucine inscriptions and place-names see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, p. 253 seq. (R. S. C.)
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News Release
How does the one-humped Arabian camel survive without drinking?
Peer-Reviewed Publication
University of Bristol
Research led by scientists at the University of Bristol has shed new light on how the kidneys of the one-humped Arabian camel play an important role in helping it to cope with extremes.
In a new paper published today in the journal Communications Biology, they have studied the response of the camel's kidneys to dehydration and rapid rehydration stresses.
Camelus dromedarius is the most important livestock animal in the arid and semi-arid regions of North and East Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and Iran, and continues to provide basic needs to millions of people.
Thought to have been domesticated 3,000 to 6,000 years ago in the Arabian Peninsula, the camel has been used as a beast of burden, for riding and sport, and to produce milk, meat and shelter, and they are still used today for the same purposes.
This animal is so incredibly well adapted to the desert environment that can endure weeks without access to water. A very well-developed kidney is the key to produce highly concentrated urine and assure water is never wasted.
In the current context of advancing desertification and climate change, there is renewed interest in the adaptations of camels. Further, advanced laboratory techniques allow to study the underlying genetic mechanisms of these adaptations.
However, there was not to date, a freely available and comprehensive study of the genes implicated in coping with dehydration in the kidney of the camel.
This project was born in 2015 with the onset of a fruitful collaboration between Professor David Murphy's Lab at University of Bristol and Professor Abdu Adem's Lab at United Arab Emirates University.
The team analysed how thousands of genes changed in the camel kidney as a consequence of dehydration and rehydration and suggested that the amount of cholesterol in the kidney has a role in the water conservation process. They used different techniques to further validate these results.
Lead authors Fernando AlviraI Iraizoz and Benjamin T. Gillard from the University of Bristol's Medical School, said: "A decrease in the amount of cholesterol in the membrane of kidney cells would facilitate the movement of solutes and water across different sections of the kidney - a process that is required to efficiently reabsorb water and produce a highly concentrated urine, thus avoiding water loss.
"This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first time that the level of cholesterol has been directly associated with water conservation in the kidney. Thus, we describe a novel role for this lipid that may be of interest when studying other species."
The team also presents an immense source of information that, as mentioned by one of the reviewers, is very valuable in the context of climate change and thus will help scientists to understand the mechanisms of water control in dehydration.
Following the publication of this research, the team are now looking at how the camel brain responds to the same stimuli and how other species, such as jerboas and Olive mice, adapt to life in the deserts.
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What are cookies?
Written by a NortonLifeLock employee
Mention “cookies,” and most people expect a treat to appear. When talking about computers, however, cookies aren’t what’s on the dessert menu. In fact, they’re not even physical objects. Yet they do a great deal of the work that makes it possible for you to browse the Internet—and they can cause trouble if you don’t know how to manage them.
Safety for every device.
Meet the Cookie
No matter what it’s called, a computer cookie consists of information. When you visit a website, the website sends the cookie to your computer. Your computer stores it in a file located inside your web browser. (To help you find it, this file is often called “Cookies.”)
What Do Cookies Do?
The purpose of the cookie is to help the website keep track of your visits and activity. This isn’t always a bad thing. For example, many online retailers use cookies to keep track of the items in a user’s shopping cart as they explore the site. Without cookies, your shopping cart would reset to zero every time you clicked a new link on the site. That would make it impossible to buy anything online!
A website might also use cookies to keep a record of your most recent visit or to record your login information. Many people find this useful so that they can store passwords on commonly used sites, or simply so they know what they have visited or downloaded in the past.
Different types of cookies keep track of different activities. Session cookies are used only when a person is actively navigating a website; once you leave the site, the session cookie disappears. Tracking cookies may be used to create long-term records of multiple visits to the same site. Authentication cookies track whether a user is logged in, and if so, under what name.
How to Manage Your Cookies
Under normal circumstances, cookies cannot transfer viruses or malware to your computer. Because the data in a cookie doesn’t change when it travels back and forth, it has no way to affect how your computer runs.
However, some viruses and malware may be disguised as cookies. For instance, “supercookies” can be a potential security concern, and many browsers offer a way to block them. A “zombie cookie” is a cookie that recreates itself after being deleted, making zombie cookies tough to manage. Third-party tracking cookies can also cause security concerns, since they make it easier for parties you can’t identify to watch where you are going and what you are doing online.
Here’s how to manage your cookies in order to protect your online activity from prying eyes:
Isn’t it time to upgrade your security?
Create an account today and be up and running in minutes.
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IT’S A TRUTH universally acknowledged that if you shove wired headphones into your pocket, they’ll eventually emerge in a jumble of knots. That’s why mathematical biologist Mariel Vazquez keeps a tangled pair at her desk: Looking at the messy cord helps her envision how each microscopic human cell manages to pack in 6 feet of DNA.
Of course, the twisted strands within our bodies carry much higher stakes than even the most chaotic audio cable. Cells would die if they couldn’t efficiently store these helixes in tight quarters while still being able to access their genetic information. Figuring out how they manage to do so is one of the knotty problems Vazquez’s interdisciplinary lab is designed to tackle, often with an eye toward practical applications like novel cancer treatments.
The lab’s work centers around a field of mathematics called topology, which Vazquez came to somewhat serendipitously in college. She majored in math as an undergraduate at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, but this left her little opportunity to study living things, which she had been curious about since high school. She found a way to fuse her interests when she took a class in topology, a discipline that classifies shapes based on their ability to transform. It considers a sphere, for instance, to be equivalent to a cube, since you can mold one into the other. Doughnuts are a different beast, however: Turning an orb into a ring requires slicing a hole in it or sticking its ends together, making them two fundamentally different shapes.
Vazquez came to think of gene-packed cells as a topological problem. After all, she explains, “It all boils down to the fact that DNA is a very long chain that fits into a very tiny environment.” That revelation turned into a Ph.D. and a postdoc, and eventually a role as a professor of mathematics, microbiology, and molecular genetics at the University of California, Davis.
Over the past two decades, her work has tapped topological concepts to make core discoveries about how our bodies keep track of DNA strands. For example, mathematicians can calculate an “unknotting number” for a snarl of wires—the minimum number of times strands within the jumble have to uncross for the whole mess to come untied. Vazquez’s work has shown that a particular set of enzymes seem to know the unknotting numbers inside cells; they tend to access DNA exactly where necessary to undo the complex crisscrosses efficiently, rather than taking more complicated routes.
Her team’s advances could help biologists develop a better understanding of how DNA winds inside viruses, which could then reveal how diseases spread. They might also lead to therapies that target enzymes responsible for unwinding genes within cancer cells, halting their growth.
But Vazquez is especially interested in the fundamental nature of this research. By studying how DNA fits into cells, mathematicians develop a keener sense of shapes overall. Advances in labs like hers can have implications far beyond our bodies—from uncovering new materials for electronics and computation to showing why jumbled magnetic fields emit solar flares.
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Synecdoche examples in literature
Synecdoche Examples in Literature (Literary Devices)
What is Synecdoche?
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which the whole represents just one part. This can be done with personification and metaphor as well. For example, when we say “the White House,” we are referring to the building that contains all of the offices for government officials such as the President and Vice-President. We could also say “my wheels” instead of “my car” or refer to an entire type of animal as in “a herd.”
Synecdoche is important because it makes communication more efficient by being able to use just one word or phrase rather than using many words or phrases. It’s also really helpful for people who have trouble understanding complex ideas because they can quickly grasp what it means. This type of rhetorical device is often employed by writers and poets who want to create more vivid imagery in the minds of readers.
Synecdoche was first used in the 15th century.
Synecdoche Definition
1. A literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use a whole to represent a part.
2. A figure of speech in which the part stands for the whole, and thus something else is understood within the thing mentioned.
Synecdoche Examples
• ‘Give us this day our daily bread’. (In the above sentence, ‘bread’ stands for the meals take each day.)
• ‘Chelsea won the match’. (Here Chelsea stands for the Chelsea Football Team.)
• I need to use all my fingers.
• They’re feeling sick to their stomach.
• Your words are representative of your thoughts.
• The White House said today that the President will not be attending this year’s G7 Summit in Canada.
• All of the president’s men.
• Hands Across America helped raise money for the homeless.
• He has not saved a cent.
Synecdoche Examples in Literature
In Shakespeare, Sonnet 116
O no! It is an ever-fixed mark
That’s looks on tempests and is never shaken.”
(The phrase “ever-fixed mark” refers to a lighthouse)
In Ye Mariners of England by “Thomas Campbell’s”
With thunders from her native oak,
She quells the flood below.
In these lines, ‘oak’ represents the warships as well as the material from which they are made.
The above quote is meant to tell us he shouldve been a crab, which makes sense since a crab is viewed as a creature that keeps to itself.
“Take thy face hence.”
MacBeth by Shakespeare
The speaker is not telling the person at whom it’s commanded to take just their face to a different location, they’re saying that they want someone to go somewhere else altogether. The word “face” is used to refer to the addressee’s entire body.
Forms of Synecdoche
The figure includes the following:
Naming the Part for the Whole; as
“It chanced a gliding sail she spied,” i.e. passing ship.
All hands were at work (men)
They sought his blood (life)
In these examples, the part chosen is what concerns the end in view. A workman’s efficiency depends on his hands and the blood is supposed more particularly identified with life.
The whole for the part; as
The lavish moisture of the melting year (summer)
Thine the full harvest of golden year’ (i.e. autumn)
The smiling year (spring) has come with all its beauty and blessings.
It was America that carried off the much coveted Tennis Trophy.
Material for the thing made; as
He gave the beggar a few coppers (pice made of copper) to get rid of him.
A foeman worthy of his steel (sword).
The marble (the statue made of marble) speaks.
The canvas (oil painting) glows.
He was buried under this stone (this tablet made of stone).
An Individual for a Class:
One variety of Synecdoche known as Antonomasia occurs when the name of a person well-known for some characterizes is taken the class name for those possessing the characteristic.
The Antonomasia puts an individual for the Species.
He is the Solomon (wisest man) of his tribe.
Kalidas is the Shakespeare (greatest dramatist) of India.
He is no Demosthenes (orator).
Synecdoche Examples
Synecdoche Examples
Further Reading
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14.4. Measuring the Performance of Parallel Programs
So far, we have used the gettimeofday function to measure the amount of time it takes for programs to execute. In this section, we discuss how to measure how well a parallel program performs in comparison to a serial program as well as other topics related to measuring the performance of parallel programs.
We first cover some basics related to parallel performance:
While Amdahl’s Law and speedup are two very important concepts related to performance, having a good understanding of the following topics will round out a reader’s understanding of performance:
Specifically, the Gustafson-Barsis Law gives a better understanding of the limits of Amdahl’s Law.
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On this page we have some facts, theories and common misconceptions about crop circles. Not all crop circles are created equal, but there’s still a lot of theories, and dismissal of the phenomenon in the greater society at large.
We have tried to address some of the more common questions we receive during conferences or from the general public at large.
1. What are crop circles?
A crop circle is any kind of flattened pattern in a field. The field can contain any type of plants: wheat, grass, rapeseed, rice, etc. The pattern can also be anything: a circle, a ring, a combination of shapes, a complex concoction, and even sometimes sloppy scrawls. Sometimes the geometry is perfect and breathtaking, sometimes it’s a mess.In a crop circle the crops lay flat on the ground. It appears like a stamp from above was pressed into its surface. The plants are not dead and they will just grow back and bend towards the sun again over time.
2. Are crop circles a new phenomenon?Crop Circle History
No. Crop circles have been around for centuries. They have been seen since at least the Middle Ages, when the bishop of Lyon in the year 800 A.D was summoned by the King of France to help identify the foreign patterns that appeared in the cornfields around Lyon. At the time, this was feared to be “the work of the devil.”
Terry Wilson discovered during his research for his book on crop circles there was an old paper on a ring in grass at Assen, formed in August of the year 1590 A.D. The article describes the formation of this ring according to eyewitnesses, claimed to be caused by dancing mythical, human-like creatures.The ring was actually plowed into the field rather than flattened crops: “The circle Remained from that day after … until the next winter, when the plowing of the field removed it” (From Robert Plot’s National History of Staffordshire, 1686).
In 1678 yet another circle appeared in Hartford Wiltshire (England), with an article in a local newsprint following. It was written that “the grain was deposited in a way no man could have accomplished.” Again, this was feared to be the work of the devil, which was highlighted in an illustration of the Devil in a news story entitled “Mowing Devil” (seen to the right).
In 1686 another several instances, which appeared in Robert Plot’s National History of Staffordshire, were identified, ranging from circles and half circles to squares, hexagons, squares surrounded by circles and circles with rings around the center formations. This was also quite a complicated formation apparently.
Crop circles are nothing new historically. They may have even appeared in prehistoric times, but we lack record keeping about their formation. This is considered as a possible reason why our ancestors built their sanctuaries in circles (stone circles, etc.) It is true that since the late 1970s, have taken off in frequency. The phenomenon has now “exploded”, both in quantity and in quality.
3. Are Crop Circles Only Found In Grains?Flower Crop Circle
No, crop circles can appear in all kinds of crops: wheat, canola, mustard plants, flowers and grass, even rice, carrots, corn. There’s even been examples of them in snow and in forests where whole trees are laid flat. Trees being laid flat is a relatively common occurrence, considering the challenges of doing so.
The name ‘Crop Circle’ is somewhat misleading, actually it is better to say ‘Crop Formation’. However, the more popular and well-known term is simply “Crop Circles”.
4. Where do Crop Circles Appear?
Crop Circle MapCrop circles are common all over the world. In the Netherlands, Belgium, England, Germany, Italy, Poland, Denmark, Finland, Russia, Israel, Australia, America, India, Japan, Canada just to name a few. Nearly every agrarian area of the world has had crop circles at one time or another. England, however, is “the birthplace” of Crop Circles. The place where most are seen and the ones with the most complex figures each year.
Why certain places attract crop circles over and over again, we do not know for certain. One theory suggests it my be due to the presence of energy lines in and around the Earth (ley). Our ancestors were well aware of these energy channels and built their sanctuaries close to them frequently (dolmens, stone circles, pyramids, etc.). Maybe that’s why crop circles so often appear in South and Central England, where many strong ley lines frequently intersect (an exceptionally powerful example being Stonehenge in Wiltshire, the a high energy crop circle area as well). Also the East Field at Alton Barnes Wiltshire is a place of significant power, where every year at least one (and often even two or three) crop circles appear.
Yet it is remarkable that in some places certain years get significantly more crop circle formations and then suddenly fall sharply in subsequent years. This can happen even on a national level. The Netherlands had in 1996 a record number of 99 formations, but one year later, in 1997, the number dropped to only 41. Why exactly this occurs remains a mystery.
Besides ley lines in the soil, water levels appear to play a role. The chalk base found in the ground of Wiltshire, for example, is very water permeable so that it can easily create an electrical charge. Which when it is generating, is especially conducive to the needed energy for a formation to appear. (We discuss this further in the section “How are crop circles formed?”)
Ghost Formation5. For How Long Does a Typical Crop Circle Exist?
They will usually survive until the end of the crop season, when the farmer harvests the field. Remnants of a crop circle can be found even in a harvested field. It’s true that the energy will still remain for years after the initial formation. The contours of the formation could still be traced well after the fact, for example, with the aid of dowsing rods.
In some cases, the contours are visible in the new crops planted in the subsequent season. We call these ‘Ghosts’. (We will explain this phenomenon further under the Anomalies section in the drop down).
6. When do crop circles occur?
When there are crops in the fields which are long enough to be laid flat this is the season for crop circles. This time period is typically from March to September each year, though it can be in different months. This is usually when crops such as corn or wheat are growing in fields, but crop circles also appear periodically in grass. There has also been examples of crop circles found in snow.
Juliaset Formation
The time of the day crop circles are formed is also fairly consistent. Most are formed in the time span of a single evening, even those of a tremendous complexity in structure. On July 7th 1996, the formation shown to the left appeared in broad daylight, near Stonehenge. It was dubbed ‘Juliaset’ at the time.
Several eyewitnesses confirmed that they were sure it had developed the complex formation within the span of an afternoon. These eyewitnesses were pilots which had flown over Stonehenge that afternoon several times and noted at 6:30 pm there was no formation. However, when flying over only half an hour later, the complex formation appeared near Stonehedge. A traffic notice was issued with roughly 6 to 10 different reports of dangerous road behavior around the site, primarily from the A303 area. Motorists could see the crop circle that afternoon after it was formed and were causing a traffic jam due to pictures being taken.
From these reports it can be certainly claimed that the large Juliaset formation, which contained 149 different circles appeared between 5:30pm and 5:50 pm that day. This was only a span of roughly 20 minutes!. So in broad daylight this formation appeared, in less than a half an hour. Enquiries showed that no one had seen anything, including the actual forming of the circle. These included the numerous tourists who visited Stonehenge and the guards who worked there.
There are more cases of crop circles formed during the day, but thanks the case of the Juliaset being confirmed by multiple independent witnesses, this is was a unique example.
7. Crop Circles Are Man-Made?
Most do not qualify as man-made. After the scientific study conducted by Dr. William Levengood of over 300 formations, he identified only around 6% which were labelled as “suspicious”. These did not show the same biophysical changes in the crops that were found among those of “genuine” origin. These formations encompassing the 6% were likely made by humans, known as “hoaxes”.
Crop Changes
Changes in crops
There has been other research such as from the Dutch physicist Dr. Eltjo Haselhoff, which showed that some crop circles could also have been caused by human interference. These vary by the actual changes in the crop circle, and as a result it’s necessary for scientists to check on the formation after it’s discovered.
It’s interesting to note that, although there is much evidence to the contrary, there are still many people who claim humans are responsible for all crop circles. They claim they’re responsible not only for the smaller, simple formations, but the huge complex ones that appear suddenly as well. This is a strange situation, as the science speaks from all angles on this topic. Over the years, Janet O. has talked to many people, sometimes informally as well, and there were some clear stand outs among those conversations.
Doug Bower (left) looks at the result of his work: flat mashed corn commissioned by the BBC (1998)
Firstly, Janet met with a man who made the claim he formed crop circles on a large scale: Doug Bower (found in the image on the right). In 1991, he and Dave Chorley claimed they had made hundreds of crop circles on a British television program. They claimed to have only one objective: fooling people. They used a plank and ropes to flatten grain. The result was a sloppy circle, which didn’t appear anything like the beautiful formations that had captured the media for decades prior. the journalists during the interview unfortunately did not confront them about this fact, but instead assumed what they said was the truth.
If you asked them how this was possible, with scientific evidence, they never came up with an answer. It was so strange these men would claim they spent night after night out in fields, but their wives reported nothing of the sort. While one would claim responsibility for a formation, the other would deny it. As the story of Doug and Dave was cited and explored by journalists all over, it just became more credible in the eyes of skeptics, and still to this day shapes the dialogue about crop circles.
After Doug and Dave’s team appeared, three other men from London also came out and claimed to be artists of these fields as well. Janet dubbed them “Team Satan” due to what she viewed as the unsubstantiated lies they continually marketed to the public. They called themselves the “Circle Makers”, a term that genuine crop circle enthusiasts have since co-opted from these frauds.
Janet interviewing Team Satan (right), while researchers listen and film (1998)
Janet interviewed “Team Satan” as part of the video documentary she created called Crop Circles, The Research, in which their leader John Lundberg claimed they would not reveal the precise formations they claimed to have created. They said this would “harm the magic of the phenomenon”. They claimed to work out their planned formations on paper prior to going to the field, but they would only do them at night. This was truly a remarkable story, because it means they were also there and interacting with the real Circle Makers. Asking what formations these were resulted in no disclosures. Janet actually attempted to coax the information from them, offering to keep it a secret to help preserve the “magic”. They were quiet, and simply smiled at the request.
Due to the popularity of the shows, and documentaries on crop circles, Team Satan was hired to do a car in a field out of grain for a Mitsubishi commercial. The three went to work on the field, in broad day light no less. This led to a very educational experience for researchers of real crop circle phenomenon. They first put sticks into the ground to mark certain areas of the formation. This is not found in genuine formations, and was also very noisy experience to witness even from a distance. Both of these were much different than typical crop circles of authentic origin, where people cite no noise at all. and sudden appearance. Teamwork was also a major problem, and proved to be a source of much disagreement. Even under ideal circumstances, it took the three over 14 hours to complete the formation, and was not of particular high quality (see the image to the right). This is far too long, and far far longer than much more complex formations appearing. Many have been independently verified to appear in a matter of one hour, or less.
Mitsubishi Crop CircleAfter watching this spectacle it was clear, these men were not responsible for these complex and unique formations, many of which far larger than this car, and far more symmetric and beautiful.
One other thing that was noticed when observing their work, these men were professionals in their organization. Their communication was top notch and very articulate in their instructions. Artists are rarely of this nature in teams, most are very focused on their individual creations and lack the experience to work in groups. Team Satan is just slick on all fronts. It definitely seems like these men were well trained, possibly by governments, to spread disinformation.
This sort of disinformation has worked very effectively with regards to crop circles. Just like with the claims made by Doug and Dave, many people still have their opinion shaped by this original documentary, and its dubious conclusions. Public opinion is quickly formed, and when people hear “crop circle researcher” they associate these formations with two men from England, or two young dutch boys who both were clearly faking their experiences. Is there anything more threatening than the idea they are not made by us?
Comments are closed
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Shifting Tides 1863: Traditional Elementary Civil War Lesson Plan
This is a photograph of Abraham Lincoln.
Grades: Elementary
Approximate Length of Time: 50 minutes
2. Students will summarize the meaning of the Gettysburg Address.
Common Core Standards:
NCSS Standards for Social Studies:
2—Time, Continuity, and Change
3—People, Places, and Environment
5—Individuals, Groups, and Institutions
6—Power, Authority, and Governance
10—Civics, Ideals, and Practices
1. Shifting Tides PowerPoint
2. Shifting Tides Timeline and Map
3. Shifting Tides Timeline Answer Key
4. Two Highlighters of Different Colors
5. Gettysburg Address
6. The Gettysburg Address in Your Own Words
Activity 1
1. Use the Shifting Tides PowerPoint to guide the lesson.
Activity 2
1. Give each student a copy of The Gettysburg Address in Your Own Words. Review the discussion questions on the worksheet. Students should use the questions to help them work out the meaning of the address.
1. Allow students to share their completed The Gettysburg Address in Your Own Words.
2. Discuss why the Gettysburg Address is still significant today (Maybe how the Union remained to today, maybe how we see sacrifice for the democratic ideals of the Constitution to this day. Maybe how we still struggle as a society with issues in a government run ‘by the people.’)
Assessment in This Lesson:
1. Completed Shifting Tides Timeline and Map
2. Informal assessment through discussion
3. Completed The Gettysburg Address in Your Own Words
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.11473101377487183,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8865959644317627,
"url": "https://www.battlefields.org/learn/educators/curriculum/elementary-school/shifting-tides-1863-traditional-elementary-civil-war"
}
|
'The Slav Epic' cycle No.13: The Hussite King Jiří of Podĕbrady. Treaties Are To be Respected (1462). (1923)
In 1458 Bohemia elected its first native Czech king in around 150 years, Jiří z Podĕbrad, who became an extremely popular ruler. In 1462, King Jiří sent a delegation to Rome to confirm his election and the religious privileges that had been granted to the Utraquist Church in the Basel Compacts. Not only did Pope Pius II refuse to recognise the treaty; he sent one of his cardinals back to Prague to order Jiří z Podĕbrad to ban the Utraquist Church and return the kingdom of Bohemia to the rule of Rome.
In this painting, Mucha depicts Cardinal Fantin’s visit to Prague and his ensuing confrontation with King Jiři. Cardinal Fantin stands arrogantly in red robes as the king kicks over his throne in anger and defiance. His refusal to acknowledge the papal authority is met by awe and astonishment among the members of his court. A young boy in the foreground closes a book entitled Roma, indicating that the period of cooperation with Rome has come to an end.
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<urn:uuid:d033987a-1d6e-42cb-b75d-740fd49d61d2>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.06207621097564697,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9672837853431702,
"url": "http://www.muchafoundation.org/en/gallery/browse-works/object_type/paintings/object/224/"
}
|
3. C Debugging Tools
In this section, we introduce two debugging tools: the GNU debugger (GDB), which is useful for examining a program’s runtime state, and Valgrind (pronounced "Val-grinned"), a popular code profiling suite. Specifically, we introduce Valgrind’s Memcheck tool, which analyzes a program’s memory accesses to detect invalid memory usage, uninitialized memory usage, and memory leaks.
The GDB section includes two sample GDB sessions that illustrate commonly used GDB commands for finding bugs in programs. We also discuss some advanced GDB features, including attaching GDB to a running process, GDB and Makefiles, signal control in GDB, debugging at the assembly code level, and debugging multithreaded Pthreads programs.
The Valgrind section discusses memory access errors and why they can be so difficult to detect. It also includes an example run of Memcheck on a program with some bad memory access errors. The Valgrind suite includes other program profiling and debugging tools, which we cover in later chapters. For example, we cover the cache profiling tool Cachegrind in Chapter 11, and the function call profiling tool Callgrind in Chapter 12.
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<urn:uuid:0cbcf628-b3df-42cf-b8ed-10de957ceb7b>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.5947321057319641,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.872310996055603,
"url": "https://diveintosystems.org/book/C3-C_debug/index.html"
}
|
Many historic and cultural sites exist within the park, as well as several significant archeological sites. However, the central cultural features of Kaloko-Honok?hau are relics of Hawaiian fishpond architecture including Kaloko Fishpond, Aimakap? Fishpond, Ai?pio Fish trap, and Ai?pio Fish trap Wall. These rock wall fishponds, known as “loko kuap?” in Hawaiian, demonstrate how native Hawaiians managed and harvested marine life from the ocean for hundreds of years ( 2011). Nowhere else throughout Polynesia were fishponds so numerous and highly developed as in Hawaii (NPS, Spirit of Kaloko). Built of tightly interlocking volcanic rocks across a natural embayment on the Kona coast, the kuap? are marvels of engineering. They are porous, allowing water to flow in through the wall and circulate around the pond while retaining the fish that passed into the pond with the wave. The angle of the kuap? deflects waves, absorbing the battering energy and shock of the impact (NPS, Spirit of Kaloko).
The kuap? stood intact for 300 years as testament to the ingenuity and skill of the Hawaiian people. The Aimakap? Fishpond was used to raise fish for the ali’i (chiefs) and is thought to be over 600 years old. However, years of exposure to wave action and erosion have slowly caused the kuap? to collapse (NPS, The Spirit of Kaloko).
Park managers are working to rebuild the fishponds at Kaloko-Honok?hau, but sea level rise and increasing storm intensities associated with climate change pose new and significant challenges to their continued preservation (Vitousek et al. 2009).
Aimakapa Fishpond
Aimakapa Fishpond, NPS photo
Coastal overtopping of the park’s kuap? will increase significantly under projected sea-level rise (Vitousek et al. 2009). At present, the Aimakap? Fishpond is the most vulnerable to coastal erosion and sea level rise (Thornberry-Erhlich 2011). The number of large swell events which fully overtop the Kaloko Seawall are expected to increase by a factor of 3-4 by 2050, and by a factor of 10 or more by the end of the century due to stronger ENSO cycles caused by warmer sea surface temperatures (Vitousek et al. 2009; IPCC 2007). This overtopping will continue to significantly undermine the structural integrity of the kuap?.
Because sea-level rise is a subtle process, flooding will increase gradually at Kaloko-Honok?hau. Nevertheless projected rates of sea-level rise will constantly submerge many of Kaloko-Honok?hau’s kuap? by 2100 (Vitousek et al. 2009). If the kuap? of Kaloko-Honok?hau are not actively maintained into the future, they will likely collapse into the ocean as sea level rises (Vitousek et al. 2009) drowning with them the memory and legacy of traditional Hawaiian culture.
Sources Cited:
National Center for Preservation Technology and Training
645 University Parkway
Natchitoches, LA 71457
Email: ncptt[at]
Phone: (318) 356-7444
Fax: (318) 356-9119
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<urn:uuid:30c65859-4b85-4808-b889-6cb773e93ea2>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.03125,
"fasttext_score": 0.17131149768829346,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.866165280342102,
"url": "https://ncptt.nps.gov/blog/climate-change-case-study-kaloko-honokohau-national-historical-park/"
}
|
What Is the Coldest Layer of the Earth’s Atmosphere?
Dimitri Otis/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
Temperatures can reach lows of -90 degrees Celsius in the mesosphere, making it the coldest layer of the earth’s atmosphere. The mesosphere extends above the stratosphere and ranges from 50 km to 87 km above the surface.
The troposphere is the part of the atmosphere that reaches Earth’s surface that allows life to flourish. It only extends 11 km up, where it meets the stratosphere. Temperatures are warmer in the stratosphere, because of higher amounts of ozone. However, the area that extends above 50 km, the mesosphere, has decreasing temperatures. This layer has less solar heating and higher levels of CO2, which increases the rate of cooling. This area of the atmosphere is the coldest place on Earth.
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<urn:uuid:557064e8-9fcf-4a2d-8373-a6eb25280523>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.796185314655304,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8617761135101318,
"url": "https://www.reference.com/science/coldest-layer-earth-s-atmosphere-6fb529ae484ff2b6"
}
|
Python Generators
Relationship Between Iterators and Generators
What’s an iterator, you may ask?
An iterator is an object that can be iterated (looped) upon. An iterator is also an object that implements the iterator protocol.
It is used to abstract a container of data to make it behave like an iterable object. You probably already use a few iterable objects every day: strings, lists, and dictionaries to name a few.
An iterator is defined by a class that implements the Iterator Protocol. This protocol looks for two methods within the class: __iter__ and __next__.
Why Iterators?
• Iterators don’t compute the value of each item when instantiated. They only compute it when you ask for it. This is known as lazy evaluation.
• Iterators can only be iterated over once.
Iterator Protocol
An iterator protocol is nothing but a specific class in Python which further has the __next()__ method. Which means every time you ask for the next value, an iterator knows how to compute it. It keeps information about the current state of the iterable it is working on. The iterator calls the next value when you call next() on it. An object that uses the __next__() method is ultimately an iterator.
The built-in function iter takes an iterable object and returns an iterator.
>>> x = iter([1, 2, 3])
>>> x
<listiterator object at 0x1004ca850>
An iterable is any object, not necessarily a data structure that can return an iterator. Its main purpose is to return all of its elements. Iterables can represent finite as well as infinite source of data. An iterable will directly or indirectly define two methods: the __iter__() method, which must return the iterator object and the __next()__ method with the help of the iterator it calls.
Itertools Module
Itertools is an built-in Python module that contains functions to create iterators for efficient looping.
Recall that generator functions allow us to create iterators in a more simple fashion. Generators introduce the yield statement to Python. It works a bit like return because it returns a value.
The difference is that it saves the state of the function. The next time the function is called, execution continues from where it left off, with the same variable values it had before yielding.
Why Generators?
• Memory Efficient
• Easy to Implement
• Represent Infinite Stream
• Pipelining Generators
Generator Expressions
This is the list comprehension equivalent of generators. It works exactly in the same way as a list comprehension, but the expression is surrounded with () as opposed to [].
• Generators allow you to create iterators in a very pythonic manner.
• Iterators allow lazy evaluation, only generating the next element of an iterable object when requested. This is useful for very large data sets.
• Iterators and generators can only be iterated over once.
• Generator Functions are better than Iterators.
• Generator Expressions are better than Iterators (for simple cases only).
Reference: Programiz and Meduim
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<urn:uuid:4a763e03-d603-480d-8dd8-5a497f7829ce>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.21875,
"fasttext_score": 0.23709410429000854,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8617895245552063,
"url": "http://www.cloverio.com/python-generators/"
}
|
The Urdubegis were female warriors tasked with protecting the Mughal emperor and his harem. Representational image. Source: Public domain
Urdubegis: The Forgotten Female Fighters of the Mughal Empire
When we think of the empowerment of women, we usually think about Western culture. Nevertheless, the East has had its fair share of female role models. While Islam has historically given men the role of providing security, women were not restricted from doing the same. During the Mughal Empire, a special class of female soldiers known as the Urdubegis appeared on the scene with the sole purpose of protecting the Mughal emperor and his harem.
In point of fact, over time many Muslim women were famed for their fighting skills, including Nusaybah Bint Ka’ab, the first female warrior of Islam. The Mughal Empire sprang up in India in 1526, when Babur, the first Mughal emperor defeated Ibrahim Lodi. Accompanying Babur was his harem, and to ensure their protection he created the Urdubegis made up of women who belonged to Kashmiri, Turk, Habshi and Tartar tribes.
A strong threat to the king’s enemies, the Urdubegis were feared by both men and princes alike. Trained female warriors, the Urdubegis have been remembered for their incredible loyalty to the king. Time has been harsh to their legacy and nowadays they are no more than footnotes in the annals of Mughal history. In this article, we will try to do their story some justice.
Emperor celebrating with ladies in the harem ( Public domain ).
The Varied Role of Women in the Mughal Harem
Thoughts of a pleasure garden tend to come to mind when thinking of a harem, but that is far from the truth. Most of the women that lived there were female employees and relatives of the emperor. Only five percent of the women served for the sexual pleasure of the emperor; they were his queens and concubines. The residents of the harem practiced the parda, in front of all men, except the emperor. The literal meaning of the word parda is a veil, in the Mughal period women would cover themselves from head to toe to cover their face and skin, as well as concealing their form from men.
In an article published in South Asian Studies, Gull-i-Hina describes how the Mughal women were expected to behave. “The public lives of women of nobility were governed by the laws of seclusion. The practice of parda, or the sequestering of women behind the veil or wall, had already been known in ancient and medieval India and had been used throughout history by many of the upper classes. By the time of the Mughals, seclusion was an accepted way of life for aristocratic families.”
A vast majority of women inhabited the harem, also known as the zanana or zenana. They each had a specific role to play, and the Urdubegis were responsible for security. “The palaces in which the zanana women lived were self-sufficient cities with a full range of castes, occupations, and administrators, and were as cosmopolitan a mix of religions, nationalities, and artistic talents as to be found in any metropolis of the time,” explains Ellison Banks when discussing the harem in her book Nur Jahan: Empress of Mughal India .
Due to the number of inhabitants, there was a need for female employees that would help maintain the smooth functioning of the harem. Thus, apart from eunuchs, there were lady officials like the Angas (foster-mother), the Daroghas (matrons), Mahaldars (superintendents), and Urdubegis (armed women guards). These women were married and served in the harem during their hours of duty, otherwise, they lived in their own homes away from the harem.
Three things helped sustain the Mughal emperor’s power: his army, his treasury, and his women. The first two were not directly linked to the king, but the Harem, on the other hand, was closest in proximity to him. The king spent a lot of time there, thus there was a need for trustworthy and capable guards. Since only eunuchs and women were allowed in the harem, a few among them were selected and trained as proper warriors, capable of guarding the women without the need for male guards.
Women in the harem practiced parda, or the veil, in front of all men except the emperor. (Public domain)
The Urdubegis –Female Warriors of the Mughal Harem
The Urdubegis were trained female warriors, who served as guards in the proximity of the harem. For them to become guards, they had to belong to tribes that did not practice parda. A guard would have had to be visible to men on certain occasions, including times when they were traveling. Therefore, to ensure the protection of their charges, the Urdubegis had to be willing to sacrifice the veil so that they could guard the hidden queens and princesses. These women usually came from Habshi, Tartar, Turk, and Kashmiri tribes.
The Urdubegis have been mentioned during the times of Emperor Babur and Humayun. Therefore, it can be said that they came into being with the coming of the Mughals as there is no mention of Urdubegis before that. There may have been female guards with different names, but no mention of the Urdubegis specifically has been discovered to date.
The guards were trained in the use of bows and arrows, and spears. Along with long-range weapons, they were taught to use short daggers and swords. Taught the art of fighting, these women had to be trustworthy because they would not only be guarding the queen and the rest of the harem but the king as well. The Mughal emperor spent the most time in the harem, which is why why the guards had to be trusted not to betray the emperor in the one place where he would be the most vulnerable.
“The Urdubegis of the Mughal court was so skillful in warfare, that during the war of succession, Aurangzeb rejected to visit Shah Jahan because he feared the female armed guard would murder him,” wrote Kishori Saran Lal in his book The Mughal Harem when discussion the ferocity and strength of the Urdubegis
New entrant to a princes’ harem. (Public domain)
New entrant to a princes’ harem. ( Public domain )
Evolution of the Urdubegis Role
The women would accompany the emperor everywhere he went. In 1527, Babur conquered India and set about laying the foundations of the Mughal Empire, however, both Babur and Humayun ruled from their encampments. The first two Mughal kings were unable to lay down a solid foundation, which meant they kept wandering. As they traveled, their wives and other female companions accompanied them, and to keep them protected but hidden, female guards were assigned to the mobile harem.
These female guards were vital especially when the haram accompanied the emperor on his travels or battle excursions. Their presence outside the women’s tents ensured exclusivity and regulation. The guards, both male and female, were swapped every twenty-four hours to guarantee that they were alert and to prevent internal conspiracies from forming.
Akbar came to power in 1556, the third emperor of the Mughal Empire. At the time of his ascension, the empire did not have a solid foundation. However, in his 49-year reign, the Mughal Empire had gained permanence. Grand palaces were constructed, and, usually, the harem would be located close to the emperor’s lodgings. However, the male guards that protected the emperor could not venture into the harem, so the female guards, the Urdubegis, gained a more significant role.
Not all Urdubegis were originally warriors. Some moved up in the ranks over time. For example, the only known Urdubegis once served as the nurse for Emperor Humayun, the father of Akbar and the second Mughal emperor. When Humayun died in 1556, his nurse was promoted to the chief of the Urdubegis during his son’s reign.
Only one of the Urdubegis has been remembered by name. Representational image. (Cleveland Museum of Art / CC0)
Bibi Fatima - The Only Known Urdubegis
Unfortunately, there is very little information regarding the numerous women who protected the harem. Only one name appears in written records, that of Bibi Fatima, chief of the Urdubegis. Servingduring the life of Emperor Humayun, her name is mentioned in the Humayun-Nama, written by Gulbadan Begum, his half-sister. Perhaps Bibi Fatima was mentioned because a woman wrote the biography and found the contributions of the female guard worthy of remembrance.
Originally Bibi Fatima had served Emperor Humayun as his wet nurse or Anka. She took care of Humayun when he fell gravely ill, nursing him back to health, and continued to care for him until his death in 1556. She continued to serve under Emperor Akbar , who rewarded her for her loyalty and dedication to his father, promoting her to the chief of the Urdubegis. Although she was probably not as trained as a warrior, like the women under her, Bibi Fatima earned her place, proving to the emperor that she would be loyal to the king, no matter the circumstances.
The Humayun-Nama claims that she had a daughter called Zuhra. In appreciation for her work, Zuhra was later married off to Hamida’s (Humayun’s wife) brother, who would go on to murder her, despite her mother’s best efforts to rescue her daughter. The sad incident is mentioned in the Humayun Nama:
“In 1564, Bibi Fatima lamented to Akbar that Khwaja Mu’azzam had threatened to kill his wife Zuhra, who was her daughter. The emperor consequently sent the Khwaja word that he was coming to his house and followed the message closely. As he entered, the Khwaja stabbed Zuhra and then flung his knife, like a challenge, amongst the loyal followers.”
It seems that Bibi Fatima continued to serve her king, because there is no mention that she left her post after the incident. However, one can imagine the heartache a mother who lost her child must have gone through. She deserves respect for all her service, regardless of the circumstances. Luckily, we know the name of at least one Urdubegis.
Nur Jahan entertaining the Mughal emperor. (Public domain)
Nur Jahan entertaining the Mughal emperor. ( Public domain )
Why Have the Urdubegis Been Forgotten?
With the coming of the British in the 18th century, the Mughal Empire fell into decline. However, it wasn’t until 1858 that the last king was removed from his throne and replaced by British rule. When Bahadar Shah Zafar lost his crown, the Mughal harem ceased to be, thus there was no longer a need for the Urdubegis. Their main task of protecting the king and the harem had ended.
Political decay lowered the status of women and female guards became extinct. In this new context, women were seen as weak and therefore rules were applied that subjected women to incarceration within their own homes. However, the strength and dedication of the Urdubegis ensured that they have been remembered to some extent.
We know more about the Urdubegis as a whole, rather than individually, which is a shame because the stories of these female warriors must have been fascinating. They were privy to the emperor’s most inner moments, and had they had recorded their stories, we would know a lot more about the life of the Mughal kings. Despite the scarce information, they have left an imprint upon history, albeit minute.
Top image: The Urdubegis were female warriors tasked with protecting the Mughal emperor and his harem. Representational image. Source: Public domain
By Khadija Tauseef
Hina, G.-I. 2020. “Modernist Trends and varied responses: Reflections on Muslim Women in Urdu Prose by Male authors of South Asia (1900-1936)” in South Asian Studies 27 , no. 2.
Iftikhar, R. 2020. "Labor Class of Women in Mughal India" in South Asian Studies 27 , no. 1.
Khan, Z. and Bhatti, Z. I. 2020. "Re-Figuring Traditional Archetypes of Medieval Muslim Women’s Positivon in History” in Harf-o-Sukhan 4, no. 4: pp. 52-63.
Lal, Kishori Saran. The Mughal Harem . Aditya Prakashan, 1988.
Martinez, J. July 2020. “Managing Mobility: New Materialist Approaches to Mughal Mobility in the Encampment and Constructed City” in Asian Studies Review , Volume 4, 2019-20.
Mufti, M. S. and Khan, Z. 2020. “The Study of Islamic Feminism; Mapping in Laila Aboulela’s The Translator” in University of Chitral Journal of Linguistics & Literature 3 , no. II: pp. 85-101.
(Extract from the Humayun-nama, pages 65-66, translation published in 1902.)
Invisihole's picture
Jesus, Little Peter. Go home. Women have more roles than just breeders and cooks. Seriously, what is wrong with you? Guess I get to add chauvinist to your list.
Female warriors are growing in numbers as archeological evidence shows. There have been some graves that are having to be looked at again bc what was previously been marked as male, are showing evidence of being female. I might be wrong here, and I'll admit defeat if the evidence is clear, but women warriors seem to be prevalent more in pre christian societies. I think it makes sense that in societies that regarded the genders as equal, both were able to fight and protect. Being a woman doesn't make you weak and being a man doesn't make you superior.
Pete Wagner's picture
But is it really ‘empowerment’ of women, or the corruption of them?
Nobody gets paid to tell the truth.
Next article
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<urn:uuid:ce2760a8-a496-4caa-b195-0c55ce6c8e81>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.09762120246887207,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9802711009979248,
"url": "https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/urdubegis-0016920"
}
|
Mold Library » Fusarium
What is Fusarium?
Fusarium is a large economically important genus of fungi. It includes numerous species dispersed worldwide. While most of the Fusarium species are harmless saprobes that colonize the soil, some are plant pathogens that can cause significant reductions to crop yields. In addition, several species can cause several human infections.
What are Fusarium species?
There is still no definitive answer as to how many species are included in the Fusarium genus. The taxonomy of the Fusarium genus has changed many times throughout history. The genus was originally described in 1809, with over 1000 species attributed to it over the next 100 years. However, during the 20th century, many researchers sought to organize the genus into sections, subgenera, species, and varieties. According to various taxonomic systems, the genus had anywhere from nine to ninety species. Today, over seventy species are recognized, while some molecular data suggests the true number of Fusarium species to be over 300 [1].
One of the most prevalent species in North America is Fusarium graminearum, which impacts wheat, barley, and maize. It causes a variety of diseases, most notably Fusarium head blight, which has been known to cause billions of dollars of agricultural losses [2]. Fusarium has also industrial applications. F. venenatum, is used in the production of Quorn, a vegan meat substitute.
What does Fusarium look like?
Fusarium spp. forms flat to wooly or cottony colonies, with the color ranging from white, tan, and salmon to cinnamon, yellow, red-violet, pink, or purple (Fig. 1). The most characteristic trait of the Fusarium genus is the formation of macroconidia (Fig. 2). These spores are septate, fusiform to crescent-shaped, and with a foot-shaped basal cell and a less beaked apical cell. Some Fusarium species also produce smaller one to two-celled microconidia, in various shapes.
fusarium sp cultures
Figure 1. Fusarium sp. cultures (Photo source: Tashkoskip, Wikimedia)
fusarium sp conidia
Figure 2. Fusarium sp. conidia (Photo source: Gabenitez, Wikimedia)
Where can Fusarium mold be found?
Fusarium spp. thrive in a damp environment, so this mold can develop in any space with increased humidity. Spaces such as bathrooms, kitchens, and basements have the perfect growing conditions. Fusarium molds reproduce by dispersing airborne spores. If these spores land on a cellulose-rich substrate in an environment with favorable temperature and humidity, they will germinate and eventually form mold colonies.
What is Fusarium disease?
Fusarium causes millions of dollars in damage to the United States and Canada annually. These fungi cause a wide range of plant diseases, including crown rot, head blight, and scab. Although best known for occurring on wheat and maize, Fusarium species can grow on all small grain crops, as well as other crops such as asparagus, figs, legumes, soybean, spice plants, and nuts. It can affect roots, fruits, seeds, or leaves. Fusarium mold can be isolated from practically any plant, often as symptomless endophytes.
A strain of F. oxysporum almost decimated the commercial banana industry, during the last century [3]. At the beginning of the 20th century, this fungal disease reached Central America, which held the majority of the global banana production. Known as the Panama Disease, it destroyed over 40.000 ha of banana plantations and the global banana production almost collapsed. At the time, the “Gros Michele” was the most popular variety of bananas, so a new, less susceptible variety had to be found – Cavendish banana. This variety makes up more than 90% of all bananas sold today, and because the bananas are reproduced vegetatively (by cloning) if another particularly aggressive strain of F. oxysporum emerges, it could seriously damage this industry.
How does Fusarium mold impact humans?
Although they are ubiquitous in our surroundings, Fusarium molds will rarely infect healthy individuals. However, sensitive individuals may develop serious health problems when exposed to this mold for prolonged periods.
Fusarium is a known allergen. Inhalation of its spores can cause sinusitis even in immunocompetent individuals [4]. Symptoms of Fusarium allergy are similar to those of other mold allergies.
Furthermore, a wide variety of diseases have been reported in connection to the Fusarium fungi. These include localized infections of the skin and nails (onychomycosis) and eye infections (keratomycosis), which commonly affect people wearing contact lenses. More seriously, Fusarium infection can result in sinusitis, pneumonia, thrombophlebitis, endophthalmitis, septic arthritis, and osteomyelitis [5].
Fusarium infection can be fatal to individuals with weak immune systems. These are mostly people suffering from illnesses such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, or people that have undergone organ transplantation. The lack of an immune response means the infection is easily disseminated. A study found a 90-day mortality rate of cancer patients diagnosed with fusariosis to be near 80% [6].
Another way Fusarium species can affect human health is through the mycotoxins that they produce. The most notable are trichothecenes and the fumonisins. Fumonisins cause fatal livestock diseases and are considered potentially carcinogenic for humans, while trichothecenes are potent inhibitors of protein synthesis [1].
How to know if you have Fusarium mold in your home?
In most cases, Fusarium presents as a black mold. However, there are various types of black mold many of them more dangerous than Fusarium. The only way to truly identify the mold in question is to call a professional mold remediation service.
Cleaning it off the walls is not going to be enough, because if only a few spores are left behind the problem will appear again. Often there are underlying issues that must be dealt with to make the area unsuitable for mold development. Any Fusarium growth on your property can easily be removed by a mold removal expert.
With over 15 years of experience, Mold Busters have a proven track record in the remediation business. Our technicians use the latest in mold remediation technology to inspect and remove mold and can advise you on the steps you need to take to never share your home with mold again. Contact us today to find out more.
MB Did you know?
Did you know?
Stachybotrys is the 2nd common toxic mold type found in homes we tested?! Find out more exciting mold stats and facts on our mold statistics page.
1. Munkvold GP (2017). Fusarium Species and Their Associated Mycotoxins. Methods Mol Biol. 1542:51-106.
2. McMullen M, Jones R, Gallenberg D (1997). Scab of Wheat and Barley: A Re-emerging Disease of Devastating Impact. Plant Dis. 81(12):1340-1348.
3. Ploetz RC (1990). Fusarium Wilt of Banana. APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota.
4. Wickern GM (1993). Fusarium allergic fungal sinusitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 92(4):624-5.
5. Nucci M, Anaissie E (2007). Fusarium infections in immunocompromised patients. Clin Microbiol Rev. 20(4):695–704.
6. Nucci M, Anaissie EJ, Queiroz-Telles F, Martins CA, Trabasso P, Solza C, Mangini C, Simões BP, Colombo AL, Vaz J, Levy CE, Costa S, Moreira VA, Oliveira JS, Paraguay N, Duboc G, Voltarelli JC, Maiolino A, Pasquini R, Souza CA (2003). Outcome predictors of 84 patients with hematologic malignancies and Fusarium infection. Cancer. 98(2):315-9.
Written by:
John Ward
Account Executive
Mold Busters
Edited by:
Dusan Sadikovic
Mycologist – MSc, PhD
Mold Busters
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Types of Rivets: A Guide to Rivet Types and Their Common Uses
Rivets are close “connecting bridges” in components and structures and are used in industry, people’s livelihood, and various important fields. Although rivets are small, they play a very important role in connection, so rivets are also called “heroes of manufacturing”. From aerospace to office machines, electronics, and sports field equipment, it can be said that rivet has now become an effective and stable mechanical connection method.
In this article, YIJIN Hardware engineers will guide you through the various types of rivets and their uses.
revits manufactured by YIJIN Hardware
What is Rivet?
A rivet is a metal rod-shaped part with a cap at one end. After penetrating the connected components, the other end is punched and pressed out from the outer end of the rod to compress and fix the components.
A rivet is a type of fastener consisting of a head and a shank. It is used to fasten and connect two parts (or components) through holes to make them a whole. This form of connection is called rivet connection, or riveting for short. It belongs to the non-detachable connection. If two parts that are joined together are to be separated, the rivets on the parts must be broken.
revits manufactured by YIJIN Hardware
The difference between rivets and screws: rivets deform by themselves, generally one end becomes larger, connecting two (or more than two) parts together. After riveting, if we want to split the part, we must break the rivet.
The screw is screwed into the body of the part through the thread to connect the parts. Therefore, if you want to disassemble the part, you only need to unscrew the screw. The screw is not damaged and can be used repeatedly.
In general: the screws are easy to adjust during use, and the rivets are not easy to adjust. Screws are movable fasteners and rivets are fixed fasteners.
Rivet: In riveting, the parts that are riveted are connected by their own deformation or interference. There are many types of rivets, and they are informal.
History: The earliest rivets were small pegs made of wood or bone, and the earliest metal deformations were probably the ancestors of the rivets we know today. There is no doubt that riveting is the oldest known method of joining metals, going back as far as the earliest use of malleable metals, eg: Bronze Age Egyptians riveted the six wooden sectors of the outer lines of a slotted wheel with rivets Fastened together after the Greeks had successfully cast the large statue in bronze, the parts were riveted together with rivets.
In 1916, when H. V. White of the British Aircraft Manufacturing Company first obtained a patent for a blind rivet that can be riveted on one side, people hardly expected that this kind of rivet would be so widely used today.
How Do Rivets Work?
A rivet connection is a non-removable static connection that uses rivets to connect two or more elements (usually plates or profiles) together, referred to as riveting. There are two types of rivets: hollow and solid. The most commonly used riveting is the solid rivet joint. The solid rivet connection is mostly used for the connection of metal parts with a large force, and the hollow rivet connection is used for the connection of thin plates or non-metal parts with less force.
How Do Rivets Work?
There are two types of riveting: Cold riveting and hot riveting. The tightness of hot riveting is good, but there is a gap between the rivet rod and the nail hole, which cannot participate in the force transmission. When cold riveting, the nail rod is upsetting, the account is full of nail holes, and there is no gap between the nail rod and the nail hole.
Materials Used for Rivets
What are rivets made of? The material of rivets can be aluminum, iron, stainless steel, copper, and other materials, and different materials have different advantages and disadvantages.
aluminum revits manufactured by YIJIN Hardware
Aluminum rivets have low density and are lightweight, but long-term exposure to aluminum to humid air produces white aluminum oxide.
Copper rivets are soft and ductile, but not as strong as stainless steel and are easily oxidized.
Iron rivets have a high tensile force but are easy to rust.
Steel has low-carbon properties, and it can be used to engage parts well after being made into rivets. In addition, compared with high-carbon steel rivets, low-carbon steel rivets have higher flexibility and adaptability. Of course, the cost of high carbon steel rivets is also higher than that of low carbon steel rivets.
Stainless steel rivets are resistant to oxidation and can remain rust-free in wet and acid-base conditions, while ordinary steel plates are prone to rust.
Stainless steel rivets have good hardness and can improve the service life of parts. These deep-processed rivets are often used in important fields, such as automobiles, trains, electricity production, and other industries closely related to people’s livelihood.
Stainless steel rivets manufactured by YIJIN Hardware
Generally speaking, rivets made of stainless steel are more suitable. However, there are differences between semi-stainless steel rivets and all-stainless steel rivets. The stainless steel material of stainless steel rivets is generally 304 stainless steel, which is divided into closed rivets and open rivets. The combination of these two types of rivets is subdivided into nail rods and nail shells.
The semi-stainless steel rivet refers to the shell of the nail is 304 stainless steel, and the nail rod is iron; the full stainless steel rivet is the nail rod, and the nail and shell are made of 304 stainless steel.
More specifically, rivets are punched in a cold heading machine with materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, iron, brass, and red copper.
In order to prevent corrosion and oxidation, rivets are generally surface treated. The usual surface treatment methods are nickel plating, zinc plating, chrome plating, and painting.
Types of Rivets and Its Applications
Commonly used rivets are R-type rivets, fan rivets, blind rivets (blind rivets), tree rivets, dome head, flat head, semi-hollow rivets, solid rivets, countersunk rivets, blind rivets, and hollow rivets, these are usually Use their own deformation to connect the riveted parts. Generally less than 8 mm with cold riveting, larger than this size with hot riveting. Following we are going to introduce the rivet types and uses more specifically.
Types of Rivets and Its Applications
Fan Rivets: The fan rivet is specially designed for manual installation. It can be pulled in through the hole of the panel or the bottom frame. It is made of elastomer material and has good toughness. Fan rivets are mainly used for fixing electronic computer case fans, heat sinks, and chips, with anti-vibration and noise reduction.
Blind Rivets: What is a blind rivet? The Blind rivet is a new type of riveting fastener that is very convenient for riveting. The types of blind rivets can show their unique advantages in a relatively small space or in an environment where there is no rivet gun or a rivet gun cannot be used. Two or more connected parts can be riveted successfully by hitting the mandrel on one side with a hammer or other utensils. Blind rivets can be divided into flat head blind rivets and countersunk head blind rivets according to the shape of the spike cap brim.
Types of Rivets and Its Applications
Pulling Rivets: The types of pulling rivets can be roughly divided into open type, closed type, double drum type, and single drum type series. The following is a brief introduction to their respective models:
Countersunk Blind Rivets: The riveting of riveting parts with a smooth and beautiful appearance is required for the riveted surface.
Multigrip Type Blind Rivets: During riveting, the mandrel pulls the end of the rivet body into a double drum shape, clamps the two structural parts to be riveted, and can reduce the pressure acting on the surface of the structural parts. Mainly used for riveting various thin structural parts in vehicles, ships, construction, machinery, electronics, and other industries.
Blind Rivets manufactured by YIJIN Hardware
Brim Blind Rivets: Compared with ordinary blind rivets, the diameter of the aluminum cap of the rivet is significantly larger. When the rivet is riveted with the connector, it has a larger contact area and a stronger supporting surface, which can enhance the torque strength and can withstand higher Radial pull. It is suitable for fastening soft and fragile surface materials and extra-large holes. The increased diameter of the brim has special protection applications for soft materials.
Sealed Type Blind Rivets: Designed to wrap around the mandrel head after riveting, it is ideal for many applications where waterproofing is required. With high shear force, anti-vibration, and anti-high pressure.
All-Aluminum Blind Rivets: The nail body of the rivet is also made of high-quality aluminum wire, which is beautiful and durable after riveting and will never rust. Compared with ordinary blind rivets, the rivet has a lower riveting strength and is suitable for connecting parts with relatively soft materials.
Open Stainless Steel Rivets: This rivet is the best choice for high tensile force requirements and corrosion resistance.
Flathead, flat rounded head rivets: Mainly used for riveting of metal sheets or non-metallic materials such as leather, canvas, and wood.
copper revits manufactured by YIJIN Hardware
Semi-Tubular Rivets: Mainly used for riveting occasions with little load.
Hollow Rivets: Lightweight, weak nailhead, used for riveting of non-metallic materials with little load. Flathead rivets.
Drive-Pin Rivets have a short mandrel protruding from the head. Once the drive pin rivet is inserted into the hole, its mandrel can be manipulated with a hammer. Drive pin rivets are used more in construction because they are aesthetically pleasing and do not require drilling. It is important to note, however, that drive pin rivets have less clamping force than many other types of rivets.
Blind Rivets are a type of rivets for single-sided riveting, but they must be riveted with a special tool – a rivet gun (manual, electric, pneumatic).
The Drive Rivet is another type of single-sided riveting rivet, which is also called the type of pop rivet. When riveting, the rivet head is tapped with a hammer to expose the mandrel, so that it is flush with the end face of the nail head, that is, the riveting operation is completed.
Tubular Rivet Type
Tubular rivets are very common in commercial use and are also very popular with businesses. This type of rivet has strong toughness and is a typical low-strength metal. The current mainstream tubular rivet types include the following:
Tubular Rivet Type
Compression Tubular Rivets: Compression tubular rivets have two parts with an interference fit during tightening. In commercial use, especially when soft materials are fastened, it will protect the appearance of the material from being affected, showing good aesthetics.
Full Tubular Rivets: Compared with half tubular rivets, the biggest feature of full tubular rivets is that the holes must be drilled deeper to operate. They penetrate softer materials such as plastics and fabrics more easily.
Split Rivets: Split rivets are mainly used in the home improvement industry, so they are also called bifurcated rivets. They are the best choice for joining leather goods, plastics, and wood.
Application Scope of Rivets
Rivets on Aircraft: Aircraft as a common vehicle, its robustness is an important proof of safety. The materials used in aircraft are strong, durable, and resistant to corrosion, and good materials require good tools to hold them together. Rivets are a good tool. At present, riveting, welding, and bolts basically meet the requirements of aircraft parts assembly.
Jewelry Industry: Professional jewelers apply the riveting process as a cold chain technology to jewelry. Jewelers can bond jewelry to metal by riveting. Therefore, the application of riveting technology is extremely extensive in the jewelry industry.
Connecting Parts: The initial application of rivets is in the field of people’s livelihood, and there are many traces of riveting in traditional wooden furniture. Cabinets, dining cabinets, wooden shelves, storage cabinets, and solid wood chairs. This furniture is all riveted craftsmanship. Rivets are used as joints to join various wood materials.
types of rivets, Application Scope of Rivets
Precautions for Rivets
1. Check the rivet finished products need to check: The diameter of the rivet body, the length of the rivet body, the thickness of the rivet body cap, the diameter of the cap, the total length of the mandrel, the exposed side of the mandrel, the size of the nail cap, and the outer diameter after assembly can be considered. In the actual inspection, the weak links of the product can be measured, such as tensile force, shear resistance, and core pull-out resistance.
2. The key is to pay attention to the rivets, if the rivets are insufficient, whether they are riveted in place; or because the cap of the mandrel is too large, the mouth of the rivet body cannot be pulled down; and there are jump heads, that is, the mandrel is too low or broken. The size is too small etc.
3. Rivet Material: aluminum, iron, stainless steel, alloy, etc.
4. The total thickness of the workpiece is generally 45%–65% of the length of the rivet, preferably not higher than 60%. In addition, the length of the workpiece is too short. If the length of the rivet is too long, the head of the rivet will be too large, and the nail rod will be easily bent; if the length of the rivet is too short, the thickness of the pier will be insufficient, and the forming of the nail head will be incomplete, which will affect the strength and tightness. It is not good if the rivet length is too long or too short. Only the right length can achieve the best riveting effect.
In the end, what is Rivet used for and how to choose rivets of different materials should be selected according to different needs. Yijin Hardware Co, Ltd is a professional rivet manufacturer integrating design, production, and sales. Our products include all kinds of stainless steel rivets, riveting guns, and related fasteners, such as open-end rivets, closed rivets, drum rivets, drawing rivets, and light rivets, lantern rivets. Welcome new and old customers to visit our company for exchange and cooperation.
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The Inverness Cannery in 1947, three years before it closed.
Date: 1947
Source: Royal BC Museum / BC Archives, I-28902
Charlie Lane had hoped for gold. The San Franciscan ventured north to Canada in the late 1860s, following in the footsteps of thousands of prospectors who had come before him. For half a decade, he spent his time, energy and other peoples’ money trying to strike it rich. His modus operandi: go where gold had previously been found — and dig more.
But he was perhaps a few years too late. As his business partner would later write: “The expedition was a complete failure.”
It was on a return trip to San Francisco in 1875 when Lane made a stop at the Inverness Passage, at the mouth of the Skeena River, in northern British Columbia. The area had long been home to two Indigenous communities: the Gitxsan who lived upriver, and the Tsimshian near the ocean.
At the time, a new fish-canning industry was emerging. Initially, it was concentrated in the Lower Mainland, along the Fraser River. But at the mouth of the Skeena, the second-longest river in the province, the wayward miner witnessed salmon leaping from the surface of the water. He was inspired. The cash-strapped Lane now saw his fortune in the river’s plentiful supply of sockeye. After securing funding from San Francisco, he built the Inverness Cannery in 1876, the first salmon cannery on the Skeena.
The Inverness Cannery was essentially a Tsimshian cannery. Two years after its construction, only a small percentage of employees were non-Indigenous — either white or Chinese. The rest were Tsimshian. And for their work, the Tsimshian made a relatively solid living, though not equal between men and women. In a day, men would make a dollar; women, about 60 cents — or $34.19 and $20.52 in today’s dollars, respectively.
It set a precedent. What emerged in the province’s northern cannery culture was distinct from its southern equivalent, defined by its relationship with the Tsimshian. The Tsimshian, meaning “People of the Skeena,” were experts on the river. They have fished the Skeena for millennia. To take advantage of their knowledge, cannery owners not only paid them to fish but paid for their fishing license. In one case, a cannery even signed an agreement with a Tsimshian village that gave the villagers exclusive rights to fish in their waters. They would not have to compete with non-Indigenous fishermen.
What’s more, the canneries were entrenched in Tsimshian land. In a time before refrigerated boats, a distant cannery meant spoiled fish. Proximity was of utmost importance. “The northern canning industry was quite literally built upon the traditional fisheries of the Ts’mysen (or Tsimshian)," according to anthropologists Charles Menzies and Caroline F. Butler.
Over the years, the Inverness Passage, or Wilałoo, meaning “the Place of Landslides,” became home to more and more canneries, including Dominion, North Pacific, Sunnyside, and Cassiar. The area earned the moniker 'Cannery Row' on the Skeena Slough, reaching a total of 18 at its peak. But over the decades, the northern canning industry slowed before ceasing operations entirely in the mid-1980s. The Inverness Cannery itself closed in 1950, and the building was later destroyed by a fire in 1973.
1. Aboriginal Fisheries in British Columbia. First Nations and Indigenous Studies at University of British Columbia,
2. Featured Place at IKBLC: Skeena River. Irving K. Barber Learning Centre at the University of British Columbia,
3. Inverness Cannery Fonds. University of British Columbia Library Rare Books and Special Collections, 30 Nov. 2017,
4. Inverness Cannery. Historical Marker Database, 16 June 2016,
5. McCartney, Duane. Salmon Canning Once Big Business in B.C. Port. The Western Producer, 19 Mar. 2020,
6. Small Beginnings, Rapid Developments. North Pacific Cannery,
7. Wishart, Bruce. Building the First Cannery. Heritage Prince Rupert, 5 Dec. 2018,
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Saturday, February 07, 2015
Learning from Passenger Pigeons and Cod
Passengers Pigeons once flew in flocks across the North Americas that were so large and dense they would darken the skies for hours. At the turn of the 19th century, their population was estimated at 5 billion and they made up ¼ of all the birds in the North Americas.
But the land these flocks were flying over was changing rapidly and beyond all recognition. Slave colonies were being expanded which needed the cheapest protein sources possible, and nothing was cheaper than plucking tonnes of high quality protein out the sky. At the same time the industrialisation of the continent brought railways and logistics networks to allow this cheap protein to go straight to the market.
It probably remains one of the most perfect illustrations of the paradoxes that human development causes, as well as being one of the first. The result was that the number of passenger pigeons started declining, while the slave plantations and industrial networks that supported them grew. Within a short time the numbers of passengers pigeons had fallen to a critical level, at which point the birds that had evolved to live in large social communities were unable to survive. The population decline was transformed into a population nosedive. By the turn of the century the passenger pigeons were extinct. Slavery was abolished which begs a curious question; was the collapse of slavery driven partly by the economics becoming less favourable due to the loss of a cheap protein source? The only survivor was the industrialised system which then went on to exploit other natural sources.
A similar argument played out in the cod fisheries in Newfoundland which were once world's most productive fishing grounds. The first European explorers described the waters as being so full, one just had to lower a basket into the water and it would come up filled with cod. Up to the 1950s the bounty of the Grand Banks was enough to supply local small-scale fishing, as well as feed millions of harp seals.
But this happy picture was not to last. The Grand Banks fishery was destroyed by technological advances in fishing techniques in the 1950s and 60s. Small artisan fishing boats found themselves competing with trawlers modelled on the factory whaling ships that had devastated the last remaining whale populations.
The giant trawlers came from distant countries, attracted by the seemingly endless bounty of the fishery. Their huge nets took unprecedented amounts of fish, which they would quickly process and deep-freeze. The trawlers worked around the clock, in all but the very worst weather. In an hour they would haul up to 200 tonnes of fish; twice the amount a typical 16th century ship would catch in an entire season.
In 1968, the cod catch peaked at 800,000 tonnes. By 1975, the annual catch had fallen by more than 60 per cent. Catches of other fish species were also plummeting. In a desperate attempt to increase catches Canada extended its fishing limit for foreign vessels from 12 to 200 miles from the coast.
As cod catches declined, factory trawlers used ever more powerful sonar and satellite navigation to target what was left. This led to overall catches remaining steady throughout the 1980s. But traditional inshore fishermen noticed their catches declining. The government, most members of which owned shares in industrial fishing companies, refused to listen to them, or to the growing scientific warnings that cod was in crisis.
Politicians also feared that cutting the quota would lead to politically unacceptable job losses, but their short-term thinking led to catastrophe.
By 1992, when the cod catch was the lowest ever measured, the government was forced to close the fishery. The moratorium put 40,000 people out of work in 5 Canadian provinces, and required a several billion dollar relief package to be disbursed to coastal communities.
In 1993 the moratorium, initially put in place for two years, was extended indefinitely. In 2003, the two main populations of Atlantic cod were added to Canada's list of endangered species. Recovery efforts are hampered by the trawling for other species that still goes on in the area, and which often leads to high levels of cod as bycatch.
Like passenger pigeons, the cod lived in huge shoals. Like the flocks of the passenger pigeons, the size of the shoals and population density was a critical factor in their survival. With a large population density, larger cod would predate on other fish and crustations that would otherwise threaten the cod nurseries. Once the population density fell below a critical level, recovery is virtually impossible. Since the moratorium in 1993 still no reliable recovery in cod stocks have occurred, and what catches were allowed were still reported as declining in 2013.
The Passenger pigeons extinction and cod crash raise an interesting question for humanity. If these social animals have a critical population level, below which recovery is impossible and extinction becomes inevitable, what is the critical population for human societies?
Pre industrialisation, it would have been relatively low as food was abundant in the local environment and skills were honed to exploit and sustain these. Those tribes still living nomadically across the world at the beginning of the 20th century were testimony to this, from the Australian Aboriginals to the Eskimos of the Arctic.
Post industrialisation and post climate change collapse, a very different scenario will emerge. Little natural environment will be left which can be exploited and sustaining this will be an almost impossible job. High quality food that was once free, such as passenger pigeons which could be plucked out of the sky or cod that could be scooped out of the sea, has already long since gone and will not return in a post climate change collapse environment. What foods we have today are already energy intensive and dependent on fossil fuel. In a post collapse society they will be even more so. This in turns means that a fossil fuel industry must be kept going which will be impossible without a large population to provide the equipment and manufacturing infrastructure.
So the dilemma of the passenger pigeons and cod stocks comes to haunt us. On the best and most optimistic assumption, the sustainable global population is considerably less than 1 billion if any degree of industrialisation is be maintained, most likely in the order of no more than 10 million. Once climate collapse hits us, it is maybe as low as 1 million people scratching out a living around the Arctic. However, if this is below the critical level that is needed for survival then that small band of survivors will succumb. So climate change imposes two conflicting targets, the sustainable population must go down while the critical level for long term survival goes up. Once these two levels pass each other, eventual extinction is unavoidable.
See The Vortex of Violence and why we are losing the war on climate change
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Image 1 - Dutch Scientists Analyze Lack Of Lunar Volcanoes
February 20, 2012
Dutch Scientists Analyze Lack Of Lunar Volcanoes
A team of Dutch scientists believe that they have discovered why there are no active volcanoes on the Moon, even though recent seismic activity suggests that there is a good amount of magma below the surface.
According to Olivia Solon of, Mirjam van Kan Parker and Wim van Westrenen from VU University Amsterdam and their colleagues produced microscopic copies of moon rock collected during the Apollo missions, then melted them at extremely high pressures and temperatures in order to mimic conditions on the lunar surface.
The researchers then used powerful X-rays, generated at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) and discovered that the reason that hot, molten rock contained below the Moon's surface doesn't rise to the surface is because it is most likely too dense to do so.
Their findings were published Sunday in the journal Nature Geosciences.
In order to determine the density of lunar magma, the VU University Amsterdam researchers and their colleagues created synthetic moon rock, using the composition of the Apollo samples as their guide, in their Amsterdam-based laboratory, the ESRF said in a press release.
The pressure near the Moon's core is in excess of 45,000 bar, and temperatures there are approximately 1,500 degrees -- conditions that the researchers were able to recreate by heating samples with an electric current while crushing them in a press, the press release said.
They then measured "the attenuation of a powerful synchrotron X-ray beam" at the ESRF facility in order to determine the density under those high pressure, high temperature conditions.
"Most lunar magmas were found to be less dense than their solid surroundings, just as they are on Earth," Solon said in a February 19 report. "However, some samples from the Apollo 14 mission, which comprised of titanium-rich glass, were found to produce a magma as dense as the rocks found in the deepest part of the lunar mantle today. This magma wouldn't move towards the surface."
"This titanium-rich magma could have only been formed by melting titanium-rich solid rocks," she added. "Previous experiments have shown that these sorts of rocks were formed shortly after the formation of the Moon at shallow levels. It is thought that vertical movements must have occurred early in the history of the Moon, which caused these titanium-rich rocks to descend into the Moon's core-mantle boundary."
The researchers believe that it could still be possible for volcanoes to eventually emerge on the Moon.
"Today, the Moon is still cooling down, as are the melts in its interior," van Westrenen told "In the distant future, the cooler and therefore solidifying melt will change in composition, likely making it less dense than its surroundings. This lighter magma could make its way again up to the surface forming an active volcano on the Moon -- what a sight that would be! -- but for the time being, this is just a hypothesis to stimulate more experiments."
Image 1: Apollo 17 at the edge of the Shorty Crater which forty years ago was suspected to be an extinct lunar volcano. The moon rock collected there included titanium-rich glasses of the type studied in the experiments at the ESRF. Credit: NASA
Image 2: Image of an artificial moon rock sample, measuring about half a millimeter across, made with an electron microprobe at ambient temperature after the experiment with X-rays. The fragmentation of the sample occurred when it was extracted from the small diamond cylinder in which it had been melted under high pressure and temperature. Credit: Nature
Image 3: An exploded view drawing of the high-pressure cell assembly for the synchrotron X-ray experiments. The artificial moon rock samples (orange) were placed inside the ring-shaped, natural diamond sample holder (grey) which in turn was surrounded by a large, disk-shaped container (red). Credit: Nature
On the Net:
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Friday, December 5, 2014
Save the Kiwis!
Apteryx australis
Photo cred: Wikimedia
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Apterygiformes
Family: Apterygidae
Although many of you probably thought of the fruit first, this research focuses on a bird native to New Zealand- the Southern Brown Kiwi Bird, or Apteryx australis. You may see the name and think “Australia”, but the name actually means “without wings” and “relating to the south wind”.(8) They are what is to be considered a ratite.
Range and Habitat
The Southern Brown Kiwi Bird is found in the south island of New Zealand. More specifically, it can be seen in Fiordland and Westland. It can also been found on Stewart Island- an island off the coast of the Southern Island of New Zealand.(1) They can be seen in temperate, sub-tropical forests, as well as grasslands and shrubbery. In some occasions, you can also find them in sand dunes. One of the most important factors for the Southern Brown Kiwi is to live in a place that is large, dense, and dark. This helps them to camouflage into their surroundings during the day and be unseen by predators while they sleep. Southern Brown Kiwis tend to create burrows under stones that are present in their environment, or even in banks of streams, or in soft, flat, open ground.(4)
Physical Description
Kiwi birds have an odd shape to them; they have a round body with a head attached to it, and they also have no tail- they only have some caudal vertebrae. The kiwi’s wings are reduced in size, which explains why they can’t fly. Their feathers have no aftershafts or barbules. Kiwis also don’t have a preen gland (a gland that produces oil).(8) They also have muscular legs, which aid their terrestrial kind of lifestyle. (6) One of the key features that distinguish kiwis from other small birds is their beak; they are long and slender with a slight curve, although some species of Kiwi may have straight beaks. Nostrils can be seen at the tips. Kiwis are known to have an advanced sense of smell and hearing. (6) Their color is reddish/brown with some streaking. The length of the birds range from 18-22 inches, the females weigh between 4.6 and 8.6 pounds, and the males eight 3.5 to 6.2 pounds. (7)
Evolutionary History
Photo Cred: Kiwis for kiwi
According to a charity group called The Kiwi Trust (5), they state that what is known to be the “proto-kiwi”- an ancestor of the Kiwi Bird- arrived in New Zealand about 50 million years ago. They say that the oldest fossil of the Kiwi that has been found was a femur located on the North Island that dated back to 1 million years ago. TKT explains that the main influence on Kiwi evolution was the ever-changing landscape and formation of New Zealand over the years. There are three basic islands to New Zealand- the north island, the south island, and Stewart Island; they were all joined at one point, eventually split which changed their overall shapes. The Kiwi Trust further explains that when these changes happened, the Kiwis were separated and isolated from each other. As described before, since they can’t fly, there were no ways for the Kiwis to find their way back to each other, which meant that they were forced to stay where they were and breed among the kiwis that were around them. By understanding the mechanisms of natural selection, this essentially led to the differentiations that we see among the different species of kiwis.
In a New York Times article written by Malcom W. Browne in 1992(2), he talks about how the Kiwis are more closely related to Ostriches than Moas, which was the previous thought. A group of scientists amplified DNA fragments from species of flightless birds thought to be like the Kiwi, and they found that the gene structure of the Moa is a lot different than birds like the emu and ostrich. Because of this, the scientists question if the Kiwis descended from an ancestor that lived in Australia. It would make sense, especially if the two species were separated from each other during land mass splits.
Kiwis often make distinct vocalizations in order to defend their territories. They usually make these calls in an upright position with their legs stretched and their beaks facing upwards. The males and females also sing duets with each other; the males make a “kee wee” or a “kee kee” sound, while the females make more of a “kurr kurr” sound. (7) Kiwis are quite shy and usually spend time alone, but they can also be seen traveling in companies usually between 6 and 12 kiwis. (4) As for the Kiwi’s diet, they eat insects, crayfish, amphibians, eels, and fruits. The nostrils on their bills gift them with a great sense of smell. Smell is actually their primary sense that they use- even over sight and sound. Their talented sense of smell helps them to find their prey that may be located in the ground. When they catch their prey, they proceed to beat it against a rock or the ground until the prey is dead- then they consume it. (1) When it comes to reproduction, the Kiwi is a monogamous species. Rituals for mating begin in March and last through June, where the Kiwis meet each other in burrows to mate. (4) Females usually lay one egg, but sometimes they lay 2, and the males incubate the egg(s) for almost 90 days, and then the chicks leave the nest after a few days and fend for themselves. (1) Female Kiwi birds reach sexual maturity between 3 and 5 years old, while the males reach sexual maturity at 18 months. (4)
• Interesting Fact: One unique thing about Kiwis is that they lay huge eggs compared to their body size. According to the WWF (6), they say that the eggs are about 20% of the Kiwi’s body weight, making it proportionally one of the largest of most birds. In a study done by William A. Calder III and other scientists(3), they have backed the finding that Kiwis produce one of the largest eggs compared to their body size among most birds. The scientists studied the energy content of the Brown Kiwi’s eggs; they say that a group of organisms called the megapods have the “largest proportionate yolk know, 62% of egg contents”. The Kiwi bird egg that they looked at had a value of 61.1%- a very close value.
Conservation Status
In 2000, the IUCN stated that the Southern Brown Kiwi Bird was in “vulnerable” status; Fiordland had only a population of 7,000. (4) The common predators to the Kiwi bird are possums, stoats, and cats- they tend to eat the Kiwi’s eggs and/or juveniles. Adults are usually eaten or attacked by dogs, ferrets, and possums. (8) Kiwi birds have been hunted to make cloaks, and have even been eaten by humans, which both only declined the population. The New Zealand government has gone to the extent to declare that if there is ever a flu that attacks the birds of the country, every Kiwi bird will be vaccinated to prevent any more of a decline in their population. (4) Another conservation effort included the Kiwi Recovery Program set by the Bank of New Zealand in 1991. This program offered predator control, kiwi sanctuaries, outreach and education, as well as a captive breeding program called Operation Nest Egg which started in 1995. (9) Other efforts include translocations of Kiwis as well as legislation to keep dogs- a predator of the Kiwi- under stricter control. In order to keep track of the population, Kiwis have been banded and radio-tracked; Kiwi eggs have also been removed from nests by humans and incubated, and then they were returned as young adults when they were old enough to fend for itself. (7) WWF New Zealand has also created conservation efforts that help to protect the Kiwi population. They have also taken part in translocation efforts, breeding grounds, and predator control like the other conservation efforts have been trying.
(1) "Brown Kiwi (Apteryx Australis)." Encyclopedia of Life. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>.
(2) Browne, Malcolm W. "Extinct Bird and Kiwi." The New York Times. The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1992. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>.
(3) Calder, William A., C.r Parr, and D.p Karl. "Energy Content of Eggs of the Brown Kiwi Apteryx Australis; an Extreme in Avian Evolution." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 60.2 (1978): 177-79. Web.
(4) Gudipati, Smitha. "Apteryx Australis." Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>
(5) "How Kiwi Evolved." Kiwis for Kiwi. BNZ, n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>.
(6) "Kiwi." WWF New Zealand. WWF, n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>.
(7) Robertson, H., and B. Weeber. "Southern Brown Kiwi Apteryx Australis." BirdLife International. BirdLife International, n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>.
(8) "Southern Brown Kiwi." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 11 Dec. 2014. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>.
(9) "Tokoeka (Apteryx Australis)." ARKive. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <>.
1 comment:
1. There are five species of kiwi birds all of which are native to New Zealand. They are also the national symbol for new Zealand. Here in his article, I will present Kiwi Bird Images Facts and its classification with photos.
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History of CPR
CPR or cardiopulmonary resuscitation is a method implied to help revive a victim of cardiac arrest, before the medical help arrives. The history of CPR dates back to the 17th century. It was later on promoted to the public to learn the basic rescue breathing and chest compression technique.
18th century
The first resuscitation was sited in Amsterdam, where there were almost 400 deaths per year due to drowning. In august 1767, a few citizens gathered to form the society for Recovery of Drowned Persons, which was the first effort to respond to sudden deaths. They formulated techniques to revive the body. Their techniques were:
• To instigate warmth in the victim.
• Trying to remove water from the victim by positioning the victims head lower than the feet and applying pressure to the abdomen.
• Giving respirations to the victim either with a bellow or with the mouth-to-mouth method.
With the success rate of this society, rescue societies formed up in all part of Europe. These rescue societies were the predecessors for the emergency medical services we have today.
Before the 1950's, the chest-pressure and arm-lift method was proved to be ineffective, to revive a victim. Then in 1954, Elam demonstrated through experiments that exhaled air was enough to give oxygen to the victims lungs and make him start breathing. Despite the initial objections to this technique, rescue breathing was accepted in the 1960's and was adopted by the American Red Cross and other organizations, as the preferred method for resuscitation.
Mouth-to-mouth ventilation:
Mouth-to-mouth ventilation was already known in those times by the midwives and by doctors. It was useful for bringing a lifeless baby to life. It was in 1964 that James Elam, an anesthesiologist, who first applied this technique to an older child in an emergency. On research, with his, two collaborates; Elwyn Brown and Raymond Pas, on postoperative patients he demonstrated that exhaled air blown into the lungs of the victim maintained the sufficient oxygen saturation. Several years after this, Elam met Peter Safar, who joined in his efforts to convince the public that artificial ventilation was effective. Safar experimented on paralyzed individuals to prove that the technique can maintain the required oxygenation. The United States military accepted this and endorsed it in 1957.
Chest compressions:
Stopping of respiration is an obvious sign of death, unlike the blood circulation stops. As a result, the artificial circulation method lacked the importance in resuscitation. Through an accidental discovery made by William Bennet, Guy Knickerbocker and James Jude, formalized the system of chest compressions.
Compression and Ventilation:
In 1962 Gordon along with David Adams, made a 27-minute training film on CPR, they devised the easy to remember A, B and C, standing for airway, breathing and circulation; which is still used today.
In the 1930's, it was a common fact that electric shocks could induce ventricular fibrillation in dogs. In 1947, a professor of surgery, Claude Beck, successfully resuscitated a 14-year old boy, by using the chest massage and an internal defibrillator with alternating current. Paul Zoll developed the external defibrillator, aware of Beck's accomplishment.
AED's were later on added as a part of CPR in the later 1980's. The external defibrillator by Zoll have developed into portable devices that are very simple, so that common man can use them. It has been a long journey, in the history of CPR. Today, the CPR training as well CPR KIT are available to anyone who wants to obtain these skills.
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Croup and Rump
As compared to a horse the rump of a Donkey has a sharper, more sloping croup. The pelvic bones are at a higher angle, therefore the Donkey croup is higher and rump narrower. The rump should be strong and gently sloping. There should be good length from point of hip to point of buttock.
The hindquarters provide most of the Donkey's impulsion and they act as pistons to thrust the animal forward. A thin, "Goose Rump" can indicate an animal is in poor condition, may appear out of proportion and may reflect weak conformation.
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Wildlife in Texas
Lesson PlanStudent will select a species from either the threatened or the endangered category. Each student will utilize the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department web site. Students will create a mascot for their chosen threatened or endangered species. The mascot should be named and drawn. Students will create a commemorative postage stamp in recognition of a Texas threatened or endangered species. Working individually or in pairs, students will create a travel brochure for one of the seventeen National Wildlife Refuges in Texas.
Source:Texas State Historical Association
Grade Level:Both
TEKS:4.9(A), 4.9(B), 4.9(C), 4.21(A), 4.21(B), 4.21(C), 4.21(D), 4.22(E), 4.21(E), 4.22(A), 4.22(B), 4.22(C), 4.22(D), 4.23(A), 7.8(A), 7.8(B), 7.21(A), 7.21(B), 7.21(C), 7.21(D), 7.21(E), 7.21(F), 7.21(G), 7.21(H), 7.22(A), 7.22(B), 7.22(C), 7.22(D), 7.23(A), 7.23(B)
Topics:Texas Since World War II
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Brittney Smith
From Hst250
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Wiki Post Number Two
1.) SOPA, PIPA (Protect IP) and Anonymous:
SOPA an acronym meaning Stop Online Piracy Act, was first proposed on October 26, 2011. This bill was created in order to protect the intellectual property of content creators, and to enable the government to take protection in opposition of counterfeit drugs. With the passing of this bill the government is able to legally enforce the rights of copyright holders. Through SOPA, law enforcement can take action against those who participate in online copyright infringements and the online trafficking of counterfeit goods. Copyright holders are able to seek justice against pirating websites located outside United States jurisdiction. Those prosecuted for unauthorized streaming of copyright content could be jailed for a maximum of five years in prison. Those averse to the act feel this bill would infringe on their freedom of speech and innovation.
PIPA also referred to as the Protect IP Act, and Preventing Real Online Threats to Economic Creativity and Theft of Intellectual Property Act. Enacted in order to allow the United States government to curtail those trying to gain access to both domestic and foreign sites in order to cultivate profits from pirated goods. Those in opposition to PIPA feel it would disturb business and innovation ideas, infringe on freedom of speech, as well as negatively impact online communities. The Protect IP Act was introduced to the Senate on May 12th, 2011, but was postponed to pass due to online protests conducted on January 8th, 2012.
Anonymous is an international network of hackers who conduct piracy on a discrete basis. The group’s main focus is to illustrate their opinion on topics such as religion and government through online attacks in the form of nonviolent protests. Anonymous constructed as a vigilante group, exposes individuals, corporations, and government organizations with their ability to virtually hack into any website. While unidentifiable, anonymous is organized and a hinder to those they expose further promoting bills such as SOPA and PIPA. Overall, Anonymous distributes the images they feel should be issued to the online community regardless of individual property rights.
2) How do groups of hackers, like Anonymous, relate to movements to protect online privacy?:
Movements to protect online privacy began in relation to groups of hackers, such like those involved with Anonymous. With the growth of technology, and the growth of the population using technology the means to access private information is larger than it ever was before. iCloud, iPAY or just by simply storing a password on a device allows a cybercriminal to gain access to your private information. Due to cyber attacks, and online piracy a push for new laws have begun. Laws such as SOPA or PIPA would not have been necessary without online hackers and the invasion of privacy being conducted on the Internet everyday. We are enabled by groups such as Anonymous to protect ourselves, and our private information we have stored on our devices. Anonymous reminds us that even large corporations and government organizations are not unscathed when it comes to online privacy. Leading individuals such as myself to push for laws and other means of justice to protect what is left of online privacy. As well, by remaining anonymous this vigilante group is also instilling the notion that such injustices can be done with the advancements of technology. We are all vulnerable in terms of privacy and the Internet contributing to the growth of movements in order to protect online invasions from happening.
3) How do these readings relate to and illuminate the recent events surrounding Edward Snowden?:
Edward Snowden is known most recently as a former CIA agent who leaked classified information pertaining to the government unjustly monitoring the public. Similar to those working with the group Anonymous, Edward Snowden is an elite hacker. Having worked for both the CIA and the NSA, Snowden had access to various top-secret documents. After leaking information from the U.S. National Security agency revealing a multitude of global surveillance programs, Snowden was viewed as a whistleblower and in contrast a patriot or a hero. With society viewing Snowden in a similarly fashion of Anonymous, because his identity was revealed he was forced to flee the United States. Snowden’s revelations exposed the secret collecting of mass phone and Internet data of the people, conducted by the government infringing on civil liberties. Leaving the United States to strike a balance between matters of national security and information privacy rights. While act such as SOPA and PIPA push for the rights of Copy right and intellectual property, in contrast acts such as the US Patriot Act deny these rights. The US Patriot Act allows the government to wrongfully access the person information of their citizens. By better understand how counteracting these bills are in regards to our privileges. By upholding bills such as SOPA and PIPA as well as the US Patriot Act we are limiting the power of ourselves as individuals but promoting the means of the government. Though, in doing so we are dissimilarly protecting ourselves from those who could potential harm us, such as inimical hackers.
Work Cited:
"Anonymous." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 30 June 2015.
"Protect IP Act." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 30 June 2015.
"Stop Online Piracy Act." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 30 June 2015.
Harvey, Jason. "A Technical Examination of SOPA and PROTECT IP." Blog.reddit. N.p., 17 Jan. 2012. Web. 30 June 2015.
"What Impact Have Snowden’s Revelations Had?" Courage Snowden. The Courage Foundation, n.d. Web. 02 July 2015.
Williams, Brian. "Edward Snowden Interview." NBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 June 2015.
Wiki Post Number One
EverQuest’s History:
EverQuest was released on March 16, 1999 having been produced by Sony Online Entertainment. Originally the format for EverQuest was created by John Smedley in 1996, and later was designed by Steve Clover, Brad McQuaid, and Bill Trost. About three years later in 1999, Sony’s 989 Studios developed EverQuest and successfully released the first 3D Multi-User Dungeon (MUD) video game. In EverQuest’s first year of release it gained up to 225,000 users, and by 2003 earned about 450,000 users. The games popularity arose due to the medieval fantasy world in which players are able to create a character and live virtually. EverQuest provides over 500 different zones where a player can roam the virtual landscape, duel each other and fight monsters or enemies for treasures and experience points. As a player progresses in EverQuest they are able to gain spells, sharpen abilities, acquire possessions to move up in the ranks of the online community. EverQuest allows play versus play combat, player guilds, and interaction with other through role play. Over the years, Sony continued to gain popularity by developing twenty-one expansions to the original version of EverQuest. Gamers are able to enjoy the original version of EverQuest, including graphics, new paths, re-designed skills.
Past-Time: Re-Educating EverQuest Article Summary:
Throughout the article Emily Bembeneck discusses the backstory of EverQuest as well as how production came about. In Past-Time: Re-Educating EverQuest, Bembeneck reminisces about the original version of the game, and how players can only hold on to their primary experience of the virtual world. She explains that this is due to the progression, and advancements of both skills and text, which have created a version of EverQuest never experienced before. The author feels that even though most players of EverQuest are veterans, they are able to reencounter the virtual world in a way they have never before. This is in part a result of a server called Flippy Darkpaw, which was released on February 15th 2011 by Sony. The new server allows players to freeze the game and choose whether they would like to unlock an expansion. This allows users to relive the past. While attempting to recreate the original version of EverQuest, players will never be able to experience things as they were. According to Bembeneck, this is because the tools of creation as well as the creators have changed. In short, Bembeneck believes that the experience a player will live in EverQuest will seem brand new due to advancements in both the structure of the game, and the user themselves.
Importance of EverQuest:
The author illustrates the importance of EverQuest in relation to both social and cultural importance. With EverQuest being one of the first graphical MMO to be produced commercially, a new gaming community was formed. After first being launched, the server was able to hit full capacity, and many veterans as well as new users play still today. Users would group together in specific areas and would form bonds through role-play, duels and other multiplayer aspects. Culturally, EverQuest has established itself within the video-game community allowing gamers to forge connections to the game itself. Having been around almost two decades, EverQuest has become more than just a video-game. With players being able to create virtual identities, and ulterior lives making memories was something that came with playing. Bembeneck discusses how many users have been playing EverQuest for so long, Sony has developed a server that allows a user to continue playing in past-time if they were to choose so. This allows them to relive previous gaming experiences, and construct their virtual lives the way they choose.
EverQuest Debate:
The article “In Past-Time: Re-Educating EverQuest” did not seem to generate any debate; the commentators agree in unanimity on Bembeneck’s ideas. They seem to find the article fascinating, and one user compared the reliving of EverQuest to rereading a favorite book from your childhood. By re-experiencing the game this commenter agrees with Bembeneck’s thought of redefining the way in which you gauge the virtual world. Another commenter regards the idea of new experiences within EverQuest being a result of you changing as much as the game itself changing. As an example, the commenter describes playing older games from his youth giving him a similar feeling, but before the article he had never thought more in depth about this perspective. The last user to comment on the article discusses removals from the game, and how this could affect the memories of a player, as touched on by Bembeneck. Overall, the comments correlated with Emily Bembeneck’s view that EverQuest having progressed throughout the years, as well as you as a player having changed results in only memories of a video game that has been transformed. Personally, I have never played EverQuest, but I do agree with both the author and commentators. While you may be able to relive something twice, the experience will never be as it once was. This may be a result of personal changes in addition to advancements of other areas. For example, as a child I would often play house, recreating the same household format time and time again. While I consistently played and the format of the game remained similar, playing house never reconstructed the same experiences or end result as the time I played before. As well, I as a person have changed over the years leading me to view a game of house very different than how I would as a child. If I were to play EverQuest when originally produced in 1999, I believe that I too would enjoy the Flippy Darkpaw feature, allowing me to unlock expansions as I choose. Experiencing the new landscape and features of EverQuest would be enjoyable, as would being able to re-play past experiences.
Works Cited:
Bembeneck, Emily. "Past-Time: Re-Encountering EverQuest." Play The Past Rss. N.p., 16 Feb 2011. Web. 07 June 2015.
"EverQuest." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 07 June 2015.
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Wyoming History: Historic Facts and Overview: Wyoming FlagWyoming History
Historic Facts & Overview of Wyoming History
Find an overview of Wyoming history. Discover an overview of the rich history, heritage, historic events.
Wyoming gets its name from the Algonquin words for "land of vast plains." After the Union Pacific Railroad reached the town of Cheyenne, the capital, in 1867, the population began to grow steadily in the Wyoming Territory, established in 1868. Wyoming was admitted as the 44th state in 1890. The constitution of the "Equality State" was the first in the world to grant voting rights to women. Wyoming was also the first state to elect a woman governor. People are spread out across the state in small farming and ranching towns, and millions of visitors come to enjoy the Yellowstone and Grand Teton national parks each year. The state flower has the poetic name of Indian paintbrush. Wyoming is the smallest state in the Union in population.
Overview of Wyoming History and Heritage
The State of Wyoming is the ninth largest state in the United States, encompassing 97,914 square miles and supporting a population of nearly 500,000 people. Wyoming is comprised of a large plateau broken by significant mountain ranges, home to a large and diverse population of wildlife. Not only is the state rich in beauty, but also in its history.
The area that would become Wyoming was inhabited by several Native American groups before the arrival of Europeans. The Shoshone, Arapaho, Cheyenne and Crow lived in the eastern portion of the area. They hunted bison, following the tremendous herds through their seasonal migrations, and lived in tepees. The Ute people inhabited Wyoming's western mountains, depending less on bison and more on the gathering of wild foods, the hunting of smaller game (antelope, rabbit, deer, elk) and fishing.
The US acquired the land comprising Wyoming from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. John Colter, a fur-trapper, is the first white man known to have entered present Wyoming. In 1807 he explored the Yellowstone area and brought back news of its geysers and hot springs.
Robert Stuart pioneered the Oregon Trail across Wyoming in 1812-13 and, in 1834, Fort Laramie, the first permanent trading post in Wyoming, was built. Western Wyoming was obtained by the US in the 1846 Oregon Treaty with Great Britain and as a result of the treaty ending the Mexican War in 1848.
The Territory of Wyoming was created by Act of Congress on July 25, 1868. At the time of its formation, it took land from the Dakota, Idaho, and Utah Territories. When the Wyoming Territory was organized Wyoming women became the first in the nation to obtain the right to vote. In 1925 Mrs. Nellie Tayloe Ross was elected first woman governor in the United States
Historians believe the first Europeans to see Wyoming were Francois and Louis Verendrye, who arrived in 1743, but it wasn't until 1807 that John Colter, who had been a member of the Lewis and Clark expedition, first explored the area that would become Yellowstone National Park. Fur trappers and traders followed, and by the 1840s, large numbers of westward-bound pioneers were trekking across Wyoming on their way to Utah, Oregon and California. This influx led to conflict with the Native Americans.
In the late 1860s, the Union Pacific Railroad began stitching Wyoming to the rest of the country, and the population increased dramatically. By the 1870s, the Native Americans had been confined to reservations, which opened lands for the new settlers. Cattle ranchers began arriving in Wyoming (many of them having driven herds north from Texas), and they were later joined by sheep herders. Bitter and violent range wars ensued between the two groups, though cattle became the more vital business in the long run.
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Tiny Submarine made of Titanium Alloys Proposed for Exploring Europa
Jonas Jonsson envisions the tiny submarine named Deeper Access, Deeper Understanding (DADU) taking on the Europa challenge in his 2012 Ph.D. thesis for Uppsala University in Sweden. The submarine could first get its feet wet by exploring similar watery environments on Earth where its small size could prove exceptionally useful.
The DADU submersible would use eight small thrusters to maneuver around the underwater world. A fiber optic tether would connect DADU to a surface lander or station — a way to recharge the submersible’s lithium-ion batteries and allow for remote control by a human operator. On-board software would allow the submersible to automatically dodge obstacles or stay at a certain depth underwater.
The Swedish team created a series of miniaturized instruments and sensors for the dream submersible. DADU has a forward-looking camera with a small laser to capture high-resolution video and to gauge the distance, size and shape of underwater objects.
But a huge challenge came from shrinking everything down to incredibly small sizes. The sensor for measuring the conductivity, temperature and depth of water is smaller than a fingernail.
The submersible’s sonar device alone could fit within a matchstick box, Jonsson said. Such a device uses piezoelectric material that can vibrate to create acoustic sonar pulses and read reflected pulses or vibrations as electrical signals.
Jonsson also tested the idea for the submersible’s sampling device for collecting tiny life forms on Europa — a microfluidic device smaller than a human thumb with a special filter to trap tiny microorganisms.
The first prototypes of the DADU submersible were made of plastic from 3D printers that allowed the team to quickly “print” the digital designs into real objects. But they envision the real submersible being built from a titanium alloy in order to survive the harsh temperatures and intense pressures of underwater environments.
Next up, the Swedish team hopes to further refine the miniaturized instruments. They also need to build the full integrated systems with all the miniaturized electronics before they can seriously test the submersible’s capability to survive in a frigid ocean — whether on Earth or on Europa.
“I don’t think there are any particular technological breakthroughs required,” Jonsson said. “There exist possible solutions for the technological barriers; however, further developments and optimizations are required for such a mission to succeed.”
Getting down beneath the ice is still far from simple. Any Europa mission designed to penetrate the moon’s icy surface would require a mole-like drill to melt its way through the ice. The submersible would also need kilometers of tether connecting it to a surface lander or station in order to communicate with its remote human operator.
Nobody is seriously planning a landing mission on Europa yet. But the European Space Agency aims to launch its JUpiter ICy moons Explorer mission (JUICE) to make the first thickness measurements of Europa’s icy crust starting in 2030. NASA also has begun planning a Europa Clipper mission that would study the icy moon while doing flybys in a Jupiter orbit.
A model of Europa’s interior, including a global ocean. If a 100 kilometer-deep ocean existed below Europa’s ice shell, it would be 10 times deeper than any ocean on Earth and would contain twice as much water as Earth’s oceans and rivers combined. Credit: NASA/JPL
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Question Info
This question is public and is used in 193 tests or worksheets.
Type: Multiple-Choice
Category: Matter
Level: Grade 6
Author: haywd14
Last Modified: 2 weeks ago
View all questions by haywd14.
Matter Question
View this question.
Grade 6 Matter
What is a liquid?
1. It has a definite volume and shape.
2. It can flow into the shape of its container and has a definite volume.
3. It has no definite volume and fills the entire space.
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Portion Distortion Lab
December 2, 2011 No Comments
In today’s lesson students are exploring expanding portion sizes.
Students will be given a paper plate and will draw their favorite meal “life size.” They will share their favorite food with their classmates.
Students will then visit labs around the classroom to measure portions. Each station has an index card with a prompt and the correct portion size on the back.
Students record their portions on this chart with reflection (download here as .docx file)
1. You are offered a cup to pour soda. How much would you like? Students pour colored water into a red solo cup. They transfer the liquid to a measuring cup and determine how much they actually poured. On the back of the index card, they find out that one serving of soda is 12 ounces. They determine how much extra (or less) they poured and record the number on their chart.
2. How much peanut butter would you like for your sandwich? Students scoop vegetable shortening with butter knives and measure with the water-displacement method. One serving of peanut butter is two tablespoons, or 1 ping pong ball.
3. How much cereal would you like in your bowl? Students pour cereal into a bowl and measure afterwards. One serving of cereal is one cup, a fist, or a tennis ball.
4. How much pasta would you like? Students measure macaroni pasta. One serving of pasta is one cup.
5. How much milk would you like? Students measure colored water into a tall glass. One serving of milk is one cup.
6. Cheese cubes are being served at a party. How many do you put on your plate? Students record their answer. One serving of cheese is three dice-size pieces.
After students have completed their lab they will return to their seats and answer the reflection questions at the bottom of the chart.
I will show a Today Show Eat this: Not That clip about large restaurant portions.
I will then use visuals (dice, ping pong balls, deck of cards, and tennis ball) to give the students cues to determine portion size.
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kids encyclopedia robot
Dubautia latifolia facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Dubautia latifolia
Conservation status
Critically Imperiled (NatureServe)
Scientific classification
D. latifolia
Binomial name
Dubautia latifolia
(A.Gray) D.D.Keck
Dubautia latifolia is a rare species of flowering plant in the aster family known by the common name koholapehu. It is endemic to Hawaii where it is known only from the west side of the island of Kauai. Like other Dubautia this plant is called na`ena`e.
Dubautia latifolia, a member of the silversword alliance, grows in scattered locations in the moist and wet forests near Waimea Canyon on Kauai. The habitat receives up to 190 centimeters of precipitation annually. The forest is dominated by koa (Acacia koa), ohia (Metrosideros polymorpha) and uluhe (Dicranopteris linearis).
There are no more than 200 individuals remaining. There are about 18 occurrences, but most of these are made up of only one or two plants.
The Dubautia latifolia plant is a liana which can exceed 8 metres (26 ft) in length. It climbs trees, reaching several meters up into the canopy. Blooming occurs in September through November, when the plant produces panicles of yellow flowers.
Dubautia latifolia was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 1992.
Threats to this species and its habitat include feral pigs, feral goats, rats, and deer. Invasive plant species that threaten it include Santa Barbara daisy (Erigeron karvinskianus), kahili ginger (Hedychium spp.), lantana (Lantana camara), airplant (Kalanchoe pinnata) and firetree (Myrica faya). Conservation efforts include the collection of seeds and the planting of young plants in appropriate habitat.
kids search engine
Dubautia latifolia Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Where Does the Idea of Fireworks Come From?
Many researchers believe China was the first, some say it came from the Middle East or India
By Deborah Jeanne Sergeant
According to History.com, “On July 3, 1776, the day before the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, John Adams wrote a letter to his wife in which he presaged the role of fireworks in Fourth of July celebrations. ‘The day will be most memorable in the history of America,’ he predicted. ‘I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade…bonfires and illuminations [a term for fireworks]…from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forevermore.’”
His prediction came true the following year, and have continued ever since to mark Independence Day.
Though many local municipalities set off fireworks displays at various times all summer, some northern venues cannot host fireworks displays at any point in the summer because it doesn’t get dark enough. Point Barrow, Alaska, for example, waits until New Year’s Day to brighten a time of year when sunlight is scarce.
Before the U.S, the Chinese had used fireworks as early as 200 B.C., according to www.history.com. Bamboo provides a kind of ground-level firework because it burst with a loud sound when roasted over a fire. Its hollow channels cause the explosion.
“At some point between 600 and 900 A.D., Chinese alchemists—perhaps hoping to discover an elixir for immortality—mixed together saltpeter (potassium nitrate, then a common kitchen seasoning), charcoal, sulfur and other ingredients, unwittingly yielding an early form of gunpowder,” the History Channel website states. “The Chinese began stuffing the volatile substance into bamboo shoots that were then thrown into the fire to produce a loud blast. The first fireworks were born.”
The Chinese used early fireworks to keep evil spirits away and for special celebrations. They discovered that lobbing fiery sticks at enemy forces helped them win battles. In the 1830s, the Italians added small amounts of metal to fireworks so that they lit up the sky with many colors instead of the orange and yellow colors previously achievable.
Shooting off fireworks seems a natural way for many countries celebrate and commemorate military victories since fireworks are so similar to the devices used in warfare.
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(redirected from Starquakes)
A violent rift in the dense surface of a magnetar that has been warped by its own intense magnetic field.
[star + quake, on the model of earthquake.]
References in periodicals archive ?
It is the first planet that has been identified by the mission in which a distant planet's "starquakes" could be measured - allowing scientists to learn even more about its character.
However, sometimes the neutron stars will glitch due to starquakes, causing them to wobble and either speed up or slow down in their spinning.
Already, K2 has found 270 planet candidates and 30 confirmed planets, and it's also observed open star clusters, measured starquakes and other stellar rumblings, and searched for supernovae.
The starquakes, reported by the space agency last night, are allowing astronomers to learn about the stars' age, size and evolution.
Washington, Oct 27 (ANI): NASA's Keplar spacecraft has discovered stellar oscillations, or 'starquakes,' that could provide new insights about the size, age and evolution of stars.
Astronomers developed a technique for predicting starquakes.
Also like the Crab, its surface appears quiescent, free from the starquakes that rumble through magnetars.
They suggested other stars which also produce flares releasing X-ray radiation might be shaken by even more powerful "starquakes".
So magnetars--neutron stars with powerful magnetic fields--might be the culprit, producing flares when starquakes break the magnetar's brittle crust.
"Detection of starquakes caused by such flares might be an interesting challenge for stellar astronomy."
A fairly direct age measurement comes from starquakes, which create pulsations in brightness that change as the star ages.
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Rahul Sharma (Editor)
Greenland Patrol
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Greenland Patrol
The Greenland Patrol was a United States Coast Guard operation during World War II. The patrol was formed to support the U.S. Army building aerodrome facilities in Greenland for ferrying aircraft to the British Isles, and to defend Greenland with special attention to preventing German operations in the northeast. Coast Guard cutters were assisted by aircraft and dog sled teams patrolling the Greenland coast for Axis military activities. The patrol escorted Allied shipping to and from Greenland, built navigation and communication facilities, and provided rescue and weather ship services in the area from 1941 through 1945.
Earth's atmospheric circulation pattern requires westerly meteorological observations for prediction of weather conditions to the east. Weather observation stations in Greenland improved the accuracy of weather forecasting for the Atlantic Ocean and northern Europe for tactical advantage in the battle of the Atlantic and European theatre of World War II. Greenland had been part of the Danish colonial empire since 1814. Greenland appeared relatively unprotected following German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940. The Allies of World War II became concerned about the possibility of Axis military bases on Greenland. The cryolite mine at Ivittuut was a strategically important source of flux for electrolysis of aluminum ores by the Hall–Héroult process for aircraft production.
United States Coast Guard personnel had acquired extensive experience in the waters around Greenland as part of their International Ice Patrol duties since 1915. Following negotiations with the Danish Minister to Washington, the United States opened a consulate at Nuuk; and the USCGC Comanche transported the first American Consul to Ivittuut in May 1940. The United States then agreed to sell armaments to Greenland; and fourteen Coast Guardsmen were discharged to act as civilian armed guards protecting the cryolite mine with a 3-inch (7.6 cm) gun offloaded from the USCGC Campbell. USCGC Duane conducted an air survey of Greenland's west coast in August 1940, while USCGC Northland cruised along Greenland's east coast searching for evidence of European military activity and compiling information for publication of a Greenland Pilot. On 17 March 1941 USCGC Cayuga sailed from Boston with the South Greenland Survey Expedition to locate and recommend sites for airfields, seaplane bases, radio stations, meteorological stations, and aids to navigation. Northland relieved Cuyuga on 17 May 1941 to continue the survey expedition after Cuyuga was turned over to the Royal Navy as HMS Totland.
The United States occupied Greenland on 9 April 1941 under the expansive doctrine adopted at the Havana Conference (1940). As the survey results became available, construction began on a radio and aerological station on Akia Island and airfields at Narsarsuaq and at Kipisako near Ivittuut. Narsarsuaq Air Base was code-named Bluie West 1 (or BW1), and became the major Allied airfield in Greenland. Thousands of planes stopped there to refuel en route to England.
A South Greenland Patrol was established on 1 June 1941 with Geodetic Survey ship Bowdoin, tug USS Raritan, and cutters USCGC Comanche and USCGC Modoc. USS Bear with USCGC North Star and USCGC Northland established a Northeast Greenland Patrol a month later. The two patrols were consolidated in October 1941 as Task Force 24.8, the Greenland Patrol of the Atlantic Fleet.
On 12 September 1941 Northland intercepted the Norwegian sealer Buskø, which was supporting a German radio station transmitting weather information to Germany. Northland put a prize crew aboard Buskø, captured the radio station with some code information, and interned the personnel at Boston.
The Greenland Patrol was responsible for escorting ships bringing men and supplies to Greenland, and sometimes for breaking a path through the ice to assist their arrival. On 25 August 1942 USCGC Mojave was escorting the United States Army Transport Chatham as the fast section of convoy SG 6 while USCGC Mohawk and Algonquin were escorting the slow section of USS Laramie and Harjurand with steamships Biscaya, Arlyn and Alcoa Guard. Chatham and Arlyn were sunk by U-517 and Laramie was damaged by U-165.
Danes, Norwegians, and Inuit were recruited into a sledge patrol to search for additional Axis weather reporting stations along the coast. Sledge expeditions also rescued Allied airmen making forced landings on the Greenland ice cap. Coast Guard work parties built range lights, shore markers and LORAN radio beacons to aid navigation. Northland landed 41 men with thirty tons of equipment to establish a high-frequency direction finding station on Jan Mayen in November 1942.
The Greenland Patrol was augmented in the summer of 1942 by ten fishing trawlers purchased in Boston, repainted in blue and white Thayer system camouflage, and given Inuit names. Natsek disappeared on 17 December 1942 while transiting the Strait of Belle Isle with Nanok and Bluebird in gale force winds with blinding snow. The 116-foot (35 m) trawler was never seen again, and may have been capsized by ice accumulation from freezing spray in heavy seas. Surviving trawlers were returned to their civilian owners in 1944 as Tacoma-class frigates became available for weather ship duties.
SS Dorchester of convoy SG 19 was torpedoed by U-223 on 2 February 1943 while being escorted by USCGC Tampa, Escanaba and Comanche. Despite rescue efforts by the cutters, 675 men died of hypothermia or drowning in the worst United States troopship sinking of the war. Escanaba was later destroyed by a mysterious explosion on 13 June 1943.
From October 1943 Coast Guard Patrol Bombing Squadron Six operated twelve Consolidated PBY Catalinas from Narsarsuaq Air Base, Naval Station Argentia, and Reykjavík Airport providing reconnaissance, antisubmarine patrol, mail delivery, rescue service, and observation surveys of ice conditions for ships of the Greenland Patrol. Aircraft greatly improved patrol efficiency when weather conditions were suitable for flying. Ships of the Greenland Patrol acted as plane guards on weather patrol stations in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and south of Cape Farewell maintaining radio contact with trans-Atlantic aircraft flights and provided rescue service for aircraft ditching at sea.
Between July and October 1944, Northland, Storis, Eastwind and Southwind captured sixty Germans while destroying Axis weather stations on the northeast coast of Greenland. The German weather ship Externsteine was captured and two similar ships destroyed in the course of this campaign which effectively ended Axis weather observation from Greenland.
Ships of the Greenland Patrol
Some ships of the Greenland Patrol were conventional cutters briefly assigned to the patrol. Others were unique and sometimes historic vessels specifically designed for polar exploration and well suited to conditions encountered by the patrol. Larger cutters escorted SG convoys of freighters and troopships between Sydney and the larger Greenland ports serving Narsarsuaq Air Base and the Ivittuut cryolite mine, while trawlers and tugs (sometimes towing barges) distributed supplies from those ports to smaller Army Bluie bases on remote fjords without port facilities.
Greenland Patrol Wikipedia
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Ancient Roots And Ruins
This book offers differentiated plans for gifted learners and focuses on the important role of the Romans in shaping modern languages, history, and culture. Short papers highlight and introduce Roman contributions in the areas of language, philosophy and religion, literature, art and architecture, and history, law and government. Organized around the Integrated Curriculum Model, each unit focuses on a major concept, with essential questions, introductory materials, lessons, activities, and resources. By Ariel Baska and Joyce Vantassel-Baska. Prufrock Press. 260 pages.
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European Larch
European Larch
Family: Pinaceae
Latin Name: Larix decidua
Common Name(s): European larch, common larch
Deciduous or Evergreen: Deciduous
Native Range: Southwestern Europe
USDA Hardiness Zone: 2-6
Mature Height: 70-75’
Mature Spread: 20-30’
Bloom Time: Non-flowering
Native to Minnesota: No
Shade Tolerant: Light shade
European Larch is one of the few deciduous conifers that grow well in Minnesota. The needles grow in fascicles, or bundles, of between 30-65 needles clustered together, and are bright green and quite soft. In the fall, the needles turn gold before falling off and leaving the trees bare for the winter. Cones are small, reddish brown, and grow erect on the branches. Larch trees have scaly, reddish-brown bark.
The species is popular in re-forestation efforts because it grows quickly, yields more pulp than other major forestry trees, and is resistant to many diseases and pests. In the landscape, it is popular for its unusual, golden-yellow fall needles. While not native to the United States, European larch was introduced in the 19th century and has become naturalized in the northeast. It is also closely related to the native Minnesota Tamarack (Larix lacrina).
The Univeristy of Minnesota has been researching European larch for some time, primarily through the Aspen and Larch Genetics Program, led by Dr. Andrew David at the North Central Research and Outreach Center (NCROC) in Grand Rapids.
European larch is relatively resistant to many pests and diseases, but the Eastern Larch Beetle and the Larch Casebearer can cause problems.
Other Resources
US Forest Service
Aspen and Larch Genetics Program
Morton Arboretum
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7 times accounting changed history
Throughout history accounting has helped to reshape nations
Accounting has changed the world, from the French Revolution to the rise of the Roman Empire.
The Roman emperor Augustus was the first leader to publish accounts, while George Washington silenced critics after he made his private spending records public.
History provides many such examples of people who understood accounting and used it to reshape nations, financial sectors and wider markets.
1. The Romans open the books
The Romans kept detailed records of their activities and began the tradition of publishing accounts to show where money was spent.
The first emperor, Augustus, set up imperial account books and established a tradition of publishing data from them.
Augustus used his accounts for propaganda – to publicise his personal spending – but accounting discipline also enabled him to plan projects and think about how the empire was managed.
In his book, The Reckoning, US historian Jacob Soll says Augustus’ attention to the accounts enabled Rome to flourish. Regarded as the father of the Roman Empire, Augustus famously said he found Rome a city of bricks and left it a sparkling city of marble.
Soll’s book takes readers back 700 years to show how accounting is at the heart of building businesses, states and empires
2. The Medicis use double-entry accounting to win client loyalty
The Medici family of 15th century Florence adopted double-entry accounting to keep track of the many complex transactions moving through accounts.
This enabled the Medici Bank to expand beyond traditional banking activities of the time. It set up branches and offered investment opportunities, as well as making it easy to transfer money across Europe using exchange notes that could be bought in one country and redeemed elsewhere.
The Medicis’ financial machine allowed them to dominate their age at a time when Florence was the centre of the world for trade and education.
3. Accounting builds trust in Holland
By the early 16th century, the Netherlands was the richest European province of the Spanish Empire and as business grew, accounting became a central element of Dutch education.
Strong trust between government, businesses and people developed from consistently good financial management. That gave the Dutch the faith to take massive financial risks, investing in stocks and ships that traded around the world.
4. Accounting knowledge saves Britain
Sir Robert Walpole, generally regarded as the nation’s first prime minister, was a brilliant accountant and used accounting knowledge to save financial markets when the South Sea Company scheme collapsed in the 1720s.
As first lord of the Treasury, Walpole negotiated a bailout involving the Bank of England, at a time when public confidence had plummeted and many individuals and businesses faced ruin.
In contrast, a similar collapse happened in France the same year, but the French Government had limited financial literacy and had to borrow at unsustainable rates. This led to a loss of public confidence and kept the French economy in a slump for most of the 18th century.
Learn more: Prepare yourself for a great career. Become a CPA.
5. Josiah Wedgwood develops cost accounting theories
Industrialisation in the 1700s enabled manufacturers to make a huge variety and quantity of goods, but they often didn’t know their cost of production. Industrialist and anti-slavery campaigner Josiah Wedgwood developed cost accounting and accounting theories around pricing and costs.
Wedgwood’s insights enabled his chinaware company to ride out a recession in Europe in 1772, says historian Daniel Drake in his article Dinnerware & Cost Accounting? The Story of Josiah Wedgwood: Potter and Cost Accountant.
By gaining economies of scale, Wedgwood was also able to price pottery for the middle classes, an entirely new market for his company.
Wedgwood passed accounting discipline onto his family. His grandson, Charles Darwin, kept detailed accounts books and was a successful investor. Darwin saw a link between his lists of species showing the course of evolution and the world of balance in accounting.
6. Liberty, equality, accountancy
France had enormous debts by the 1770s, when King Louis XVI appointed Swiss banker Jacques Necker to run the nation’s finances.
In 1781, Necker published an account of the crown’s finances, which previously were kept secret.
These showed the king lavished on his brothers five times more money than he spent on upkeep of capital and 10 times more than he devoted to hospitals, writes Jadon B. Smith in his paper France’s Financial Crisis: Analyzing the Role of the Finance Minister.
The revelations shocked the public and Necker was sacked, but the debate on public finances and accountability continued to rage, propelling France toward the revolution in1789.
7. George Washington publishes his accounts
Controversy around the personal finances of US presidents is not new. George Washington, the first US president, published his personal accounts when enemies accused him of profiting from the War of Independence.
A rich and innovative farmer, Washington kept detailed accounts that show he enjoyed the finer things of life: Madeira wine, luxurious clothes and expensive food.
It was a risky move to publish accounts that showed he spent more on banquets than his generals earned in a month, but the astute Washington countered criticism by refusing to accept a salary as commander-in-chief of the army.
Six years later, he was elected president. He established the new government’s executive and administrative procedures and is still considered one of the most able administrators to serve as president.
• The Reckoning, by Jacob Soll, published by Basic Books.
• Dinnerware & Cost Accounting? The Story of Josiah Wedgwood: Potter and Cost Accountant, by Daniel Drake, published by The HQ Companies.
• France’s Financial Crisis: Analyzing the Role of the Finance Minister, by Jadon B. Smith, published by Bound Away: The Liberty Journal of History.
Read next: 9 accountants who changed the world
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Intro to Internal Compressible Flows — Lesson 1
A jet engine powering an intercontinental flight, a rocket engine putting a satellite in orbit and a gas pipeline transporting gas over several thousand kilometers might look like starkly different engineering applications, but they have one thing in common: They all rely on flows of compressible fluids surrounded by walls, or internal compressible flows.
Engineers who design these applications must ensure that the losses due to compressible waves and friction are minimal. So how do they do it? Let’s find out!
Alternate video link.
Here are the accompanying handout slides for this lesson.
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Symbols In Lord Of The Flies By William Golding
884 words - 4 pages
Symbolism is used in literature to provide detail and imagery to any plot orcharacter. Authors use symbols to enhance the experience of the novel. William Goldinguses many symbols in Lord of the Flies thus enhancing its meaning and overall impacton the reader. Through the use of symbols, Golding allows readers to understand theideas and themes he is trying to convey.One symbol in the novel is Piggy's eyeglasses. His glasses represent his intellectand ability to think clearly. When it mentions in the novel that Piggy's glasses are foggyor they are being cleaned, it symbolizes that Piggy's emotions are getting in the way ofhis reasoning. "Piggy's glasses were misted again- this time with humiliation." (25)When his eyeglasses were broken, Piggy was unable to clear his emotions. "'One side'sbroken.' Piggy grabbed and put on the glasses. He looked malevolently at Jack." (71) Asa result, Piggy's decisions and actions were clouded by his emotions and desires otherthan being influenced by his intellect and reasoning. By his glasses being used as asymbol, it helps us understand Piggy's character better.Another object that could be interpreted and analyzed as a symbol is the conchshell. The conch symbolizes order and rules in a society. In the novel, when the conch ispresent and acknowledged, there is order. "Ralph felt the conch lifted from his lap. ThenPiggy was standing cradling the great cream shell and the shouting died down." (33)However, when the boys forget about the conch, they seem to also forget about theirobligation to be civilized. Jack knew that if he detached himself from the conch he isdetaching himself from civilization. Therefore, he chose not to abide by it when hecreated his own tribe. "You haven't got it with you. You left it behind... And the conchdoesn't count at this end of the island." (150) As the story develops and the boyscontinue to cut their ties with order and society, the conch is no longer used. "...theconch exploded into a thousand white fragments and ceased to exist." (181) The conchwas the boys' final tie to civilization; once that was lost there was no turning back.The face paint used by Jack's tribe is a third symbol Golding uses to representan important theme in Lord of the Flies. When they first landed on the island, the boyswere strongly connected with their past civilization and society. Their actions anddecisions were based on what they were raised to do. Once Jack put on the face paint,it was as if he became a different person. "...the mask was a thing on its own, behindwhich Jack hid, liberated from shame and self-consciousness." (64) He was moreconfident and was not going to let his conscience interfere with his decisions. Jackbecame free of all of his ties from the past. "They understood only too well the liberationinto savagery that the concealing paint brought." (172) The face paint demonstrates theboys' transformation from civilized people into savages.Symbols play an important role in the development of the plot in Lord of the Flies.William Golding uses symbols to help express several themes to readers. Piggy'seyeglasses help us understand the nature of human beings. It is human instinct to letour emotions influence our decisions and actions. However, if we allow our humaninstincts take over, we will make bad decisions that we will regret. The conch shelldemonstrates to us the repercussions of forgetting society's rules. If we choose tobecome savages and leave order, our society will become corrupted. The idea ofinnocence and the loss of it is depicted through the face paint. When they put on theface paint, the boys forget the rules embedded in them from their past lives. As readers,we must recognize the ideas and lessons that this novel is trying to portray to us. It isour obligation to make sure that we understand how to survive as a society. If we donot, we will share the fate of the boys stranded on the island. To rescue ourselves andour society from corruption, we must be able to overcome our human instincts anddesires and be able to maintain rules and order.
Lord Of The Flies by William Golding
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Symbols in the lord of the flies - Grade 10 - Essay
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Lord Of The Flies
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Lord Of The Flies
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Freudian Theory in Lord of the Flies - English 30S - Essay
1412 words - 6 pages Freudian Theory in Lord of the Flies In the story, Lord of the Flies, the exemplification of Freud's Theory of the Id, Ego and Superego looks at different characters throughout the story. Freud primarily agrees with the idea that there are two energies that derive human behaviour. These two energies are the pleasure principle and aggression. The human mind is comprised of the conscious, preconscious and the unconscious. Within these realms of
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The Bill of Exchange Act defines a cheque as: “A bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable on demand.” In other words, a cheque is an order written by the drawer to a bank to pay on demand a specified sum of money to the person named as payee on the cheque. To complete a cheque, the drawer inserts the name of the payee, the amount he is to be paid in words and figures, date and signature. Differences between a cheque and a bank note A cheque is an instrument in writing made upon a bank to pay a given sum of money to a named person…
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Answer to Question #184962 in Civil and Environmental Engineering for John Prats
Question #184962
Why is a water tower generally placed on top of a hill? If the hill is 50 m high, can it supply water to the top floor of a 100 m tall office building? If not, how does water get to that floor?
Expert's answer
Blaise Pascal in the 17th century proved that the pressure exerted on a water molecule is transmitted in a liquid in all directions.
As a result, Simon Stevin found that the liquid level is the same in containers containing a homogeneous liquid and connected well below the top of the liquid. This is how the law on communicating vessels was formulated: In communicating vessels filled with a homogeneous liquid, the pressure at all points of the liquid located in the same horizontal plane is the same regardless of the shape of the vessels, and the surfaces of the liquid in the communicating vessels (open at the top) are set at the same level.
The water tower provides water to reservoirs located at a height not exceeding the height of the tower. If the water tower is located on a hill, the maximum water delivery height can be increased. Under the influence of gravity at the same atmospheric pressure, water from the water tower will flow into the reservoirs located in the office building up to a height of 50 m.
Thus, a water tower at a height of 50 m is capable of supplying water to an office building up to a floor corresponding to 50 m.
To ensure floors above 50 m, additional pressure must be created in the water tower.
"P-P_{at}=\\rho g h=997\\frac{kg}{m^3} 9.81 \\frac{m}{s^2}50m\\approxeq489kPa"
In practice, as a rule, a pumping station is installed between the water tower and the office building, which creates additional pressure for the water entering the office building in order to raise the water level to a height of 100 m.
Another way to provide an office building with water is to increase the height of the water tower, i.e. find a hill with a height of 100m.
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Amistad Mutiny
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The Amistad Mutiny involved Spanish slaves who took over a slave ship and sailed it to the U.S. and were sent back to Africa after a dramatic Supreme Court case.
In 1839 fifty-four slaves on the Spanish schooner Amistad mutinied near Cuba, murdered part of the crew, and attempted to cause the remainder to sail to Africa. They landed on Long Island Sound in the jurisdiction of American courts. Piracy charges were quashed, it being held that it was not piracy for persons to rise up against those who illegally held them captive. Salvage claims, initially awarded by legal proceedings in Connecticut, were overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1841 and the Africans were freed. Former President John Quincy Adams represented the Africans before the Supreme Court. Abolitionists, who made the cause their own, provided their transportation back to Africa, and the organized support on their behalf played a part in the later establishment of the American Missionary Association.
A 1997 Hollywood movie "Amistad" by Steven Spielberg made the episode famous again.
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Each blood type possesses a different antigen with its own special chemical structure. Your blood type is named for the blood type antigen you possess on your red blood cells.
Visualise the chemical structure of blood types as antennae of sorts, projecting outwards from the surface of our cells into deep space. These antennae are made from long chains of a repeating sugar called fucose, which by itself forms the simplest of the blood types, the O antigen of Blood Type O. The early discoverers of blood type called it “O” as a way to make us think of “zero” or “no real antigen”. This antenna also serves as the base for the other blood types, A, B and AB.Blood Type A is formed when another sugar called N-acetyl galactosamine is added to the O antigen, or fucose. So, N-acetyl galactosamine plus fucose equals Blood Type A.
Blood Type B is also based on the O antigen, or fucose, but has a different sugar, named D-galactosamine, added on. So, fucose plus D-galactosamine equals Blood Type B.
Blood Type AB is based on the O antigen, fucose, plus the two sugars, N-acetyl galactosamine and D-galactosamine. So, fucose plus N-acetyl galactosamine plus D-galactosamine equals Blood Type AB.
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Teachers, save “Figurative Language - Hyperbole” to assign it to your class.
Karlye Hogg
Student Instructions
Figurative Language - Hyperbole
seesaw Hyperbole LI: I am learning to use figurative language in a narrative. SC: I can explain what hyperbole is. I can identify hyperbole. I can explain what a hyperbole expression means. I can create hyperbole expressions. I can use hyperbole when writing descriptions in my narrative text. 1. Read the information on the first five slides. 2. Create your own hyperbole statements, using the sentence starters. 3. Illustrate your hyperbole statements.
4th Grade, 6th Grade, 5th Grade, Writing
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1. Evaluate the policies of Lord Curzon and their long-term implications on the national movements. (UPSC 2020)
2. Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss. (UPSC 2020)
3. The 1857 Uprising was the culmination the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred in the preceding hundred years of British rule. Elucidate. (UPSC 2019)
4. Examine the linkages between 19th centuries ‘Indian Renaissance’ and the emergence of national identity. (UPSC 2019)
5. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase. Elaborate. (UPSC 2019)
6. Assess the role of British imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of power during the 1940s. (UPSC 2019)
7. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in the present times. (UPSC 2018)
8. Clarify how mid-eighteenth-century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity. (UPSC 2017)
10. Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled the rural economy. (UPSC 2017)
12. Highlight the importance of the new objectives that got added to the vision of Indian independence since twenties of the last century. (UPSC 2017)
13. Explain how the Uprising of 1857 constitutes an important watershed in the evolution of British policies towards colonial India.(UPSC 2016)
14. Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle especially during the Gandhian phase. (UPSC 2016)
15. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for freedom. (UPSC 2016)
16. How different would have been the achievement of Indian independence without Mahatma Gandhi? Discuss.(UPSC 2015)
17. It would have been difficult for the Constituent Assembly to complete its historic task of drafting the Constitution for Independent India in just three years but for the experience gained with the Government of India Act, 1935. Discuss.(UPSC 2015)
18. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many empire-shaking battles fought at Panipat?(UPSC 2014)
19. Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from mideighteenth century till independence.(UPSC 2014)
20. In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the last nail in the coffin of British colonial aspirations in India?(UPSC 2014)
22. Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the Indian struggle for freedom.(UPSC 2013)
23. In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India. Elaborate.(UPSC 2013)
24. "The Indian independence movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent the process of constant ideological evolution? Critically examine.(UPSC 2012)
25. The significance of Patharughat in the Indian freedom struggle(UPSC 2012)
26. Trace the salient sequence of events in the popular revolt that took place in February 1946 in the then, 'Royal Indian Navy' and bring out its significance in the freedom struggle. Do you agree with the view that the sailors who took part in this revolt were some of the unsung heroes of the freedom struggle?(UPSC 2011)
27. Evaluate the influence of the three important women's organizations of the early twentieth century in India on the Country's society and politics. To what extent do you think were the social objectives of these organizations constrained by their political objectives?(UPSC 2011)
28. Explain about:(UPSC 2011)
(a) 'Benoy-Badal-Dinesh' martyrdom
(b) Bharat Naujawan Sabha
(c) 'Babbar Akali' movement
Study Noted for UPSC MAINS HISTORY Optional
UPSC Mains General Studies Study Kit (GS I + GS II + GS III + GS IV)
Printed Study Material for IAS (UPSC) : General Studies PRE Cum MAINS
Courtesy: UPSC
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Walrus Islands Archeological District National Historic Landmark
Photo overlooking vibrant blue waters in Bristol Bay from the top of a very high and steep sea cliff
Round Island (Qayassiq), Walrus Islands Archeological District National Historic Landmark
J.Schaaf/NPS 2008
Quick Facts
The Walrus Islands are made up of seven small islands – Qayassiq (“place to go in a kayak”, Round Island), Summit Island (Qilkeq, named after a person in a legend), Crooked Island (Nunalukaq, “land big enough to live on awhile”), High Island (Ingriqvak, “big island”), Black Rock Island (Ingricuar, “small island”, and The Twins islands (Nunevragak, “temporary camping place”). Archeological expeditions in the 1980s found physical evidence of people using the Walrus Islands since ancient times. The archeological sites confirmed what was already documented in oral tradition and writings of European explorers. In the early 2000s, more archeological work found that people have been visiting and occupying the islands at least as far back as 4300 BCE.
The archeological evidence also shows that people have been hunting walrus in Bristol Bay for almost as long, for at least the past 6,000 years. In that time span, Pacific walrus was commercialized in the 19th century, resulting in overhunting from the late 19th century to the early 20th century. The population crash led to a ban on walrus hunting and the establishment of the Walrus Islands State Game Sanctuary in 1960. Tribal hunting rights were restored in 1995 after 35 years of advocacy for the cause and the Qayassiq Walrus Commission was established to co-manage the sanctuaries walrus population along with state and federal wildlife agencies. Walrus hunting in Bristol Bay is a Yup’ik tradition. The tradition conveys important values to the walrus hunters: ethical behavior, sustainable practices, connection to the environment and support for community.
Harvesting walrus is a tradition for many arctic and subarctic communities in Greenland, Russia, Canada, and Alaska. Alaska Native (Yup’ik, Iňupiaq and Unangax) communities in Alaska continue to depend on walrus as an important source of food and material resources. The Marine Mammal Protections Act acknowledges the rights of Alaska Natives to continue harvesting sea mammals for the benefit of their communities. Alaska Natives are the indigenous people of Alaska and are represented by 231 federally recognized tribes. A federally recognized tribe is a Native American or Alaska Native tribal nation with a government-to-government relationship with the United States.
Early Coastal Settlement of Bristol Bay, Alaska 4300 BCE – 1400 BCE
The Walrus Islands Archeological District can be placed in the same category as the Amalik Bay Archeological District National Historic Landmark on the Gulf of Alaska coast of the Alaska Peninsula and Anangula Archeological District National Historic Landmark in the western Aleutians. Together, Anangula, Amalik Bay , and the Walrus Islands represent the earliest known occupations in southewestern Alaska. These archeological districts were established between 6000 BCE and 4300 BCE (8,000 and 6,300 years old) and may be the only remaining archaeological sites that contain evidence of early coastal migrations in Alaska.
The cultural components found at the oldest village site in the Walrus Islands are contemporaneous with the Northern Archaic tradition and the Arctic Small Tool tradition. In archaeology, a cultural component is a distinct area or stratum of a site where the artifacts and features are considered to be a particular period of occupation or cultural group. [The oldest village site in the Walrus Islands was occupied during the Northern Archaic tradition period and Arctic Small Tool tradition period.] The site contains the earliest evidence for marine adaptation in the Bristol Bay region. While Northern Archaic tradition sites and most Arctic Small Tool tradition sites are known for tools and animal remains that indicate a focus on land resources, especially caribou, people in the Walrus Islands were hunting walrus. The Walrus Islands Archeological District sites are an opportunity to better understand the regional expressions of the traditions, the relationship between them, and their origins.
Population Expansion and Technological Innovation In Southwestern Alaska 700 BCE – 1000 BCE
In the Walrus Islands, there are no archaeological sites during the period between 1400 BCE and 700 BCE (3,400 and 2,700 years ago). Archaeologists call this an “occupational hiatus,” but it may not necessarily mean that people were not visiting the Walrus Islands during this time. A hiatus in archaeological sites between the Arctic Small Tool tradition and the Norton tradition is not uncommon in the northern Alaska Peninsula region. Archaeologists are still trying to figure out the details of this shift between the tool traditions. The Norton tradition is characterized by the use of both land and sea resources, larger and more sedentary villages, and more villages on the coast and islands. The Norton tradition is also well known for being the earliest use of pottery in Alaska.
By 300 BCE (2,300 years ago), there were at least 12 semi-permanent Norton tradition villages in the Walrus Islands. Animal remains, stone tools, finely carved ivory objects, charcoal, and wood encased in stratified middens can be found at many of these sites. Some artifacts were made from land mammal bones, such as caribou antler, indicating a relationship with land resources along with sea resources. Archaeologists have many questions about the relationship that the residents of the Walrus Islands had with mainland villages during this time period. Were people moving back and forth between island villages and mainland villages? Were they territories controlled by separate groups with trade relationships? Why did the population increase during this period and what effects did it have on society? The Walrus Islands preserves clues to help answer some of these questions.
Culture Contact and Fusion 1000 CE – 1800 CE
1,000 CE is a pivotal time in Alaska history. The archaeological record shows an increase in migration and trade relationships, an increased use of storing surplus foods, and increased complexity in art and technology across Alaska. At this time in the Walrus Islands, the Norton tradition is followed by the Thule tradition. The Thule tradition originated in the Bering Strait region of the Arctic. The spread of the Thule tradition southward and eastward beginning around 1,000 years ago, is a complex story of migration and the merging of cultures.
Why Were Walrus Over-Hunted?
From the 16th century to the mid-20th century the global fur trade was one of the world’s most profitable industries. Powerful colonial enterprises-- French, Spanish, British, Dutch, and Russian-- were in a global competition for animal furs.
Initially, walrus was not as highly sought after commercially as other species. However, as the whale population was depleted in the mid-1800s, walrus oil, ivory, hides, and meat became highly profitable commodities. It is estimated that over 200,000 Pacific walruses were commercially harvested between 1869 and 1880, bringing the species to the brink of extinction.
The Walrus Islands State Game Sanctuary was established in 1960 to protect wildlife. At this time, walrus hunting was banned at Round Island (Qayassiq), the main Walrus Islands haul out and traditional hunting ground. When the Marine Mammal Protection Act was passed in 1972, Alaska Native communities could hunt walrus, but hunting was still banned at Qayassiq. Attempting to capture walrus outside of their haul outs was often a disaster for the hunters and walrus alike.
Return of Alaska Native Hunting Rights: Wildlife Management and the Qayassiq Walrus Commission
Bristol Bay’s Alaska Native tribes, various state and federal agencies, the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Nushagak Fish and Game Advisory Committee, and the National Wildlife Federation formed a special task force to first, study the benefits and impact of Alaska Native walrus hunting in Bristol Bay and the Walrus Islands; and second, to outline a plan that would allow the Togiak Traditional Council, the State of Alaska, and the federal government to oversee the Walrus Islands Sanctuary walrus population and to regulate Alaska Native hunting together. After years of public pleas through letters and petitions to the State of Alaska, in addition to the reoccurrence of occasional unauthorized walrus hunts by Alaska Natives at the sanctuary, the state was spurred to seriously consider the joint management proposals put together by the special task force. The state restored Alaska Native hunting at Qayassiq in March of 1995 and the first jointly managed walrus hunt occurred the following October.
Seven Alaska Native tribes in the Bristol Bay region formed the Qayassiq Walrus Commission to represent their shared interests in preserving walrus and walrus hunting. The QWC and their government partners work together to identify and improve conditions for walrus at the sanctuary. They developed hunting guidelines to reduce losses and increase the retrieval rate of animals shot; elders also advised that fewer animals would be lost if younger people received instruction in traditional hunting. The Commission’s guidelines aimed to reduce disturbance to the walrus, including limiting the number of people participating in a hunt. The Commission also strove to accommodate the needs of Yupiit without walrus hunting traditions who wanted to participate in the hunt.
The Status of Pacific Walrus Today
Determining the Pacific walrus population is challenging for biologists because walrus live in remote areas and spend much of their time underwater. Aerial surveys of Pacific walrus began in 1975. The US Fish & Wildlife Service estimated in 2009 that there are about 200,000 Pacific walruses in the wild. Currently, Pacific walrus are most threatened by the disappearance of sea ice haul outs due to climate change.
More Information
"Walrus Hunting at Togiak, Bristol Bay, Southwest Alaska," by Jim Fall, Molly Chythlook, Janet Schichnes, and Rick Sinnott in 1991, Technical Paper No. 212 for the Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
More National Historic Landmarks in Alaska
Last updated: April 1, 2021
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How the Terracotta Army Works
By: Cristen Conger
Farmers accidently discovered Emperor Qin's terracotta army in 1974.
Farmers accidently discovered Emperor Qin's terracotta army in 1974.
China Photos/Getty Images
On the morning of March 29, 1974, seven farmers set out to dig a well. It was the drought season in the northwestern Chinese village of Xiyang, where the men toiled to break through the parched earth in search of water. When they had descended about 13 feet (4 meters) underground, the farmers struck something hard. But it wasn't root or rock. Much to their astonishment, they uncovered a decapitated head made of terracotta pottery. Baffled, they sifted through the surrounding earth. Lo and behold, it was littered with similar clay shards.
After alerting government officials of their bizarre findings, archaeologists were dispatched to the site. The experts knew that the farmers' land stood near the burial ground of Qin Shi Huangdi (pronounced cheen shhr huang dee), China's first emperor. Ancient historical texts described Qin's opulent mausoleum, embellished with mountains of gold and constellations made of pearls and precious gems. As they delved deeper into the initial dig site, the archaeologists quickly realized that the emperor's burial complex extended much farther than previously assumed.
That clay head the farmers found belonged to a statue of a Chinese warrior. But it wasn't some random statue, submerged alone in the ground. Emperor Qin had commissioned thousands of terracotta soldiers to guard his magnificent tomb.
For more than 2,200 years, an estimated 7,000 life-size terracotta generals, infantrymen, archers and cavalrymen flanked the eastern side of the mausoleum. An armory filled with intricate suits of armor constructed from limestone plates could protect them against whatever foe dared to enter the emperor's tomb. Their open hands gripped bronze swords, spears and crossbows, poised to attack at any moment.
The terracotta army constitutes only a fraction of the artifacts contained in Emperor Qin's mausoleum. More than 14 years following the discovery, archaeologists have excavated at a deliberately slow pace to protect the artifacts. Yet the more archaeologists find, the more they learn about this ancient Chinese culture and Emperor Qin's rule. Though the clay warriors stand silently, they have many tales to tell.
China's First Emperor
Before the Qin dynasty began in 221 B.C., the area that would become modern-day China was composed of seven major kingdoms. In 481 B.C., the leaders of the various kingdoms began jostling for greater authority, ushering in an era called the Warring States.
Qin Shi Huangdi (then known as Ying Zheng) positioned the Qin state to overtake the others by flexing its military muscle. He built up his army through conscription, or forced enrollment, and divided it into specialized units, which was a strategic innovation for that time [source: High Museum]. The military also utilized horses for the cavalry and perfected the crossbow, which allowed them to obliterate enemies. After achieving his goal of conquest, Emperor Qin set out to consolidate his power over these disparate lands.
To build his new empire, Qin needed money. But the six former states each traded with different forms of currency, such as squat, bladelike knife money in the northeast and the long, thin spade money in the central states. To remedy this, Emperor Qin introduced the banliangcoin shaped like a tiny square donut. In ancient Chinese culture, the square symbolized the Earth and the circle represented the sky, which reveals Qin's high regard for the vastness of his empire. Emperor Qin also systemized weights and measurements along with the written language.
These standards unified the empire and also enabled the legalistic ruler to tax his citizens and enforce strict labor laws. With a mix of tyranny and brilliance, Qin organized the population into units of five to 10 families. Since the unit's well-being depended on everyone's obedience to laws, it ensured cooperation. Moreover, hundreds of thousands of Qin's subjects had no choice but to toil -- and sometimes die -- constructing the roads and canals the emperor desired. This citizen workforce also built the first Great Wall in China to protect Qin's empire from northern enemies.
Of course, not everyone readily succumbed to Emperor Qin's iron fist. He escaped three assassination attempts, which bred his intense fear of death. Above all, Qin yearned for immortality. He sent out convoys in search of a mythical island of everlasting youth and reportedly commissioned alchemists to concoct pills and potions to sustain his life [source: High Museum]. In case those tactics failed, Emperor Qin enlisted his subjects to build a dazzling burial complex with an impenetrable army to protect him in the afterlife.
An Army Fit for an Emperor
A bowman from the terracotta army.
A bowman from the terracotta army.
Tim Graham/Getty Images
On the front lines of the terracotta army, bowmen kneel with those formidable Qin crossbows at the ready. These archers wear armor of interlocking leather squares and rest their thumbs on their weapon's trigger. Their hair is tied tightly into a topknot that perches slightly askew on the crown of their heads. Even the soles of their shoes display fine tread marks.
Modeling the army required 1,000-person assembly lines [source: High Museum]. Including their bases, the completed figures stand between 6 and 6.5 feet (1.8 and 2 meters). The construction process began with the laborers pounding out the bases for these terracotta Goliaths. Then, they affixed legs, made from uniform clay molds, onto the foundation. Arms, torsos, hands and heads also were mass-produced, although artisans used variously sized molds for different statues to lend variety and realism to the pottery army.
Archaeologists have identified at least eight unique head molds that reflect the ethnic diversity of the Qin empire that still exists in China [source: High Museum]. Before transporting the clay warriors to the kiln to bake them, the craftsman sculpted individual features by hand. Some warriors bear a serene facial expression, while others display a fiercer countenance with distinctive eyes, noses and cheekbones. Even hair and headdress received careful attention. Higher-ranked soldiers boast more elaborate caps and coiffures. Civil servants and armed infantrymen wear simple beanies, for instance, while generals sport pheasant-tail hats that tie beneath their chins in floppy bows. Men grew their hair long in ancient Chinese culture, and larger topknots or buns indicate more kills on the battlefield.
The ancient Chinese laborers didn't stop short of ornamenting the warriors in vivid color. After being fired in the kiln, the figures received coatings of lacquer and pigments of purples, greens and reds mixed with egg. Unfortunately, the lacquer's chemical composition reacted negatively to humidity. Once archeologists extracted the statues from the soil, the paint peeled away, which accounts for the warriors' reddish-gray hue similar to unpainted flower pots [source: Hessler]. Nevertheless, the statues still showcase painstaking detail previously unseen in Chinese sculpture.
Each warrior also bears a small stamp of the assembly line foreman's name. That way, any flaws could be traced back to the person responsible. Such meticulous accountability underscores Qin's obsession with his burial complex mimicking reality as accurately as possible.
Significance of the Terracotta Army
An inscription Emperor Qin commissioned on the side of Mount Yi in eastern China described him as "the August and Divine Emperor [who] has unified all under one lineage [source: High Museum]." While Qin reveled in his imperial might, he also had good reason to obsess over death. Thousands had perished in the brutal wars to expand his empire, and he dreaded getting his just desserts in the afterlife [source: High Museum]. This explains why the terracotta army is stationed on the eastern side of his tomb. Qin, who hailed from the west, overthrew the kingdoms in the east; the army would block any of those revenge seekers.
By the time of the Qin dynasty, the question of life after death had been discredited by notable philosophers, such as Confucius, but it was still common to bury someone with a symbolic token from his or her life [source: Berger]. For Qin, that token was a scale model replica of his domain. Fancying himself as the ruler of the cosmos, he certainly didn't wish for death to draw the final curtain on his reign.
In perfecting a burial complex that rivals the size of Manhattan, Qin didn't stop at his 7,000-strong army. According to "Records of the Historian" by Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, laborers booby-trapped the room containing Qin's tomb with crossbows. Inside, the historian claimed that mountains chiseled from gold and constellations of pearls embellished the chamber. The text also mentions rivers of mercury, and tests have verified abnormally high mercury levels in the ground above the burial site [source: Hoh].
Out of the 600 pits archaeologists have unearthed across the complex, one relic in particular marks a milestone in Chinese art history. Separated from the terracotta army, a group of 11 acrobats and entertainers sharply contrast the design of the soldiers in their level of anatomical detail. The craftsmen sculpted a strongman with visible biceps and muscle striations in his back. Remarkably, that figure is the earliest example in China of human sculpture with that degree of realism [source: Hessler].
Indeed, Emperor Qin set a high bar for other dynastic rulers' tombs. Some made impressive efforts, but none came close to matching the magnitude of the first emperor's complex.
Other Terracotta Armies
Lots More Information
Related HowStuffWorks Articles
More Great Links
• Berger, Patricia. "Body Doubles: Sculpture for the Afterlife." Orientations Magazine. February 1998.
• Goho, A. "The March of History." Science News. Nov. 29, 2003.
• Hessler, Peter. 'Rising to Life." National Geographic. Vol. 200. Issue 4. October 2001. (Feb. 14, 2009)
• Hoh, Erling. "China's Great Enigma." Archeology. Vol. 54. Issue 5. September/October 2001. (Feb. 13, 2009)
• Lobell, Jarrett A. "Warriors of Clay." Archeology. Vol. 56. Issue 2. March/April 2003. (Feb. 13, 2009)
• Loewe, Michael. "China's First Empire." History Today. Vol. 57. No. 9. September 2007.
• "The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army." High Museum of Art. Atlanta. Feb. 12, 2009.
• Viegas, Jennifer. "China's Terracotta Army Covered in Egg." Discovery News. April 18, 2008. (Feb. 13, 2009)
• Viegas, Jennifer. "Terracotta army made in two batches." Discovery News. Feb. 6, 2007. (Feb. 13, 2009)
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When was the Circular Saw Invented – A Brief History
circular saw invented
Circular saws have become one of the most famous utilitarian tools in the world today.
You would think nothing of them since they are so common today, but they were a breakthrough when they first came around.
Today, the world knows of so many circular saws, yet most people aren’t familiar with their origin.
Quick Summary
In this article, we will discuss the following things:
• A brief history of the circular saw and its invention
• How most modern circular saws are different from the old ones
Samuel Miller’s Invention
The invention of the circular saw is credited to Samuel Miller as he was the first person to obtain a patent for it under the number 1152, in Southampton.
It was a simple wind-powered machine that is believed to have made use of the circular blade.
The Controversy
The patent Samuel Miller submitted was for the machine itself and not the circular saw blade. Many believe that circular saw blades had been in use at the time.
The wind would cause the rotary motion of the blade which would cut the wood.
Tabitha Babbitt And The Spinning Wheel
The original invention of the circular saw is credited to Tabitha Babbitt who attached a circular blade to her spinning wheel. This led to the machine producing a cut with each movement of the blade.
She had come up with the idea when she noticed how the straight two-man saw could not effectively cut through lumber
spinning wheel
An Invention With No Patent
Tabitha Babbitt never patented her invention. This is because she was Shaker and her religion forbade patenting of inventions.
Shakers invented many things such as the spinning wheel, circular saw, and even false teeth.
A Contested Origin
Many contest the claim that Tabitha Babbitt was the original inventor of the circular saw.
The main reason for this was an obvious lack of patent, historical lore that claimed circular saws were in use much long ago, and claims of the invention by the Miller family.
There is a three-decade gap between Miller and Babbitt’s inventions.
After research we found that the issue was that whilst Miller had created the machine to make use of the ‘circular saw blade’, Babbitt had claimed to invent the blade itself in Harvard, Massachusetts.
Company of Rockford’s Table Saw
With the original blueprints for a circular saw and the effect of the industrial revolution, the W. F. and John Barnes Company of Rockfords came up with the treadle-powered circular saw.
This was a revolutionary change in the 19th century as it freed up the user’s hands when operating the machine.
rockford's table saw
What is a treadle-powered machine?
A treadle-powered machine is any machine that is powered by a pedal that causes circular motion due to reciprocating movements. This mechanism allows a person to power a simple motor machine without the use of electricity.
Raymond Dewalt and the Modern Circular Saw
The technology that we see in most saws today was inspired by the radial arm circular saw made by Raymond Dewalt in 1922.
It was not as portable as the saws we see today but during the time it was in common use.
modern circular saw
From Invention to Business Tycoon
The product became so successful that he started his own saw company only two years later. Even today the saw manufacturing industry is dominated by Dewalt products.
You would be surprised to know that even today, these products still rely on the iconic radial arm innovation even if they have changed over time.
What is Radial Arm Technology?
Radial arm technology introduced the idea of having the blade fixed to a moveable arm. This meant that the blade could be moved using a rotary arm, tilted, and positioned in various ways to achieve various cuts.
Eventually, this led to innovations in woodwork and new sorts of sawing methods.
Effects of the Radial Arm
The technology influenced woodworkers to make different types of cuts and cut their materials at new angles. It could be paired with different blades and accessories to make various kinds of joints.
Art Emmons and The Portable Circular Saw
The only notable innovation to Dewalt’s circular saw was the Art Emmons portable circular saw. This made way for the handheld circular saw in later years.
No longer were people confined to table saws for their woodworking, they could now move this power tool around easily.
portable circular saw
Porter-Cable and The Portable Saw
Art Emmons joined Porter Cable in 1926 and within three years invented the idea of the first circular saw that was portable. This saw was effectively cut lumber as well as be used for home improvement projects.
It was one of a kind circular saw in history. Shortly after, the materials that the inventor used were durable and sturdy. This saw was popular during the later years during the second world war.
Circular Saws Then Vs Now
From the shaker invention of the spinning wheel circular saw, to the saw table and treadle-powered ones, the history of circular saws has seen many products invented.
These power tools have come a long way since and in the 21st century they are used to cut different materials.
The electric motor became the most common innovation for woodworking and various support and accessories were added.
How was the perfect saw invented?
Inventing the perfect saw led to a series of patents and created new products. Now, these tools can cut through metal and tile. One of the most commonly used woodworking items is the circular saw, here are some of its most modern forms.
Sidewinder Circular Saw
Sidewinder Circular Saw
This saw is also known as a direct drive saw which is easier for beginners to use.
Hypoid Circular Saw
Hypoid Circular Saw
Hypoid circular saws are more powerful due to their powerful hypoid gears which increase performance and durability.
Wormdrive Circular Saw
Wormdrive Circular Saw
These saws provide high torque and relentless power for difficult projects.
Biscuit Joiners
Biscuit Joiners
This circular saw cuts crescent-shaped slots in wood pieces that have to be joined.
The Takeaway
Circular saws have been around for a long time and they have a very exciting history. The saws you see today were inspired by the ambitious ideas of a certain few.
You might take them for granted, but no matter what the era, circular saws will always have an important role to play in construction and woodworking.
So the next time you decide to pick up a circular saw, you just might wonder who came up with the idea for that specific one.
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Step 1: Examine the given figure and find the known and unknowns
Step 2: Recall the theorems of the circle
Step 3: Identify the appropriate theorem for the given question
NOTE: Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
Step 4: Apply the theorem to find the unknown value.
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Louis Raemaekers and World War One
Louis Raemaekers and World War One
Louis Raemaekers and World War One
During the first months of World War One, Dutch artist and political cartoonist Louis Raemaekers was horrified not only by the general consequences of modern warfare, but particularly by the actions of the German government and military. Living in the Netherlands, he saw and met Belgian refugees that had fled from German troops. In response, he began drawing cartoons for the Amsterdam Telegraaf, criticising German brutality and leadership as well as celebrating the Allied cause. These drawings, distributed globally through print media, had great impact on public perceptions of the war.
Political leaders including Herbert Henry Asquith and Theodore Roosevelt lauded his cartoons, and the French sculptor Auguste Rodin also complimented his skill as an artist. German leaders, particularly Kaiser Wilhelm II, were outraged by his portrayal of them as brutal monsters or idiotic caricatures, and the Kaiser allegedly offered a 12,000-mark bounty for the artist. Raemaekers was also brought to court in his own country for endangering Dutch neutrality, but he was acquitted.
In his cartoons, Raemaekers employed a combination of biting critique and comical satire. Artists like Théophile Steinlen and Jean-Louis Forain influenced his style of drawing as well as his socially oriented subject matter. He travelled around Belgium and France to witness the war first-hand and incorporated refugees' and soldiers' accounts of their experiences into his drawings. He also toured the United States, encouraging the public to stand with him against the Central Powers.
While these cartoons are propaganda in their championing of the Allied cause and denunciation of the Central Powers, the Allies focused on Raemaekers as a talented artist and honourable social activist. They particularly drew attention to his Dutch nationality, using it as proof of his role as an impartial and fair judge of the conflict. The Fine Art Society Ltd. of London published three volumes of Raemaekers' cartoons in limited edition, luxe formats, entitled 'The Great War: A Neutral's Indictment.' These volumes emphasised the importance of producing 'a permanent record of and memorial to his genius,' since many of his works were published in newspapers and would eventually decay (1).
Each image in these volumes was paired with a relevant text, including contextualisation, commentary, captions, and literary allusions. These allow not only a clearer understanding of Raemaekers' work but also of the major events that occurred during the war.
This exhibition presents a selection of Raemaekers' prolific work from World War One. Theses images demonstrate the multifaceted nature of his war cartoons as examples of art, propaganda, and social commentary. While these works served the purposes of propaganda, they allude to the history of art and make clear statements about justice and humanity.
(1) H. Perry Robinson, The Great War: A Neutral's Indictment,' The Fine Art Society, Ltd. (1916).
Louis Raemaekaers' drawings are reproduced by kind permission of the Louis Raemaekers Foundation. The Louis Raemaekers Foundation have published a book of his works entitled, 'Louis Raemaekers - with pen and pencil as a weapon'.
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Electrical Circuit
Electricity and Magnetism
Series connections - potential difference shared
Teaching Guidance for 14-16 Supporting Physics Teaching
Adding a second identical bulb to a simple circuit, in series
Wrong Track: The second bulb will be brighter than the first because the current gets to it first after leaving the cell and so more energy will be shifted there.
Right Lines: The two bulbs will be of equal brightness because the current is the same through both of them and the cell potential difference is shared equally.
Teaching responses
Thinking about the learning
The key insight here is that, when the second bulb is added to the loop, the current is reduced (and the charged particles move more slowly) in all parts of the circuit. This reduced current is the same in both bulbs and an identical potential difference is set up across each, with the bulbs being of equal brightness.
Thinking about the teaching
We suggest two approaches: the rope loop; and illustrate with numbers.
The rope loop model is very effective in helping to talk and think through what happens when the second bulb is added:
Instead of one person gripping the rope we now have two.
With the same pull/push from the cell, the rope circulates more slowly due to the extra resistance.
The two people gripping the rope feel the same heating effect in their hands.
This heating effect felt by each person is less than when there was just one person gripping the rope.
Supposing the cell potential difference is 12 volt.
With one bulb, the full 12 volt potential difference is across the bulb: in other words, 12 joule of energy are shifted for each coulomb of charge passing.
With two bulbs, there is a 6 volt potential difference across each bulb: in other words, 6 joule of energy are shifted for each coulomb of charge passing.
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Picture for article "History of San Luis Obispo"
History of San Luis Obispo
Table Of Contents
San Luis Obispo is a city in the US state of California, located 190 miles north of Los Angeles and 230 miles south of San Francisco. The City of San Luis Obispo serves as the commercial, governmental and cultural hub of California's Central Coast.
Image source: https://www.loveexploring.com/news/84605/what-to-see-do-where-to-stay-san-luis-obispo-california
Early History
One of California's oldest communities began with the founding of Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa in 1772 by Father Junípero Serra as the fifth mission in the California chain of 21 missions. The mission was named after Saint Louis, a 13th Century Bishop of Toulouse, France. It grew up as a farming center and came under US control in 1846. During the lawless and violent Gold Rush period (1848–1855), much of the land continued to be held by Mexicans, who established an economy mainly based on the hides and tallow industry.
The first half of the 19th century was the age of the great rancheros. Common to both the Spanish and Mexican periods in California was the chronic shortage of currency. This forced Californians to turn to various methods of barter to conduct business. The universal item of barter was the cattle hide. This form of exchange was so popular; cattle hides came to be known as California banknotes.
The hide and tallow industry declined by the mid-1840s, which was greatly accelerated by the discovery of gold in California in 1848. The catastrophic floods followed by a devastating drought in the mid 1869s destroyed the cattle industry in California, bringing to an end the grand ranchero era. Mexican ranchers sold many of their holdings, and the area became a center for beef- and dairy cattle production.
After 1894 San Luis Obispo became a railroad division place. Oil is shipped through Port San Luis, located along the Pacific coast 9 miles southwest of the city. San Luis Obispo once had a burgeoning Chinatown. Laborers were brought from China by Ah Louis to construct the Pacific Coast Railway, roads connecting San Luis Obispo to Paso Robles and Paso Robles to Cambria, and 1884 to 1894 tunneling through Cuesta Ridge for the Southern Pacific Railroad.
The town’s Chinatown revolved around Ah Louis Store and other Palm Street businesses owned and run by Chinese business people. After the Mexican–American War annexed California to the United States, San Luis Obispo was the first town incorporated in the newly formed San Luis Obispo County. It remained the center of the county to the present.
San Luis Obispo boasts safe streets and a low crime rate, but that has not always been the case. Back in the days of stagecoach bandits and cowboys, San Luis Obispo had a lousy reputation for complete lawlessness. In the 1800s, it was referred to as “Barrio del Tigre” or “Tiger Town” in English.
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What words should be in italics?
Using Italics to Denote Titles, Foreign Words, and Proper Names. Use italics to denote the titles of long creative works. You should italicize the titles of long creative works in your paper. These include books, long poems, plays, television shows and films, artworks, or musical compositions.
What does an italic look like?
Slanted letters that look like this: We the people. Italics are most often used to emphasize certain words, to indicate that they are in a foreign language, or to set off the title of a literary or artistic work.
Do you italicize TV shows in MLA?
In MLA 7 and 8, titles of books, journals, websites, albums, blogs, movies, tv shows, magazines, and newspapers should all be italicized. Titles of articles, episodes, interviews, songs, should be in quotes. Quotation marks or italics are not required for articles, webpages, songs, episodes, etc.
How do you write the name of a band in an essay?
Band names are capitalized only. (not all caps) Album titles and song titles require quotation marks, nothing more. Italics are necessary only in MLA or APA format.
How do you quote a band?
Citing a Band Name as a Song Composer Format the information as follows: Band Name. (Year). Song title. On Album Name [Media format].
Do you capitalize the in band names?
If the name of the band is its star, “the” is not capitalized, e.g. the Robert Cray Band and the Steve Morse Band. “The” is not capitalized in official titles, e.g. the President and the Prime Minister. “The” is always capitalized if it’s the first word of a title, e.g. The Ninth Man and The Way West.
Do you italicize artists?
Titles of paintings, drawings, photographs, statues, and other works of art are italicized, whether the titles are original, added by someone other than the artist, or translated. The names of works of antiquity (whose creators are often unknown) are usually set in roman.
How do you reference a piece of art in an essay?
Mention the artist and the artwork in the text of your paper. MLA style does not require parenthetical in-text citations for paintings. Instead, give the artist’s name, followed by the title of the work in italics.
Do you put the name of a painting in quotes?
Visual artwork, including paintings, sculptures, drawings, mixed media, and whatnot, is italicized, never put in quotation marks. You do not need to underline your own title or put it in quotation marks. Capitalization of Titles. Normally, most words in a title are capitalized.
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How did khipus—knotted cords that encode information—function within the economic systems of the postcolonial Andes? Best known as the method by which the Incas recorded administrative data, khipu use continued into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Few studies of modern khipus, however, have analyzed how khipu cords were integrated with the institutions of the modern state, such as the hacienda. This article examines a set of modern khipus from the Island of the Sun in Bolivia. These khipus, which contain dried potatoes and beans, are the first ever known to include agricultural produce. Our analysis demonstrates how the circulation of khipu styles within the Island of the Sun was linked to hacienda production, underscoring the intimate relationship between khipus and hacienda culture. Modern herding and crop khipus did not arise out of a generalized Andean consciousness but were products of specific historical and economic circumstances.
You do not currently have access to this content.
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The beginning of a theory
For more than a century, the Becquerel family worked in the same laboratory in the Jardin des Plantes, later called the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, in Paris. In 1878, Henri Becquerel assumed the position of assistant in the Muséum, taking the place left free by his own father.
Antoine Henri Becquerel was the third in a line of four generations of scientists. At 37, he was elected member of the Académie des Sciences (French Academy of Sciences), following the footsteps of his grandfather, Antoine-César, and father, Edmund, who both became presidents of this renowned scientific society.
In 1896, a few copies of Rontgen’s first X-ray images were sent to the Académie. After discussing with Henri Poincaré, Henri Becquerel decided to investigate a possible relation between the emission of this type of radiation and natural luminescence. His initial theory was that minerals made phosphorescent by visible light emit X-rays. Considering that the two previous generations of the Becquerel family had extensively studied the phenomenon of luminescence, it does not come as a surprise that Henri set his mind to research this phenomenon.
The experimental design
The day after his discussion with Poincaré, Becquerel designed an experiment that could confirm his hypothesis. From his father, he had inherited a vast collection of uranium salts, which phosphoresce upon exposure to light.
Two uranium crystals were put over a photographic plate and wrapped in black paper so that light could not reach them. Becquerel’s idea was to expose the plates to sunlight and, in theory, to observe a photographic outline of the crystals. He expected thus to confirm his theory that luminescence and X-rays go hand-in-hand.
The first experiments seemed to confirm his hypothesis. After exposing the photographic plates to solar irradiation, Henri observed the expected outline of the uranium crystals. However, when Becquerel sought validation of his results, things took an unexpected turn.
The accidental twist
Becquerel was doing his experiments in February when one does not expect much sunlight in Paris for several days. Though this may seem like trivial information, it actually determined the new path of Becquerel’s experiment.
It turned out that month was particularly cloudy and grey in the year 1896. Therefore, Henri could not expose the experimental plates to bright sunlight for several days. The photographic plates were, for that reason, kept in a drawer, waiting for the sun to shine again.
Outline of the uranium crystals,
exposed on March 1st, 1896
On the 1st of March, Henri opened the drawer and examined the plates, expecting to see a blunt outline of the uranium crystals. But, to his surprise, he was able to clearly see the image of the uranium crystals. On top of that, he found that the images were as bright as the first pictures that had been exposed to bright sunlight.
It didn’t take Becquerel much time to realize that his initial hypothesis was wrong. Sunlight was unnecessary for the emission of radiation. Thus, another unknown source was responsible for this phenomenon. On March 2nd, 1896, Becquerel reported in the Académie that the uranium salts emitted radiation with no stimulation from sunlight.
After a few months of further experiments, he reported his additional conclusions to the Académie. The most likely explanation was that uranium salts stored energy and non-phosphorescent salts also emit invisible radiation with the same intensity as the phosphorescent ones.
Further work on radioactivity
Though the discovery of radioactivity is attributed to Becquerel, the term was first used by Pierre and Marie Curie. Prompted by Becquerel’s results, Marie Curie investigated whether it was possible to achieve the same results with other minerals. It took the Curie couple four years to discover three new radioactive substances- polonium, thorium, and radium, which were much more active than uranium. They reported that their discoveries were made possible “only due to the new investigation procedure made possible by the Becquerel rays”.
The work on radioactivity was explored in parallel by many others researchers, including Rutherford. Together with Frederick Soddy, Rutherford studied the properties of radioactive decay and explained radioactivity as the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei, which result in the emission of energy in the form of alpha, beta or gamma rays.
In 1903, Becquerel won the Nobel Prize in Physics, “in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity”. The prize was shared with Pierre and Marie Curie, “in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel”. Five years later, Rutherford won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in the disintegration of elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances. In that same year, Antoine Henri Becquerel died of a heart attack, at the age of 55.
The discovery of radioactivity was surrounded by a series of accidents and unplanned events, starting with the discovery of the X-rays by Roentgen. But attributing the credits of such an important discovery solely to chance or fortune does no justice to the hard work of Becquerel.
Allisy, A. (1996). Henri Becquerel: The Discovery of Radioactivity Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 68 (1), 3-10 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a031848 – Henri Becquerel
Wired – March 1, All Aglow
APS Physics – March 1, 1896: Henri Becquerel Discovers Radioactivity
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Characterizing Exoplanet Interiors
We show that we are able to constrain the material composition of exoplanets given their mass and radius.
In the past couple of decades, we have discovered many new exoplanets in no small part due to the Kepler space telescope. Today, there are over 4000 known exoplanets. Determining the internal compositions of the exoplanets is of great scientific importance, however, exoplanets are too far away to send instruments to them, and many are also too far away to do accurate spectroscopy.
Building on the work of Seager et. al. 2007 and 2018, we show that it's possible to constrain the interior composition of exoplanets and classify the composition type from just the mass MM and radius RR.
In order to constrain the interior composition, we must make some assumptions about the planets. Our model has 4 central assumptions:
• The planet's mass distribution is spherically symmetric.
• The planet is in hydrostatic equilibrium.
• The planet has a polytropic equation of state.
• The planet is differentiated.
Spherical symmetry
Spherical symmetry ensures that the density ρ\rho only depends on the radius. So the mass of a infinitely thin sphere shell at radius rr is given by
dmdr=4πr3ρ(r).\frac{dm}{dr} = 4 \pi r^3 \rho(r).
We can get the total mass of the planet by integrating
M=0R4πr3ρ(r)dr.M = \int_0^R 4 \pi r^3 \rho(r) dr .
Hydrostatic equilibrium
An object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, when the outward force from its pressure gradient FpF_p, is equal but opposite in magnitude to the gravitational force FgF_g. That is
Fp=Fg F_p=-F_g
Gravity is based upon the mass of the planet. The pressure gradient is based on the pressure between the layers of mass in the planet, which results in a force, due to the pressure difference between the layers. We can the above equation to:
dP(r)dr=Gm(r)ρ(r)r2.\frac{d P(r)}{d r}=-\frac{Gm(r)\rho(r)}{r^2}.
where P(r)P(r) is the pressure at radius rr, GG is the gravitational constant, ρ(r)\rho(r), m(r)m(r) are the density and mass of the planet respectively.
Equation of state
In general, we have an equation of state P(r)=f(ρ(r),T(r))P(r)=f(\rho(r),T(r)) where ff is a function that depends on the material, and TT is the temperature. We neglect the temperature dependency, and we will also neglect phase changes since they have a little effect on the mass-radius relationship. The relationship between pressure (pp) and density (ρ\rho) for a compressible fluid can as such described by the Polytropic equation of state
p(ρ)=Kρn+1n p(\rho)=K\rho^\frac{n+1}{n}
Where K,nK,n are constants with nn being the polytropic index.
Taking these assumptions together, we get the Lane-Emden equation.
Since we are modelling the planets using materials such as iron, silicate and water, which are incompressible below certain pressures, the polytropic equation of state is a poor model for the relationship between density and pressure. We can extend the equation of state to approximately incorporate the model of the solids at low pressures by adding a constant ρ0\rho_0 term.
ρ(P)=ρ0+KPn+1n \rho (P) = \rho_0 + KP^{\frac{n+1}{n}}
where ρ0\rho_0 is the incompressible density. We will call this the modified polytropic equation of state.
Computer model
To model the planets we use the computer model developed by Zeng and Seager and translated to Python by Troels Haugbølle. The model assumes a 3-material differentiated planet where the planet is modelled as 3 shells that grow from the center with the most dense material closest to the center and becomes progressively less dense away from the center.
We denote the fractional compositions of the materials with α,β,γ\alpha,\beta,\gamma where α\alpha is the fraction of the innermost material and γ\gamma the fraction of the outermost material. We have that 1=α+β+γ1=\alpha+\beta+\gamma. We have used materials that are found in planets and moons in our solar system: iron, silicate, water and hydrogen. For small earth-like planets we use a iron-silicate-water model, and silicate-water-hydrogen model for larger planets where the iron-silicate-water model is insufficient for reaching the large radii.
While we are inside the shell of a given material, the equation of state at that radius is modelled by the modified polytropic equation detailed for the given material. The equation of state gives the relationship between ρ\rho and PP such that we can solve the central system of coupled differential equations derived from spherical symmetry and hydrostatic equilibrium.
There are 5 parameters in this model (α,β,γ,M,R\alpha, \beta, \gamma, M, R), but since γ=1αβ\gamma=1-\alpha-\beta, we only have 4 free parameters. From any 33 of the them we can determine the whole system. However, since we only have measured the mass and radius of the planet and do not have more information from the gravitational moment or spectroscopy of the atmosphere, we cannot uniquely determine the system. Instead, we get a degeneracy. We get an infinite number of pairs of possible (α,β\alpha,\beta). The computer model solves this numerically for a given α[0,1]\alpha\in[0,1] by integrating the central equation starting at r=Rr=R and stopping at r=0r=0 using a 4th-order Runge-Kutta solver, and finds a β\beta which satisfies M(0)<ϵM(0)<\epsilon for some small tolerance ϵ=105\epsilon=10^{-5}. It finds β\beta using bisection starting with the lower bound of βl=0\beta_l=0 and upper bound βu=1α\beta_u=1-\alpha. Once we have a valid pair of (α,β\alpha,\beta), we can find the associated γ=1αβ\gamma=1-\alpha-\beta.
We have performed a broad analysis using the entire NASA exoplanet archive (4367 planets) and then reducing the dataset to a more manageable size. In the first reduction, we required that the planets had measured radii and masses which are used for our analysis as well as measured star luminosity and distance to star. This reduced the dataset to 433 planets. After having identified a number of CHZ ranges we used the combined most relaxed range (LB: 0.725AU, UB: 1.24AU) which reduces the dataset further to 10 planets summarised below. Of these 10 planets there is one planet, Kepler-22 b, which we are able to model using the iron-silicate-water model while 4 others were classified using the silicate-water-hydrogen model.
Name Mass (Me)(M_e) Radius (Re)(R_e)
Kepler-1514 b 1700 12
Kepler-1654 b 160 9.1
Kepler-22 b 36 2.3
Kepler-289 c 130 12
Kepler-34 b 69 8.5
Kepler-35 b 40 8.1
Kepler-47 c 8900 4.6
Kepler-62 e 36 1.6
Kepler-62 f 35 1.4
bet Pic b 6400 17
We can plot the modelable planets in a ternary diagram as seen below. We note that Kepler-289 c doesn't show up. This is because given the resolution of the numerical solver, we only get one valid pair of (α,β)(\alpha,\beta). The planet has almost no silicate, and about 1% water while 99% of the mass is hydrogen.
We see that the Kepler-22 b planet stands out in particular.
Kepler-22 b
Kepler-22 b is an interesting planet. It is the only rocky planet in the habitable zone of its host star that we know of. Moreover, we find that it's possible that up to about 20% of its mass is water, but we don't know if the water on the surface is fluid, or a liquid, or perhaps a gas. We can estimate the surface temperature through the equilibrium temperature using Stefan-Boltzmann's law of black-body radiation.
L=4πRs2σTe4L = 4\pi R_s^2 \sigma T_e^4
where RsR_s is the radius of the star, and TeT_e is the effective temperature. We can then figure out how much luminance hits the planet by multiplying by the fraction of the scaled-up sphere the earth-disc fills up.
Lp=LπRp24πD2L_p = L \frac{\pi R_p^2}{4\pi D^2}
where DD is the distance from the star to the planet, and RpR_p is the radius of the planet.
By assuming both the planet and the host star are black-body radiators, we have that the incoming flux LpL_p must be equal to the outcoming flux, so we can find the equilibrium temperature TeqT_{eq} of the planet by solving
Lp=4πRs2σTeq4.L_p = 4\pi R_s^2 \sigma T_{eq}^4.
However, the planet is not a perfect black-body radiator, some of the light is reflected before it is absorbed. So assuming an Earth-like albedo, the equilibrium temperature, or the surface temperature is 262K which would mean the water would be a gas. However, that is assuming no atmosphere and greenhouse effect. If we model an Earth-like atmosphere and greenhouse effect - which is a lower-bound since the Kepler-22 b is much heavier than Earth which would give it a denser atmosphere - we get an equilibrium temperature of 287K which would give us liquid water. Which is consistent with other analyses.
While other analyses have been able to rule out an Earth-like composition for Kepler-22 b, we are not able to do so, as we would need the uncertainty in both the mass and the radius, but we do not have a lower-bound for the mass. This is common for planets which have been discovered using the transit-method. However, if we plot the approximately 2000 planets which have measured mass and radius, and classify then using our gas- and rocky models, we find that there is a lot of give before Kepler-22 b enters the "uncertain" region where it an be classified using both models.
We have seen that it is possible to constrain the interior composition of exoplanets from just the mass and the radius. Moreover, we are able to classify if the planets are rocky planets or have a gas layer. We looked at Kepler-22 b a rocky planet in the habitable zone and found that it is possible that there is liquid water on the planet which makes it interesting for people who are looking for extraterrestrial life.
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Magnetism in Superconductors
In this project, we will analyse data collected by Ana-Elena Tutueanu where w...
Hysteresis in Ferromagnetic Materials
We will investigate data collected by Sara Eisenhardt of the magnetisation cu...
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Word Pictures
This quarter you may want to create a notebook with word pictures of each of the characters that will be studied. Focus on the character of each person and the lessons that can be learned from the study.
Abraham was a quiet man who was obedient, had a quick response, and received a blessing. Describe the temperament of Abraham. Was he calm, quiet, mild, meek, easygoing, and well-balanced? Use examples from the life of Abraham to illustrate each of these traits.
Study the lesson to find Abraham's good traits and his bad traits.
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"url": "https://heraldandbanner.com/tag/word-pictures/"
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Porcupines are strong climbers
Porcupines spend much of their time in trees and are strong climbers. Some are able to use their prehensile tails to aid in climbing. It was once believed that porcupines were able to shoot their quills at predators, but this has been proven to be untrue. 1)
"Porcupine" derivates from Old French and Old English
The name porcupine comes from the Old French word porc d’espine, which means “thorny pig.” There are also Old English variants that include “porcupyne” and “porcapyne.” 2)
The porcupine is a mammal in the porcupine family that is a rodent. 3)
Depending on the subspecies, porcupines can reach from forty-five to as much as ninety centimeters. 4)
Porcupines can range in weight from fifteen to thirty pounds. 5)
Soft spines at birth
At birth, the spines of young porcupines are fine and soft like hair. They harden only after a few days, performing a defensive function against predators. 6)
In the wild, porcupines live an average of about five to seven years. However, they live up to twenty years in captivity. 7)
Porcupines can't shoot their spikes
For many years, it was believed in the theory that the porcupine was able to shoot its spikes at the enemy. However, this is not true. 8)
Antibiotic like properties
A porcupine attack rarely results in infection because its quills have the same properties as antibiotics. 9)
African porcupine
The African porcupine is found in Senegal, Tanzania, Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria. 10)
Family life
Porcupines live either alone or in larger groups consisting of two adults with their offspring. 11)
Active at night
Porcupines spend their days in caves or burrows and are active mainly at night. 12)
Porcupines are primarily herbivorous. Their main food is leaves, fruits, rhizomes, and bark. 13)
Porcupines are monogamous animals. The reproductive period repeats periodically once a year. Porcupine pregnancy lasts from 66 to 112 days, after which time the female gives birth to young. Their number varies from one to three. 14)
Malayan procupines
Malayan porcupines are found in various parts of Asia, including India, Nepal, China, Indonesia, and Malaysia. 15)
One of the largest rodents
Porcupines, right after capybaras and beavers, are among the largest rodents in the world. 16)
Palawan porcupine
The Philippine porcupine, also known as the Palawan porcupine, is a species found only in the islands of Palawan. 17)
porcupines.txt · Last modified: 2022/05/23 06:38 by aga
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Dazzling – The World War I Camouflage Trick That Could Be Reworked For the 21st Century
HMS Argus displaying a coat of dazzle camouflage in 1918.
Ships were painted with zebra stripes in hopes of evading and deceiving the enemy during World War I. It was not entirely clear how effective the “dazzle” camouflage was, but a recent study seems to indicate that the zigzag-like patterns can be misleading and deceptive when the ship is moving.
A British marine artist Norman Wilkinson came up with the dazzle camouflage idea. The goal is not to hide the ship, but rather to trick the combatants behind enemy lines. The ships that were painted with the zigzag pattern became difficult to pin down, which made it harder to guess the speed, range, and goal of the target.
This form of camouflage was utilized by both the United States and the British Navy. Of course, each ship showed off a different pattern to prevent the enemy from identifying classes of ships. The success of the dazzle was varied and as a result, the strategy was phased out even though some of the ships kept these patterns during World War II. The technique is considered antiquated in today’s day and age.
A painting by Norman Wilkinson of a convoy wearing his dazzle camouflage, 1918.
The journal Public Library of Science (PLOS 1), published a new study that revealed how the dazzle technique could be bettered. Dazzle is more effective when it is not static – it needs to be moving. Joanna Hall is a researcher who works out of CampLab at the University of Bristol. She conducted a series of experiments that demonstrated how moving patterns located on a target can twist and warp our perception when it comes to the speed of the object.
Hall and her colleagues relied on computer-based visuals. They wanted to understand how the perceived speed of a target is affected by a moving pattern. The result of their research showed that when a pattern on a target moves in the same direction as the target, it makes it seem like the target is moving quicker than it is. When the pattern moves in the opposite direction to the target, it seems to move more slowly.
The sizes of these targets are equivalent to a Land Rover. Therefore, it can cause a targeting error of up to 6.5 feet (2 meters) at a distance of 230 feet (70 meters) when the vehicle moves at 55 mph (90 km/hr). During maximum effect, the perceived speed could be increased or decreased incorrectly by the onlooker at around 15 percent. The effect seemed to be heightened during more stressful circumstances.
A WWI ship in dazzle camouflage.
A WWI ship in dazzle camouflage.
Hall said, “Our research is the first to quantify the effects of a moving pattern on a moving target. We showed that a moving stripe pattern can increase or decrease the perceived speed of a moving target in a reliable and predictable manner.”
Furthermore, the dazzle pattern does not need to cover the entire target to be effective. The researchers were able to determine that the perceived speed of a target will still be distorted even if there is only a tiny patch of the dynamic dazzle at each end. This team did not test their hypothesis on actual Land Rovers or ships, but they believe the concept applies regardless. Hall explained, “If technology were available to construct a surface able to display a moving pattern then, in theory, it could be applied to any object for which it would be useful to disguise the speed.”
One potential military application could be on vehicles with a higher likelihood of being attacked by rocket-propelled grenades. Hall thinks that the distortion in speed perception could cause that aforementioned targeting error by the enemy. This would likely mitigate the risk of a direct hit. Going forward, the researchers are hoping to use these findings and to test the effect within a real world situation. If it works, there is a possibility that we could see a revival of the dazzle camouflage. However, now it would be presented in its more modern and dynamic form.
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When did St Louis become a city?
When did St Louis become a city?
Louis incorporated as a city in 1823. During the 19th-Century, St. Louis grew into an important center of commerce and trade, attracting thousands of immigrants eager to find a new life on the edge of the frontier. Between 1840 and 1860, the population exploded with the arrival of many new immigrants.
What happened to St Louis Missouri?
Why was Saint Louis founded?
Louis was founded in 1764 as a French fur-trading village by Pierre Laclede. He named the city “St. Louis” for King Louis IX, the crusader king who was the patron saint of Laclede’s then ruler King Louis XV.
What percentage of St. Louis is black?
Black residents totaled 136,167 as of July 1, 2019, or 45.3% of the city’s population, according to estimates to be released Thursday by the U.S. Census Bureau.
What was the history of St Louis Missouri?
The history of St. Louis, Missouri from 1866 to 1904 was marked by rapid growth, and the population of St. Louis increased so that it became the fourth largest city in the United States after New York City, Philadelphia, and Chicago. It also experienced rapid infrastructure and transportation development and the growth of heavy industry.
What was the expansion of St Louis in the 1860s?
St. Louis also saw the expansion of its park system during the 1860s and 1870s. Besides the common fields which were converted into Lafayette Park, in 1868 Henry Shaw donated land for Tower Grove Park, and in 1872, the state legislature authorized the city to purchase more than 1000 acres for a park.
What was the population of St Louis in 1804?
After the end of the War of 1812, the population of St. Louis and the Missouri Territory began expanding quickly. Between 1804 and 1810, the town increased from 1,200 to 1,400, while from 1810 to 1820, the town population more than tripled from 1,400 to 4,600.
What was the population of St Louis in the 2000s?
City beautification and crime reduction have made progress, although St. Louis has continued to struggle with crime and perceptions of crime. The city saw modest population growth during the mid-2000s, but showed a decline in the 2010 U.S. Census .
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After years of polluting Earth’s atmosphere and ecosystems with nuclear material from atomic bomb tests, the U.S. government in 1953 launched “Project Sunshine,” a secret, international program to study the amount of radioactive fallout in the environment. The cheery-sounding program sought particularly to understand the impact of strontium 90, an unstable, radioactive version of a naturally occurring element which threatened to riddle people and animals with cancer.
Jeffrey Sanders.
Now, novel research by Jeffrey Sanders, associate professor of history at Washington State University, is shedding new light on Project Sunshine and the intersection of environmental history, Cold War culture and the production of scientific knowledge.
“Just as radioactive strontium moved through ecological systems, this project follows the twists and turns of strontium 90 through different atomic cultures between 1945 and 2000,” Sanders said.
Find out more
WSU Insider
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"url": "https://cas.wsu.edu/news/2021/06/18/historian-researching-secret-investigation-of-radioactive-fallout/"
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A Vital Lifeline
Last Cumberland Valley Railroad Train on High Street, Carlisle
A CVRR train chugging along High Street, Carlisle. Courtesy of the Cumberland County Historical Society, Carlisle, PA.
The Cumberland Valley Railroad had a tremendous impact on agriculture. Prior to the arrival of the railroad, farmers transported their crops to the closest local market and hoped to be able to sell all that they had grown. With limited competition among buyers in rural areas, prices were typically lower than in cities that had greater numbers of consumers. Consequently, improved access to larger markets, where both demand and prices were higher, caused the region to experience a dramatic expansion of agricultural production and commercial development.
George H. Stewart Warehouse
George H. Stewart Warehouse circa 1890. Courtesy of the Charles Pague Collection, Shippensburg Historical Society, Shippensburg, PA.
Alex Stewart Grain Elevator
Alex Stewart Grain Elevator. Courtesy of the Charles Pague Collection, Shippensburg Historical Society, Shippensburg, PA.
Improved Access
By 1839, the main line of the CVRR had been completed between Harrisburg and Chambersburg. From Harrisburg, agricultural goods were transported primarily to Philadelphia but also to Baltimore, New York, and Pittsburgh. Freight stations were located at regular intervals along the line in existing towns and in newly emerging commercial areas. Cumberland Valley farmers stored their grain in elevators. The grain would eventually be picked up for rail transport in CVRR hopper cars. The American Volunteer, a local newspaper, asserted that, “A farmer can put his produce into a railroad car in the morning and the same evening have it on Broad Street, Philadelphia, and that, too, at one half of the expense it would cost him to have it taken by wagon.”
Carlisle Roller Mill
Carlisle Roller Mill circa 1873. Courtesy of the Cumberland County Historical Society, Carlisle, PA
Agricultural Expansion
With the advent of rail transportation, yields of grain in the region rose significantly. High demand coupled with advancements in agricultural technology and access to markets led to increased crop supplies. In the period from 1840 to 1870, wheat outputs grew 43% and corn production improved by 71% as farmers began practicing crop rotation instead of relying on unproductive land fallows to replenish soil, started fertilizing with barn manure, and began using advanced machinery like the reaper, invented by Cyrus McCormick, a relative of the McCormick family of Cumberland County. On average, the typical farm in the Cumberland Valley was smaller than those in the counties east of the Susquehanna and larger than those west of the river; but, they had significantly more improved acreage than the typical Pennsylvania farm.
Jno. D. Greybill Roller Flours advertisement
Greybill Roller Flours, feed and grain advertisement, Carlisle, 1902.
McClellan Zinn Farm Implement Store Hotel Sherman advertisement
Advertisement for the Hotel Sherman, Shippensburg, PA, 1902.
Commercial Development
As farming became more lucrative, farm-related industries increased. Some of the development occurred in occupations directly connected to agricultural activities such as milling, blacksmithing, farriering, tanning, and equipment manufacturing and repair. Around 1840, over 140 mills were scattered throughout the Cumberland County along its powerful rivers and creeks. In addition to the gristmills that processed grain, there were paper, rolling, clover, plaster and chopping, oil, hemp, and woolen mills. The other businesses were typically located near the grain elevators, stockyards, and freight stations.
The growth in agriculture also initiated the rise of support services for farmers like grocery, dry goods, hardware, and clothing stores as well as brickyards, quarries, sawmills, and banks. In addition, hotels and restaurants began to thrive as visitors came to town to conduct business.
Accordingly, many small towns saw significant increases in population. From 1840 to 1870, Shippensburg experienced a 42% increase in population -- from 1473 to 2065 inhabitants. This change in population drove property values up 258% during this same time period — from an $8.7 million aggregate of all farms to $22.4 million.
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The Ketubah, or Jewish marriage contract, is a legal document believed to have originated more than 2000 years ago. Outlining a husband's obligations in marriage to his wife, the ketubah was created to confer legal and financial rights to her and marked a turning point in the rights of Jewish women.
References to these historic Judaic obligations can be found in Exodus (21:10,11) although no mention is made of a Jewish wedding document. The Apocrypha, however, contains mention of a scroll that was brought to the Jewish marriage ceremony of Tobias and Sarah, an early form of the ketubah. During the Babylonian Exile, 586-536 B.C.E., the need arose to protect Jewish women regarding property that was held in her husband's name. Many Jewish men migrated to Egypt and left wives and families behind. The Babylonian predilection for written legal contracts was a firm basis for the start of the ketubah. Papyrus records dating from around 440 B.C.E. in Aramaic clearly outline the Jewish marriage wedding principle of securing the wife's property. Included in this ketubah is the sum of the bridal price paid to the father of the bride, as well as the sum of the bride and bridegroom's dower contribution. In addition, the wife is named as the beneficiary of the estate should the husband die.
Nearly four hundred years later, the ketubah introduced a sum to be paid by the Jewish husband to his bride upon his death or dissolution of the marriage. The ketubah became a Jewish wedding contract signed by the Jewish groom and two witnesses and was presented to the Jewish bride under the chuppah (wedding canopy). The earliest actual ketubah formula is set down in the Talmud and exists today in the Orthodox text.
Ketubah as Jewish Art
The practice of illuminating manuscripts and of decorating ritual objects goes back many hundreds of years. The concept of Hiddur Mitzvah, or the beautification of a mitzvah, has led to the creation of a legacy of Jewish ritual art objects. Richly decorated ketubahs (including papercuts) can be found in the great museums of the world from Persia, Italy, Turkey, Israel and even the United States. The design of ketubahs (ketubot) would often reflect the style of the times, and could include symbols of the country such as flags or crowns. Jewish symbols were also prevalent - the lion of Judah can often be seen in historical ketubahs as well as Hebrew calligraphy in stylized forms.
Today, the ketubah is one of the predominant forms of Jewish art and is usually hung prominently in the home by the married couple as a daily reminder of their love, marriage vows and responsibilities to each other. Often the first piece of art that a couple buys, a ketubah becomes an heirloom to be passed down to generations to come.
To find a Ketubah that fits your taste and style, please view my limited edition Ketubah and Custom Ketubah galleries.
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The Kid Should See This
Beaver dams and wildfire, a stop-motion demonstration
Watch more with these video collections:
How do beaver dams change and improve their ecosystems and build climate resilience? This stop-motion short by ecohydrologist Emily Fairfax demonstrates how beaver dams slow down and store water in ponds, creating wetlands that are “uniquely resistant to disturbances like droughts and fire”. She uses this video as a visual “elevator pitch”—a summary ‘sales’ pitch that’s short enough to be told within an elevator ride—to explain her research. From her site:
Beaver damming raises the water table, saturates nearby soil, and ponds large volumes of surface water throughout the American west. Water – unsurprisingly – is very difficult to burn. So how do landscape-scale networks of beaver dams impact the size and spread of wildfires? I’m combining historical accounts of beaver wetlands acting as firebreaks, hydrologic modeling, fire spread modeling, and beaver occupancy modeling to start answering the question: are beavers just nature’s engineer, or are they firefighters too?
beaver dam benefits
Read more about hydrology.
Then watch these videos about beavers: The Smartest Thing in Fur Pants, how living things change their environments, and Ecosystem Engineers: How do beavers build dams?
Also: Earth’s hydrosphere and geosphere and why do rivers curve?
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What can young children do in the fight against climate change?
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Untangling the Devil’s Corkscrew with PBS Eons
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Membrane drying uses the process of selective penetration of the gas components into the air.
The membrane dryer is a cylinder that houses thousands of small hollow polymer fibers with an inner coating. These fibers have selective permutation to remove water vapor.
When filtered, wet compressed air enters the cylinder, the membrane coating allows water vapor to penetrate the membrane wall and collect between the fibers. While the dry air continues through the fibers of the cylinder at almost the same pressure as the incoming wet air.
The permeated water is discharged into the atmosphere outside the cylinder. The penetration or separation is caused by the difference in the pressure between the inside and outside of the hollow fiber.
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"url": "https://www.eko-filters.com/products/compressed-air-treatment/membrane-driers/"
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When Do Brown Trout Spawn? (Interesting Trout Facts)
When Do Brown Trout Spawn? (Interesting Trout Facts)
Brown trout are found all over the world, and as they are a very priced game fish, many anglers wonder about the time of their spawning.
I wanted to find out more and decided to write an article about this exciting topic.
Most brown trout populations will spawn between September and December, as their eggs and juveniles need plenty of cold, oxygenated water to survive. Their optimal spawning temperature is between 43 and 53F (5 and 12C).
Read on and learn more about the brown trout’s spawning behavior, and find out if they can spawn in lakes or salty water.
What Time of Year Do Brown Trout Spawn?
a fly fisherman on a river holding a beautiful pre-spawn brown trout
Courtesy of Aaron Hardesty
Unlike many other fish species, brown trout (Salmo trutta) spawn during the year’s cold months.
More specifically, this trout species typically spawns between the months of September and December, although during years with milder winters, they have been observed to spawn as late as January.
This makes the brown trout a “co-spawner” of both the brook trout and the Atlantic salmon, with whom it shares many spawning habitats.
You may wonder why some trout species spawn in such cold conditions when almost all other freshwater fish species spawn during spring or early summer.
That’s because brown trout eggs and juveniles need plenty of dissolved oxygen in the water to survive. And the colder the water is, the more oxygen it holds.
Additionally, the eggs’ mortality will increase drastically if the water temperature is below or above a certain level, which makes spawning in the fall and early winter the logical choice.
Let’s take a closer look at the optimal temperature range for the brown trout spawn.
Did You Know: Browns will spawn between April and August in Australia and between May and September in New Zealand!
At What Water Temperature Do Brown Trout Spawn?
a happy female angler with a big brown trout caught in cold water
Courtesy of Mary Farinick-Jeanniton
Brown trout spawn in water temperatures between 43 and 53F (5 and 12C).
A study has shown that the brown’s eggs have the highest survival rate at an incubation temperature of around 44 to 46F (7 to 8C).
On the contrary, the study concluded that an incubation temperature of less than 39F (4C) had an increased mortality rate of 25 to 30%.
Warmer incubation temperatures above 54F (13C) resulted in a mortality rate of nearly 100%.
The same study also showed that the brown trout’s eggs’ incubation period is much longer in colder water temperatures and that juveniles are often smaller when hatching from eggs incubated outside the optimal water temperature range of 44 to 52F (7 to 11C).
All of the above findings prove that the brown trout and its eggs and juveniles are susceptible to factors such as water temperature and oxygen levels.
Where Do Brown Trout Spawn?
Like all salmonids, browns prefer river gravel for their spawning.
All types of brown trout, be it river, lake, or sea-run, will try to get to suitable spawning grounds in rivers or tributaries.
These spawning grounds are most often shallower areas of a river or stream with lots of gravel and a strong current.
Come September or October, you can often see the females build their nests, or redds, in the clear shallows.
This type of spawning ground is chosen strategically, as the eggs will receive plenty of oxygen while being safely attached to the gravel on the bottom.
Can Brown Trout Spawn in Lakes?
a big lake run brown trout lying on a landing net
Courtesy of Tobias Pawlak
This is a commonly asked question, as there are plenty of brown trout in lakes without in or outlets.
Like all other fish, brown trout have to spawn once a year and even do so in still waters, such as lakes or ponds.
Of course, they will migrate up a tributary if there is one. But even if that is not the case, the fish will nonetheless spawn in their resident still water environment.
However, the success rate of such spawns is generally very low, as such water bodies often have higher temperatures and lower oxygen levels during the fall and early winter.
Do Sea-Run Brown trout Spawn in Saltwater?
a Swedish angler with a silver colored sea run brown trout
One of my many Swedish sea-run brown trout
There is also a sea-run, or anadromous form of the brown trout, which is aptly called the sea trout (Salmo trutta morpha trutta) and many people also wonder about this trout type’s spawning habitat.
I got very interested in this particular subject myself, as we have a lot of sea-run brown trout along our coasts here in Sweden.
And while most of them migrate up the tributaries of the Baltic Sea and the Atlantic ocean and spawn in freshwater, some populations do manage to spawn in brackish (mixed salt and freshwater) environments
Such spawning activity has, however, only been observed in or outside of river mouths that can provide the right type of spawning ground, meaning shallow water and gravel bottoms.
And as such habitats are relatively rare around river mouths and in salty environments, these half freshwater/half saltwater spawning populations of brown trout can be considered pretty rare.
In fact, I know of no such stocks here in Sweden, and thus far, the only ones that have been observed were found in Norway.
How Many Eggs Do Brown Trout Lay?
A healthy female brown trout can produce around 900 eggs per pound of body weight.
This adds up to the following amount of eggs for different weights of a female brown trout:
Body WeightApprox. Amount of Eggs
Can You Catch Brown Trout During the Spawn?
a happy US trout angler with a colorful brown trout caught during the spawn
Courtesy of Chris Blackburn
While you can catch brown trout all year round, fishing for them during the spawn depends on where you live and your ethics.
While the wild populations of Europe are mostly protected during the spawning season (usually between September/October and January/February), many of the stocked populations in the US and Canada can be targeted even during the spawning season.
Although, many US states tend to have a strict catch-and-release season during that time of year.
And rightly so if you ask me! Some brown trout stocks in the US and Canada are not in the best shape and must be protected, especially since browns are generally caught more easily during spawning.
Handling them the right way and releasing them swiftly definitely helps and is an excellent way to keep a fishery intact and healthy. But where it makes sense, try to target other species and let the browns spawn in peace.
Future trophy fish and anglers will thank you!
Do Brown Trout Spawn More Than Once a Year?
Like most other trout and salmon species, browns only spawn once a year.
Unlike most of their distant salmon relatives, they do not die after spawning, which means that they can spawn for several years once they have reached maturity (at age 3 or 4).
However, due to the often long-distance migration against the hard current, spawning several times a year seems impossible for the brown trout.
Related Trout Articles
Featured image courtesy of Tony Dunne
How Big Do Brown Trout Get? (With Average and Maximum Sizes)
← Previous
When Do Brook Trout Spawn? (Times, Temperatures, Locations)
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1-866-281-5479 sales@meditherm.com
Misconception #1. Thermography is a non-contact way of taking someone’s temperature.
Fact – It’s not. Core temperature cannot be accurately evaluated by measuring skin temp. There is no conduction of core temperature past the subcutaneous level.
Misconception #2. Measuring skin temperature detects fever.
Fact – Fever will not always produce elevated temperatures at the skin surface.
Misconception #3. Thermography can only detect disease and infection once it is symptomatic.
Fact – Thermal imaging does have the potential to detect developing pathology related to non symptomatic disease before inflammatory symptoms are produced.
Misconception #4. Thermography looks for specific temperatures to detect fever.
Fact – A significant number of symptomatic fevers with elevated core temperature will produce decreased skin temperatures due to perspiration (evaporative cooling).
Misconception #5. Use of an external black body reference makes a threshold alarm accurate.
Fact – Radiometric Screening for an absolute temperature threshold, is limited and is dependent on the skill and attention of the technician. The level of false positives produced when setting a manual threshold generally results in technicians setting the threshold higher to reduce the false positives rate. This will increase the potential for false negative findings which renders the screening ineffective.
Misconception #6. It is more sensitive to screen people one at a time.
Fact – The highest sensitivity and specificity is produced when a comparative analysis of all people being screened is used to establish a threshold and continually calibrate that threshold along with pattern recognition and any abnormal gradients.
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Engravings on clay tablet confirm Babylonians knew Pythagoras Theorem before the man himself
‘Si.427’ is the name assigned to a clay tablet that has been estimated to be around 3,700 years old. While it purportedly depicts a land deal, the geometry in play is intriguing
August 07, 2021 by Sandipan Talukdar
Representational image. Photo : Wikimedia Commons
Engravings on an over 3000-year old clay tablet reinforce the belief that Pythagorean principles of geometry were known to the Babylonians centuries before Pythagoras himself, a recent study has said.
‘Si.427’ is the name assigned to a clay tablet (small cake-like structure) that has been estimated to be around 3,700 years old. This antique clay tablet belonged to the Old Babylonian Period between 1,900 and 1,600 BCE. However, this particular clay tablet is not a mere archaeological piece; the applied geometry engraved into it reveals many exciting facets of human knowledge about mathematics and its real-life applications.
The tablet was discovered during the late nineteenth century (1894) in what is now Iraq and was preserved in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum since then. Si.427 has the calculations of the Pythagorean triangle. This reinforces the fact that Pythagorean principles of geometry were known to the Babylonians over a millennium before Pythagoras, the Greek philosopher and mathematician, was even born.
The findings pertaining to Si.427 have been published in the journal Foundations of Science on August 4. The study was authored by Australian mathematician Dr. Daniel Mansfield of the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
Mansfield had also made an important finding previously about the Babylonian clay tablet containing geometrical calculations. Mansfield and Norman Wildberger, a researcher at the same university, had previously reported the oldest and most accurate trigonometric table. The tablet known as the Plimpton 322 described right-angled triangles using the Pythagorean principle – the sum of the squares of two numbers equals the square of the third number. The numbers are called the Pythagorean triples (For example – 32, 42 and 52).
Plimpton 322 was also from the Babylonian period and intrigued Mansfield enough that he began searching for other such clay tablets from the same period with the Pythagorean principle engraved; it eventually led him to the Si.427.
Commenting on the practical utility of such mathematical principles from ancient archaeological findings, Mansfield said: “You don’t just accidentally come up with trigonometry, you’re usually doing something practical.” Mansfield also revealed the purpose behind the tablet itself. The mathematical calculations on the tablet were written in the cuneiform script (an ancient script). Mansfield has been quoted saying the tablet actually depicts a field containing marshy areas along with a threshing floor and a nearby tower. “Si.427 is about a piece of land that’s being sold,” he commented.
The rectangles depicting the field have opposite sides of equal length, suggesting surveyors from back then had devised a way to create perpendicular lines more accurately than before, according to him.
“Much like we would today, you’ve got private individuals trying to figure out where their land boundaries are, and the surveyor comes out, but instead of using a piece of GPS equipment, they use Pythagorean triples. Once you understand what Pythagorean triples are, your society has reached a particular level of mathematical sophistication,” Mansfield reportedly said.
The Si.427 contained three Pythagorean triples — 3,4,5; 8,15,17 and 5,12,13.
Interestingly, the Si.427 was from a period when private land ownership had increased. What the clay tablets depict is the way the Babylonians were trying to solve land demarcation problems. They developed a mathematical way of doing it, and it is how particular mathematics developed to address some of the needs of the time.
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The Pont Neuf (New Bridge) is, despite its name, the oldest standing bridge across the river Seine in Paris, France.
Its name, which was given to distinguish it from older bridges that were lined on both sides with houses, has remained. Standing by the western point of the Île de la Cité, the island in the middle of the river that was the heart of medieval Paris, it connects the Rive Gauche of Paris with the Rive Droite. The bridge is composed of two separate spans, one of five arches joining the left bank to the Île de la Cité, another of seven joining the island to the right bank. Old engraved maps of Paris show how, when the bridge was built, it just grazed the downstream tip of the Île de la Cité; since then, the natural sandbar building of a mid-river island, aided by stone-faced embankments called quais, has extended the island. Today the tip of the island is the location of the Square du Vert-Galant, a park named in honour of Henry IV, nicknamed the "Green Gallant". As early as 1550, Henry II was asked to build a bridge here because the existing Pont Notre-Dame was overloaded, but the expense was too much at the time. In 1577, the decision to build the bridge was made by King Henry III who laid its first stone in 1578, during which year the foundations of four piers and one abutment were completed. A major design change was made in 1579 requiring the widening of the bridge to allow houses to be built (though they never were) made the piers on the long arm longer. These piers were built over the next nine years. After a long delay beginning in 1588, due in part to the Wars of Religion, construction was resumed in 1599. The bridge was completed under the reign of Henry IV, who inaugurated it in 1607.
Like most bridges of its time, The Pont Neuf is constructed as a series of many short arch bridges, following Roman precedents. It was the first stone bridge in Paris not to support houses in addition to a thoroughfare, and was also fitted with pavements protecting pedestrians from mud and horses; pedestrians could also step aside into its bastions to let a bulky carriage pass.
Source of description: wikipedia
Similar places by:
Category definition of category bridge
Material definition of material
Neighbourhood Monnaie (6th Arrondissement - Luxembourg)
Price definition of price gratis
Geographical coordinates 48.8574470, 2.3416170
Address Paris, Pont Neuf
Construction dates 1578 - 1607
Length 232.00
Width 22.00
How to arrive
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people, culture, indigenous-4860198.jpg
Indigenous Wisdom
Origin: Pre-history
Many of the earliest oral traditions that have been practiced for thousands of years are still practiced in some form today. These traditions have strong ties to nature, with many of them calling people to reverence our place in the natural world.
We plan to break this page into several parts for each type of indigenous wisdom, including wisdom tales for kids, which we’re currently in the process of collecting.
In the meantime, here are some notable indigenous tales, followed by a list of books of indigenous wisdom aimed at grownups.
Indigenous Tales
The following are a few of our retellings of indigenous tales.
How the Bluebird Got its Color
The character of the trickster shows up in many indigenous tales, frequently in the form of a coyote. Here is one example of such a tale from the Pima nation in Arizona.
Long ago, the bluebird wasn’t blue. But that all changed when Bluebird bathed in a lake four times every morning for four mornings. “There’s a blue water,” Bluebird sang while bathing. “It lies there. I went in. I am all blue.”
Bluebird lost all their feathers on the fourth day, but on the fifth they were covered in blue feathers.
Coyote had been watching Bluebird the whole time, hoping to eat the bird. But when Coyote, who at the time was green, saw Bluebird’s bright blue feathers, he asked how it happened and said that he wanted to be blue, too. So Bluebird told Coyote what he’d done, and Coyote did the same thing.
When Coyote’s fur turned blue, he felt so proud that all he could think about was how wanted all the other animals to notice him. He looked back and forth and back and forth as he ran through the forest, trying to see what the other animals thought of him — but he was so distracted that ran straight into a stump and clumps of dust fell from the tree onto his fur, turning him into the color of dirt.
How the Spider Symbol Came to Be
Osage Nation
One day the leader of the Osage people was searching the forest alone. He was on a quest to find a meaningful symbol for his people, and he imagined coming across a strong and powerful animal that could be a teacher.
When he came across deer tracks he was filled with anticipation, thinking that the large and powerful deer might reveal itself as the symbol for the Osage people. The chief followed the deer tracks deeper into the forest, moving swiftly and eyes focused on the ground.
Suddenly, he ran right into a spider’s web and he fell to the ground, caught in the invisible and strong fabric. When he came to his feet he was angry and tried to hit the spider, but it quickly got out of the way.
The spider asked the chief, “Why are you running through the forest so quickly, seeing nothing but the ground?”
The chief explained that he was tracking a mighty deer to be a symbol of greatness and power for his people.”
The spider responded saying, “I can be such a symbol.” The chief was confused and shocked, “You? But you are a tiny and fragile creature. I didn’t even notice you as I searched through the forest.”
The spider replied, “But you see, I am patient. I pay close attention, I watch carefully, and then things come to me. This lesson will certainly help your people become powerful.” The chief was wise and saw this to be true, and the spider became an important symbol for the Osage people.
The People and the Maple Trees
Anishinabe (Great Lakes Area)
One day, Manabozho — a great trickster spirit— wanted to see how the people were getting on and traveled to the village to visit them. To his surprise he didn’t see a single person. He looked near the water to see if they were fishing, he looked in the fields to see if they were tending the crops, and he looked in the forests to see if they were hunting, but there was not a person in sight.
Eventually he found the people gathered near the maple grove lying on their backs to let the thick, sweet maple syrup fall directly into their open mouths.
Manabozho was troubled, “The people can’t live this way! Their minds and bodies will become slow and careless if they spend their days lying in the maple grove drinking.”
He had an idea. Manabozho gathered water and poured it into the tops of the maple trees so the syrup became very thin and not too sweet, and the watery sap would only come out of the trees at a certain time of the year.
From that day on, the people went to the maple grove a certain time of the year to gather the thin sap from the trees, take it back to the village, and boil it for a long time to make just a bit of delicious maple syrup. “Now the people will keep busy fishing, hunting, and growing for the rest of the year. And they will always remember how precious maple syrup is.”
Recommended Books on Indigenous Wisdom For Grownups
• Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teaching of Plants by Robin Wall Kimmerer speaks to the need we have as humans to belong to a wider ecology. She writes, “In the Western tradition there is a recognized hierarchy of beings, with, of course, the human being on top—the pinnacle of evolution, the darling of Creation—and the plants at the bottom. But in Native ways of knowing, human people are often referred to as ‘the younger brothers of Creation.’ We say that humans have the least experience with how to live and thus the most to learn—we must look to our teachers among the other species for guidance. Their wisdom is apparent in the way that they live. They teach us by example. They’ve been on the earth far longer than we have been, and have had time to figure things out.”
• Women Who Run With Wolves: Myths and Stories of the Wild Women Archetype by Clarissa Pinkola Estés contains many stories from indigenous oral traditions, among other traditions. She writes, “I hope you will go out and let stories happen to you, and that you will work them, water them with your blood and tears and your laughter till they bloom, till you yourself burst into bloom.”
• Sacred Instructions: Indigenous Wisdom For Living Spirit-Based Change by Sherri Mitchell articulates what indigenous wisdom offers the world. She writes, “As Indigenous people, we are taught to live our lives in a balanced rhythm with the harmonic frequencies that surround us. This is why our teachings rise out of an oral tradition. Our history has been passed orally, not because we lacked the ability to translate our words into written form, but because we have always realized that our words have an alchemy that is capable of creating form. Our language is the vibrational expression that gives form to the animate universe. Every vocal expression that is released creates its own unique resonance. As we speak, we are weaving layers of sound that merge into harmony with the entire creation. This harmonic symphony brings into form the reality that we see before us.”
• The Wisdom of the Native Americans: Including The Soul of an Indian and Other Writings of Ohiyesa and the Great Speeches of Red Jacket, Chief Joseph, and Chief Seattle by New World Library contains a variety of quotes. It reads, “What is man without the beasts? If all the beasts were gone, men would die from great loneliness of spirit, for what happens to the beasts also happens to man. All things are connected. Whatever befalls the earth befalls the children of the earth.”
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• General Characteristics:
1. Reads in dim light
2. Feels there is insufficient or too much light
3. Is bothered by glare
4. Is light sensitive
• Appearance of the eyes:
1. Reddened eyes and lids
2. Watery eyes
• Complaints:
1. Headaches
2. Burning or itching eyes
3. Sandy, scratchy, dry eyes
4. Sleepiness when reading
5. Tiredness when reading
6. Doubling, moving, or fuzzy- looking words
7. Disappearing words
• Types of reading difficulties:
1. Skips words or lines
2. Repeats or rereads line
3. Reads for less than an hour
4. Loses place
5. Reads word by word or slowly
6. Omits small words
7. Has poor reading skills and comprehension
8. Reads progressively worse as reading continues
• Depth perception:
1. Has difficulty getting on and off escalators
2. Is clumsy
3. Walks into table edges or doors
4. Has difficulty judging distances
• Observation while reading:
1. Rubs eyes
2. Moves closer to or further from the book
3. Blinks excessively
4. Squints
5. Opens eyes wide
6. Shades the page with hand or body
7. Incorporates breaks into reading
8. Moves the book to reduce glare
9. Closes or covers one eye
10. Moves head
11. Reads close to the page
12. Reads word by word
13. Uses fingers or other marker to block out part of the page
14. Is unable to skim or speed read
• Complaints of computer:
1. Eye strain and fatigue
2. Headaches
• Writing:
1. Writes up or down hill
2. Has unequal spacing between letters or words
3. Is unable to write on the line
4. Makes errors copying from books
5. Makes errors copying from chalkboard
6. Squints or blinks while copying from chalkboard
• Mathematics:
1. Misaligns digits in number columns
2. Makes sloppy, careless errors
Characteristics of Irlen Syndrome
(Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome)
Life-Changing Colorful Solutions
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What Is Equilibrium Moisture Content
Equilibrium moisture content definition (EMC) is the moisture level where the wood neither gains nor loses moisture since it is at equilibrium with the relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding environment.
Let’s define some key terms needed to talk about the effect of relative humidity on the moisture content of a piece of wood and reaching equilibrium with its environment.
Woodshop EnvironmentThese terms are the variables in the complex mathematical equations used to determine when the wood is at its EMC. In the next few sections, I’ll detail these variables, how they’re calculated, and how they’re used in other calculations.
What Is the Moisture Content of a Piece of Wood?
The moisture content of a piece of wood is the total amount of moisture, including both water and vapor, contained in that piece of wood.
Mathematically, moisture content (M or MC) is the mass of wood with moisture (m) less the mass of wood without moisture (mod or the oven-dry mass), divided by the mass of wood without moisture. It can be expressed as:
MC = (m – mod)/mod
To obtain %MC, multiply MC by 100%. The typical moisture content varies among regions and species. Green moisture content is that which is found when the wood is still in its natural state, before being kiln-dried or equilibrated to its ambient conditions.
For example, the average moisture content of green wood Douglas fir (Rocky Mountain type) is 43%, while it’s 108% for a California red fir. Similarly, the green heartwood of eastern white pine has an average moisture content of 50%, and the green heartwood of ponderosa pine averages 40% MC.
The average EMC ranges vary too. The Midwest has an EMC range of six to nine percent, which is the middle ground of U.S. EMC ranges. The average EMC in coastal areas is above nine percent and the dry southwestern United States average EMC is below six percent. These EMC differences are caused by differing ambient relative humidity and temperatures.
What Is Fiber Saturation Point?
Several types of WoodIn almost all kinds of wood, moisture can exist as either free water or bound water. The water vapors or liquid water in the cavities and cell lumina is free water. The water held by the intermolecular attraction within cell walls is bound to water. That is, it’s literally bound up in the cellular structure of the wood.
The fiber saturation point (MCfs) is the point at which all free water has evaporated and the cell walls are completely saturated. When wood reaches its fiber saturation point, it can hold no more bound water. Below fiber saturation, the wood will start to shrink or swell as its moisture content changes in concert with the ambient conditions around it.
For most wood species, the fiber saturation value of MCfs is about 30 percent. However, the fiber saturation point can vary from species to species and piece to piece. Some tropical species from Africa have a fiber saturation point as low as 17 percent. Furthermore, the surface dries first, allowing for it to reach its fiber saturation point before the wood’s interior.
What Is Relative Humidity?
Relative humidity is the ratio of partial pressure of water vapor (H2O) to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a particular temperature in an air-water-vapor mixture. That’s the hard science-y way to put it. More simply, think of relative humidity as the amount of moisture in the air as a percentage of how much moisture the air could hold.
Temperature affects the relative humidity of the air because it affects how much water vapor the air can hold. The following equation is generally used to calculate the relative humidity of air:
ϕ = (ew/e*w) ×100%
ϕ = relative humidity expressed as a decimal
ew = the partial pressure of water vapors
e*w = the saturated vapor pressure of water at a particular temperature
More About Equilibrium Moisture Content
As long as the fiber saturation point is not reached, the relative humidity and temperature of the atmosphere significantly affects the moisture content of wood.
The moisture content at which wood neither gains nor loses moisture is the EMC. The equilibrium is dynamic in nature because the ambient conditions, such as relative humidity and temperature, are constantly changing.
When a piece of wood is placed in a controlled environment, it tries to achieve equilibrium with the environment over time. The moisture content adjusts to the relative humidity and temperature of its surroundings. After a certain period of time, the wood’s moisture content stops changing. This moisture level is termed the EMC.
As long as the relative humidity and temperature of its surroundings don’t change, the wood’s moisture level remains at its EMC once reached. That’s why acclimating wood to its final surroundings is vital before using it. Once it acclimates to its environment and reaches the EMC, the risk of physical changes occurring in the wood is minimal… unless the environment changes.
How EMC, Relative Humidity, and Temperature All Relate to Each Other
The relationship between moisture content, EMC, and relative humidity can be studied and approximated for a given temperature.
moisture map United States
For each value of relative humidity for a given temperature, there is a corresponding EMC percentage. Therefore, EMC can be plotted as a function of relative humidity for a known temperature. For most of North America, 30% to 50% relative humidity corresponds to 6% to 9% EMC. It’s worth noting that the EMC values of solid wood are generally greater than wood composites.
For a reasonable estimation of the true target EMC at any value of relative humidity and temperature, the following equation may be used:
EMC = [ -ln (1 – ϕ) / 4.5 x 10-5 ( T + 460 ) ] 0.638
ln = natural logarithm (a mathematical equation that calculates the time it takes to reach a specified point)
ϕ = relative humidity expressed as a decimal
T = temperature in Fahrenheit
The Hailwood-Horrobin equation can also be used to estimate the complex relationship of EMC, relative humidity, and temperature mathematically. This is a more complicated formula but provides more accurate results.
Meq = ( 1800 / W ) * ( (kh) / (1 – kh) + ( k1kh + 2k1k2k2h2 ) / ( 1 + k1kh + k1k2k2h2 ) )
Meq = the %EMC
T = temperature in Fahrenheit
h = the fractional relative humidity
W = 330 + 0.452T + 0.00415T2
k = 0.791 + 4.63*10-4T – 8.44*10-7T2
k1 = 6.34 + 7.75*10-4T – 9.35*10-5T2
k2 = 1.09 + 2.84*10-2T – 9.04*10-5T2
Generally, temperature doesn’t affect the moisture content as significantly as relative humidity does. For this reason, coastal areas like Miami, Seattle, and Japan, which have higher values of relative humidity, also have higher EMC values than non-coastal areas.
Free Download – Is a Pin or Pinless Moisture Meter Best For You?
Why Is Equilibrium Moisture Content Important?
Consequently, the risks of not knowing the moisture content of the wood or EMC of its in-service location are high. It’s also critical to understand how the in-service location’s EMC fluctuates throughout the year.
When the temperature and relative humidity change, the EMC changes along with it. When that happens, the wood starts to release or absorb moisture to re-acclimate to the new EMC. This period of re-acclimation is when warping, cracking, and splitting can occur in the wood.
These moisture-related failures are more likely to occur based on how often the EMC changes and how large the EMC swings are. New Orleans is one of the most humid cities in the United States, yet it’s also one of the most temperate. That is, there aren’t great swings in temperature or relative humidity throughout the year.
Thus, a flooring installer doesn’t need to account for as much swelling and shrinking when installing boards as does a flooring installer in Oklahoma City, which has more seasonal climate variety.
The worst-case scenario is installing wood with a moisture content that’s too high. This wood is still in the process of equalizing with its surroundings, which means significant shrinkage is inevitable as it reaches equilibrium. Under such circumstances, total moisture-related disasters are likely.
The Importance of Correctly Measuring Moisture Content
Wagner wood moisture meters are designed to quickly and accurately measure moisture content in a piece of wood so that very costly mistakes are avoided. With a Wagner moisture meter, wood can be measured accurately and as often as one might need before making any important decisions.
Try Our EMC Calculator
Last updated on April 21st, 2022
1. LUDWING H. PRADA S. says:
hola Loffer , somo productores de compactos con espesores de 10 mm , los compactos son laminados a base de resinas fenolicas saturadas con papel kraft ..luego de prensadas y entregadas al cliente se genera un proceso de warping (twisting) , lo anterior es por cambio de humedad ?? slds y gracias
• Larry Loffer says:
Yes, the problem is likely a large difference in humidity.
Another possibility is different moisture contents of the thin layers within the laminates.
2. Daniel Sungail says:
Hi Larry,
I bought a new building with a commercial street level floor and apartments on the top floors. The commercial level is not completed and has never had a tenant. A water valve broke on the floor above it. My insurance carrier recommended a company that specializes in remediation. They showed up with an EMC meter and began taking measurements. They then set up a dehumidifier and and began isolating the flooded area with plastic sheeting. I told them the floor did not need protection because it was still under construction. I was told the sheeting was to keep the area being dehumidified as small as possible.
The next day it was snowing on and off outdoors. The entire floor commercial floor was cold. Water had destroyed the heater control. The dehumidifier was working poorly. The remediation crew was wearing winter coats while tearing out the wet drywall and insulation. I apologized for the cold and told them a new heater control would not be available for weeks.
After a couple more days, the debris were removed and the floor cleaned. The dehumidifier was gone. But, the floor was designed for retail sales, so when the sun came out the display windows let a lot of light in and warmed up the room to about 70 degrees.
I got the bill for cleaning up the damage along with a bunch of data including EMC readings for drywall, framing and concrete. Baseline readings were taken of each material in an area of the building that was dry:
Drywall 15
Framing 12
Concrete 30
Readings taken on the first day for wet materials were as follows:
Drywall 100
Framing 75
Concrete 100
By the third day the EMC readings for all three materials were the same as those of the dry baseline materials. They sent me a graph showing the plot of the material readings intersecting the material’s baseline on the third day.
I saw the workman take the first EMC reading from the wet framing. He used a two pin meter. I do not know what kind of meter he used to get the readings from the concrete. And, I cannot figure out how both of the first readings from the drywall and the concrete came out to be 100.
I’m also at a loss as how materials hit the baseline dryness in only three days while being so cold. The concrete was poured years ago; I don’t understand how its EMC readings changed at all.
“0” is the where the EMC range starts on their chart. I thought it should be equilibrium. However, they label their baselines as the material’s EMC.
The company wants a few hundred dollars for the dehumidification and plastic sheeting. I think their use cannot be justified.
Does this company’s data look correct to you? All my inquiries get forwarded to the remediation company’s Account Receivables Department.
• Larry Loffer says:
The question is… how bad was the leak? If it was caught quickly and the water didn’t penetrate deep into the drywall, concrete, and framing, then it is reasonable that it dried out quickly.
They probably used a pinless meter with a relative scale to check the concrete moisture.
The plastic sheeting is to concentrate the low humidity air to the wet location.
If the water damage was extensive and you plan on installing a moisture-sensitive floor, I recommend getting a second opinion and possibly using our Rapid RH product to check the moisture deep in the concrete.
3. Henry says:
Hello Mr. Loffer,
Could you kindly provide the reference for the EMC equation: EMC = [ -ln (1 – ϕ) / 4.5 x 10-5 ( T + 460 ) ] 0.638
Thank you,
4. Wang says:
Hello Mr. Loffer
I’m a graduate student researching the relationship between the amount of mold and water content in weight percent of dry mass. The surface of the envelopes is always wallpaper or gypsum, is it suitable to set the moisture meter in the wood mode? I mean that the measurement process is based on the wood property.
• Tony Morgan says:
From the product description for the Orion 910:
A relative moisture measurement mode allows for taking relative moisture measurements in non-wood based materials and engineered wood flooring. This means you can use an Orion moisture meter to obtain relative moisture conditions on a number of non-wood building materials and flooring products.
5. Jost Lunstroth says:
Mr. Loffler – I build climate controlled wine rooms in Texas and am always researching rH, temperature and moisture related issues. The goal in the wine room is temperatures in the 55 – 60 range and an rH of 50 – 70. Anything over 70rH can be problematic for any number of reasons.
The climate around the wine rooms walls is the ambient of the house – usually in the high 60’s to low 70’s temperature and 48 – 52 rH.
Usually the walls inside and outside the wine room are sheet rocked.
My questions are:
* If the room is heavily insulated and sealed with closed cell foam on all walls, ceiling and floor, do you think it is possible that humidity could enter the room through the studs and or a wood door? The two narrow sides of the studs are not sealed or in contact with the closed cell foam.
* If we stay with the above scenario and I “seal” exposed side of the stud with some sort of sealer, it follows that humidity will travel thru the wood from outside the wine room and then ‘stop” at the sealed side which is in the colder, damper wine room. If this is correct, do I need to worry about the stud holding the moisture and decaying?
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Jost,
Make sure you purchase kiln-dried studs when building your wine room walls.
It is recommended you check each stud for proper moisture content (less than 20% MC) before purchasing. The small differences in RH will not be a problem as long as you buy kiln-dried lumber, and, of course, the studs do not get wet.
Here is a link to one of our meters I would recommend for measuring studs if you do not currently have a moisture meter.
6. Peter Enyonam Kornyoh says:
Thanks for the question and answer opportunity we have here. After reading through the comment, does it mean that if I have obtained the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of a concrete slab, there is no way to be able to estimate the moisture content (MC) of the concrete using the EMC values?
Thank you
• Larry Loffer says:
The article you are referring to relates to wood and wood-based materials.
The moisture content in wood is measured as percent moisture content, whereas, in concrete, it is measured as relative humidity deep inside the slab.
Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) has no relevance in concrete.
7. John S. says:
Thank you for the detailed explanation of EMC. I have a charge of Oak 8/4 in my kiln right now. I have insulated pins at center (1 inch deep) and a set near the surface. How do I know when my wood has reached EMC? The center is always higher than the surface which makes sense. Do I take the average? If I’m shooting for a 8% moisture content for a finished product, again – is the average or do I need to get the center reading to 8%? Thank you – I’ve been struggling with this concept for awhile.
• Larry Loffer says:
Ideally, you will want to get 8% throughout the thickness. This can be achieved by “Conditioning” your kiln charge.
In other words, put less drying stress on the wood for an extended period of time. This should help even out the moisture content.
A good resource to help with drying is http://www.kilndrying.org.
8. Farish says:
Hi Larry,
I am a furniture manufacturer from Indonesia and have been exporting to india lately. We majorly use species like Teak, Mahogany and Bangkirai
( Tropical Hardwood). We attain a MC of about 8% for all our furnitures at the time of dispatch from our factory. The shipment takes about 40 days to reach its destination. It’s highly humid in southern indian peninsula. The furnitures,once placed at the desired spot starts to shrink at the joints leaving it with hairline gaps(that looks dirty, trust me).
I believe this Is due to the wood trying to attain it’s EMC at its new surroundings. Would you be able to help me with a ‘simple’ measure to overcome or minimise the issue. Where in I would be able to keep in check the variation in wood Moisture.
Kind regards
• Larry Loffer says:
I’m a little confused because wood will increase (Swell) in size if placed in a more humid environment. You claim that it is shrinking once it reaches its final destination. That tells me the wood was higher in moisture coming from your factory. Perhaps it is gaining moisture on the journey? It is best to know the conditions of the environment it will live in, to match the conditions at your factory. Perhaps wrapping the wood in an airtight plastic will help.
9. Elaina Hughbanks says:
Hi Larry,
You mention in the article that the Hailwood-Horrobin equation can be used to estimate EMC, but that wood composites generally have lower EMC values. Do you know of any work done on modelling of EMC with humidity and temperature changes for chipboard or paperboard products? I am working with chipboard pieces at very low relative humidity (approx. 10%) and somewhat elevated temperatures (approx. 120-140F). Any help or guidance toward references would be greatly appreciated.
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Elaina,
Yes, the EMC’s of most wood composites are lower since they are not as absorbent as wood.
I’m not aware of any tests being performed with chipboard.
You can start by searching for “chipboard tests”.
10. Komal Thakare says:
Hello Mr.Loffer,
Can you please direct me towards source for finding EMC Vs Relative humidity data for Sodium Dodecyl sulfate.
• Larry Loffer says:
Hello Komal,
Wagner Meters has a free APP called “WoodH2O” that can be downloaded for iPhone or Android. This APP will give you the EMC value expressed in percent moisture content by weight. You need to know the ambient temperature and humidity.
11. Mariella Karen Aldana says:
Mr. Larry, thank you so mucho for your amazing article. I have a question about the moisture content, if MC is MC = (m – mod)/mod, the mod ( mass of wood without moisture) is considered with bound water or only free water?
I mean, the cells are hydrated and only the free water is consumed (vaporated) when the mass is without moisture?
Best regards
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Mariella,
The equation MC = (m-mod)/mod as you listed is good for bound water (water within cell walls).
Free water is defined as the water outside of the cell structure. This is also called fiber saturation which occurs around 30% moisture content. It is very difficult to accurately measure moisture content in fiber saturated wood above 30%.
12. Knut Samal says:
Hi Larry,
I have oak parquet planks that have become curved. They have been lying in a room with 73 degrees F and 33% relative humidity for 6 weeks. This should be more than enough time for the planks to reach EMC. However, I measure the MC to 0% with a pin moisture meter. According to WoodH2O the EMC should be 6,6. Can wood really reach 0% MC, or must there be something wrong with my moisture meter?
Besr regards
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Knut,
Pin moisture meters are not good for measuring moisture content in the very low range, particularly the inexpensive pin meters. The good news is your oak planks must be very dry.
I recommend purchasing a pinless meter such as the Wagner MMC220. Here is a link for more information:
13. Misha Brown says:
Thank you very much for your help. I will research it and pray thats what it is!
14. Misha Brown says:
Hello Larry. I have a question that I am hoping you can answer with all the knowledge you have about wood. My kitchen cabinets are producing some form of liquid and there’s no piping so i am wondering if it could be that the wood is having a problem because of fiber saturation. Could that be possible?
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Misha,
It isn’t likely your kitchen cabinets are that wet. Kitchen cabinet manufacturers use dried wood to prevent other problems like splitting, warping of the wood.
If you are sure that a food item is not leaking, then perhaps there is some sap or resin that is coming from the wood. If that is the case, it should be small and eventually stop.
15. krati pandey says:
Mr. Loffer,
I went through your article. I wanted to calculate the moisture content at equilibrium for Pre-compressed board which is again a cellulose material with a lesser density as compared to wood. Can the same formula be used for calculation or not?
• Larry Loffer says:
Hello Krati,
The equation “MC=(M-Mod)/Mod” will work with any solid substance as long as you do not lose any of the material during the drying process.
Thank you,
16. Ed says:
Mr. Loffer,
Thank you for your excellent article. Are there any rules of thumb for estimating how long it will take to reach EMC? For example, if I have a piece of basswood of some thickness at a known MC, say, 7%, and introduce it into a chamber with, say, 60% relative humidity at 70 degrees F, is there a way to estimate how long it will take the basswood to reach its new equilibrium (EMC=10% if I used the formula above, correctly). Thank you.
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Ed,
First of all, I get an EMC of 11% using your humidity and temperature values when I use the free App “WoodH2O”. There is no formula for determining the time needed to reach equilibrium because there are too many factors involved such as wood species and dimension. The heavier dense woods will take longer. It is best to monitor the moisture periodically using a moisture meter.
17. Kenny says:
Mr. Loffer
Thank you for your explanation of the equilibrium moisture content.
I am planning to purchase a large amount of expensive wood paneling that will probably be milled in a damp climate for installation in my home in the Mojave Desert (Las Vegas). I’ll have to sticker it up here until it reaches equilibrium before I install it. I’m wondering about the usefulness of a pinless vs pin moisture meter for use on wood that is already coated with a six sided finish. Will a pinless meter be able to observe the moisture beyond the finish barrier? Should I just saw off a piece to be able to get an accurate measure or should I used a pin meter?
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Kenny,
In my opinion, the only advantage of a pin moisture meter is that you can pound the pins into different depths of the wood, provided you get insulated pins. This would allow you to get past whatever finish is on the outside.
Wagner pinless meters reach down into the wood about ¾ inch and is the way to go provided the finish is only a couple millimeters and is non-metallic.
18. Anju says:
Hello Mr. Larry Loffer,
I have been reading your interesting articles. Could you kindly explain me the relation between Fiber Saturation Point and Equilibrium moisture content in wood?
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Anju,
These are two different things.
There are small cells in the fibers of wood. Fiber Saturation is when these cells can’t hold any more water. Water accumulates outside these cells and is sometimes referred to as “Free Water”.
Equilibrium Moisture Content is the moisture content that wood will eventually reach given exposure to the same conditions around the wood. Room temperature and humidity are the factors.
As an example, if a piece of wood is in a controlled environment that is a constant 70 degree Fahrenheit and 50% humidity, the wood will “Equalize” at a moisture content of 9.2%.
I used Wagner’s free App called “WoodH2O”.
Thank you,
Larry Loffer
19. TAREK says:
Hello Mr. Larry Loffer,
I have been reading your interesting article. Me I have to do an experiment on a wall, I placed sensors (for temperature and relative humidity) at different depths of the wall, I would like to determine the Moisture Content at those points through determined values of relative humidity and temperature, so my question is : how is that possible? I insist on Moisture content MC and not equilibrium moisture content EMC, because I want to study the transient performance of the wall, so I am not going to wait for equilibrium at every value of relative humidity… I hope my question be clear for you.
Best regards
• Larry Loffer says:
Hello Tarek,
Humidity readings (ambient moisture in the air) are only useful for determining equilibrium moisture content over a long period of time. The humidity readings will not help you if you need to know the moisture content now.
I don’t know what material you wish to measure, but I assume it is wood or some other building material such as sheetrock or drywall? A moisture meter designed to measure these materials will give you percent moisture content readings as soon as they are placed on the material to be measured.
I recommend the below model for measuring many different kinds of building material:
Thank you
20. mark votapek says:
Mr. Loffer, i happened upon your article when searching information on care for a couple of 18th century wood musical instruments i own. I’ve always been hyper-aware of keeping them at a relative humidity between 40-60% (ideally nearly 50%), but i still detect big differences in how they respond at different combinations of temperature, altitude, and maybe even barometric pressure, even when the relative humidity is kept absolutely constant through humidity controls.
It was suggested to me that partial pressure water vapor might be a better way of measuring the moisture content (your EMC, i think). Can you direct me to more written about this that’s readable by layperson? Or do you have more to add?
• Larry Loffer says:
Hi Mark,
As you know, wood is similar to a dense sponge. It can acquire moisture as well as give it up depending on the surrounding conditions. The Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) you referred to is the percent moisture content that wood will eventually reach given the ambient conditions remain constant.
If you have a smartphone, Wagner has a free APP that will determine the EMC based on constant humidity and temperature. It is called “Wood H2O”.
We also have a plethora of free wood articles on our website at https://www.wagnermeters.com/wood-moisture-meter/.
Thank you for your question.
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Glossary Home Definition
A pedant, or someone who exhibits pedantic behavior, will correct small mistakes that are not necessarily important in the broader scheme of things.
In a literary work, a character that is pedantic might be someone who constantly corrects another’s grammar, is always ready with a new fact to make themselves sound smarter, or monitors events to make sure everything works out exactly as it’s supposed to. This is usually irritating behavior but will depend on the character and what the writer wants to accomplish.
Pedantic pronunciation: peh-dahn-tic
Pedantic definition and examples
Definition of Pedantic
The word “pendantic” comes from the French “pedant,” meaning “to teach” or “to act as a pedagogue.” A pedagogue a teacher, usually defined as one that’s strict. Someone who is pedantic, like a pedagogue, is concerned, usually overly concerned, with accuracy. They might also have high standards for a particular formal element/elements and one’s precision in everything they do. But, usually, it is related to the completion of tasks, academic work, and language. A writer might exhibit the character traits of a pedant in the way they write or they might choose to create a character who exhibits those qualities.
This person may engage in long, unnecessary explanations in an effort to show off their knowledge. Like most characters, pedantic qualities can be evidence of other personality traits that make someone more interesting. For example, if someone is always trying to insert themselves into conversations it may be because they’re self-conscious and worried they’re going to be left behind by everyone else. Or, they have doubts about their own intelligence and need to prove it to themselves and everyone else. It could also be something more insidious, like the need to dominate those around them.
Examples of Pedantic Language in Literature
Love’s Labor Lost by William Shakespeare
In this early comedy, believed to have been written in the mid-1590s, William Shakespeare tells the story of the King of Navarre and his attempts, along with three friends, to swear off women for three years. The play has a darker ending than most comedies do. It also contains a particularly noteworthy character when it comes to pedants, Holofernes. He’s a comic character who, although clearly knowledgable, delivers information in such a way that he appears foolish. For example, these lines from Act IV, Scene 2:
as the pomewater, who now hangeth like a jewel in
and anon falleth like a crab on the face of terra,
the soil, the land, the earth.
In these lines, he’s speaking to Sir Nathaniel and is attempting to impress him with his wide-ranging knowledge. Shakespeare intentionally created Holofernes as someone who takes advantage of every opportunity to display his knowledge.
Explore William Shakespeare’s poetry.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
Within Fitzgerald’s literary masterpiece, readers learn the story of Jay Gatsby and his quest to bring Daisy Buchanan, who is married to Tom, back to him. His lavish displays of wealth, parties, and his every other action are aimed at that one goal. But, as the novel progresses, things start to spin out of control. Tom is an integral part of that. He is also a good example of a pedant. He uses the following lines as he tries to display his intelligence:
Nick replies, expressing surprise at his tone and answering “No.” And Tom adds these words:
In these lines, Tom is talking about “Civilization…going to pieces.” He’s citing examples from his life and Gatsby’s parties to back up his suggestions about the future. Although he expresses his opinion with confidence it’s hard to take him seriously due to his personality and the fact that these words were unprompted and unnecessary.
Pedantic or Didactic
While these two words sound similar and are related to similar situations, they aren’t the same. “Didactic” is used to describe educational material that tries to teach the reader something. In literature, it is an entire literary movement that includes instructive works and ones that are more entertaining. This could be a textbook, an article about a historical topic, or a diary of one’s personal experiences, In contrast, “pedantic” refers to a type of instruction that’s excessive and unasked for. It’s the delivery of information that’s more important than the information itself. Someone who is a pedant is concerned with looking smart and ensuring the conversation remains focused on them.
Why Do Writers Use Pedantic Language?
Depending on the situation, there are various reasons a writer might use pedantic language or create a character who exhibits the traits of a pedant. In the above examples, the writer has intentionally tried to influence the reader’s opinion of fictional characters through the way they talk to one another and share unsolicited opinions. Tom Buchanan, an already unlikeable man, is made more irritating by the fact that he attempts to sound smart and control conversations.
In another situation, a writer might write with a pedantic tone when they’re overly passionate about a topic or are attempting to convey that particular tone for an exterior purpose. It’s also easy to imagine how someone might adopt this tone on accident, without intending to do so.
Related Literary Terms
• Didacticism: refers to a type of literature that’s mean to convey instructions or very specific pieces of information.
• Literary Argument: the argument of a piece of literature is a statement towards the beginning of a work that declares what it’s going to be about.
• Literary Modernism: originated in the late 19th and 20th centuries. It was mainly focused in Europe and North America.
• Metafiction: stories in which the characters, author, or narrator acknowledge the fact that they’re parts of fiction.
• Simile: a comparison between two, unlike things that uses the words “like” or “as.”
• Stream of Consciousness: a style of writing in which thoughts are conveyed without a filter or clear punctuation.
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next up previous
Next: Assignment Problem Up: Examples Previous: Maximum Flow
Transportation Problem
Consider the following snow removal problem: there are a number of districts in a city. After a snowfall, the snow in each area must be moved out of the district into a convenient location. In Montreal (from where I am taking this example), these locations are large grates (leading to the sewer system), a couple large pits, and a couple entry points to the river. Each of these destinations has a capacity. The goal is to minimize the distance traveled to handle all of the snow.
This problem is an example of a transportation problem. In such a problem, there are a set of nodes called sources, and a set of nodes called destinations. All arcs go from a source to a destination. There is a per-unit cost on each arc. Each source has a supply of material, and each destination has a demand. We assume that the total supply equals the total demand (possibly adding a fake source or destination as needed). For the snow removal problem, the network might look like that in figure 3.
Figure 3: Snow Transportation Network
Transportation problems are often used in, surprise, transportation planning. For instance, in an application where goods are at a warehouse, one problem might be to assign customers to a warehouse so as to meet their demands. In such a case, the warehouses are the sources, the customers are the destinations, and the costs represent the per-unit transportation costs.
Michael A. Trick
Sun Jun 14 13:20:08 EDT 1998
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Tag Archives: how a teleidoscope works
Discovering the Difference: Kaleidoscopes Vs. Teleidoscopes
Kaleidoscopes vs Teleidoscopes
I remember as a child, looking into my little kaleidoscope and watching the colors move around and change shape, and I couldn’t figure out how this mystical device worked. I would shake the kaleidoscope and look into the other end so I could see the little colored balls, and wonder how they made different shapes and colors when you turned the kaleidoscope.
It would be later on in life when I learned how a kaleidoscope works – using mirrors, set in a particular angle to one another, which reflect the colors of the little objects at the end. These objects are generally acrylic balls, sand, or pieces of glass.
But then I recalled a few memories from the same period, in which I clearly remember looking through my kaleidoscope at a specific object in the room, and watching it change shape as I moved. It’s then that I realized I was mesmerized by a teleidoscope, which is commonly mistaken for its more popular counterpart.
Invented a hundred years after the kaleidoscope, the teleidoscope is open at the end, so you can aim it at any object and watch the object turn into geometric patterns. It uses mirrors and reflections to create the patterns, just like a kaleidoscope, but you can ultimately turn any object you wish into a rotating geometric image. Oh, the possibilities!
The Wonders of How Kaleidoscopes Work
We all love looking into a kaleidoscope and seeing a variety of different colors and shapes. We never get exactly the same experience each time, and it’s likely that no two people have ever seen the same kaleidoscopic images. So how do kaleidoscopes work, and what makes them so interesting?
Kaleidoscopes, at their simplest, are two or more mirrors placed inside a long telescope-like body. These mirrors are angled to highlight and reflect a number of objects, which are also placed in the scope. An eye hole is added to one of the ends of the scope for the user to look through. Shaking or rotating the kaleidoscope’s body changes the position of the items inside. The kaleidoscope image you see is a fraction of the entire reflection of these items, so that their mutual symmetry is reflected in the mirrors. This produces the endless diversity of geometric patterns that give kaleidoscopes their intrigue.
The objects in a kaleidoscope could be ordinary items. Colored glass is the most common, but beads, buttons, glitter, ribbon, and confetti can be used inside a kaleidoscope. Some kaleidoscopes also utilize objects from nature like feathers and flowers, or colored backgrounds which add to the existing shapes. These can sometimes be interchangeable, allowing for different viewing experiences in the same kaleidoscope. If you’re using a teleidoscope, the reflections of the items around you take the place of the objects that would normally reside inside the body of the scope.
Even if you know how a kaleidoscope works, the viewing experience inside it is always interesting and fun. You can impress your friends with knowledge about how kaleidoscopes work, but they’ll probably still find a bit of magic inside.
January Basics – Teleidoscope and Kaleidoscope
January always brings me back to the basics. Kids are back in school after the holidays and the house looks back to basics without the Christmas decorations. So here’s a lesson in kaleidsocopes that takes it back to the basics. What is a teleidoscope and how is it different than a kaleidoscope?
All kaleidoscopes are optical instruments that consist of mirrors configured to multiply the image of the object. The mirrors create the symmetry and the object creates the color.
Mirror systems are usually configured like a triangular tunnel. Object is where the definition of kaleidoscope versus teleidoscope comes into play.
One type of object on a kaleidoscope is wheels of color.
Here is the N&J 8 inch double wheel kaleidoscope.
N&J 8 Inch Double Wheel Kaleidoscope
N&J 8 Inch Double Wheel Kaleidoscope
8 Inch Double Wheel Kaleidoscope Interior Image
8 Inch Double Wheel Kaleidoscope Interior Image
Now the Teleidoscope design uses simply a clear marble at the end of the mirrors. This creates a multiplied image of whatever you see in the world. Here is the same tube and mirror system as a
N&J 7 Inch Teleidoscope
N&J 7 Inch Teleidoscope
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What was a centurion in biblical days?
centurion Add to list Share. A centurion is a kind of soldier in the Roman army responsible for the command of a century, or one hundred, men. … Their resilience in popular imagination may be ascribed to the role the centurion soldiers played in the Christian gospel story of the life of Jesus Christ.
What is a centurion in Bible times?
Trace these battle-proven Roman commanders in the Bible
A centurion (pronounced cen-TU-ri-un) was an officer in the army of ancient Rome. Centurions got their name because they commanded 100 men (centuria = 100 in Latin).
What was the role of a centurion?
The centurion was the commander of a centuria, which was the smallest unit of a Roman legion. … They formed the backbone of the legion and were responsible for enforcing discipline. They received much higher pay and a greater share of the spoils than did common soldiers.
How did someone become a centurion?
Centurions had to be literate (to be able to read written orders), have connections (letters of recommendation), be at least 30 years of age, and have already served a few years in the military. They also have had to be able to boost their soldiers’ morale.
THIS IS INTERESTING: What does God say about being loud?
Who was the centurion at the cross of Jesus?
Christian legend has it that Longinus was a blind Roman centurion who thrust the spear into Christ’s side at the crucifixion. Some of Jesus’s blood fell upon his eyes and he was healed. Upon this miracle Longinus believed in Jesus.
What did Jesus say to the centurion?
What rank was a Roman tribune?
A military tribune (Latin tribunus militum, “tribune of the soldiers”) was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribune as a stepping stone to the Senate.
What did the centurion say at the cross?
Jesus “cried with a loud voice” right before He died. “And when the centurion…saw that He so cried out [with a loud voice] he said, “Truly this man was the Son of God.” Why would Jesus’ “loud voice” cause the centurion to say, “Truly this man was the Son of God?”
How did the centurion show faith?
The story of the healing of the centurion’s servant in Luke 7 ends with a remarkable statement by Jesus: “I tell you, I have not found such great faith even in Israel.” … This centurion, evidently a generous man and a good citizen, was able to convince some Jewish elders to speak to Jesus on his behalf.
THIS IS INTERESTING: What does the Bible say about lying KJV?
Does centurion mean 100?
The definition of a centurion is a leader of 60 to 100 soldiers in the ancient Roman army. The leader of 80 soldiers in the Roman army in 100 BC is an example of a centurion.
Was Cornelius a gentile?
What happened to the Praetorian Guard?
The structure of the Praetorian Guard was permanently altered in the late-second century, when the Emperor Septimius Severus dismissed its members and began recruiting bodyguards directly from the legions. Still, their run as the guardians of the Roman throne didn’t officially end until the fourth century.
Why is the Spear of Destiny so powerful?
The Spear of Destiny is one of the Thirteen Artifacts and was once used by the Roman Longinus to pierce the side of Jesus Christ as He hung on the cross. The Spear has the power of foresight and wielding it, one can channel their power through it and destroy demons and beings of a magical nature.
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Some Characteristics of Azalea
The brilliant hues of azaleas brighten home gardens along Pacific coastal regions of the United States, in the south and in colder areas. Members of the genus Rhododendron, azaleas appear both as American native species and as more than 10,000 registered hybrids, according to the Azalea Society of America. Although azaleas come in many types, shapes and sizes, they generally prefer the same cultural practices.
Azaleas and Rhododendrons
Certain types of rhododendrons are known as azaleas. In common parlance, "azalea" usually means deciduous plants native to North America and some evergreen Asian types, while "rhododendron" refers to evergreen species with large leaves. However, the Azalea Society of America differentiates azaleas from other rhododendrons more technically. It states that azalea flowers have five to six stamens, while those of ordinary rhododendrons have 10. The leaves of azaleas are also pointier and thinner than those of rhododendrons. Examined with a magnifying glass, rhododendron leaves have scales on the bottom, while azalea leaves do not.
Major Types
The native North America species of azaleas belong to the subgenus Pentanthera and are deciduous plants that lose their leaves in winter. Typical flower colors are yellow, orange, pink, red, white and purple. The other main division includes evergreen azaleas of the subgenus Tsutsusi, mostly from Japan. Tsutsusi flowers have various tones of red, red-orange, purple and pink, or a combination of colors.
Leaves and Size
The leaves, size and shape of azaleas vary greatly. The leaves measure from 1/4 inch long to more than 6 inches. Deciduous azaleas usually have large leaves, while the leaves of the evergreens are generally smaller than 2 inches. Although some azalea leaves have white or yellow variegation, most are solid green. Most leaves have a football shape, but some are thin and narrow. Azalea bushes can grow mostly upward or spread outward, depending on the type. They range from less than 1 foot to more than 15 feet tall.
Choosing Azaleas
Azaleas generally prefer mild climates with high humidity. Most azaleas thrive in U.S. Department of Agriculture zones 6 to 8, but some varieties are adapted to warmer or colder climates. Although they normally prefer shade, some flourish in full sun. Choose a variety suited to your climate and location. The leaves and nectar of azaleas are toxic to humans an animals, an important consideration if you have children or pets.
Azaleas prefer acid soil with good drainage. Established azaleas usually do not need feeding, but a small amount of fertilizer for acid-loving species is beneficial at planting. Mulch around the root area with wood chips, bark or pine needless to keep weeds down and retain moisture. In dry weather, water azaleas to keep the soil moist. Although pruning is not necessary, prune azaleas lightly if they grow too large. Cut off clusters of dead flowers without removing the next year's buds.
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In fifth grade all of our science units revolve around hands on activities and experiments. Students will participate in the following units:
§ Microworlds (with Ms. DeGennaro)
§ Mixtures and Solutions (with Mrs. Bonilla)
§ Ecosystems (with Mrs. Vaughn)
§ Matter and Elements (with Mr. Wentz)
The students will …..
Take notes using 2-column note-taking
Follow the scientific method while making observations
Complete experiments
Work cooperatively with their group
Write detailed observations in their science notebook
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Stepper Motor Control: H-Bridge
The H-Bridge
The original concept of the H-Bridge was being able to control the direction a motor was going. Forward or backward. This was achieved by managing current flow through circuit elements called transistors. The formation looks like an H and that's where it gets the name H-Bridge. Here is what it looks like:
The picture above illustrates the 4 base cases that we can get out of the simple version of an H-Bridge. The two cases that interest us are when A & D are both 1 and when B & C are both 1.
When A & D are 1 current from the battery will flow from point A through the motor to D's ground. However for the case when B & C are both 1, current will flow in the opposite direction from B through the motor to C's ground.
LMD18245 Pinout
To the right you'll see a sample of what the H-Bridge we'll be working with looks like with each pin labeled. For a complete description of what each pin does check out the datasheet at
For now we'll take a look at a unique feature that the LMD182xx series of H-Bridges offers us. It is called 'current sensing'. This is part of what the CS pin has to offer us.
H-Bridge Current Sensing
This feature allows us to limit the maximum amount of current that the motors can use. The stepper motor we are using for this tutorial is rated at 250mA. This means the maximum current it will ever sink is 250mA.
Using this formula we can now define the max current. In the above example we see a max current of 275.74mA is allowed. Rg is the component that we can change to achieve that max current value. Our stepper motor wants 250mA to run so this will be more than enough.
Varying Stepper Motor Speed
In DC Motors varying the the M4-M1 inputs gave us different speeds because it varied the current flow allowed to the motor. This won't work with stepper motors. We'll need to instead decide how often we want to step. This means that we slow down the stepper motor by delaying between steps. The length of that delay will decide overall speed. We'll see this in the code.
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A caliper (British spelling also calliper, or in plurale tantum sense a pair of calipers) is a device used to measure the distance between two opposite sides of an object. Many types of calipers permit reading out a measurement on a ruled scale, a dial, or a digital display. But a caliper can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. The tips of the caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured and then the caliper is then removed and the distance read by measuring between the tips with a measuring tool, such as a ruler.
It is used in many fields such as mechanical engineering, metalworking, forestry, woodworking, science and medicine.
Nomenclature variants caliper
A plurale tantum sense of the word "calipers" coexists in natural usage with the regular noun sense of "caliper". That is, sometimes a caliper is treated cognitively like a pair of glasses or a pair of scissors, resulting in a phrase such as "hand me those calipers" or "those calipers are mine" in reference to one unit.
Also existing colloquially but not in formal usage is referring to a vernier caliper as a "vernier" or a "pair of verniers". In imprecise colloquial usage, some speakers extend this even to dial calipers, although they involve no vernier scale.
In machine-shop usage, the term "caliper" is often used in contradistinction to "micrometer", even though outside micrometers are technically a form of caliper. In this usage, "caliper" implies only the form factor of the vernier or dial caliper (or its digital counterpart).
The earliest caliper has been found in the Greek Giglio wreck near the Italian coast. The ship find dates to the 6th century BC. The wooden piece already featured a fixed and a movable jaw.[1][2] Although rare finds, calipers remained in use by the Greeks and Romans.[2][3]
A bronze caliper, dating from 9 AD, was used for minute measurements during the Chinese Xin dynasty. The caliper had an inscription stating that it was "made on a gui-you day at new moon of the first month of the first year of the Shijian guo period." The calipers included a "slot and pin" and "graduated in inches and tenths of an inch."[4][5]
The modern vernier caliper, was invented by Pierre Vernier, as an improvement of the nonius of Pedro Nunes.
Inside caliper
• The upper caliper in the image (at the right) requires manual adjustment prior to fitting. Fine setting of this caliper type is performed by tapping the caliper legs lightly on a handy surface until they will almost pass over the object. A light push against the resistance of the central pivot screw then spreads the legs to the correct dimension and provides the required, consistent feel that ensures a repeatable measurement.
• The lower caliper in the image has an adjusting screw that permits it to be carefully adjusted without removal of the tool from the workpiece.
Outside caliper
Outside calipers are used to measure the external size of an object.
The same observations and technique apply to this type of caliper, as for the above inside caliper. With some understanding of their limitations and usage, these instruments can provide a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. They are especially useful when measuring over very large distances; consider if the calipers are used to measure a large diameter pipe. A vernier caliper does not have the depth capacity to straddle this large diameter while at the same time reach the outermost points of the pipe's diameter. They are made from high carbon steel.
Divider caliper
In the metalworking field, a divider caliper, popularly called a compass, is used in the process of marking out locations. The points are sharpened so that they act as scribers; one leg can then be placed in the dimple created by a center or prick punch and the other leg pivoted so that it scribes a line on the workpiece's surface, thus forming an arc or circle.
A divider caliper is also used to measure a distance between two points on a map. The two caliper's ends are brought to the two points whose distance is being measured. The caliper's opening is then either measured on a separate ruler and then converted to the actual distance, or it is measured directly on a scale drawn on the map. On a nautical chart the distance is often measured on the latitude scale appearing on the sides of the map: one minute of arc of latitude is approximately one nautical mile or 1852 metres.
Dividers are also used in the medical profession. An ECG (also EKG) caliper transfers distance on an electrocardiogram; in conjunction with the appropriate scale, the heart rate can be determined. A pocket caliper version was invented by cardiologist Robert A. Mackin.[6]
Oddleg caliper
Oddleg calipers, Hermaphrodite calipers, or Oddleg jennys, as pictured on the left, are generally used to scribe a line at a set distance from the edge of a workpiece. The bent leg is used to run along the workpiece edge while the scriber makes its mark at a predetermined distance, this ensures a line parallel to the edge.
In the diagram at left, the uppermost caliper has a slight shoulder in the bent leg allowing it to sit on the edge more securely, the lower caliper lacks this feature but has a renewable scriber that can be adjusted for wear, as well as being replaced when excessively worn.
Vernier caliper
The vernier, dial, and digital calipers give a direct reading of the distance measured with high accuracy and precision. They are functionally identical, with different ways of reading the result. These calipers comprise a calibrated scale with a fixed jaw, and another jaw, with a pointer, that slides along the scale. The distance between the jaws is then read in different ways for the three types.
The simplest method is to read the position of the pointer directly on the scale. When the pointer is between two markings, the user can mentally interpolate to improve the precision of the reading. This would be a simple calibrated caliper; but the addition of a vernier scale allows more accurate interpolation, and is the universal practice; this is the vernier caliper.
Vernier, dial, and digital calipers can measure internal dimensions (using the uppermost jaws in the picture at right), external dimensions using the pictured lower jaws, and in many cases depth by the use of a probe that is attached to the movable head and slides along the centre of the body. This probe is slender and can get into deep grooves that may prove difficult for other measuring tools.
The vernier scales may include metric measurements on the lower part of the scale and inch measurements on the upper, or vice versa, in countries that use inches. Vernier calipers commonly used in industry provide a precision to 0.01 mm (10 micrometres), or one thousandth of an inch. They are available in sizes that can measure up to 1,829 mm (72 in).[7]
Dial caliper
Instead of using a vernier mechanism, which requires some practice to use, the dial caliper reads the final fraction of a millimeter or inch on a simple dial.
In this instrument, a small, precise rack and pinion drives a pointer on a circular dial, allowing direct reading without the need to read a vernier scale. Typically, the pointer rotates once every inch, tenth of an inch, or 1 millimeter. This measurement must be added to the coarse whole inches or centimeters read from the slide. The dial is usually arranged to be rotatable beneath the pointer, allowing for "differential" measurements (the measuring of the difference in size between two objects, or the setting of the dial using a master object and subsequently being able to read directly the plus-or-minus variance in size of subsequent objects relative to the master object).
The slide of a dial caliper can usually be locked at a setting using a small lever or screw; this allows simple go/no-go checks of part sizes.
Digital caliper
A popular refinement replaces the analog dial with an electronic digital display that displays the reading as a numeric value. Rather than a rack and pinion, these calipers use a linear encoder. Some digital calipers can be switched between centimeters or millimeters, and inches. All provide for zeroing the display at any point along the slide, allowing the same sort of differential measurements as with the dial caliper. Digital calipers may contain a "reading hold" feature, allowing the reading of dimensions after use in awkward locations where the display cannot be seen. Ordinary 6-in/150-mm digital calipers are made of stainless steel, have a rated accuracy of 0.001 in (0.02mm) and a resolution of 0.0005 in (0.01 mm).[8] The same technology is used to make longer 8-in and 12-in calipers; the accuracy for longer measurements declines to 0.001 in (0.03 mm) for 100–200 mm and 0.0015 in (0.04 mm) for 200–300 mm.[9]
Increasingly, digital calipers offer a serial data output to allow them to be interfaced with a dedicated recorder or a personal computer. The digital interface significantly decreases the time to make and record a series of measurements, and it also improves the reliability of the records. A suitable device to convert the serial data output to common computer interfaces such as RS-232, Universal Serial Bus, or wireless can be built or purchased. With such a converter, measurements can be directly entered into a spreadsheet, a statistical process control program, or similar software.
The serial digital output varies among manufacturers. Common options are
• Mitutoyo's Digimatic interface. This is the dominant name brand interface. Format is 52 bits arranged as 13 nibbles.[10][11][12]
• Sylvac interface. This is the common protocol for inexpensive, non-name brand, calipers. Format is 24 bit 90 kHz synchronous.[13][14]
• Starrett[15]
• Brown & Sharpe[15]
• Federal
• Tesa[15]
• Aldi. Format is 7 BCD digits.[14]
• Mahr (Digimatic, RS232C, Wireless FM Radio, Infrared and USB)[16]
Like dial calipers, the slide of a digital caliper can usually be locked using a lever or thumb-screw.
Some digital calipers contain a capacitive linear encoder. A pattern of bars is etched directly on the printed circuit board in the slider. Under the scale of the caliper another printed circuit board also contains an etched pattern of lines. The combination of these printed circuit boards forms two variable capacitors. The two capacitances are out of phase. As the slider moves the capacitance changes in a linear fashion and in a repeating pattern. The circuitry built into the slider counts the bars as the slider moves and does a linear interpolation based on the magnitudes of the capacitors to find the precise position of the slider. Other digital calipers contain an inductive linear encoder, which allows robust performance in the presence of contamination such as coolants.[17] Magnetic linear encoders are used in yet other digital calipers.
Micrometer caliper
A caliper using a calibrated screw for measurement, rather than a slide, is called an external micrometer caliper gauge, a micrometer caliper or, more often, simply a micrometer. (Sometimes the term caliper, referring to any other type in this article, is held in contradistinction to micrometer.)
Each of the above types of calipers has its relative merits and faults.
Vernier calipers are rugged and have long lasting accuracy, are coolant proof, are not affected by magnetic fields, and are largely shock proof. They may have both centimeter and inch scales. However, vernier calipers require good eyesight or a magnifying glass to read and can be difficult to read from a distance or from awkward angles. It is relatively easy to misread the last digit. In production environments, reading vernier calipers all day long is error-prone and is annoying to the workers.
Dial calipers are comparatively easy to read, especially when seeking exact center by rocking and observing the needle movement. They can be set to 0 at any point for comparisons. They are usually fairly susceptible to shock damage. They are also very prone to getting dirt in the gears, which can cause accuracy problems.
Digital calipers switch easily between centimeter and inch systems. They can be set to 0 easily at any point with full count in either direction, and can take measurements even if the display is completely hidden, either by using a "hold" key, or by zeroing the display and closing the jaws, showing the correct measurement, but negative. They can be mechanically and electronically fragile. Most also require batteries, and do not resist coolant well. They are also only moderately shockproof, and can be vulnerable to dirt.
Calipers may read to a resolution of 0.01 mm or 0.0005 in, but accuracy may not be better than about ±0.02 mm or 0.001 in for 150 mm (6 in) calipers, and worse for longer ones.[18]
A caliper must be properly applied against the part in order to take the desired measurement. For example, when measuring the thickness of a plate a vernier caliper must be held at right angles to the piece. Some practice may be needed to measure round or irregular objects correctly.
Accuracy of measurement when using a caliper is highly dependent on the skill of the operator. Regardless of type, a caliper's jaws must be forced into contact with the part being measured. As both part and caliper are always to some extent elastic, the amount of force used affects the indication. A consistent, firm touch is correct. Too much force results in an underindication as part and tool distort; too little force gives insufficient contact and an overindication. This is a greater problem with a caliper incorporating a wheel, which lends mechanical advantage. This is especially the case with digital calipers, calipers out of adjustment, or calipers with a poor quality beam.
Simple calipers are uncalibrated; the measurement taken must be compared against a scale. Whether the scale is part of the caliper or not, all analog calipers—verniers and dials—require good eyesight in order to achieve the highest precision. Digital calipers have the advantage in this area.
Calibrated calipers may be mishandled, leading to loss of zero. When a calipers' jaws are fully closed, it should, of course, indicate zero. If it does not, it must be recalibrated or repaired. A vernier caliper does not easily lose its calibration but a sharp impact or accidental damage to the measuring surface in the caliper jaw can be significant enough to displace zero.[19] Digital calipers have zero set buttons, for quick recalibration.
Vernier, dial and digital calipers can be used with accessories that extend their usefulness. Examples are a base that extends their usefulness as a depth gauge and a jaw attachment that allows measuring the center distance between holes. Since the 1970s a clever modification of the moveable jaw on the back side of any caliper allows for step or depth measurements in addition to external caliper measurements, in similar fashion to a universal micrometer (e.g., Starrett Mul-T-Anvil or Mitutoyo Uni-Mike).
Zero error
The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula "actual reading = main scale + vernier scale − (zero error)". Zero error may arise due to knocks that affect the calibration at 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other. Positive zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00 mm. If the reading is 0.10 mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10 mm. Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of 0.00 mm. If the reading is −0.08 mm, the zero error is referred to as −0.08 mm.
See also
1. Mensun Bound: The Giglio wreck: a wreck of the Archaic period (c. 600 BC) off the Tuscany island of Giglio, Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology, Athens 1991, pp. 27 and 31 (Fig. 65)
2. Roger B. Ulrich: Roman woodworking, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 2007, ISBN 0-300-10341-7, p.52f.
3. "hand tool." Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD. [Accessed July 29, 2008]
4. Colin A. Ronan; Joseph Needham (24 June 1994). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-521-32995-8. adjustable outside caliper gauge... self-dated at AD 9. An abridged version.
5. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-08-31. Retrieved 2013-11-26.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
6. shows a picture of the calipers but does not support the RAM claim.
7. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-05-25. Retrieved 2010-06-25.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
8. "Harbor Freight Tools – Quality Tools at Discount Prices Since 1977".
9. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-07-26. Retrieved 2009-06-12.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
10. DRO System: Linear Scales & Counters (PDF), Mitutoyo, n.d., p. 22, Bulletin No. 1715, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-03
11. Linear Gage (PDF), Mitutoyo, n.d., p. 33, Catalog No. E4174-542/572/575, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-03
12. Lancaster, Don (February 2000), "Tech Musings" (PDF), Tech Musings, 145
13. "Chinese Scales".
14. Yadro archive-date=2013-12-09 archive-url=
15. Lancaster, Don (November 1999), "Tech Musings" (PDF), Tech Musings, 142: 142.3
16. "New Mahr 2015 Catalogue". Cutwel.
17. ABS Coolant Proof Caliper; Coolant Proof Micrometer (PDF), Mitutoyo, January 2005, Bulletin No. 1813-293/500, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-03
18. "Accuracy of Calipers".
19. Mitutoyo. E 12024 Check Points For Measuring Instruments. pp. 2, 3.
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CPM Homework Banner
Home > MC1 > Chapter 3 > Lesson 3.4.2 > Problem 3-109
Four friends worked together to wash all of the cars that the Kish family owns. They received for doing the work and agreed to divide the earnings evenly. How much money will each friend earn? Show how you know.
Since we know there were four friends working, can we use division to find how much of the each friend will get?
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Augmentation (music)
In Western music and music theory, the word augmentation (from Late Latin augmentare, to increase) has three distinct meanings. Augmentation is a compositional device where a melody, theme or motif is presented in longer note-values than were previously used. Augmentation is also the term for the proportional lengthening of the value of individual note-shapes in older notation by coloration, by use of a sign of proportion, or by a notational symbol such as the modern dot. A major or perfect interval that is widened by a chromatic semitone is an augmented interval, and the process may be called augmentation.
Augmentation in composition
A melody or series of notes is augmented if the lengths of the notes are prolonged; augmentation is thus the opposite of diminution, where note values are shortened. A melody originally consisting of four quavers (eighth notes) for example, is augmented if it later appears with four crotchets (quarter notes) instead. This technique is often used in contrapuntal music, as in the "canon by augmentation" ("per augmentationem"), in which the notes in the following voice or voices are longer than those in the leading voice, usually twice the original length.[1] The music of Johann Sebastian Bach provides examples of this application. Other ratios of augmentation, such as 1:3 (tripled note values) and 1:4 (quadrupled note values), are also possible.[2]
A motif is also augmented through expanding its duration.[3]
Augmentation may also be found in later, non-contrapuntal pieces, such as the Pastoral Symphony (Symphony No. 6) of Beethoven, where the melodic figure heard twice in the last ten bars of the "Storm" movement ("Die Sturm") is an augmented and transposed version of the motif first heard in the second violins in the third bar,[4] or the development sections of sonata form movements, particularly in the symphonies of Brahms and Bruckner.[2]
Augmentation in notation
Main article: Dotted note
Augmentation of intervals
Augmented octave on C. Play
An interval is augmented if it is widened by a chromatic semitone. Thus an augmented fifth, for example, is a chromatic semitone wider than the perfect fifth. The standard abbreviations for augmented intervals are AX, such that an augmented third = A3.[5]
Augmented intervals on C
Augmented unison Augmented second Augmented third Augmented fourth Augmented fifth Augmented sixth Augmented seventh
Play Play Play Play Play Play Play
A good example of this can be seen in the left hand part of Chopin's famous E minor prelude Op. 28, No. 4. Many of the chord sequences change with the top or bottom note augmenting or diminishing the next chord as the music progresses.
Augmented triad on C
Augmented dominant seventh
chord on C Play
Whole tone scale on C Play .
An augmented chord is one which contains an augmented interval, almost invariably the 5th of the chord. An augmented triad is a major triad whose fifth has been raised by a chromatic semitone; it is the principal harmony of the whole tone scale.
See also
1. Jeppesen, Knud. Counterpoint: The Polyphonic Vocal Style of the Sixteenth Century. trans. Glen Haydon. New York: Dover Publications. 1992. ISBN 978-0-486-27036-4. p. 235
2. 1 2 "Augmentation and diminution" in the Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. rev. and enlarged (1969). Willi Apel, ed. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
3. Forte, Allen (1979/1962). Tonal Harmony in Concept & Practice, p.391. Third edition. ISBN 0-03-020756-8.
4. Bullivant, Roger. "Augmentation (ii)". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Retrieved August 2011. Check date values in: |access-date= (help) (subscription needed)
External links
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/7/2015. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
About 150 miles (240 kilometers) northeast of Damascus lies Palmyra, Syria, a small town with an airfield and a pipeline pumping station. Nearby are ruins that testify to the glory of ancient Palmyra. A quadruple colonnade flanks the main street for nearly 1 mile (1.6 kilometers). At the end are a triumphal arch and a temple. Other ruins include a theater, aqueduct, senate house, villas, and tombs.
Ancient Palmyra is the Tadmor of the Bible. It stood on the camel route between the East and the Mediterranean nations. It was given the name Palmyra, meaning “city of palm trees,” by the Romans, who took the city in ad 130. They made it an outpost against the revival of a Persian empire. The Romans retained the native rulers as governors. In ancient times, the population was estimated to have been about 150,000.
In 262 Odaenathus, prince of Palmyra, drove the Persians from the region. Under the rule of Odaenathus Palmyra became virtually independent from Rome. Odaenathus was assassinated in about 268. His widow, Zenobia, extended her domain from Egypt to Mesopotamia. She defied Rome until Emperor Aurelian restored Roman control, probably in 272. The modern city is known as Tadmur.
The French used the site as a military outpost after World War I. The ruins of the ancient city were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980.
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The death of Severus. February 4, 211.
In 208 Septimius Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering Caledonia. He probably arrived in Britain with an army over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number. He strengthened Hadrian’s Wall and reconquered the Southern Uplands up to the Antonine Wall, which was also enhanced. Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of Agricola of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as Carpow. He was supported and supplied by a strong naval force. Cassius Dio‘s account of the invasion reads: Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced ...
The death of Septimius Severus. February 4, 211.
By 210, Septimius Severus‘ campaigning had made significant gains in Britain, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and heavy Roman casualties. The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they gave up control of the Central Lowlands. The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling their position was becoming desperate, revolted later that year along with the Maeatae. Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: “Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction”. Severus’ campaign was cut short when he fell fatally ill. He withdrew to Eboracum a...
Lost Password
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Northern Mockingbird- Vocalizations
Northern Mockingbird: Mimus Polyglottos
Northern Mockingbirds are not typical songbirds, as half of their repertoire is comprised of songs that are mimetic, meaning they are songs learned from other species, rather than just learned from adults of their species (Gammon and Lyon, 2017).
Song and Calls
Mimetic song is often used more in the breeding season, however mockingbirds will learn new sounds throughout their whole life. Because Northern Mockingbirds are mimics, their song has similarity to locally produced sounds from a model, however, their song can also consist of non-mimetic vocalizations and other mockingbird song types (Gammon and Lyon, 2017). There are three types of unlearned song that mockingbirds will sing and these are called loud hews, soft hews and chat calls (Zollinger, Riede and Suthers, 2008).
Their song varies, because it is composed of long vocal sequences, containing many repeated sounds from their repertoire, often referred to as song types (Gammon and Lyon, 2017). In fact, mockingbirds can have anywhere from 45-203 song types, and their song will consist of different bouts, each repeated many times and then followed by a different song. Researchers look at mockingbird song with several components in mind: versatility, bout length, and recurrence interval. However, researchers have not looked into repertoire size in relation to region. About 35%-63% of song is recurring from year to year, so the repertoire increases with age (Derrickson and Breitwisch, 2011).
Figure 1 shows a spectrogram of a phrase of a northern mockingbird song, distinguishing between the mockingbird’s mimetic song and other species’ song. Mockingbirds include large silences between repeated song types, enabling us to listen to the different components of their complex song, before moving onto the next song type (Gammon and Lyon, 2017). Mimetic song covers much higher frequencies, which is believed to better attract females during breeding season (Gammon and Lyon, 2017). These occur in alarm and non-alarm contexts (Gammon, 2014). Most singing occurs in the morning, but nocturnal singing also happens when there is bright light of a full moon, or artificial light. They start singing around a half hour to an hour before sunrise.
Figure 1: The Carolina Wren song and Brown-headed Nuthatch ‘rubberducky’ call are examples of songs mimicked by the mockingbird. Each vertical dotted line accounts for the separation of song types, so in this example, there are five song types represented.
(Gammon and Lyon, 2007)
Mimicry in Mockingbirds
As mimics, Mockingbirds replicate other sounds including other species’ songs or calls, vocalizations of other non-bird species, mechanical sounds and other mockingbirds’ songs. They are open-ended learners, meaning they learn song throughout life, and the majority of song is not innate. Also, due to being mostly sedentary birds, it is believed most song is learned from local species and neighboring birds (Derrickson and Breitwisch, 2011).
The frequency of mockingbird mimicry is highest in the late spring prior to breeding and lower in the non-breeding season (Gammon, 2014). Mockingbirds utilize the syrinx to make complex sounds and expand their repertoire, somewhat like using two voices because the syrinx is capable of self-harmonizing (Zollinger, Riede and Suthers, 2008).
Dialects and the Environment
Dialects are not studied, and it is unclear if dialects are present in Northern mockingbird song. It is unlikely there are extreme dialects because their song repertoire is so vast, and because they are such sedentary birds. It has been studied how these birds react with their environment, including the fact that they have different songs for when they are in flight versus not in flight. Also, some trees are favored by males, and will be passed onto other members of the generation or future generations. They also will sing while putting their nests together, but otherwise will not sing from their nests (Derrickson and Breitwisch, 2011).
Looking Ahead
In one study, it was shown that males with more testosterone sing more, which allows them to find a mate more easily, which suggests that increased testosterone levels can be the cause of increased use of mimicry in mockingbird song (Gammon, 2014). Sometimes, mockingbirds have trouble directly mimicking sounds that are physiologically hard to understand and produce. This leads to the idea that sound production mechanisms help mockingbirds choose their models (Gammon, 2013). This is one pathway that can be opened up to learn more about mockingbird song. Do mockingbirds choose models that are similar to their sound, or do they choose models that are more unique and different than their sound? A study can be created in which we experiment using a mockingbird in the lab and play a series of different models with varying levels of acoustic similarity.
Mockingbirds are said to be open-ended learners, however, it is not clear when their exact learning times are, and if their repertoires shift over their lifetime, or evolve from generation to generation (Gammon and Altizer, 2011). This should be researched more in the future, because there is no singular reason for why mockingbirds are able to mimic other songs. Even though mimicking is usually used most in a breeding setting, an experiment to learn more about this could open up pathways to different thought about bird song. An experiment concerning this would include taking juvenile mockingbirds at birth and raising them in a laboratory. Different experiments would include studying what songs are chosen by the mockingbird to mimic, and if mimicked songs are used purely for breeding or in other circumstances.
In addition, female song is only slightly researched in comparison to male song. It is assumed that female song is less complex, but this is just an assumption. One way of remedying this absence of research is to tag females as well as males and compare the two to illuminate differences as well as if female song has a mating purpose.
Gammon, D. E. and Lyon, R. P. 2017. An acoustic comparison of mimetic and non-mimetic song in northern mockingbirds mimus polyglottos. Ardea 1: 37-42.
Zollinger, S. A., Riede, T., and Suthers, R. A. 2008. Two-voice complexity from a single side of the syrinx in northern mockingbird mimus polyglottos vocalizations. Journal of Experimental Biology 211:1978-1991.
Gammon, D. E. and Altizer, C. E. 2011. Northern mockingbirds produce syntactical patterns of vocal mimicry that reflect taxonomy of imitated species. Journal of Field Ornithology 2: 158-164.
Gammon, D. E. 2014. Seasonal patterns of vocal mimicry in northern mockingbirds mimus polyglottos. Journal of Avian Biology 6: 545-550.
Gammon, D. E. 2013. How is model selection determined in a vocal mimic?: Tests of five hypotheses. Behaviour 150:1375-1397.
Derrickson, K. C. and Breitwisch, R. 2011. Northern mockingbird. Birds of North America.
This entry was posted in Dutchess County Birds, Uncategorized. Bookmark the permalink.
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What is countershading give an example?
What sharks have countershading?
Animal Adaptations: Countershading, Camouflage, and Great White Sharks – Teaching Tips. Countershading is an evolutionary adaptation found in nature resulting in a darker shade on top and a lighter shade near the bottom of an animal’s external structure.
What is countershading in fish?
Countershading, originally described in the late 1800s, is when one side of an animal is dark and the other is light, serving as a form of camouflage. In fish, such as the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus) pictured, this typically means the ventral side (bottom) is light and the dorsal side (top) is dark.
Which of the following animals uses countershading as camouflage?
Countershading is a form of camouflage in which the top of an animal’s body is darker in color, while its underside is lighter. Sharks use countershading.
What animals use mimicry?
Some animals mimic themselves as a form of protection.
• alligator snapping turtles.
• copperheads.
• coral snake.
• firefly.
• Ismenius tiger butterflies.
• kingsnake.
• mockingbirds.
• monarch butterfly.
Why are cats bellies lighter?
True, light gets reflected back up from the ground, but not as much as comes down from the sky. More light lands on a four-footed animal’s back than on its belly, making the back brighter and the belly darker.
Is a Wobbegong a shark?
Scientific name: Orectolobidae Affectionately referred to as “wobbies,” the name wobbegong comes from the aboriginal word meaning “shaggy beard.” Wobbegong are placid, retiring sharks that live on the bottom in shallow temperate waters.
What is a sharks 6th Sense?
A Shark’s Sixth Sense around their head called ampullae of Lorenzini. These are jelly filled pores that go down to the nerve receptors at the base of the dermis. They are specialized electroreceptor organs that allow the shark to sense electromagnetic fields and temperature changes in the water column.
What is camouflage animal?
Camouflage animals are the animals that use camouflage to disguise themselves as per their surroundings to protect them from predators, or attack prey. Hide from their predators. Make it difficult for their prey to escape and sneak up. Use colouring and markings to blend into their environments.
Which animal uses mimicry for self defense?
#1 Animal That Uses Mimicry to Survive: Viceroy Butterflies Harmless viceroy butterflies use Batesian mimicry to defend themselves against predators.
What animals use Müllerian mimicry?
What does it mean when an animal has countershading?
Jennifer Kennedy, M.S., is an environmental educator specializing in marine life. She serves as the executive director of the Blue Ocean Society for Marine Conservation. Countershading is a type of coloration commonly found in animals and means that the animal’s back (dorsal side) is dark while its underside (ventral side) is light.
What kind of reptiles had countershading on their backs?
Why is countershading called Thayer’s law of animals?
In his 1909 book Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, he correctly described and illustrated countershading with photographs and paintings, but wrongly claimed that almost all animals are countershaded. For this reason countershading is sometimes called Thayer’s law. Thayer wrote:
Which is an example of countershading in the ocean?
In the ocean, countershading camouflages an animal from predators or prey. When viewed from below, an animal’s lighter belly would blend in with the lighter sky above. When viewed from above, its darker back would blend in with the ocean bottom underneath.
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Charlene Charlene
Elementary level
In this lesson, students will practice listening to a broadcast about the lifestyle of locals in Hong Kong.
Abc Zoom White Board
Abc SB: Speak Out
Main Aims
• For students to practice listening for gist and specific information in the context of a broadcast about the lifestyle of locals in Hong Kong.
Subsidiary Aims
• For students to understand and use the following lexical items related to a local's life in Hong Kong. (skyscraper, shopping centre, karaoke, tram, bamboo steamer)
-T shows Hong Kong flag and world map to Ss. -Ss guess the country. -T asks students if they have been to Hong Kong?
Pre-teaching Vocabulary -T shows photo of target vocabulary and elicits information about the photo. -T says word verbally and asks CCQs -T drills pronunciation (chorally and individually) -T reveals written form -T asks if the above words are popular with tourists, locals or both? -Ss are given a exposure to the listening with a quick reading tasks. T highlights most important parts with three questions. -After the reading task, Ss predict which of the challenges from the broadcast will be easiest to do. -If there's time, Ss can discuss predictions in pairs
-Ss listen to the 4 minute video. -Ss are checking to see if their prediction was true. -T also asks Ss what problems the broadcaster faced as she went about her challenges
-Ss listen a second time for specific information -Ss are checking the sentences and finding the incorrect word and replacing it with the correct word. -Ss pair check their answers -FB- T reviews answers with AK and replays troublesome sentences in the video if needed.
-Ss have a discussion in pairs -Ss choose one question and talk about it -FB: T asks Ss about their partner's answers when in a whole group
Feedback and Error Correction (5 minutes) • Students correct their own errors
-T writes 3 sentences on the WB. 2 sentences have errors, 1 doesn't. -Ss decide which ones have errors and which one doesn't. -Ss explain what the errors are and why they are incorrect.
Web site designed by: Nikue
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Hakai Magazine
and on beach
An ant sets out for a day at the beach in Brazil. Because there’s not much food on a beach, it's easier to watch how ants make choices about what morsels to collect. Photo courtesy of Mayra Vidal
The Ants That Picnic on the Beach
A barren Brazilian beach offers a window into how ants forage.
Authored by
by Amorina Kingdon
Article body copy
Ants: they’re just like us. They head out into the world each day and search for the resources they need to survive. Their foraging choices, like where to go and what to eat, have been well documented in traditional lab settings. But as a recently published study shows, the broad expanse of a sunny Brazilian beach makes an excellent real-world laboratory. Yes, ants live even here, and an observant researcher has discovered the barren sand offers a window into their foraging strategies.
Mayra Vidal, now an ecologist at Syracuse University in New York, was a master’s student in 2011 doing a field course on Fazenda, an idyllic tropical beach near São Paulo, Brazil, when she noticed ants underfoot. Their colony sat near the top of the beach, adjacent to a broadleaf forest, but as the ebbing tide exposed a smooth 10-meter-wide strip of white sand, the ants spread out across the beach to forage.
This behavior surprised Vidal. The empty beach offered scant food options: just a few nectarous flowers such as the beach morning glory, or the odd dead fish. But then she had an idea. Unlike forests with their ubiquitous carb sources, the beach offered few sugary morsels and thus the rare opportunity to manipulate the availability of sugar in situ. And with no plant cover to block her view, Vidal could easily observe how the ants collected food as they went about their day.
Vidal first identified a handful of colonies, some surrounded by nectar-rich flowering beach plants, and some with few nectar sources nearby. Then she added tiny balls of bait to the study area—a sugar bait of caramel and flour, and a protein bait of dead sardines. She was curious to see if the amount of nectar available to the ants would affect how they utilized the protein and sugar baits.
Vidal noticed clear changes in the ants’ behavior in just 20 minutes. “When colonies already had nectar, they didn’t care about the sugar baits,” Vidal says. All but a few of the ants from these colonies selected the protein baits. However, the more nectar-limited colonies showed much more interest in the sugar baits, with about half the ants seeking out the caramel and the other half seeking out the sardines. In other words, they changed their foraging strategies depending on the relative availability of different foods.
That’s logical behavior, according to ecologist Staffan Lindgren at the University of Northern British Columbia. “They’re looking for the best return on investment,” he says. Since ant foraging ecology has been meticulously modeled in the lab, Lindgren thinks the real novelty here is that Vidal spotted such a suitable setting to do an experiment like this in the wild.
Vidal agrees that studies like hers can help validate laboratory work by watching ants make those choices in the real world. And in case you’re curious, the Brazilian colonies aren’t the only beach ants out there. Vidal says some ants in India have become such intertidal experts that they actually learn to surf. If water touches the ant’s body, it curls up, retracts its legs, and floats on the foam at the front of a breaking wave until it rests back on sand. No word yet on whether they prefer sugar or protein after riding those epic barrels.
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The History of the Island of Palawan
The island of Palawan, a major tourist destination, has come to be known as “The Best Island in the World.” However, long before it became such a go-to destination for tourists around the world, the island played a major role over the past thousands of years, most especially amidst the days of colonisation from one coloniser to the next.
Going back to the ancient times, is it believed that the Tagbanuas and the Palaw’ans people are direct descendants of the earliest settlers of Palawan.
During a period called the “Three Kingdoms,” a new group of migrants came to the island, and were called “Little dark people;” some of which had ended up settling in Thailand, while others settled in Indonesia, Borneo, and Sumatra.
Majority of Filipinos recognise these “little dark people” as Negritos and Aetas.
Moving forward to the classical period during the 12th century, arriving in Palawan were the Malay immigrants, whose settlements were handled by their chieftain. The said Malay immigrants focused on growing agricultural products such as coconuts, rice, and sugarcanes, and raised animals such as chickens, pigs, and goats. Under economic activities that they engaged in were farming, hunting, and fishing, using bowguns and traps made of bamboo. Indonesians later on followed and brought upon them Buddhism and Hinduism.
The distinct breed of peoples in Palawan, characterised by both physical stature and feature, had started during the same period. Intermarriage became a trend amongst the natives and foreign traders such as the Japanese, the Chinese, the Arabs, and the Hindus.
Now onto the Spanish period, immediately after the death of Magellan and the arrival of his remaining members in Palawan, the island was named as “The Land of the Promise,” by Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan’s chronicler.
First to come under Spanish authority, the northern Calamians Islands were later declared as a separate province from mainland Palawan. Immediately following this, right before the 18th century, churches began development in Spain. These churches were built to be enclosed by garrisons to ensure protection against Moro raids. The Sultunate of Brunei later surrendered southern Palawan to Spain in 1749.
The entire island of Palawan was organised as a single province and named iit Calamianes with Taytay as its capital in 1818. Back then, Palawan was called Paragua. 1858 came, and the province was divided into two provinces named Castilla, which covered all the municipalities in the northern part with Taytay as its capital, while in the southern mainland of Puerto Princesa, their capital was Asturias.
In 1902, the Americans established a civil rule on the northern part of Palawan, immediately after the Philippine-American war. In 1903, the province was reorganised and renamed its southern portions to Palawan; Puerto Princesa was then declared as its capital. The Americans planned to bring the people closer to the government, along with their plans of building schools, and the promotion of agriculture.
When it comes to the Japanese invasion, however, on December 14, 1944, units of the Japanese Fourteenth Area Army herded the remaining 150 prisoners of war in Puerto Princesa into three covered trenches which were then set on fire using barrels of gasoline––this was to prevent the rescue of prisoners of war. The prisoners who tried to escape the flames were killed by gunshots while the others attempted to escape by climbing over a cliff––they were later on hunted down by the Japanese soldiers, and were killed.
Of all the soldiers that attempted to escape, only 11 were successful, and 133 to 141 had been killed. Today, the site is known as the Plaza Cuartel; this is found right next to the Cathedral, both in Puerto Princesa.
The island of Palawan was liberated from the Japanese Imperial Forces by a task force consisting of Filipino and American military personnel between the 28th of February and the 22nd of April in 1945.
Now being the most popular tourist island destination in the world, it’s very difficult to imagine the dark history that the island holds. Its history is tough proof that the island is so much more than just its white sandy beaches and long sandbars. The island is also all about culture, heritage, and history.
This is something everyone must know about.
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New Scientist Default Image
Superstrong sea sponge could help build better spacecraft
The intricate structure of this marine sponge is already mimicked in engineering and architecture, and now we know we were missing a trick that can make our designs even stronger
30 September 2020
Image courtesy of Matheus Fernan
Image courtesy of
Matheus Fernandes/Harvard SEAS
THIS extraordinary, intricate marine sponge that lives deep in the Pacific Ocean could inspire even stronger, yet lightweight materials for use in anything from skyscrapers and bridges to spacecraft.
The Venus’s flower basket (Euplectella aspergillum) is classed as a glass sponge because the lattice skeleton that supports its tubular body is made of silica. The skeleton’s chessboard-like geometry, formed from diagonal struts fused to an underlying grid, is mimicked in architectural design to achieve things like evenly spreading loads across a bridge or shelf.
Yet even though the technique …
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Chladni Figures
Chladni Figures
(or sonorous figures), the figures formed by the accumulation of fine grains of dry sand along the nodal lines on the surface of a vibrating elastic plate or a similar mechanical system. A unique arrangement of the nodal lines corresponds to each of the plate’s normal modes of vibration. The figures were named after their discoverer, E. F. F. Chladni.
The nodal lines may be circular or radial in the case of a circular plate; they are parallel to the edges or the diagonals in the case of rectangular or triangular plates. The various Chladni figures that correspond to the different normal modes of a vibrating plate may be obtained by varying the points where the plate is supported or where it is excited.
Chladni figures are used to study the natural frequencies of the diaphragms of telephones, microphones, and loudspeakers.
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CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS The results from this experiment show that there is indeed an effect that the typical butterfly farm has on wild butterfly oviposition, and in turn, wild butterfly abundances. The tendency for butterflies to be in greater abundances closer to the farm could be the result of a combination of limited dispersal among butterflies from within the farm, whether escaped or hatched in the nurseries, as well as wild butterflies being attracted to the farm epicenter and the butterfly resources it contains. It is possible that the farm is emitting specific cues indicating habitat quality as well as the presence of viable mates, although untested in this experiment. This experiment cannot prove or disprove that these cues are real, nor if there is indeed a force attracting wild butterflies. However, we can say that there are greater butterfly abundances closer to the farm, whether from wild populations or butterflies from within the farm. It would be a very interesting and helpful follow-up study to examine these cues and the attractive stimuli these farms may elicit with regards to wild butterflies. By testing for larval predation around the farm, we see that the farm poses no clear threat of abnormally high levels of predation closer to the farm. In fact, the opposite is the case. There appears to be abnormally low levels of predation as one gets closer to the farm. This could be due to discrepatncies in predator populations and searching behavior. It could also be the result of heightened levels of human activity, in the form of farm workers and ecotourists, which may be perceived as a threat by potential predators. By testing for egg parasitism, the data suggest that proximity to the farm does not elicit higher levels of parasitism when compared to more distal areas. However, zero parasitism compared with zero parasitism does not provide convincing enough statistics to authoritatively claim no difference.
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Clams: An Overview
Clams: An Overview
The term clam is generally applied to a wide variety of bivalve (two-shelled) mollusks. There are two main types of clam: hard-shell (Mercenaria mercenaria, from the Latin merces meaning "pay") and soft-shell (Mya arenaria). Hard-shell clams generally live in deeper waters, whereas the soft-shell resides in tide flats. Soft-shells are generally not eaten raw.
There are two commercially important species of hard shell clams harvested in Florida, the southern quahog (Mercenaria campechiensis) and the northern quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria). These brown nearly- oval shaped mollusks come in three sizes. The smallest are Littleneck clams, which are the tenderest and sweetest and have a shell diameter of less than 2 inches. The largest is the Chowder clam, which has a shell diameter of at least 3 inches.
The hard shell protects the creamy beige, slightly salty meat inside. The rings or ridges on the outside of the shell indicate the clams growth and age, which can be more than 30 years. The most common East coast soft shell is the Steamer clam, which has an off white thin brittle, shell that doesn't close entirely due to the long siphon extending from the body. They can reach sizes of 6 inches but are usually found at half that size.
Quahog Clam (also Quahaug): Its name is derived from the Narraganset Indian word poquauhock, found in English texts as far back as 1753. Also known as the round clam, this is an East coast favorite. Generally recommended for eating raw and in chowders, depending on the size. Quahogs are hermaphrodites, meaning they are born of the male sex and change to female as they mature, remaining female for the rest of their lives. Smaller clams are best for eating raw. Quahogs also include Littlenecks and Cherrystones, which are simply smaller in size.
Littleneck Clam: Small quahogs less than 2-3/4 inches are so named for Littleneck Bay on Long Island, New York. Generally recommended for eating raw and in chowders.
Cherrystone Clam: Up to 3 inches, these are named for Cherrystone Creek, Virginia and take up to four years to reach their size. Generally recommended for eating raw and cooking. This is usually what you get when ordering clams on the half-shell.
Butter Clams: From the Puget Sound area, these are small, sweet clams usually eaten raw. They are also known as moneyshells, as the Native American Indians used the shells for money.
Longneck Clam: It is found in colder waters of the northern seas from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Hatteras and Pacific waters north of San Francisco. They are usually less expensive than other types and easiest to dig for. Generally recommended for steaming, frying, and chowder.
Manila Clam: Imported from the Orient after 1900, this variety (Venerupis japonica) of littleneck is now a dominant species in the Northwest. Generally recommended to be eaten cooked.
Razor Clam: Named for its sharp shell and its resemblance to a straight-edge razor, the East coast variety of this clam (Ensis directus) is not as easy to catch as its West coast counterpart, and thus not as popular. However, the unrelated Pacific razor clam (Siligua patula) is quite popular on the West Coast and is considered to have superior flavor.
Geoduck Clam: (pronounced "gooey-duck")… Related to the giant clam, this odd-looking variety (Panopea generosa) grows over eight inches in length and can weigh in at over five pounds, although most are harvested at less than three pounds. They are prized for the neck and the rest of the body is usually discarded.
Steamer Clams: The soft-shell clam has shells that are very thin compared to those of a hard clam. Soft-shell clams are usually harvested at between 2 to 3 inches in length. They are sold live in the shell or shucked. This is a wonderful clam and can be consumed in a variety of ways.
Cockles: This is a popular type of shellfish in both Eastern and Western cooking. Several species of cockles are considered to be good, edible clams. The rock cockle, is among the best known and most widely used for food. They usually do not exceed 3 inches in length.
Availability: Hard clams are caught wild from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida, Texas, Cuba and Mexico. They are also harvested in five East and West Coast counties in Florida where they are farm raised. A few years ago, there were only about 70 clam farmers in Florida. Now there are over 450. Live clams should only be taken from "approved" coastal waters. Clams are available year round, with February and December being the months of greatest supply.
*American Indians used the purple lining from clamshells to make wampum (beads strung in strands, belts, or sashes and used for barter, ornamental, ceremonial and spiritual purposes).
Selection and Care: Clams are sold live in the shell, fresh or frozen shucked, and canned. All raw shellfish must be stored in refrigeration to slow or minimize bacterial growth. People with liver disorders or weakened immune systems should not eat clams or other seafood unless it has been thoroughly cooked. Direct storage in ice is not recommended as it may kill the shellfish. Store live clams up to 2 weeks in a 40 Degrees F refrigerator in containers with the lid slightly open. Refrigerate shucked clams up to 7 days in a sealed container. Clams can be frozen in the shell and kept up to 3 months. Frozen shellfish should be thawed in the refrigerator.
Culinary: Clams are high in protein and virtually fat free and are perhaps the most versatile seafood in the world. Clams may be prepared in a variety of ways including steaming, frying and baking. They are a favorite in chowders, soups, appetizers and casseroles.
year round
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Trombone History: 15th Century
A history of the trombone in timeline form. For sources see Trombone History Bibliography.
c. 1400—The earliest trombones, according to some scholars, appear in northern Italy and southern France (Eliason). According to other scholars, it is more likely, based on performer nationalities and manufacturing locations, that the trombone originates in Germany (Herbert, Susato 117; Polk, Archival Documents).
1400-1420—According to Polk, “The trombone, though not yet universal, [becomes] an accepted fact of the musical scene in the first few decades of the fifteenth century” (Polk, German 66).
Early 1400s—In German cities, according to Polk, “In the first decades of the fifteenth century the artistic energies of the civic wind players were centred on performance on shawms and trombone. Playing of other instruments may have been called for, but such doubling was distinctly secondary” (Polk, German 113).
Braunschweig 21403—Braunschweig, Germany: City records indicate a salary payment to 2 shawms and a trombone (2 piperen unde enen bassuner) (Polk, Archival Documents).
1405—Braunschweig, Germany: City records show a salary payment to 2 shawms and a trombone (2 piperen unde 1 bassuner) (Polk, Archival Documents).
1407—Siena, Italy: German musician Angelo d’Arrigo joins the Palace trumpeters as a player of tuba grossa. There is speculation that this term, tuba grossa (Latin: large trumpet), could be a scribe’s best effort at describing a trombone, which would have been a very new instrument at the time (D’Accone, Civic Muse 443, 517).
Konstanz 14931414-18—Konstanz, Germany: At the Council of Constance, as a preliminary to the investiture of Frederick of Nuremberg as Elector of Brandenburg, all the Posaunen and all the Pfeiffen parade through the streets of the city (Galpin, The Sackbut). At the same council, an English delegation under Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, arrives with 3 trombonists (pusauner) and 4 shawmists; the trombonists “played in three parts, one above the other, as one usually sings” (Strohm 108; Whitwell, Before 263). In addition, the Pope arrives with an ensemble of shawms and trombones playing in “wild discord” (Whitwell, Before 81). As with the other references to trombone (or posaune) up until around the middle of the 15th century, these references may be to a single-slide instrument (i.e., slide trumpet) rather than a double-slide instrument like the modern trombone.
1417—Ofen, Hungary: Emperor Sigismund holds an assembly where he is reportedly accompanied by a wind band of 86 shawms and trombones (Whitwell, Before 244).
1418—Paris, France: Among musicians listed in the service of Charles VI is a trompete pour menestrier (as distinct from “war trumpet”), possibly an early term referring to trombone (Perkins, Musical Patronage).
hildesheim map1419—Hildesheim, Germany: City payment records indicate salaries for des rades piperen, in addition to payment for des basuners syden banre (the trombonist’s silk banner) (Polk, Archival Documents).
1421—Nuremberg, Germany: Accounts indicate that musicians of the court of Margrave of Brandenburg include a 4-part shawm band with trombones (posaunen). The musicians in the account are referred to separately: first, 2 trumpets (“2g…trummetern”), then a 4-part shawm band with trombone (“4 g. markgraf Fridrichs pusaunern und pfeiffern”). Thus, according to historian Keith Polk, “This document carries particular authority with its reference to both ‘trummeten’ and ‘posaunen'” (Polk, German 66).
1428—Hildesheim, Germany: City payment records include the following entry: “dem nigen basuner unde dem bumharde te dranckgelde” (“to the new trombonist and bombard player for drink money”) (Polk, Archival Documents).
1428—Hildesheim, Germany: City payment records include the following entry: “der rades piperen to hulpe…do se na enem nigen basunere gin” (“to the city pipers…as they went to find a new trombonist”) (Polk, Archival Documents).
1429—Hildesheim, Germany: City payment records include payment to “the new trombonist and bombard player for drink money (“dem nigen basuner unde dem bumbarde te dranckgelde”) (Polk, The Trombone).
c. 1430—The alta ensemble’s most likely instrumentation, according to Polk, is tied to contrapuntal function and follows the description of Tinctoris: shawm (soprano), bombard (altus), bombard (tenor), and trombone (bass). This instrumentation remains constant “for a century or more, from c. 1430 to well beyond 1520” (Polk, German 83).
Munich 14931438-1460—Munich, Germany: During the reign of Duke Albrecht III of Bavaria, the duke’s shawm band probably consists of 3 shawms and 1 trombone (Polk, German 99).
1439—Ferrara, Italy: The earliest known reference to the word trombone is made, applying the Italian suffix one (large) to tromba (trumpet). The document mentions a “tuba ductili…trombonus vulgo dictus” (Polk, Archival Documents; Kurtzman, Trombe).
Portrait of Emperor Friedrich III
Portrait of Emperor Friedrich III
1440-1493—Vienna, Austria: Emperor Friedrich III supports alta ensembles consisting of 5 players: 3 shawms and 2 trombones (Polk, German 88).
1443—Florence, Italy: A German trombonist is hired for the town wind band (pifferi). The superiority of foreign instrumentalists is an accepted fact in Italy: this same year, officials in Florence actually pass a motion that only foreign musicians may be members of the pifferi (Polk, Foreign 326; McGee, Service).
1444—Florence, Italy: The Signoria (city government) employs a wind band of 3 shawms and 1 trombone (D’Accone, Civic Muse 526).
1444—Florence, Italy: A scribe, apparently struggling to find a name for a relatively new instrument in the court shawm band, calls the trombone a “tortuous trumpet” (tube tortuose—literally having repeated twists or bends). In another document he terms it a tuba retorta, and finally, a tuba grossa e torta (Polk, Epilogue).
1445—Florence, Italy: An account describes the trombone as “trombon grosso…che e tromba torta” (a “large trombone…that is a twisted trumpet”) (Polk, Foreign 326; Polk, Archival Documents).
1446—Siena, Italy: City officials elect to form a Palace wind band, or pifferi, and send the following invitation to Maestro Garino of Avignon: “Esteemed friend! Having learned of your talents and of your mastery of wind instruments, and desirous of having you in our service, we have, together with our colleagues, nominated you and two other pifferi and a trombone, whom you will choose, for a lifetime [appointment in our Palace], at the salary which will be appended here in the hand of our government’s notary. Thus, if you decide to enter our service at that salary, we ask that you bring two good pifferi and a trombone with you and that you come to Siena as soon as you possibly can. You will be welcomed warmly and will be treated so well by us that you will praise our city to the skies.” The salary offered is comparable to salaries in Florence and twice that of the Palace trumpeters, and the invitation is accepted (D’Accone, Civic Muse 522).
1446—Siena, Italy: A document identifies the word trombone as an Italian version of the Latin augmentative tubicinone (D’Accone, Civic Muse 517). Specifically, the priors (city rulers) decide that a person who plays “a large trumpet, commonly called a trombone” can have a lifetime appointment at the Palace (D’Accone, Civic Muse 522).
1446—Oudenaarde, Belgium: A trombonist by the name of Janne de Brecht is appointed to a post with the town wind band, where he serves until 1497 (Polk, Susato 88).
Augsburg 14931447—Augsburg, Germany: Trombone is mentioned as part of a civic wind band (Polk, German 112).
1447—Siena, Italy: New clothing for Assumption Day performances is authorized for several of the city’s wind band (pifferi), including trombonist Giovanni della Magna (D’Accone, Civic Muse 524).
1447—Siena, Italy: Maestro Giovanni da Alamania is hired as trombonist with the Palace wind band, where he continues to work until 1456. He is mentioned several times in subsequent documents. In September of 1449 he is fired, then quickly rehired two months later. In 1450 he is granted leave to travel to Rome to seek an indulgence (D’Accone, Civic Muse 786).
1447—Siena, Italy: A document records the decision “to have another silver trombone [trombone d’argento] made for the commune, similar to the one that is played with the pifferi” (D’Accone, Civic Muse 553).
1449—Siena, Italy: A group of musicians from Florence performs for Assumption Day festivities. The group includes 6 trumpeters, a trombonist, and a herald (D’Accone, Civic Muse 687).
1449—Siena, Italy: The Concistoro decrees, “Maestro Ians, who plays the trombone, could no longer serve the Palace because he had behaved dishonorably” (D’Accone, Civic Muse 524).
c. 1450—Berlin, Germany: The Brandenburg court includes a wind band of 3 shawms and 2 trombones (Polk, German 100).
c. 1450—Dijon, France: The Burgundy court includes a wind band of 3 shawms and 1 or 2 trombones (Polk, German 100).
Naplesc. 1450—Naples, Italy: The court ensemble includes 3 shawms and a trombone. It performs at weddings, banquets, public and civic ceremonies, in the church, and even on the battlefield (Atlas, Music 110).
1450—Siena, Italy: The pifferi and trombones (tromboni) are given leave to pilgrimage to Rome (D’Accone, Civic Muse 556).
1450—Siena, Italy: A wind band from Florence visits Siena for August festivities. The group consists of three shawms and a trombone (D’Accone, Civic Muse 525).
1450—Siena, Italy: A trombonist from Lucca, Italy (“uni tromboni qui venit ex Luche”) performs at Assumption Day festivities in Siena (D’Accone, Civic Muse 687).
1450—Leuven, Belgium: The city employs a wind band of 3 shawms and a trombone. Originally a group of town “watchers,” the group’s function gradually becomes primarily musical (Polk, Susato 83).
1450—Lucca, Italy: Several trumpeters and a trombonist from Lucca visit Siena for August festivities (D’Accone, Civic Muse 525).
1450—Ypres, Belgium: The city employs a wind band of 2 shawms and a trombone (Polk, Susato 87).
1450—Nördlingen, Germany: Trombone is mentioned as part of civic band (a shawm band) (Polk, German 112).
Brussels1450—Brussels, Belguim: The city has a 3-part wind ensemble that includes 2 shawms and a trombone (Polk, Susato 82).
1451—Siena, Italy: Agostino di Piero da Albania is engaged as a new trombonist with the pifferi (civic wind band) (D’Accone, Civic Muse 525).
1451—Verona, Italy: Records show payment for the performance of a trombonus tectonicus (Polk, Archival Documents).
1452—Siena, Italy: The priors (city rulers) grant Agostino di Piero da Albania, who was hired as a trombonist one year earlier, a leave to visit Venice for a month. They also stipulate that, should Agostino overstay his leave, he will receive no salary (D’Accone, Civic Muse 525).
1454—Siena, Italy: A clothing list for Assumption Day and Christmas performances lists 3 pifferi and a trombone (the German trombonist Maestro Giovanni, listed as Maestro Giovanni trombone) (D’Accone, Civic Muse 526).
1455—Siena, Italy: The priors (city rulers) appoint a new trombonist, Arrigo di Giovanni da Francoforte, at the relatively high salary of L. 16 per month. By contrast, Santi di Pavolo enters palace service the same year as a trumpeter at the considerably lower salary of Fl. 2. This trumpet player moves to the pifferi (civic wind band) a few years later as a trombonist and receives a considerable raise (to L. 14 per month) (D’Accone, Civic Muse 529, 534)
1456—Bruges, Belgium: 4 new civic musicians are hired and termed the “minstrels of the city.” The ensemble probably consists of 2 shawms, a bombard, and a trombone (Polk, Susato 75).
Portrait of Duke Borso d'Este
Portrait of Duke Borso d’Este
1456—Ferrara, Italy: Duke Borso d’Este maintains a musical household of one trombone, 5 trumpets, 2 shawms, 5 keyboards and strings, and one singer (Whitwell, Before 199). The wind band, a subset of this group, consists of 2 shawms and a trombone. The trombonist, a player by the name of Agostino, earns a yearly salary comparable to trumpeters and other musicians of court (Lockwood 178).
1456—Siena, Italy: A group of musicians from Florence, Italy performs for Assumption Day festivities. They include 4 trumpeters, a shawmist, 4 pifferi, and a trombonist (D’Accone, Civic Muse 688).
1457—Siena, Italy: Payments to musicians at Palio festivities include piffari e trombone (D’Accone, Civic Muse 707).
1458—Nuremberg, Germany: The Duke of Saxony visits Nuremberg, bringing with him the following musicians: “4 trummeters, 3 pfeiffer und 2 posaunen.” Historian Keith Polk points out that these musicians likely comprise two different ensembles: “one a band of four natural trumpets, the other a shawm band consisting of three shawms and two trombones” (Polk, German 59).
1458—Siena, Italy: A clothing list for an Assumption Day performance by the pifferi (civic wind band) includes 3 shawm players and 2 trombone players (D’Accone, Civic Muse 529).
1459—Ghent, Belgium: Trombonist Jehan Bremer of Tournai is hired as a member of the civic wind band (Polk, Susato 79).
Portrait of Cosimo de' Medici
Portrait of Cosimo de’ Medici
1459—Florence, Italy: An outdoor ball is hosted by Cosimo de’ Medici on the occasion of an important state visit of the heir to the duchy of Milan, Galeazzo Maria Sforza. A chronicler of the events describes the music and dancing at the ball: “That was the time when the shawms and the trombone [tronbone] began to play a saltarello artistically designed in all its proportions. Then each noble and nimble squire took a married lady or a young girl and began to dance, first one, then the other. Some promenade around, hop, or exchange hands, some take leave from a lady while others invite one, some make up a beautiful dance in two or three parts” (Nevile, Eloquent 150; Nevile, Measure; Sparti 135; Gombosi, About Dance). Earlier in the narrative, the chronicler notes the place reserved for the shawm and trombone players: “Opposite the seigniorial coat of arms above the fence, a place was prepared high up for the shawm and trombone players [pifferi & tronbone]” (Nevile, Eloquent 144). He then records the actual arrival of the shawm and trombone players, including, in this case, a noteworthy description of the trombone: “It was at this time that I saw the shawm players arrive with the trombone [tronbone di tromba torta, or trombone with bent pipe] and go up to their appointed place” (Nevile, Eloquent 146).
c. 1460—The term sackbut and its variants begins appearing in documents. In French-language areas it apparently replaces the term trompette des menestrels (Polk, The Trombone).
1460s—Augsburg, Germany: The city is temporarily without a trombonist for their civic wind band, but continues to hire a trombonist “for especially important dances” (Polk, German 118).
Portrait of Ludovico Gonzaga
Portrait of Ludovico Gonzaga
1460s—Mantua, Italy: Prince Ludovico II Gonzaga begins supporting a wind band that includes pifferi and tromboni (Whitwell, Before 1500 211).
1460—Italy: A group of musicians from Florence performs for Assumption Day festivities in Siena. Included are 11 trumpeters, a percussionist, 3 players of wind instruments, and a trombonist (uno trombone) (D’Accone, Civic Muse 688).
1461—Milan, Italy: Records show that Florentine ambassadors visiting Milan pay tips to eight “trombetti dello Illustrissimo Duca di Milano” and six “pifferi et uno trombone del signore Duca,” among others (Prizer, Music at the Court of the Sforza).
1463—Siena, Italy: A former Palace trumpeter named Santi di Pavolo da Volterra is hired as trombonist with the Siena civic wind band. His new salary is L. 14, significantly higher than his trumpeter’s salary of L. 8.4 (D’Accone, Civic Muse 536).
1463—Mantua, Italy: The arrival of Margaret of Bavaria is announced by an enormous musical ensemble, including a procession of 107 trombi, pifari, tromboni (Atlas, Music 99; Kurtzman, Trombe).
1463—Italy: The civic wind band from Florence, Italy, which includes 3 shawms and a trombone, visits Siena for Assumption Day festivities (D’Accone, Civic Muse 526). The salary for the three shawmists is L. 22.10 per month, while the salary for the trombonist is significantly higher, at L. 30.10 per month (D’Accone, Civic Muse 535).
1463—Siena, Italy: A letter from the Palace wind band members to the Concistoro requests an indirect salary raise: “To our Magnificent and most powerful lords a humble supplication on behalf of your faithful servants, the pifferi and trombone, who having considered their great poverty and misery, and the necessity of providing for their poor families, and having seen that they have no earnings nor provision other than the one they receive from this magnificent Palace, and aware that they have left their own countries and all paternal affection so that they might serve your hallowed Palace, in the service of which they wish always to live and die, beg that it please your most clement lordships to remove the tax [on their salaries], and the portion that has been imposed for the tower that is to be built, [just] as your lordships have deigned to exempt your ushers.” (Despite their claim of “great poverty and misery,” the wind band musicians are relatively well off for their time. Records show, for example, that they are paid better than the palace trumpeters, and many of them own their own homes and vineyards) (D’Accone, Civic Muse 532, 541).
1465—Naples, Italy: The civic wind band from Naples, consisting of 3 shawms and a trombone (3 piffari et uno trombone), visits Siena for Assumption Day festivities (D’Accone, Civic Muse 526).
Milan1466—Milan, Italy: The civic wind band consists of 4 pifferi and 2 trombones (D’Accone, Civic Muse 527).
1466—Florence, Italy: Pifferi and trombones are paid to perform at festivities for the wedding of Bernardo Rucellai and Nannina, daughter of Piero di Cosimo de’ Medici (Kemp, Behind the Picture 151).
1467—Nördlingen, Germany: A visiting ensemble called Count Palantine performs with what a local scribe indicates as 3 pfeifers and a trumpet. However, at a performance by the same players in Nuremberg that year, a scribe describes the instrumentation as “three pfeifers and a posaune.” This highlights the elusiveness of terminology in the early years of the trombone’s existence; the instrument is called, depending on context and location, trombone, trumpet, trompette de ménestrels, posaune, sackbut, and various permutations of those terms (Polk, Archival Documents).
1467—Frankfurt, Germany: Bernhard Rorbach mentions a performing group consisting of a lute, chorus of 3 men, and a trombone that is “dampened” (possibly indicating some sort of mute). The same group also performs the following year (Polk, Voices and Instruments).
1467—Siena, Italy: A trombone vacancy in the palace wind band is filled by Frenchman Petro Tristano da Valenza. He begins with a monthly salary of L. 8, but receives a raise to L. 12 within months. Upon the first anniversary of his appointment, he is promised another raise, this one to L. 16, on the condition that he acquire and wear the required uniform worn by the other band members. He apparently refuses to do this, as he is replaced a few months later (D’Accone, Civic Muse 538).
1468—Milan, Italy: 6 trombones, 11 pifferi, and 33 trumpets play for a political gathering (Kurtzman, Trombe).
young charles the bold
Portrait of a young Charles the Bold
1468—Bruges, Belgium: At the wedding of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, to Princess Margaret of England, a wind band consisting of trombones, shawms, and bombards performs a motet and chanson to “excellent effect” (Whitwell, Before 1500 235). At the wedding banquet, numerous instrumentalists perform in costume as animals, the trombonist playing the part of a he-goat (Cazeaux 68).
1468—Italy: The civic wind band from Florence, which includes 3 shawms and a trombone, visits Siena for Assumption Day festivities (D’Accone, Civic Muse 526).
1468—Ypres, Belgium: The town expands its civic wind band from 3 to 4 players: 3 shawms and a trombone (Polk, Susato 87).
1469—Heidelberg, Germany: A Corpus Christi procession includes trombones: “…with the bells pealing, and Pusaunen, trumpetten and many pfiffen” (Baines, Brass 108).
1469—Siena, Italy: Bartolomeo di Monaldo switches jobs from playing trumpet with the Palace trumpeters to playing trombone with the pifferi (civic wind band) apparently for a considerable raise (D’Accone, Civic Muse 539). He works as trombonist with the Palace wind band until 1486. In 1483 he takes on an additional job as town crier (D’Accone, Civic Muse 781).
1469—Bologna, Italy: A trombone is added to the existing civic wind band of 3 shawms. This instrumentation is maintained through the remainder of the century (D’Accone, Civic Muse 527).
1469—Bologna, Italy: a document describes the “trombonist [trombonen]…who plays with the shawms,” a combination that resulted in consonances that were “suave and delectable” (suavius et delectabilius) (Polk, Patronage and Innovation).
1469—Mantua, Italy: The duke of Mantua maintains a wind band of 3 pifferi and a trombone, a makeup that continues through the rest of the century (D’Accone, Civic Muse 527).
1469—Milan, Italy: Trombonists from Germany or the Low Countries are in the service of the Duke of Milan (Galpin, The Sackbut).
1469—Milan, Italy: By this date, the number of ducal pifferi is expanded to at least 6: 4 shawms and 2 trombones (Prizer, Music at the Court of the Sforza).
c. 1470—Some wind bands in western Europe expand from 4 or 5 parts to 6 parts, with probable instrumentation of 2 shawms, 2 bombards, and 2 trombones (Polk, German 83).
1470—Siena, Italy: The chamberlain sends “the Palace’s silver trombone” to goldsmiths Francesco di Antonio and company for repairs because “it is lacking certain things.” The instrument is to be remade according to a design retained by the chamberlain and to be completed in time for Assumption Day festivities. The agreement also stipulates that, if the goldsmiths require more than the agreed upon amount of silver, it will be supplied by the Palace, in addition to any gold that may be needed for the instrument. The goldsmith later receives payment for gilding the trombone (per doratura del tronbone) (D’Accone, Civic Muse 554).
Portrait of Ercole I d’Este
1471—Ferrara, Italy: Ercole I d’Este becomes Ferrara’s duke, a position he holds until 1505. Charles VIII, king of France, greatly admires Este’s musicians, calling them “I migliori sonatori de piffero, di flauto e di trombone” (“The best players of piffero, flauto, and trombone)” (Murray, New Light).
1471—Italy: Galeazzo Maria Sforza wants to take musicians with him on a trip to Florence; however, because he has imprisoned several shawms and trombones for misbehavior, he is forced to borrow musicians from the marquis of Mantua. Galeazzo writes, “In this our andata to Florence we lack our shawms and trombones [tromboni], whom we had [originally] planned to take with us. We have put them in prison because they committed a certain offense, and, not wishing to free them at present, we ask your Lordship to be pleased to lend us yours for this trip, for which we shall be most grateful.” The request is honored (Broder; Prizer, Music at the Court of Sforza).
1473—Trier, Germany: At a banquet hosted by Frederick III for Charles of Burgundy, entertainment includes music by 2 trombones, 3 trumpets, 4 shawms, and string instruments (Whitwell, Before 247).
1473—Naples, Italy: A delegation visits Naples in order to escort the Princess Eleonora back to Ferrara as the bride of Ercole d’Este. The delegation includes 2 trombones, 2 pifferi, 7 trombetti, an organist, and Pietrobono’s tenorista (Atlas, Music 108).
c. 1474—Asciano, Italy: Matteo di Giovanni’s The Assumption of the Virgin, the center panel of an altarpiece in S. Agostino, includes what may be an angel-trombonist along with several other angel-musicians. The instrument has what appears to be a slide but no visible bell (see detail and full image below; public domain) (Belán 111). Click on full image to expand.matteo detail bright????????????????????????????
1474—Spain: King Ferdinand employs a trombone (saccabuche) (Baines, Brass 108).
1474—Florence, Italy: The civic wind band continues to include 3 shawms and a trombone. The salary for the three shawms is L. 22.10 per month, the same as 11 years earlier, while the salary for the trombonist, a new player, is somewhat higher at L 24 per month (D’Accone, Civic Muse 535).
1474—Kampen, the Netherlands: A trombonist is hired for regular civic wind band performances: “The sackbut and shawms shall play at the opening and close of all the free markets, and all Saturday evening they shall play the Lof [in honor of the virgin Mary]” (Polk, Susato 90).
1475—Siena, Italy: A trombonist from Lucca performs for Assumption Day festivities (D’Accone, Civic Muse 690).
1475—Mechelen, Belgium: Trombonist Thomas van Lupeghem joins the civic wind band, where he continues to be employed until his death c. 1500 (Polk, Susato 81).
1476—Ferrara, Italy: Court musicicans for the duke of Ferrara’s court include 2 trombones. Listed in salary records are Pietro de Augustino and Zoanne de Alemagna; their pay is comparable to other musicians of the court (Lockwood 180).
1477—Augsburg, Germany: Augustein Schubinger begins his career as a trombonist, although he is also recognized as a player of lute and cornett during various stages of his career (Polk, Voices and Instruments).
1477—Florence, Italy: Antonio de’ Medici is instructed to transfer funds to the Florentine branch of the Medici bank “on behalf of certain trombonists” (D’Accone, Music in Renaissance Florence V281).
1478—Seville, Spain: Ferdinand and Isabella sign a contract to place a 5-member wind band on salary at their court. The ensemble includes trombones (sacabuches): “Don Fernando and Doña Isabel, by the grace of God King and Queen of Castille, Leon [etc.]…For the benefit and welfare of you, Ferran Desbardala, Tornelis de Alemaña, Sancho Vaquero, Arnao, and Beltran, minstrels and sacabuches and cherimyas, natives of the very noble and loyal city of Seville, for the good services that you have done for us and will do every day, we wish and it is our pleasure and desire that from this time forward for all your lives to be free, open, clear, and exempt from paying taxes and tributes in any amounts….The maravedis requested by the procurators of the courts of our realms, we have agreed, in order to pay the silver that we order to be taken and we agree to take from the churches and monasteries of our realms, for the prosecution of the war of our adversary of Portugal, the said maravedis they can pay to the said minstrels and sacabuches and to each one of them….Given in the very noble and very loyal city of Seville, the twenty-second day of the month of June, in the year of our Savior Jesus Christ, 1478. I the King. I the Queen. I Alfonso Davila, secretary to the King and Queen our Lords, written on your request” (Carter, Trombone in the Renaissance 91).
1478—Seville, Spain: At the baptism of Prince Juan, son of Ferdinand and Isabella, the royal chronicler records, “The prince was brought to the church in a great procession…with infinite musical instruments of various types—trumpets, shawms and trombones [sacabuches]” (Kreitner, Minstrels in Spanish Churches).
1479—Leipzig, Germany: A civic wind band is established. Comprised of Master Hans Nagel and his two “sons” (possibly apprentices), their instruments are trumpet, cornett, and trombone. They are paid a yearly wage and supplied with uniforms. They play primarily for public ceremonies and weddings (for which they have a monopoly) (Terry 14).
Page from the Casanatense manuscript
Page from the Casanatense manuscript
c. 1480—Ferrara, Italy: The Casanatense manuscript, a collection of secular polyphony “identified with the repertories used by the wind bands of Italian courts and cities” is likely prepared specifically for the Ferrara court’s wind players, including trombones (quote from Brown and Polk, Instrumental Music 128; see also Lockwood, Music in Renaissance Ferrara 299; and Polk, Patronage and Innovation). As Keith Polk says, “In any case, at the very minimum, the repertory contained in the Casanatense manuscript would have been played by the court shawms and trombones, and would have formed a part of the repertory of wind players in general” (Polk, Patronage and Innovation; see also Lockwood, Music in Renaissance Ferrara 299).
1480—France: Rene I, Duke of Anjou dies. His records show that by the end of his reign he employs, among his group of 5 haulx menestriers, at least 1 full-time trombonist (Whitwell, Before 1500 186; Cazeaux 41).
1480—’s-Hertogenbosch (now the Netherlands): The civic wind band employs a trombone player named Claus of Antwerp (Polk, Susato 72).
1480—Lille, France: The city council determines that the “sackbut and minstrels…shall be required, each day at Matins…and at Vespers…to play from the belfry, well and notably for the honor of the city” (Polk, Susato 92).
Portrait of Johannes Tinctoris
c. 1481—Naples, Italy: Johannes Tinctoris, Flemish theorist and composer in the service of Ferdinand I, discusses several sizes of shawms, then writes, “However, for the lowest contratenor parts, and often for any contratenor part, to the shawm players one adds trumpet players [tubicines] who play very melodiously [melodiosissime] upon the type of trumpet [tuba] which is called trompone in Italy, sacque-boute in France. When all these instruments are employed together it is called alta” (Tinctoris 37).
1481—Venice, Italy: Two trombones [tubete] are recorded as members of the ducal ensemble tubetarum et pifarorum in a request for a pay raise (Baroncini).
1482—Lille, France: The civic wind band includes a Flemish trombone player by the name of Josse Spillaert (Polk, Susato 91).
1482—Augsburg, Germany: Ulrich Schubinger, Jr., begins his career as a trombonist. A versatile musician like many of his day, he is later described as a player of “Geigen, pusaunen, lawten, und andern instrumenten” (Polk, Voices and Instruments).
1482—Bruges, Belguim: The city hires an additional trombone player, named Janne Fauset, expanding the town wind ensemble to 5 players—probably 2 shawms, 1 bombard, and 2 trombones (Polk, Susato 75).
1484—Munich, Germany: Duke Albrecht IV employs a 4-part wind band consisting of 3 shawms and 1 trombone (Polk, German 101).
1484—Siena, Italy: Payment records from the civic wind band show the trombonist earning L. 28.10 per month and each of the 3 shawms earning L. 22.10 per month (D’Accone, Civic Muse 536).
1484/85—Bruges, Belgium: Trombonist Jan Fauset, a member of a prominent musical family from Leuven, Belgium, is appointed a member of the town wind ensemble (Polk, Susato 84).
1485—Gent, Belgium: The town wind band, originally a group of town “watchers,” expands from 4 to 5 players—3 shawms and 2 trombones (Polk, Susato 78).
1485—Brussels, Belguim: The civic wind ensemble expands to 4 players, including one trombonist (Polk, Susato 82).
1485—Siena, Italy: The civic wind band, including trombone, travels with an envoy to Rome to congratulate the new pope (Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini) on his election (D’Accone, Civic Muse 532).
bergen op zoom 15881486—Bergen op Zoom (now Netherlands): A Flemish trombonist by the name of Josse Spillaert is employed with the town wind ensemble (Polk, Susato 91).
1487—Siena, Italy: Geronimo di Giovanni, a trumpeter in the service of the Sienese palace since 1480, becomes one of several trumpeters to switch to trombone for a higher-paying pifferi post (D’Accone, Civic Muse 539).
1487—Naples, Italy: Music for a church service includes trombone (Hill, Emergence 343).
1487—Bologna, Italy: The wedding of Lucrezia, daughter of Duke Ercole of Ferrara to Annibale Bentivoglio, includes a wind ensemble of “100 trombita e 70 pifari e trombuni e chorni e flauti e tamburini e zamamele” (Whitwell, Before 203).
1487—Siena, Italy: A document reports that Francesco di Antonio is to make 7 silver trumpets and a silver trombone (D’Accone, Civic Muse 554).
1488—Augsburg, Germany: Renowned trombonist Augustein Schubinger is termed a trumeter in his own home town, highlighting the continuing ambiguity in terminology between trombone and trumpet (Polk, The Trombone).
1488—Kampen, the Netherlands: The town wind band, which consists of trombone and shawms, is required to play on “all Sundays and holy days, at the conclusion of Vespers, the lof in honor of Our Blessed Virgin, that is, two composed pieces and others as is ordinarily done” (Polk, Susato 90).
1488-91—Ferrara, Italy: Salary records from the duke of Ferrara’s court include 2 trombonists, “Piero” and “Zoanne.” At 288 LM per year, Piero is the single highest-paid musician in the court (Lockwood 183).
1488-93—Rome, Italy: In the Carafa Chapel of the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, the earliest reliable visual depiction of a trombone is painted: a fresco by Filippino Lippi entitled The Assumption of the Virgin (see detail and full image below; click on full image to expand; public domain) (Kurtzman, Trombe; Herbert, Susato 118; Partridge 118; Goldner 73).lippi trombone detailc. 1489—Mantua, Italy: Bartolomeo Tromboncino arrives in Mantua to serve as trombonist for the wind band of the Duke of Mantua. Soon thereafter, Lorenzo de’ Medici offers him a similar post in Florence, which Tromboncino declines (see 1489, below). He later becomes a well-known frottola composer (Sanders, Gonzaga 33). Tromboncino is one of several musicians who adopt the name of their instrument as a surname, including Antonio da Cornetto, Girolamo Trombetti, and Alfonso della Viola (Reese 546). For more on Tromboncino’s personal life, see 1499, below.
1489—Florence, Italy: A trombone position in the Florence civic wind band becomes vacant and Lorenzo de Medici becomes personally involved in filling it, first with an unsuccessful offer to Mantuan trombonist Bartolomeo Tromboncino, then with a successful offer to German trombonist Augustein Schubinger (McGee, Service). Schubinger’s services are highly valued by the city, as reflected by his particularly high salary (Polk, Schubinger). He serves in Florence until 1493, whereupon he takes a post with the Habsburg court. During his time in Florence, Schubinger’s primary instrument changes from trombone to cornetto (Polk, Voices and Instruments).
1489—Nuremberg, Germany: The Nuremberg city council records the decision “to accept and appoint a new trombonist [Pusawner]” (Green, Defining).
1490—According to historian Keith Polk, “By at least 1490, then, outstanding trombone and cornetto players were performing liturgical music, with singers. Note that these were still probably individual players (sometimes two performers are mentioned). That is, the shawm ensemble was not yet incorporated as a unit into vocal performances. Furthermore, the players mentioned are, in a majority of cases, trombone players. That is, in the early transitional stages, as new practices evolved, trombonists (and trombonists doubling on cornetto) seem to have been the performers most observed and mentioned” (Polk, Schubinger).
1490—Venice, Italy: Alvise trombon is hired as a member of the Doge’s wind band, bringing the makeup of the ensemble to 3 piffari and 3 trombones. Records from the deliberation of the city government to hire Alvise say the following about his ability: “Alvise…is indeed, as everyone knows, superior to everyone else in the art of playing brass instruments” (Baroncini).
1490—Milan, Italy: At the Sforza court, a Festa del Paradiso is held in honor of Isabella d’Aragona. Shortly before the festa begins, “When everyone was seated, the piferi and trombones began to play. After they had played for a while, they stopped, and some tambourin players were ordered to play…” (Merkley 419).
1490—Milan and Ferrara, Italy: After a request from Ludovico Sforza, Ercole d’Este of Florence writes him that “Piero our trombonist will always be ready to teach Bartolomeo your trumpeter the manner and art of playing the trombone” (el modo et l’arte del sonar el trombono) (Prizer, Music at the Court of the Sforza).
London1490—London, England: Trombonist Hans Nagel begins service to the English crown, where he works until about 1506 (Polk, German 78).
1490—Oudenaarde, Belgium: Jan Amilleur is appointed as “city sackbut,” where he serves until 1526 (Polk, Susato 88).
1492—Siena, Italy: Because of internal dissatisfaction within the Siena civic wind band (pifferi), an appeal is made to a special committee about how best to improve matters. The report from the committee says, in part, “…since you have only two pifferi who are really qualified, that is, the trombone [Girolamo] and Jacopo, and [since] Cristoforo piffero’s son Domenico, who equals them in knowledge, is available, the three of them can play together. We are certain they will bring you as much honor as any others in Italy because they’ll be able to learn to perform things that your other pifferi can neither play nor are capable of learning. For this reason we believe these three should not be stopped when they wish to perform [this other music]. Thus we wish, with your lordships’ permission, to be able to tell so and so not to play sometimes, especially when they want to perform things they do not know how to play” (D’Accone, Civic Muse 542).
1493—Nuremberg, Germany: The Nuremberg city council arranges “to give the city trombonists [pusawnern] new trombones [pusawnen] from the city, and…the same trombonists will then repair them at their own cost for the duration of their service” (Green, Defining).
1494—Ferrara, Italy: Ercole I d’Este, Duke of Ferrara, lends his wind band (pifferi and tromboni) to the French king, Charles VIII, at Pisa. Charles admires the players and pays a special gift of money to Piero Trombone (a trombonist) and a trumpet player (Lockwood 141).
Composer Jacob Obrecht
Composer Jacob Obrecht
1494—Venice, Italy: In a letter written by Giovanni Alvise, a city musician of Venice, Alvise discusses arrangements of motets by Obrecht and Busnois for wind band, specifically mentioning the trombone by name, and other parts by range only: “In these past days we have made instrumental arrangements of certain motets, of which I am sending two to your Lordship. One of these is a work of Obrecht, i.e. for four voices, two sopranos, a tenor and a ‘contra alto.’ And because we are six, I have added two bass parts to be played by trombones” (Polk, German 73, 85).
1494-5—Venice, Italy: A roster of the ducal wind band records the makeup of the band as 3 players labeled pifaro and 2 players labeled trombone (Alvixe de Zorzi and Jeronimo de Zorzi), in addition to Bortholamio de Zorzi (instrument not indicated). The roster is attached to the following payment indication: “The above players, who are of our most illustrious signoria, are our brothers, for whom they are obliged to play on the day of the feast and as a reward to have two candles, two loaves, and nothing else for each one” (Baroncini).
1494-97—Italy: Benedetto da Maiano’s high relief marble sculpture, The Coronation of Alfonso II, features what are probably 3 trombone players. Although the sculpture is badly damaged, a full trombone is visible in the hands of one of the brass players, and the embouchure and grip of another player are clearly visible. Noteworthy aspects of the rendering include the non-underhand left-hand grip of the 2 players, the relatively small size of the trombone (cf. Bellini detail—1496, below), and the banners apparently attached to the slides (cf. Aldegrever—1538 and Anonymous Nuremberg—c. 1550, 16th century) (see 2 details and wider view below; public domain) (Carl, Benedetto da Maiano 1:359). The sculpture is now held in Florence’s Museo Nazionale Bargello.
1495—England: One of the earliest documented uses of trombone in England is shown by a payment record: “To 4 Shakbushes for ther wags l7.0.0” (Herbert, Susato 118).
1495—Venice, Italy: A motet for 5 voices by Obrecht is performed, accompanied by 2 trombones (Galpin, Sackbut).
Anonymous print depicting Battle of Fornovo
Anonymous print depicting Battle of Fornovo
1495—Italy: Francesco Gonzaga takes his wind band of shawms and trombones with him into the Battle of Fornovo. The players apparently perform as signal instruments, for Gonzaga’s entertainment, and at a Mass celebrating the battle’s victory (Prizer, Isabella).
1496—Charles VIII again requests to borrow the pifferi and trombones of the Duke of Ferrara (see 1494, above), but this time the duke is unable to accommodate his request (Lockwood 141).
1496—Venice, Italy: In Gentile Bellini’s painting, Procession in Piazza San Marco, a lengthy procession includes a wind band with an instrument that appears to be an alto trombone. Given the early date, the image may simply represent an artist’s attempt at a trombone rather than a specific depiction of an alto trombone. It is also noted that the trombonist is clothed in red; historians have observed that color of dress in processions in general, and this procession in particular, is highly significant, highlighting an elaborate social hierarchy (Hills 173-178). A full view of Bellini’s painting shows the position of the wind band within a section of the procession (middle-right of image; click on image for larger version). Finally, the painting depicts an event said to have taken place approximately 50 years earlier—25 April 1444—when, during a procession on the square, Jacopo de’ Salis knelt before the relic (a fragment of the cross) in prayer that his dying son might recover, then, upon returning home, discovered that the boy was well again. Had the trombone been a cutting-edge, brand new musical instrument in 1496, it is somewhat unlikely that Bellini would have included it in a painting meant to depict events from half a century earlier (Venice, Accademia; public domain).
1497—Brescia, Italy: The Queen of Cyprus enters Brescia with a procession that includes an ensemble of 10 tromboni et piferi, in addition to a separate group of tamborini, stafeti, violete e lauti (Broder; Carver, Cori spezzati 2).
1497—Nuremberg, Germany: The city council grants trombonist Hans Neuschel his certificate as “master coppersmith and turner.” Neuschel is the earliest recorded maker of the trombone (Bate 134) and becomes founder of a long dynasty of brass manufacturers in Nuremberg (Clemenicic 18).
1498—Belgium and Holland: Philip the Fair hears the shawms and trombones in civic ensembles at Ghent, Bruges, Tournai, Maastricht, and Den Bos (Polk, Instrumental).
1499—Mantua, Italy: Court composer and trombonist Bartolomeo Tromboncino murders his wife. The circumstances of the murder are related in a letter from the patron Marchesa Isabella to her husband: “Today around five o’clock in the afternoon, Alfonso Spagnolo came to notify me that Trombonicino had killed his wife with great cruelty for having found her at home alone in a room with Zoanmaria de Triomfo, who was seen by Alfonso at the window asking him [Alfonso] to find a ladder; but, hearing noise in the house, [Alfonso] did not wait and went inside. He found Tromboncino, who had attacked his wife with weapons, climbing the stairs accompanied by [his] father and a boy. Although he [Alfonso] reprimanded him, Tromboncino replied that he had the right to punish his wife [if he] found her in error, and, not having arms, he [Alfonso] was unable to stop him, so that when he returned home for arms, she was already dead. Zoanmaria, in the middle of this, jumped from the window. Tromboncino then retreated to [the church of] S. Barnaba with the father and the boy. For myself, I wanted to tell the story to Your Excellency and to beg you that, having had legitimate cause to kill his wife, and being of such goodwill and virtue as you are, to have mercy on them, and also on the father and the boy, who, as far as Alfonso could tell, did not help Tromboncino in any way except to escape…” Trombonicino is never charged with any crime related to the murder (Atlas, Aragonese 350).
1500—France, Belgium, and Holland: Philip the Fair hears the shawms and trombones in civic ensembles at Béthune, St. Omer, Dunkirk, Nieuwpoort, Aalst, Dordrecht, Delft, and Bergen op Zoom (Polk, Instrumental).
Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder_-_Portrait_of_Johann_the_Steadfast_15091500—Torgau, Germany: At the wedding festivities of John the Steadfast (Duke Johann) to Sofia of Mecklenburg, Adam von Fulda directs 2 Masses in the castle chapel, accompanied by organ, 3 trombones (dreyer posaun), a cornett, and 4 crumhorns (Reese 655; Boydell, The Crumhorn 16).
1500-1506—Bologna, Italy: Salary records of the instrumental ensemble Concerto Palatino name 12 musicians: 3 shawmists, 2 trombonists, 1 harpist, 5 trumpeters, and 1 player of nakers (Kurtzman, Trombe).
c. 1500—Mantua, Italy: Enrico Tedesco (also known as Ulrich Schubinger the Younger) appears on the court payroll as trombonist (Polk, Schubinger).
c. 1500—Munich, Germany: Court of Bavaria employs 2 shawm ensembles, each probably with its own trombonist (Polk, German 102).
1500-1525—Bergamo, Italy: A musician by the name of Martinus de Besutio has a career as a player of both trumpet and trombone. He is the first player known to have played in both the pifferi (town wind band) and the tubatori (herald trumpeters) (Towne).
Nuremberg chc. 1500-1533—Nuremberg, Germany: Trombonist Hans Neuschel the Younger (d. 1533) becomes the most renowned maker of brass instruments in the early 16th century (Kmetz, Economy 135).
Late 1400s—Bologna, Italy: Ensembles consisting of 8 shawms and 8 trombones and cornettos give daily, hour-long performances in front of the city hall (Whitwell, Before 104).
Late 1400s—Mantua, Italy: Francesco of Mantua employs court pifferi consisting of 3 shawm players and 2 trombonists. A typically versatile group, they are said to have the ability to play many other wind and string instruments as well.
Late 1400s—Austria: Archduke Sigmund of Austria employs a shawm band, probably consisting of 3 shawms and 2 trombones. The ensemble is later inherited by Emperor Maximilian (Polk, German 90).
Late 1400s—According to Polk, “The trombone had been further refined—the bell was less flared, producing a more covered, blended sound which was a timbre particularly effective for working with voices, and with zincks and crumhorns. We know that the Nuremberg family of makers, the Neuschels, was credited at the time with some basic redesign of the instrument, and they may well have had a hand in this development.”
Continue to 16th century
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Cornish Mining in Mexico
The mines of Latin America were amongst the first to attract Cornish miners overseas in the early 19th century. Latin America had started recruiting from Cornwall by the 1820s and continued to do so right up until the 1930s.
Latin America’s recognition of Cornwall as world leaders in the industry not only allowed them to revive their own derelict mines, but also paved the way for the Cornish to export their technology and labour globally.
The rise and fall of Mexico's mining industry
Mexico has a long history of mining that dates back almost 500 years. During this time its industry flourished, primarily in silver production, but also in gold, mercury and copper. However, by the early 19th century Mexico’s mines lay in ruins in the wake of civil war. In contrast, Cornwall’s mining industry was thriving and the development of its mining technology meant it had become world-renowned.
At this time, Mexico considered the mining industry to be the cornerstone of economic success and looked to Britain to provide the capital, technology and skilled labour to revive its once great industry.
Real del Monte
The region of Real del Monte (also known as Mineral del Monte) near Pachuca boasted many rich silver mines. These were sold to the British backed Real del Monte Mining Company following the devastation caused by Mexico’s War of Independence from Spain. By the 1830s a large Cornish community had established itself in Real Del Monte, the majority of these migrants coming from Camborne and Redruth. During this time many of the defining characteristics of Cornwall’s 19th century mining influence emerged. Notably, the system of home pay (or remittances), which was to be so important to the Cornish economy at the end of the 19th century, was established in Latin America.
Cousin Jack’s legacy
Cornish settlers also had a profound effect on the culture of the state of Hidalgo in Mexico, which is still apparent in Pachuca and Real del Monte today.
There are hints of Cornish presence in the architecture in Real del Monte, with the extensive use of pitched roofs, formerly unknown in Mexico. There are also two distinctively Cornish engine houses near Pachuca (named El Corteza and San Pedro) and two more at Real del Monte (Dolores and Acosta). These indicate something of the influence the steam technology of Cornwall had at the time. The Cornish also introduced a number of leisure activities to Mexico, including traditional Cornish hymn singing and Cornish wrestling, although these never reached the popularity they did further north in the United States.
Mexican wave
Cornish miners introduced football to Mexico.
Little Cornwall
Cornish miners also introduced the Cornish Pasty to Mexico. Versions of the dish made with chilli peppers, known as pastes, are still considered a local specialty in some regions. The area of Pachuca and Real del Monte is now being marketed as Mexico's 'Little Cornwall' and there are plans to link them with Camborne and Redruth.
Learn more ...
Mining Characters: Sports
Inventions: Engines and Steam Technology
Spread of Cornish Mining: North America
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To Build A Fire Exposition
What are the falling action and exposition in "To Build a Fire"?
Expert Answers
Doug Stuva eNotes educator| Certified Educator
In Jack London's "To Build a Fire," the speaker uses exposition to describe the setting and prepare the reader for what's to come.
The first three paragraphs of the story certainly serve as exposition. The reader learns where the character is (the Yukon, on the Yukon trail); the weather (clear day without any sun and bitter cold); what the man is doing (traveling on foot), etc.
Setting also includes what characters know in a story, and we get an important bit of exposition about what this character knows or doesn't know. I quote from paragraph three:
But...the tremendous cold...made no impression on the man. It was not because he was long used to it. He was a newcomer....The trouble with him was that he was without imagination. He was quick and alert in the things of life, but only in the things, and not in the significances. Fifty degrees below zero meant eighty-odd degrees of frost. Such fact impressed him as being cold and uncomfortable, and that was all. It did not lead him to meditate upon his frailty as a creature of temperature, and upon man's frailty in general,...
This exposition prepares the reader for the character's eventual trouble.
The falling action of the story occurs in the last two or three paragraphs of the story, once the man has surrendered. By then, he knows he's going to freeze one way or another, so he might as well behave with dignity. He thinks of the old-timer who had warned him, and soon freezes to death. The dog waits as long as he can, then trots off toward the next camp.
bullgatortail eNotes educator| Certified Educator
I would consider the falling action of Jack London's classic short story, "To Build a Fire," to be the man's resignation of death, when he realizes that there will be no fire--and no salvation. Despite his final attempt to save himself by running back to camp, he knew he "lacked the endurance" to do so. When he finally fell, he accepted his resignation of death and attempted to meet it with dignity. When death came, it was only after what seemed to be "the most comfortable and satisfying sleep he had ever known."
The first bit of exposition in the story comes in the third paragraph, when we find that the unnamed man is a "chechaquo," a newcomer to the area. Further exposition includes the narrator's references to the man from Sulphur Creek, who had earlier warned him about the dangers of travelling alone in such extreme temperatures.
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Geography: (first circle)
Need for lesson - A food common to Africa, music, and necklace art activity.
Index File Card
can be pasted onto an index file card for quick reference
Geography 27
We are visiting the continent of Africa. The highest mountain in Africa is called Kilimanjaro and the longest river is the Nile river. Africa is home to many animals like elephants, zebras, cheetahs, and hippos. One fascinating African creature is the honey-guide bird. Honey-guide birds are smart little birds. They will first find a beehive, and then find a honey-loving animal or person and guide them to the hive so they can break it open. Then the honey-guide bird quickly gathers her share of the honey!
Children in Africa like to play games. Boys have fun rolling hoops and tires. They enjoy playing volleyball, soccer, and checkers. Girls like playing hopscotch, jacks, and jump rope. Music is also a big part of African culture. Clothes are bright and beautiful. African clothing is often printed with patterns and designs. Beautiful necklaces are also made out of metal or nature materials. African masks are often worn for special dances and events.
What about foods that are common to Africa? Vegetables, grains, spices, and lentils are common foods found in Africa. Cassava, green bananas, and yams are eaten all over the continent. We can have a snack of bananas and coconut while we listen to some music from Africa.
Demonstrate art activity.
African Plate Necklaces - Cut paper plates around the rim-ridged part of the plate all the way around and cut an opening to make a necklace shape. Provide markers and beads for the children to decorate the plates with.
Mask Coloring - Children can color these masks and then cut them out. (from kidssoup.com)
Animals of Africa - These are pictures of animals common to Africa that children can color and make into puppets or glue onto a piece of paper.
Africa Necklaces
Africa Mask
Africa Animals
Additional Works:
Map of Africa - Children can color in the different countries.
Flags of Africa - Children can make a flag from a country in Africa. (MontessoriPrintShop.com)
Africa Map
Flags of Africa
Songs/Poems: (second circle)
Honey... Honey... Lion - This is a book about the honey-guide bird. Instruments are played along with the story. Each child has one of the instruments that is used for the story. While you read the book, during the sounds read, in the story, those instruments are played by the children.
Pitter, Patter - Triangles
Splish, Splash - Maracas
Sprong, Sprong - Bells
Boom, Boom - Drums
Clickety, Click - Sticks
Swish, Swish - Blocks
(Idea is from Janbrett.com. I changed the instruments and made cards to go along with the story.)
Honey Honey Lion
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The Most Unbelievable Eye on Earth Belongs to a Creature With No Brain
This creature doesn’t have a brain—or even a nervous system—but it can still see.
Erythropsidinium is a type of single-celled organism known as a dinoflagellate that, as the name suggests, propels itself using a tail (or flagellum). Most dinoflagellates either use photosynthesis or hunt their food by sensing vibrations around them. But Erythropsidinium doesn’t have to rely on such primitive methods. Its advanced eye, called an ocelloid, was discovered more than a century ago and has been admired since then for its sheer size; Fernando Gómez of the University of São Paulo, Brazil, told New Scientist that an ocelloid can take up an estimated one-third of its cell’s volume.
That the eye is so big raises questions about what it’s used for. The ocelloid looks somewhat like a vertebrate’s lens-like eyeball, except it’s actually a chloroplast that’s been modified for different purposes. While some scientists have posed that the ocelloid merely concentrates light to aid in detection, Gómez argues that the ocelloid is far to large for this to be a plausible hypothesis. Moreover, videos that Gómez has compiled of the Erythropsidinium show that the ocelloid can move in different directions, which he said it wouldn’t need to do if it acted as a mere photoreceptor.
Presumably, it’s hunting for food. How, then, would it catch transparent prey, like other dinoflagellates?
Here’s Michael La Page, writing for New Scientist:
The massive nucleus of dinoflagellates has an unusual property—it just happens to polarise light. So Leander’s team think that the ocelloid can detect polarised light, making the dinoflagellates that Erythropsidinium preys on stand out clearly against the background.
Getting conclusive evidence of what exactly the ocelloid can detect and how Erythropsidinium acts on this information will not be easy.
Erythropsidinium is hard to find, and no one been able to keep it alive in a lab for more than a couple of days, Leander says. That’s held up progress for decades. Gómez moved from Europe to Brazil to pursue his studies because Erythropsidinium is more common in tropical waters.
Scientists have yet to fully understand how this single-celled organism might create an image of something without a brain. But by putting together some of these pieces regarding the behavior and function of the ocelloid, they may be able to see the entire picture more clearly.
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St. Patrick’s Day: The Statistics Legacy Behind Guinness
William Sealy Gosset worked at the Guinness brewery in Dublin, Ireland, in 1904 as an experimental brewer. His job was to experiment with the process to improve the taste while also increasing quantity and decreasing costs.
In his creative problem-solving to address these challenges, Gosset is responsible for inspiring a ground-breaking method for determining likely error of an estimate, depending on your sample size.
During his experiments, Gosset discovered that using small samples of hops did not allow him to distinguish the differences between batches of beer. After years of research, he developed Student’s t-test, a fundamental statistical method for testing hypothesis when the population standard deviation is unknown, which is widely used to this day.
Gosset’s legacy continues today, as his research is used to get a sense of how likely a certain result would be, compared to random chance. If the chance is low, the result is considered “significant.”
As you celebrate St. Patrick’s Day, raise a glass in honor of William Sealy Gosset, who made an important contribution to statistical significance using beer.
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Comments are closed.
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Brushtail Possum
(Trichosurus vulpecula)
Containment Pests
The Brushtail Possum originates from Australia and was released in New Zealand in the late 1800s to establish a fur trade similar to that flourishing in Australia at the time. Brushtail Possums are opportunist feeders, preying upon invertebrates and small birds, and browsing the foliage of a wide range of plant species.
Reasons for the Strategy
Brushtail Possums cause extensive canopy defoliation in native forest. They also cause economic Brush tail possum in a tree. damage in exotic forest plantations. Research indicates that Brushtail Possums will prey on ground-and-tree-nesting birds and their eggs. Brushtail Possums are a recognised vector in the spread of the disease bovine tuberculosis to domestic livestock. As a vector for tuberculosis, they pose a threat to the Tasman- Nelson region’s pastoral economy.
Brushtail Possums are assessed at “8” on the infestation curve. The Councils already contribute significant funds to the Animal Health Board’s control of Brushtail Possums. The best option for complementing this work is for the Management Agency to provide advice and instruction to the public on the control of Brushtail Possums, particularly targeting landowners not involved in Animal Health Board operations. Brushtail Possums may also be controlled in sites of high public value. Assistance to land occupiers will include instruction in the field on control techniques. Extensive areas of suitable habitat, and the potential for them to cause significant adverse effects, mean the benefits of containment control far outweigh the costs.
To address the adverse effects of Brushtail Possums in the Tasman-Nelson region during the term of the Strategy.
Alternative Measures
The principal alternative measure is to adopt a greater level of regional intervention, such as requiring land occupiers to control Brushtail Possums. However, this option is considered inappropriate, given the existing control work being carried out, and the widespread distribution of Brushtail Possums.
Strategy Rule for Brushtail Possum
The Management Agency will promote and encourage control.
Biosecurity Act Requirement
No person shall knowingly sell, propagate, breed, release, or commercially display Brushtail Possums, under Sections 52 and 53 of the Act.
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Anguilla, an island located in the Caribbean was first colonised by English settlers from Saint Kitts in 1650. In 1967, it was called Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, against the wishes of the locals. There were two revolutions to have independence from Saint Kitts and Nevis and just be a British colony. In 1980, the island was allowed to secede and became a separate British overseas territory.
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2 teachers like this lesson
Print Lesson
SWBAT write a narrative sentence about the events in the Kwanza story and draw a detailed picture.
Big Idea
We will learn about Kwanza and write a narrative sentence and draw a picture in repsponse to the story.
Warm Up
10 minutes
I gather my class on the carpet for whole group reading block. I like to begin my lessons with conversations, pictures or videos to "front load" my ELL students about the topic and new vocabulary. Videos just suck my kids into a trance, so I use them as my introduction.
Video about Kwanza
Reading of the Story
10 minutes
My goal for this lesson is to expose my students to another winter holiday that some of my students celebrate. Learning about each other and what we like to celebrate with our families is fun. I am going to engage my students in discussions with questions and answers about the key details of the topic. Yesterday we learned about Hanukkah and discussed some of the items that are used during the celebration of Hanukkah. We will be learning about Kwanza today. I will be asking questions that have my students compare Kwanza to Hanukkah because some of the details are similar. It is fun to see how similar our celebrations can be. We will also write a brief narrative sentence about the details in the story and draw a detailed picture.
Still gathered on the carpet I begin to lead my class in a discussion about Kwanza.
"We are going to talk about Kwanza, it is a holiday that many African Americans celebrate."
I pull down the big wall map and show my students where Africa is compared to where we are. I also point out where two of my students are from, Somali. My students love it when I mention the special things about them.
"You just saw a video that showed how people celebrate this holiday. Let's read the book, Together for Kwanza, and see what things are the same in the story and the video."
I begin to read and we stop and discuss the Kinara.
"What does this kinara look like to you? Have we seen something like this before? Katya, does this look like you Minorah?"
She nods her head slowly, yes.
"How many candles are on this Kinara? Let's count them. SEVEN! How many are on the Minorah? Eight. The candles on the Kinara don't represent days. They each represent a way to live."
We continue our conversation about the food and the preparations.
"Hmmmm, did you see any presents? I saw presents for Hanukah and Christmas. Yes, I see presents for Kwanza too. How fun."
Writing Activity
10 minutes
I have made this writing activity pretty stress free. I used a dot to dot font to write the sentence. Even though this is an easy writing activity, I will be able to assess their comprehension of the story events by their drawing and their retell.
My sentence is; Kwanza is a celebration of African traditions and beliefs. It is a long sentence that will quickly be traced. I model the writing activity under the document camera. I read the words as I trace them. We discuss ideas that could be drawn in the picture. Modeling the writing gives clarification to my expectations.
"I will now show you the fun paper we will write and draw on. All you have to do is to trace in your best hand writing the sentence. Then you will need to draw a detailed picture about Kwanza. What are some of the things we can draw? The Kinara. How many candles will you put on the Kinara? Seven. That's right. You could draw a table of food with the cloth on it. You could also draw the presents. Please walk quietly to your cubbies when I call your row. Paper passers, would you make sure everyone has a writing paper? Thanks you."
I call each row to get their pencil boxes. My paper passers take their job so serious. They race around the room trying to get the papers on the tables before the students get their. I love having class jobs. They promote responsiblity and a sense of class community.
I walk around and offer suggestions about picture details. When they are finished I collect the papers and have them sit quietly on the carpet to read Holiday books.
Here is a Kwanza Writing Template and Oral Presentation.
Wrap Up
10 minutes
When all the students are finished with their writing papers, I ask for the books to be put away and everyone to sit in their spots. We gather to share our writing.
I call each row up at a time to hold up their papers and one at a time to read their sentence and orally describe their picture. We applaud each student's efforts.
student work
student work
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