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Online Exhibits@Yale
Formal Gardens and the Influence of Addison, Pope, and Switzer
The County Maps of Old England
County Map of England and Wales by Thomas Moule.
18th Century
Inspired by trends on the Continent, the gardens of seventeenth-century England were formal, consisting of neatly trimmed and arranged plants and flowers, straight tree-lined avenues, and “canals” of water. Parterres, topiaries, and ornate fountains worked together to create the perfectly ordered and controlled environment epitomized by André Le Nôtre in the famous gardens of Versailles. Gardens were not only places of rest and reflection, but also a symbol of wealth, power, and culture.
By the start of the eighteenth century, design and interpretation of formal English gardens came into question as the elite experienced the Italian landscape and gardens through the Grand Tour. Literary figures such as Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison, and William Shenstone wrote of the importance of literary structures and allusion in garden design. Pope demonstrated his genius loci through his Twickenham garden. Stephen Switzer was the first professional gardener and designer to employ the techniques described by Pope and Addison.
Formal Gardens and the Influence of Addison, Pope, and Switzer
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What were society's expectations of Elie in the book Night?
Expert Answers
stolperia eNotes educator| Certified Educator
At the very beginning of the story, Elie was the only son of Jewish parents. As such, tradition demanded that he receive an education, both secular and religious. "my place was in the house of study" As he became an adult, the expectation was that he would either assume a position of responsibility in his father's business, eventually taking it over, or perhaps he would become a rabbi.
Once the community was forced to face the reality of the threat to their lifestyle being imposed as the ghetto was created and increasing restrictions were imposed, expectations for everyone shifted. For as long as possible, Elie continued to study, although "in Ezra Malik's garden" instead of in a school or synagogue.
Once Elie's father received word of the impending deportation of the Jews of Sighet, Elie's role changed again. He became a messenger, helping his father notify the others of the need to prepare for the changes that were coming upon them all. From that moment on, the expectation was that he would do whatever was necessary to survive.
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Gold in the Vedas!
History and facts
Vedic society was rich and prosperous. Vedic women wore gold and silver jewellery. We have read references to gem stones as well. We have read about their dance and music. Naturally, the women would have dressed themselves for the occasion. Though Vedas are religious books, we find a lot of secular matter in them. Indian sculptures that are available from the 3rd century BCE show lot of different types of jewels. Every part of the sculpture has a jewel. When we look at Greek statues, we see bare bodies. When we look at Sumerian and Babylonian statues we see scanty jewellery. Only the Egyptian women wore some jewellery like the Hindus. They probably imported the jewellery or its idea from India.
1. Candra denotes gold in the Rig Veda (RV 2-2-4, 3-31-5, TS 1-2-7-1; KS 2-6; VS 4-26; SB 3-3-3-4) and other Vedic texts.
Jatarupa is also used to denote gold. Hiranya in the sense of gold is also frequently referred to in the RV and later texts.
2. The extraction of gold from earth (RV 1-117-5; AV 12-1-6; 12-1-26; 12-1-44) was known to Vedic people.
Washing for gold is mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhita (TS 6-1-71-) and Satapatha Brahmana (SB 2-1-1-5). Gold is also recovered from the river beds and that is why the Indus was called Hiranmaya in the RV (10-75-8) The Sarasvati is also depicted as Hiranyavartani (AV 6-61-7)
3. Hiranya means ornaments in gold in the RV (1-122-2; VS 15-50)
4. A golden currency, weights of gold, ’astaaprud’, is mentioned in the Kataka Samhita (11-1) and Taittiriya Samhita (3-4-1-4)
5. A golden satamana means 100 krishnalas (Kunthumani in Tamil) in the Satapatha Brahmana (5-5-3-16)
6. Gold was obtained by smelting from ore (SB 6-1-3-5; 12-4-3-1)
7. Gold as a gift is also recorded in the RV (6-47-23) where we learn ten lumps of gold (dasa hiranya pindam) were given to a priest by Divodasa.
Brahadaranyaka Upanishad also mentioned1000 gold pieces tied to the horns of cows as a prize for the greatest scholar. Yajnavalkya got it. Giving thousand gold pieces continued until the Sangam period in Tamil Nadu.
My comments: The extraction of gold by smelting shows the advancement in metallurgy. The golden currency shows the wealth of the country. Unfortunately, we get golden coins only from first century BCE now. Hindus recycle gold every now and then. King Divodasa giving ten bars of gold to a priest shows the enormous wealth of the country. If the gold currency is confirmed by some archaeological discovery then India will be the first currency to use golden currency.
Beliefs about Gold
1. The Atharva Veda refers to a belief of the people: one that dies of old age becomes who he wears it (gold …. For life time thee, for splendour thee and for force and strength - that with the brilliance of gold thou might shine out among the people.
2. The terms Anja or Anji in the sense of ornaments is found in the RV (1-64-4) but the word alamkara occurs for the first time in satapata Brahmana (3-4-1-36; 13-8-4-7) and Chandogya Upanishad (8-8-5)
3. During a marriage, gold ornaments were gifted to the daughter by the father, as for example, niska in the RV (2-33-10) and kurira in the RV (10-85-8) means the head ornament, karnasobhana – ear rings (RV 8-78-3). The AV mentioned Tirita (8-6-7), parihasta (hand clap) and (amulet) in Kausika sutra (35—11)
4. The Atharva Veda refers to
Pravarta (ear ornament) 15-2-1
Golden amulets- 1-35
Niskariva (necklace of niska coins; Kasu Maalai in Tamil) –5-14-3
Kurira (head ornament) – 6-138-2
5. Vajasaneyi Samhita mentioned goldsmith (30-17) and jeweller (30-7) manikara. SB mentioned golden chain as rukma pasa (6-7-1-7)
6. Rig Veda mentioned women wearing golden ornaments on breast (RV 1-166-10) vakshasu rukma
7. Indra is said to have worn golden bracelets in his arms. Maruts are also said to have worn golden ornaments like young suitors and sons of a wealthy house (RV 5-60-4; 8-5-28; 8-68-3). Asvins are invited to ascend a car with golden seats. Sankyayana Grhya sutra states that in ‘simantonayanna’ the wife is to sing merrily by wearing many gold ornaments (1-122-16)
There are many more references to golden and silver ornaments, gems (mani) in the Vedic literature.
My Comments: The absence of cognate words (for gold, jewels) in Indo European languages and such customs in Europe around 1700 BCE (Rig Vedic period) show that Vedic civilisation originated in India. Presenting or gifting gold coins is also seen only in India. Vedic Hindus were not migrants. As I mentioned earlier we see very scanty jewels or no jewels at all in Europe. They were not able to make any golden gifts.
Gem Stones in the Vedas
1. The word Mani figures in RV (1-33-8) and AV (1-29-1;2-4-1;8-5-1 which may be gems or jewels.) Mani occurs in Sangam Tamil literature over 400 times to denote gems. So, we can take it as gems. Mani is also mentioned in TS (7-3-14-1), KS (35-15), AB (4-6) as amulets for all kinds of evil.
2. It is evident that the mani could be strung on a thread (sutra), which is referred to in Panchavimsa Brahmana (PB 20-16-6) and elsewhere (JUB 1-18-8, 3-4-13, JB 2-248, SB 12-3-4-2) (The simile sutra mani gana eva occurs in Bhagavad Gita and Sangam Tamil literature)
3. Mani is worn around the neck: manigriva (RV 1-122-14)
Gold Standard
1. Gold weighing a hundred grains (SB 12-7-2-13), four gold plates weighing a hundred grains (SB 13-4-1-6) are found in SB.
2. SB mentioned a gift of 300 gold coins (SB 5-5-5-16). Satamana or measures of hundred mean weight of a hundred krishnalas (seeds of Abrus precatorius)./li>
3. Even today the word ‘satamana’ is used in all the mantras where gifts are involved.
4. Tamils and other communities were using the Gunja seeds (krishnala) for weighing gold until the last century.
5. Mani in the Rig Veda denotes diamond or pearl according to scholars. Durga in his commentary on Nirukta says that it denotes Sun stone (crystal used as a burning glass)
6. Hiranya mani in Rig Veda may mean gem studded gold ornaments. Tamil and Sanskrit literature mentioned it in later day literature.
Source : Speaking Tree
Gold Glossary
Slabbed coins
These are coins encapsulated in plastic to ensure that they are protected against any natural wear and tear. In normal course, slabbed coins are graded by one of the two major grading services.
Gold Estimator
Enter an amount to find out its value in gold
Gold Estimator
You could own
of gold today
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Your answers should be based on the readings and as complete and thoughtful as possible. You are strongly encouraged to include quotations from the readings and to elaborate upon the significance of the topic at hand. Please type your answers and submit them in class.
1. Who were some of the first people of African descent to set foot in the new world?
2. What is the distinction, the three categories, Restall makes for describing people of African descent in the period of conquest and exploration?
3. Who were some of the "black auxilaries" that assisted the Spanish conquest? Be specific.
4. What were some of the regions in the Americas which black auxilaries helped to conquer?
5. According to Restall, how does the black auxilary during conquest fit into a larger historical tradition?
6. What was the role of black women in these processess?
7. What was the difference between a ladino and a bozal?
8. How did people of African descent particpate in the Spanish exploration of North America?
9. What was the role of pirates during this period?
10. How did Queen Anne's War affect piracy in the New World?
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This Week
18 July 1998
The dancing droid
A LEGLESS virtual android called Adonis has been taught to “dance” the
macarena as a first step in a project designed to help robots learn by
The computer simulation has been developed by Maja Mataric from the
University of Southern California in Los Angeles, Victor Zordan of Georgia
Institute of Technology in Atlanta and Zachary Mason from Brandeis University in
Waltham, Massachusetts. Their chief aim, says Mataric, is to create mechanisms
that robotic hardware and software can use to learn any task.
Earlier work had established that humans look at their tutor’s hands when
learning a physical routine, such as the movements associated with a dance. But
when we actually come to do it, the correct arm, head and neck movements follow.
Our own set of behavioural primitives—the basic movements on which more
complex ones are based—means that when we do something with our hands, the
rest of the body follows automatically.
Mataric says imitation is extensively used by animals and could make robots
much more flexible. Although it is possible simply to copy control software from
one robot to others, because each is unique they will not do the job as well as
they would if they had “picked it up” by observation.
Before Adonis can start to watch and learn, he first needs a basic set of
behavioural primitives to build upon. So the researchers decided to teach him to
make the arm and hand movements of the macarena. They decided to simulate a
dance because it is easier to spot when Adonis has got it right. More subtle
movements would be harder to evaluate. “If you like the macarena, you’ll know if
it’s right or not,” says Mataric.
She adds that the macarena is ideal because it involves distinct movements
that can be broken up into easily learnt parts. In the dance, the hands are
moved and placed on different parts of the body. Mataric says the changes in
direction and speed in the dance will provide useful points for splitting up the
behaviours later.
The basic behaviour set is based around 12 hand and arm-related movements of
the 14-step version of the macarena. Spanish singing duo Antonio Romero and
Rafael Ruiz—aka Los del Rio—had an international hit with the song
Macarena in 1995. It was released in several versions with different
tempos and numbers of movements. The dance involves extending the arms, touching
hands to different parts of the body and crossing the arms. The two movements
that Adonis can’t do involve jumping a quarter turn and swinging the hips.
Mataric and her colleagues simulated only the upper body so Adonis has no feet
to jump with and no hips to swing, though he can bend at the waist.
Adonis’s head, neck and arms are subject to the same constraints as those of
humans. His joints have the same degrees of freedom that human elbows and wrists
do, and he can’t cheat by swinging his hands through his head. He also has to
contend with the software equivalent of gravity and inertia.
Now that Adonis can do the macarena, Mataric and her colleagues are planning
to add a sensory component to the simulation—for example, video
cameras—to allow Adonis to watch someone do another dance such as the
mashed potato or the watusi and then use parts of the macarena to mimic what he
has seen.
This will be a key advance in artificial intelligence. “If you are learning
from scratch every time, that is not as powerful and not the kind of thing that
is seen in biology,” says Mataric.
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Excerpt from Description of Exercise
Objective: Build an interesting game using much of what you have learned so far.
For this assignment, we would like you to implement a game designed to somewhat resemble the game named Glinx that can be found at http://www.gamehouse.com.
Like the original game, our game is played on a grid. The grid is filled with tokens of different colors. Two or more tokens of the same color can be linked together to form a path as long as the path does not cross itself and does not pass through any cell containing a token of a different color. Once a group of tokens have been linked to form such a path, they can be removed from the game board. The goal of the game is to remove all the tokens from the grid using as few paths as possible.
A sample of what the game display should look like as you play this game is shown below.
A player forms a path by dragging the mouse from one grid cell to another along the desired path. To start a new path, the player should point at a cell containing a token that is not already part of a path and depress the mouse button. Then, each time the player drags the mouse into a new cell, the program will either add a cell to the path or remove the last cell from the path. A new cell will be added to the path if the mouse is dragged into a cell that
1. is not already part of the path,
2. is adjacent to the last cell added to the path, and
3. is either empty or contains a token of the right color.
The last cell will be removed from the path if the cell into which the mouse has been dragged was the next to last cell in the current path. This will enable the user undo a path by backing up along it.
Once the player is happy with the path drawn, all of the pieces in the path can be removed from the grid by clicking once on the last cell of the path as long as this cell contains a token.
Handouts Describing the Exercise
Student Resources for Lab Exercise
Sample solutions
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Native Americans
Jumanos Location
The Jumanos were located in the Mountains and Basins region of Texas.
Big image
Food They Ate
The Jumanos ate corn, squash, and beans. They hunted animals to eat their meat.
How They Got Their Food
The Jumanos obtained their food by trading agricultural products and hunting with bows and arrows.
How They Lived
They Jumanos lived in adobe brick houses.
Big image
What Weapons They Used
The Jumanos used bows and arrows to hunt animals to eat and use their skin.
Big image
The Jumano had special traditions like drawing distinct striped markings on their faces that made it easy for groups to recognize.
Big image
Their location Today
The Jumanos fought to maintain their territory and their trading relationships but the Apache prevailed. Before Texas became part of the United States the Jumano almost disappeared from the area. Some moved to Mexico and others joined other Native American bands.
Organization Leaders
The Jumanos had a chief in each band which was the leader.
Unique Facts
The Jumano were Puebloan, and acted as middlemen, or go-betweens.
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LogoStonehenge tours photo montage Text - Salisbury & Stonehenge Guided Tours
Aerial view of the Cursus
Stonehenge Cursus
What is the Stonehenge Cursus?
The Stonehenge Cursus,also known as the Greater Cursus (there is another shorter one a few hundred yards to the NW known as the Lesser Cursus),runs for 1 3/4 miles or 3km E - W across the Stonehenge landscape just to the north of Stonehenge. It is a parallel set of banks and ditches about 100 - 150 m apart, with the ditch on the outside of the banks. From the base of the ditch to the top of the bank is around 5ft or 1.5m. At the western end the ditch was higher, and at the eastern end was a long barrow.
Why is it called the Cursus?
Cursus is the Latin name for racetrack or hippodrome. It was named by William Stukeley, an early antiquarian, in the early 1700's. He was the first person to identify and note it. As we all do, he wanted to explain its meaning and purpose. He had been on the Grand Tour of Europe and had seen the Circus Maximus in Rome and thought it was used for chariot racing. Not an unreasonable assumption given its shape and dimensions. To put it in context though, the Romans were in Britain about 2000 years ago, but the Cursus was built 3500 years before that!Some describe it as a landing strip for aliens, but its true use is ceremonial or ritual. That's archaeologists speak for 'we don't have a clue'.
Can I visit the Cursus?
Diagrammatic map of the Stonehenge landscapeAll of the Cursus is on publicly accessible land owned by the National Trust. There is little visible on the ground except the south west quarter. The best way is to see it from air though the airspace is military and difficult to access. From Stonehenge you can see a set of barrows (burial mounds) to the northwest (off to the left as you look out at the landscape) running from left to right. Walk past the Cursus barrows and within a 100yds or so you will reach a ditch and bank. You're at the Cursus.
Are there any tours to the Cursus?
There is only one scheduled Stonehenge tour which includes the Cursus which you can find on our inner circle tour page.
Back to Home page
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Definitions for sensitiveˈsɛn sɪ tɪv
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word sensitive
Random House Webster's College Dictionary
sen•si•tiveˈsɛn sɪ tɪv(adj.)
1. endowed with sensation; having perception through the senses.
2. readily or excessively affected by external influences.
3. responsive to the feelings of others.
4. easily hurt or offended.
5. Physiol. having a low threshold of sensation or feeling.
Category: Physiology
6. especially responsive to certain agents, as light:
sensitive photographic film.
Category: Photography, Chemistry
7. highly secret or delicate; requiring prudence:
sensitive diplomatic issues.
8. constructed to measure small degrees of change:
a sensitive thermometer.
9. marked by high radio sensitivity.
Category: Radio and Television
10. (n.)a person who is sensitive.
Category: Common Vocabulary
11. a person with psychic powers; medium.
Category: Common Vocabulary
Origin of sensitive:
1350–1400; ME sensitif(e) < MF sensitif < ML sēnsitīvus
Princeton's WordNet
1. medium, spiritualist, sensitive(adj)
someone who serves as an intermediary between the living and the dead
"he consulted several mediums"
2. sensitive(adj)
responsive to physical stimuli
3. sensitive(adj)
being susceptible to the attitudes, feelings, or circumstances of others
"sensitive to the local community and its needs"
4. sensible, sensitive(adj)
able to feel or perceive
"even amoeba are sensible creatures"; "the more sensible parts of the skin"
5. sensitive, sore, raw, tender(adj)
"the tender spot on his jaw"
6. sensitive(adj)
of or pertaining to classified information or matters affecting national security
Kernerman English Learner's Dictionary
1. sensitive(adjective)ˈsɛn sɪ tɪv
easily upset or worried
She's a highly sensitive child.; The actress is very sensitive about her big feet.
2. sensitiveˈsɛn sɪ tɪv
aware of and understanding people and situations
a doctor who is not sensitive to her needs; the sensitive treatment of grieving families
3. sensitiveˈsɛn sɪ tɪv
easily affected
Children may be especially sensitive to health risks from pesticides .
4. sensitiveˈsɛn sɪ tɪv
reacting very easily or very precisely
an ultra-sensitive instrument for measuring vibration
5. sensitiveˈsɛn sɪ tɪv
delicate and needing careful treatment
sensitive skin/teeth
6. sensitiveˈsɛn sɪ tɪv
needing to be dealt with carefully in order to avoid problems
a sensitive phase of the negotiations; a sensitive issue
1. sensitive(Noun)
One with a paranormal sensitivity to something that most cannot perceive.
2. sensitive(Adjective)
Having the faculty of sensation; pertaining to the senses.
3. sensitive(Adjective)
Responsive to stimuli.
4. sensitive(Adjective)
Of a person, easily offended, upset or hurt.
My friend Max is very sensitive; he cried today because of the bad news.
5. sensitive(Adjective)
Of an issue, capable of offending, upsetting or hurting.
Religion is often a sensitive topic of discussion and should be avoided when dealing with foreign business associates.
6. sensitive(Adjective)
Accurate (instrument)
7. Origin: From sensitif, from sensitivus.
Webster Dictionary
1. Sensitive(adj)
having sense of feeling; possessing or exhibiting the capacity of receiving impressions from external objects; as, a sensitive soul
2. Sensitive(adj)
3. Sensitive(adj)
having a capacity of being easily affected or moved; as, a sensitive thermometer; sensitive scales
4. Sensitive(adj)
readily affected or changed by certain appropriate agents; as, silver chloride or bromide, when in contact with certain organic substances, is extremely sensitive to actinic rays
5. Sensitive(adj)
serving to affect the sense; sensible
6. Sensitive(adj)
of or pertaining to sensation; depending on sensation; as, sensitive motions; sensitive muscular motions excited by irritation
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
1. sensitive
Requiring special protection from disclosure that could cause embarrassment, compromise, or threat to the security of the sponsoring power. May be applied to an agency, installation, person, position, document, material, or activity.
British National Corpus
1. Spoken Corpus Frequency
Rank popularity for the word 'sensitive' in Spoken Corpus Frequency: #2785
2. Written Corpus Frequency
Rank popularity for the word 'sensitive' in Written Corpus Frequency: #3992
3. Adjectives Frequency
Rank popularity for the word 'sensitive' in Adjectives Frequency: #372
Translations for sensitive
Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary
(usually with to ) strongly or easily affected (by something)
sensitive skin; sensitive to light.
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Question Info
Type: Open-Ended
Category: Area
Level: Grade 10
Author: shalee44
Last Modified: 5 months ago
View all questions by shalee44.
Area Question
View this question.
Grade 10 :: Area
by shalee44
The ancient Greek mathematician Heron is most famous for his formula for the area of a triangle in terms of its sides; a, b, and c. The formula is:
A = s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c), where s = .5(a+b+c)
Use Heron's formula to find the area of a triangle with the following sides:
a = 8 in; b = 9 in; c = 10 in.
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Kyrgyz literature
Kyrgyz literature, the written works of the Kyrgyz people of Central Asia, most of whom live in Kyrgyzstan. A smaller population of Kyrgyz in China also produces works of literary significance.
The literary history of the modern-day Kyrgyz begins in the early 19th century, notwithstanding disputed attempts by scholars to identify as “Old Kyrgyz” the language of runic Turkic inscriptions from the Yenisey River basin (9th to 11th centuries). The language of the earliest surviving works of Kyrgyz literature in manuscript, including the 19th-century poems of Moldo Nïyaz, is Chagatai, the common Turkic literary language of Central Asia, modified with features drawn from spoken Kyrgyz. (See also Chagatai literature.) From the Russian Revolution of 1917 until the 1930s, written Kyrgyz continued to develop under influences from the related Kazakh, Uzbek, and Tatar languages, owing in part to the slow development of Kyrgyz-language instruction. Prerevolutionary Kyrgyz was written in the Arabic alphabet; this was reformed and standardized in 1924. In 1927 the Kyrgyz writing system was switched to one based on the Latin alphabet, and in 1941 this was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet, which continues in use today in Kyrgyzstan. (The Kyrgyz of the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang in China still use an Arabic alphabet.)
Written Kyrgyz literature arose from rich oral traditions and was at the outset exclusively poetic. Manuscript poems derived from the oral epic cycle Manas written by Kyrgyz in their own language survive from around the turn of the 20th century. One of the earliest books printed in an idiom close to modern Kyrgyz, Qïssa-i zilzila (1911; “Tale of the Earthquake”) by Moldo Qïlïch, is in the lyric genre sanat-nasïyat (“maxims and wise instructions”), a form used by poets for social commentary. The book’s elegiac tone, expression of disillusionment with Russian colonial rule, and yearning for an idealized Muslim society reflected the zar-zaman (“time of sorrow”) vogue that predominated in Kyrgyz and Kazakh poetry of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The tremendous growth in literacy among Kyrgyz during the Soviet period was mirrored by significant strides in the sphere of creative writing. Kyrgyz folklore provided the blueprint and materials for poetry of the first half of the 20th century by Aalï Tokombaev, Joomart Bökönbaev, Kubanïchbek Malikov, and Jusup Turusbekov. Prose fiction was among new literary forms that appeared under Soviet auspices and reached a high level of cultivation. The first short story published in Kyrgyz was Kasïmalï Bayalinov’s “Ajar” (1927); the first Kyrgyz novel was Tügölbay Sïdïkbekov’s Keng-Suu (1937–38; “Broad River,” the name of the village that is the novel’s setting). The essay and the pamphlet also flourished, as did drama, literary translation, and children’s literature. The Kyrgyz press was inaugurated in 1924 with the newspaper Erkin Too (“Free Mountains”).
Soviet Kyrgyz literature was defined in relation to the political and social agendas of the state and the Communist Party. The “pessimism” and “mysticism” that the party found in works by Moldo Qïlïch and the zar-zaman poets were proscribed; writers were instead urged to incorporate progressive themes, such as land and water reform, the emancipation of women, and the struggle to overcome feudal and tribal authority. In working out their own approach to the artistic methods of Socialist Realism, Kyrgyz authors used models from Russian literature. The poet Alïkul Osmonov departed from Kyrgyz folklore and invented new verse forms inspired in part by the Russian poet Vladimir Mayakovsky. The international character of Soviet society is reflected in such works as Maidan (1961–66; “The War Front”), Uzak Abdukaimov’s novel about World War II.
Chingiz Aytmatov, 2003.BubamaraThe short-story writer, novelist, and essayist Chingiz Aytmatov enjoyed international acclaim and a dominant position in Kyrgyz literature in the second half of the 20th century with such early works as Jamila (1958; Eng. trans. Jamilia), a tale of love amid changing times. After Kyrgyzstan gained independence in 1991, Kyrgyz writers took up issues of the nation’s past, such as the people’s Muslim heritage, traditional social structure, and colonial experience under Russia, in such works as Sooronbai Jusuev’s Kurmanjan Datka (1994), a verse novel about the female leader of the southern Kyrgyz during and after the tsarist expansion. Starkly reflecting the calamitous post-Soviet experience, Aytmatov’s Kassandra tamgasy (1996; “The Mark of Cassandra”; first published in Russian in 1995 as Tavro Kassandry) is a novel of global dystopia. In the first decade of the 21st century, poets, prose writers, and dramatists suffered from the contraction and reordering of literary markets in Kyrgyzstan that took place after the collapse of the U.S.S.R., but along with state support Communist Party censorship also vanished. Though deplored by the old guard, the new commercial climate created opportunities for authors to publish unvarnished portrayals of painful realities, as in the prison novels of Melis Makenbaev and the popular genre of detective and crime fiction.
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The Blarney Stone
For many centuries, as everyone knows, English monarchs tried to impose their will on Ireland. Queen Elizabeth I, eager to extend the influence of her government, sent a deputy to Cormac MacDermot MacCarthy, who was Lord of Blarney, and demanded that he take the tenure of his lands from the Crown. Cormac set out to visit the Queen and plead for his traditional right to his land, but he despaired for success for he was not fluent of speech.
Shortly after starting his journey, he met an old woman who asked him why he looked so forlorn. He told her his story and she said, “Cormac, when Blarney Castle was built, one stone was put into place by a man who predicted no one would ever be able to touch it again. If you can kiss that stone, the gift of eloquence will be conferred upon you.” Cormac traveled back to his castle and succeeded in kissing the stone. He then was able to go and address the Queen with speech so soft and words so fair that as long as he lived, he never had to renounce his right to his land. From that time forward, people have traveled from many lands to try to kiss the Blarney Stone and receive the “gift of gab” and eloquence of speech.
submitted by: Bob Jensen
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image: title Tudor Houses and Homes
by Mandy Barrow
500 BC
AD 43
Tudor Houses - Architecture (1485 - 1603)
15th century and 16th century
The Tudor period is the time when the Tudor family came to the throne. Henry VIII is the most famous tudor king. You can see many Tudor houses in England today. Some of them are over 500 years old!
How can you recognise a Tudor House?
Most ordinary homes in Tudor times were half timbered - they had wooden frames and the spaces between were filled with small sticks and wet clay called wattle and daub.
Tudor houses are known for their 'black-and-white' effect.
Tudor houses in Brenchley, Kent
Brenchley high street in Kent
Photographs on this page may be used by students and teachers in the classroom but must not be put on any other website. Photographs remain copyright of Mandy Barrow, Woodlands Junior School.
© Woodlands Junior School Terms & Conditions
Woodlands Junior School, Hunt Road Tonbridge Kent TN10 4BB
Homework Help is part of the Woodlands Junior School Kent website
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Why Are Oak and Fir Trees More Likely to Be Struck by Lightning Than Beech and Pine In a Thunder Storm?
Almost a century ago, a monthly journal, Country Queries and Notes, was first published.
In it, it was asked if oak and fir trees were far more likely to be struck by lightning than pines, and if beech is the tree least likely to attract a lightning strike.
This question attracted an enormous amount of interest from readers. Their responses were still arriving a year later.
Replies were compiled from many different sources and showed the following number of lightning strikes: oak, 484; poplar, 284; willow, 87; elm, 66; pine, 54; yew, 50; beech, 39; ash, 33; pear, 30; walnut, 22; lime, 16; cherry, 12; chestnut, 11; larch, 11; maple, 11; birch, 9; apple, 7; alder, 6; mountain ash, 2; and hawthorn, 1.
Only after further prompting from the editor did one reader admit to seeing a stricken sycamore. There were assertions that holly was never seen to be hit.
With no indication of the relative proportions of the trees present the list may appear meaningless, but it does look as if height has more relevance than species.
Arguments grew a little wearisome but there was some support for the view that trees with corrugated bark, and therefore traces of moisture, attracted more strikes than those with smooth bark.
It seems fairly clear, though, that it is best to assume what we all know already, lightning can strike anywhere.
The Forestry Commission’s most recent research paper on the subject states that oak, poplar, and Scots pine are the tree species most frequently damaged, with beech least likely to be damaged.
However, this is based on two surveys, each with relatively few records. The first was carried out between 1932 and 1935 and the second between 1967 and 1985, and there are some discrepancies, partly because the earlier survey included only obviously lightning-damaged trees, while the later one includes non-catastrophic damage, which is quite common and sometimes barely detectable.
North American publications also show beech, birch, and horse chestnut as relatively unlikely to be struck, compared with oaks, pines, and spruces, among others.
North America gets much more lightning than Britain and it is not uncommon for particularly valuable specimens to be fitted with lightning conductors in order to preserve them. To our knowledge a conductor has only once been fitted to a British tree, a particularly large cedar that was considered especially at risk.
Various theories have been advanced as to why some species are apparently struck more often, including the possibility that some conduct electricity better, either through the sap or because their rough bark retains more rainwater.
This would explain why beech, with its smooth bark, is less susceptible to strikes.
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Alternate titles: almwirtschaft; old mountain economy
alpwirtschaft, also called almwirtschaft, type of pastoral nomadism that forms a unique economic system in the Alps and involves the migration of livestock between mountain pastures in warm months and lower elevations the remainder of the year. In German, Alp, or Alm, means mountain pasture, and Wirtschaft means domestic economy. Some scholars consider alpwirtschaft to be a limited type of pastoral nomadism subsumed under a broader form known as transhumance, which includes migration within and between regions.
Alpwirtschaft, often called the old mountain economy, developed because many of the mountain valleys, which were occupied by villages and cropland, did not provide sufficient land for livestock grazing. The seasonal migration of livestock to different elevations throughout the year was thus introduced to compensate for the lack of pasture at lower elevations. During the winter the livestock are fed hay and herded between a farmstead in a lower valley and a low mountain farm located at a slightly higher elevation. In the spring, summer, and autumn, the livestock are herded between a lower mountain farm, upland farms, and upland pastures located at the highest elevations. The pastures may be privately owned, shared by neighbours, leased to tenant farmers, or communal. At the lower elevations grazing is supplemented by hay feeding, while pasture at the higher elevations provides ample growth for grazing. At the various elevations of farm and pasture, villages and lodges are located to accommodate the partial or total migration of farmers, herders, and their families.
The location of new industries in many mountain valleys has caused many families to seek industrial employment while retaining their mountain residence. Thus, fewer families participate in the seasonal migration, and more pastures have been abandoned; many of the less accessible pastures have been converted into resorts.
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dulce melos
dulce melos, also spelled Doulcemele, (French: “sweet song”), a rectangular stringed keyboard musical instrument of the late European Middle Ages, known entirely from written records; no original examples are extant. It is possible, however, that the instrument presented to the king of France by King Edward III of England in 1360 and called échiquier d’Angleterre was a dulce melos.
In the famous manuscript of Henri Arnaut of Zwolle (c. 1435), the dulce melos is pictured and described. It appears that its 12 pairs of strings stretched over the tails of 35 keys. The strings passed over bridges that divided each pair of strings into three sections, each producing a different pitch and controlled by a different key. Each section was caused to vibrate by means of a weighted wooden shaft that sat on the end of each key; when the key was depressed and suddenly halted (or checked), the shaft continued to fly upward, and a brass attachment on its side struck the string. The shaft then rebounded to rest on the key. In principle this action anticipated the modern piano’s hammer action; as in the piano and clavichord, the loudness of each note was controlled by the force with which the finger depressed the key.
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A brief review of some historical alternatives to the Latin alphabet. -- by Nicholas Fabian.
A brief review of some historical
alternatives to the Latin alphabet.
N. Fabian by Nicholas Fabian
It is self evident that the Roman alphabet is superbly well suited to represent the Latin language. But, it is also clear that without numerous accents, additional characters, grammatical rules and even more exceptions, the same twenty-six characters are a poor choice to represent the sounds of English or most other western languages. Depending on the scholarly references choosen the suggested expanded alphabet varies, but it is prudent to say that the optimal number of characters is around forty.
Of course, the evolution of language and alphabet seldom follows the most direct route in history. For the past two-and-a-half-thousand years, both scholars and curious lay people had approached this problem from many different points of view, some of which are rather unconventional or even bizarre. As the following historical records illustrate, they range from shorthand to accents and additional characters -- all the way to inventing completely new alphabets. In a capsulated form, language reform is an arresting story of our civilization.
Shorthand was invented by the Greek historian Xenophon (431-350 BC) who used it first to write the memoirs of Socrates. Three hundred years later another shorthand was invented by Marcus Tullius Tiro, (Cicero's secretary) in 63 BC. Tiro's Latin shorthand system, named notae Tironianae ("Tironian notes") from the Roman Empire remained in use for the next thousand years.¹¹
Tironian Notes
The Tironian Notes alphabet, as published by
Jean Tritheme, a Benedictine Monk, in 1613.
During the Middle Ages, shorthand died out because the practice became associated with black magic and witchcraft and it became too dangerous for writers to use. With the emergence of the Renaissance, interest in shorthand re-surfaced and during the next three hundred years various shorthand systems were developed by several people including Timothy Bright, John Willis, Thomas Shelton, William Mason, Samuel Taylor and Franz Xaver Gabelsberger of Germany. Numerous books were published during this period, including the Bible, prayer books and some of the classics using currently popular shorthand notations. These early pioneers were followed by Sir Isaac Pitman, the inventor of the Pitman Shorthand (1837), a system based on the work of Samuel Taylor. Pitman was not only an inventor but also an strong advocate of spelling reform and encouraged his friend, Noah Webster, to simplify the spelling of American English.
The great literary genius Mark Twain, using his biting wit also joined the fray and often included an amusing piece of text during his popular speaking engagements. An excerpt from his parody of phonetic spelling proves the point in all its comical absurdity.
"Furst tiem I wuz in Egypt a simplified speling epidemic had broeken out and th atmosfeer wuz electrical with feeling enjenderd bi th subject. This wuz for or fiev thousand yeerz ago. Th Simplifieerz had rizen in revolt agenst th hieroglifics. An uncl of Cadmus hoo wuz out of a job hud cum to Egypt and wuz trieing to introdoos th Phonecian alfabet and get it adopted in plaes of th hieroglifics. Th Simplifieerz wer fue; th Opozisihun wer multituedinus. Amung th Simplifieerz wer meny men of lurning and distinkshun, maenly litererry men and memberz of colej facultyz; but aul ranks and condishunz of men and aul graedz of intelect, erruedishun, and ignorans wer reprezented in th Opozishun."
In addition to being a humorous paragraph, the text also brings into focus many problems of phonetic spelling and the English language.
Language reform is an integral part of our civilization and the constantly evolving language must be able to support the intellectual superstructure of our rapidly changing technological age with precise and accurate communication. In 1906 President Theodore Roosevelt, set up a Simplified Spelling Board in an attempt to legislate changes to the English language in the United States. Coincidentally, Vladimir Ilich Lenin in the Soviet Union during the early 1920s also set up a commission to reform the Russian language in a way that it could be transliterated into the Latin alphabet. In spite of their political power base, neither system had gained any historical momentum or contributed in any significant way to solve the language dilemma caused by poorly conceived alphabets.
Probably the most massive language change that had ever taken place in the world was in Turkey in 1928 when, by government decree, writing was changed from Arabic to a new Latin based alphabet. Twenty nine years later the Chinese State Council enacted a resolution to change from the existing Chinese ideographic writing (with 30,000 plus different symbols) to a new extended 30 character phonetic Latin alphabet. Today, the world is still anxiously awaiting the "Big Change" in China. It will be a social and cultural change so massive that it is an almost inconceivable undertaking for any government, in any society. If fully implemented, its historical significance will superceed both the building of the "Great Wall of China" and Mao's "Long March."
It is not a coincidence that the most successful new speech notation systems in the English speaking world were the phonetically-based Pitman (1837) and Gregg shorthands (1888), both of which are complementary writing systems to the Latin alphabet. They use abbreviations, accents and special signs to simplify and speed up the process of writing. As a practical linguistic tool, the shorthand systems stand on their own and make no attempt to change any elements of the Latin alphabet. Because of their efficiency and speed, these shorthand systems are used daily by business, legal and parliamentary secretaries around the world in addition to the Latin alphabet. Speed Writing is an other form of shorthand, one which uses only abbreviations and existing characters from the Latin alphabet without any other special signs. With the advancement of the industrial age, several machine assisted transcribing devices were invented of which the most notable are the Stenograph and Stenotype systems. They depend on simultaneous multi-key techniques to record syllables, words or entire phrases of the language.
During the first few centuries of printing in Europe, the alphabet contained an alternate lower case letter "s" (called the "long s") which was probably the most visually confusing character ever invented by anyone. It resembled the lower case letter "f" to such a degree that it greatly impeded fluent reading and hence, cohesive comprehension. In the English speaking world, the "long s" was first formally discarded by Joseph Ames (1689-1759) and later by the noted printer-publisher, John Bell (1745-1831). In France, it was François-Ambroise Didot (1730-1804), the first influential printer-publisher to discard the use of the "long s" from all his publications. The process of expunging the "long s" is unique because instead of being added to, the character was discarded from the alphabet.
The long
Examples of the "long s" used in modern text.
Alternate alphabets.
In the middle of the eighteen century, the illustrious Benjamin Franklin designed an alternate phonetic alphabet in which each letter represented only one sound and each sound was represented by only one letter. In concert with Franklin's new alphabet, Noah Webster, a friend of Benjamin Franklin, initiated a system of simplified spelling which is responsible for many of the differences between American and English spelling of words today.
Franklin Alphabet
Text fragment from the extended alphabet of Benjamin Franklin.
From Political, Miscellaneous and Philosophical Pieces, London 1779.
Another historical curiosity is the Mormon Deseret Alphabet devised in the 1850s by George D. Wyatt, who was one of Pitman's phonography students in England. In 1837 Wyatt converted to Mormonism, therefore it is not surprising that he was put in charge of the new Deseret Alphabet which had its origin in the shorthand system developed by Sir Isaac Pitman. After two years of revisions, the final version of the alphabet had 38 characters and each represented a unique sound in the English language.
Deseret Alphabet
Character examples of the Mormon Deseret Alphabet.
Alexander Melville Bell's (1819-1905) Visible Speech alphabet was another contender to replace the existing Latin alphabet with a phonetic one, one which better illustrates the sounds used in the English language. The essence of his great genius was that the alphabet he created became independent of any specific language. The characters function was to accurately illlustrate predetermined sounds, in any language. Which of course included the vocalization of sign language for the deaf. (Melville Bell was Alexander Graham Bell's father and a highly acclaimed teacher of the deaf, as was Alexander in the early 1870s).
Visible Speech Alphabet
Example of Alexander Melville Bell's Visible Speech Alphabet.
Henry Sweet's (1813-1898?) Organic Alphabet was another attempt to create a flexible phonetic alphabet. Sweet was a nineteenth century phonetician who modified Bell's Visible Speech concept to form his own less rigid Organic Alphabet. The current International Phonetic Alphabet was also based on Sweet's Organic Alphabet and today it contains enough exotic characters, accents and modifiers to satisfy even the most fanatical linguistic research scholar.
International Phonetic Alphabet
Example of International Phonetic Alphabet.
George Bernard Shaw's "Universal Alphabet" is an artificial alphabet that was created by an architect designer, Kingsley Read, as a response to a public contest initiated by George Bernard Shaw in his will.
Shaw's universal alphabet
Sample characters from George Bernard Shaw's Universal Alphabet..
Bradbury Thompson (1911-1995) was a highly respected graphic designer who emerged as the father of modern magazine design in America. His depth of research and range of creative ideas supported an unequalled drive for excellence in every aspect of graphic design. Thompson's single-case alphabet is a form of revival of the "case-less" uncial mode of writing. He used a mix of lower and upper case characters from existing non-uncial fonts. Thompson's lower case characters are just an optically scaled smaller version of the case-less capital letters. He correctly observed that in western civilization people are using two different alphabets. The capital letters are based on the Roman alphabet and the lower case letters are direct descendants from Charlemagne's (768-814) consolidated scriptoriums. Most lower case letters have little or no resemblance whatsoever to their capital companions, which makes learning more difficult than really necessary.
Thompson alphabet
Example of the Bradbury Thompson alphabet.
The Mesa Polyglot alphabet was invented by Juan Mesa, a 72 year old Cuban-American living in Miami. This alphabet is unique in several ways. The character shapes are not tied to any specific culture or language. The Mesa Polyglot alphabet is simple to learn as the capital and lower case letters are identical in structure other than their size. The character set also contains unique numerals. Punctuations, literary and commercial signs are standard. Both consonants and vowels follow a very easily remembered mirrored repetitive positional notation. The vowels are graphically placed to follow a "sound-quadrant matrix" position logic with "a" located at lower left, "e" being lower right, "i" is upper left, "u" is upper right, and finally "o" that is neutral, which locates it in the middle without any pointers.
Mesa Polyglot alphabet
Example of the Mesa Polyglot alphabet in use.
The so called, articulatory alphabet is a group of unique symbols that represent sounds of speech. The proposition suggests that the character shapes of the alphabet originated by some ancient scribes attempting to trace the contour of lips, the position of tongue in the mouth cavity and the breathing passage, is an intriguing one. But, when this concept is examined on a global basis the assumption becomes less tenable. Elementary linguistic research confirms that different people on different continents and at different geographical locations arrived at different graphic symbols to express the same sounds. Without any doubt, scholarly debates about the articulatory origin of the alphabet will continue well into the foreseeable future.
Articulatory alphabet
Example of the articulatory alphabet.
Beyond the above groups exists some fringe elements which language scholars cannot easily categorize. These so called, "deviant alphabets" are character sets that not follow the expected or "normal" rules of alphabetic set formation. The alphabets contain different numbers, forms, names or order of characters (abecedary sequence), such as the Runes, Glagolitic and other similar writing systems. The Glagolitic¹ alphabet was invented in 862 AD and was used for the dissemination of Slavonic liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church for Roman Catholic Slavs while the Cyrillic alphabet² was introduced to the Eastern Orthodox Slavs. Glagolithic letter forms are quite different from the Cyrillic characters but their number and identical sound values does indicate a common origin. Even today, the Glagolithic alphabet is still used in the Slavonic liturgy in some Dalmatian and Montenegrin communities.
Glagolitic and Cyrillic characters
Sample characters from the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets.
Some linguistic reform groups and individual scholars, including Dr. Michael Avinor, are attempting to expand the Latin alphabet only by a few additional characters, as described in various scholarly papers and detailed personal correspondence. Without the availability of scientific forecasting tools in linguistics, only time will tell whether this incremental approach of attempting to change the Latin alphabet has any historical validity. What can be predicted with utmost certainty is that Dr. Avinor's and other linguistic pioneers desired changes to the Latin alphabet will not be the last. It seems, language is too enticing a target to be left alone both by curious laymen and language scholars alike.
New Character-1 New Character-2 New Character-3 New Character-4 New Character-5 New Character-6
Examples of Dr. Michael Avinor's proposed new characters.
Of course, language reforms are not limited to the English speaking world. More recently, in Munich, Germany, opponents described the German spelling reform movement by a more colloquial term, referring to it as "orthographic imbecility" ("orthographischer Schildburgerstreich"). Reform or no reform, they certainly have a way with words.
Extrapolating into the future.
During the past several decades scientific discoveries have been taking place at a phenomenal rate. From genetics to information processing and nano technogy, the fields are littered with six months old obsolete technological wonders. It is an almost certainty that a non-linear linguistic code up-shift will take place during the first few decades of the 21st century. A new linguistic paradigm will emerge. The resulting change will be revolutionary, dramatic and all encompassing. Current linguistic concepts and their old fashioned methods of patching regional alphabets will be relegated to the side line of history. It is reasonable to predict that direct-to-visual-cortex neurological implants, direct-retinal scans³ and direct audio input systems are only a few decades away from becoming the information lifeline to hundreds of millions, or perhaps several billions of people. If these nano-technology implants are combined with imbedded language translators and high level Artificial Intelligence monitor software, than the initial problems of multilingual communication, data collection, targeting and information filtration can be resolved. These changes are the foundation for the new infrastructure of a super-literate civilization which will not only modify but completely restructure the very fibre of our society. The process is already in progress but the question is, are we ready for this kind of a future?
¹¹ Tiro's shorthand notation system was greatly expanded by Seneca with the addition of 5,000 new abbreviations and later by Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, who "put the finishing strokes to it by the addition of many 'notes' for Scripture proper names, and other Christian words, thereby rendering the work 'much more useful to the faithful.' "
¹ The Glagolitic alphabet ("glagolitsa", glagol=word) was created in 862 AD by two Byzantine missionaries named Cyril and Methodius.
² It was Saint Clement, a disciple of Cyril and Methodius, who created the Cyrillic alphabet based on the Glagolithic system. Saint Clement named the new alphabet, CYRIL, in honor of his mentor.
³ Direct-to-retinal scanning is already being used successfully in advanced experimental labs. Other neurological-bio-techniques using nano-technology and molecular computers are close to becoming a reality. The future is arriving much faster than the any one of us can possibly imagine.
A History of Shorthand, Sir Isaac Pitman (1813-1897)
Towards A History of Phonetics, R.E. Asher and Eugenie J.A. Henderson, Edinburgh University Press, 1981.
Histoire generale de la stenographie & de l'ecriture a travers, Albert Navarre
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Standards & Symbols
Skill levels: Beginner, Easy, Intermediate, Experienced Standard yarn weight system
Gauge is determined by the tightness or looseness of your stitches, and affects the finished size of your project. If you are concerned about the finished size of the project matching the size given, take time to crochet a small section of the pattern and then check your gauge. For example, if the gauge called for is 10 dc = 1 inch, and your gauge is 12 dc to the inch, you should switch to a larger hook. On the other hand, if your gauge is only 8 dc to the inch, you should switch to a smaller hook.
If the gauge given in the pattern is for an entire motif, work one motif and then check your gauge.
Understanding Symbols In Crochet Patterns
As you work through a pattern, you'll quickly notice several symbols in the instructions. These symbols are used to clarify the pattern for you: Brackets [ ], curlicue brackets { }, asterisk *.
Brackets [ ] are used to set off a group of instructions worked a number of times. For example, "[ch 3, sc in ch-3 sp] 7 times" means to work the instructions inside the [ ] seven times. Brackets [ ] also set off a group of stitches to be worked in one stitch, space or loop. For example, the brackets [ ] in this set of instructions, "Sk 3 sc, [3 dc, ch 1, 3 dc] in next st" indicate that after skipping 3 sc, you will work 3 dc, ch 1 and 3 more dc all in the next stitch.
Occasionally, a set of instructions inside a set of brackets needs to be repeated too. In this case, the text within the brackets to be repeated will be set off with curlicue brackets {}. For example, "[Ch 9, yo twice, insert hook in 7th ch from hook and pull up a loop, sk next dc, yo, insert hook in next dc and pull up a loop, {yo and draw through 2 lps on hook} 5 times, ch 3] 8 times." In this case, in each of the eight times you work the instructions included in brackets, you will work the section included in curlicue brackets five times.
An asterisk * are also used when a group of instructions is repeated.
They may either be used alone or with brackets. For example, "*Sc in each of the next 5 sc, 2 sc in next sc, rep from * around, join with a sl st in beg sc" simply means you will work the instructions from the first * around the entire round.
"*Sk 3 sc, [3 dc, ch 1, 3 dc] in next st, rep from * around" is an example of asterisks working with brackets. In this set of instructions, you will repeat the instructions from the asterisk around, working the instructions inside the brackets together.
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Newton's Second Law
Forces and Motion
Marshmallow Shooter
Enrichment Activity for 5-11 11-14
What you need
• Piece of thin card (A4 size)
• Sticky tape
• Marshmallows
1. Roll the piece of card lengthways into a tube that is just wide enough to be a snug fit for a marshmallow. Put tape along the whole length of the tube to hold it together and seal the join
2. Put a marshmallow in one end of the tube, hold the tube horizontal, and blow from the opposite end. If the marshmallow doesn’t move, adjust the diameter of the tube. Note how far it flies
3. Try again with a new marshmallow but this time blow from the end with the marshmallow. Keep blowing until the marshmallow leaves the tube
Results and Explanation
By blowing as the marshmallow travels along the whole length of the tube, you’re applying a force for longer. This means the marshmallow accelerates for longer, emerges from the tube at a greater speed and flies further.
Newton's Second Law
is expressed by the relation F=ma
can be used to derive Kepler's First Law
Disable node explorer
IOP DOMAINS Physics CPD programme
Electricity CPD videos
Find out more
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"url": "https://spark.iop.org/marshmallow-shooter"
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A Story Written On The Land
The Lil̓wat7úl have called their territory home since time immemorial. Líl̓wat artifacts dating back to 5,500 BC have been found from the Stein Valley to Bishop-Bridge and all the lands in between. For millennia, the people enjoyed an economy based on trade between other First Nations. And, as today, they valued the importance of family life.
Organized in extended family groupings, the Lil̓wat7úl wintered in villages consisting of clustered s7ístkens, semi-subterranean “pit houses.” In temperate months, life was lived outside, with fishing, hunting and gathering taking up peoples’ days as they travelled from coastal inlets to deep into the rainforest. The connection with the land was both economic and spiritual, with the Lil̓wat7úl prizing a harmonious relationship with nature — a value that remains strong today.
A Proud History Of Resistance
From European contact in the last 18th century to today, the Líl̓wat7úl have worked to preserve their land, language, and culture. Today, these values inform the work of elected and appointed leadership.
The first contact the Lil̓wat7úl had with Europeans was in 1793 when Alexander Mackenzie made his overland journey to the Pacific Ocean. Over the next two centuries traders, miners and settlers arrived in Líl̓wat Territory. As the colony of British Columbia prospered, the Lil̓wat7úl, like other First people, were systematically stripped of their lands, rights and resources. Eventually, the people were restricted to 10 tiny reserves totally 2,930 ha or .004 per cent of Líl̓wat Traditional Territory.
The Líl̓wat Nation is one of 78 First Nations in British Columbia that have chosen not to participate in the BC Treaty Commission proceeds. In 1911, the Lil̓wat7úl joined other St̓át̓y̓emc nations in signing The Lillooet Declaration at Spences Bridge. The document outlined the nations’ demands for the reinstatement of their rights to their traditional lands. Signed by a committee of First Nations chiefs, the document asserts sovereignty over traditional territories and protests the theft of First Nations lands. In 1927, the Canadian government made it illegal for First Nations people to organize against the Crown for recognition of their rights to the land.
Read the declaration here:
The Lillooet Declaration
Today, the tenets of the Lillooet Declaration remain true, The Lil̓wat7úl have never given or sold any of their land to any government or nation. Although settlers and colonial governments marginalized the Lil̓wat7úl and stole their land, they never relinquished their right (in law or in their hearts) to their home.
In their endeavors to restore and preserve their rights, they have earned a reputation for political resistance. The Lil̓wat7úl are willing to stand up for what they believe in — it is essential for the survival of the Líl̓wat Nation. The Nation will continue to assert its title and rights for cultural and environmental protection, and for the economic benefit for all Lil̓wat7úl.
In 1975, the Líl̓wat led a successful protest to protect their fishing rights. Soon after, protests were organized to address the issues of sacred heritage site destruction and clear-cutting on Líl̓wat Traditional Territory.
Other First Nations and environmental groups joined Líl̓wat Nation in 1989 to work on the “Save The Stein” initiative. The action culminated in a concert with Canadian artists Bruce Cockburn, Buffy Sainte-Marie and Gordon Lightfoot. The concerts also featured an appearance by world renowned environmental activist Dr. David Suzuki. As a result, the Stein River Watershed, in its entirety, was protected. Twenty years later, it remains an impressive expanse of pristine rainforest.
Protecting Mkwalcs (Ure Creek) was a hard-fought victory, one that saw roadblocks by, and arrests of, people who were desperate to save land being destroyed by clear-cut logging. The potential fall-out from this forestry practice was extremely serious; herbicide and pesticides used in clear-cutting would contaminate food sources. Salmon stocks were being threatened by the presence of PCBs stored near the Birkenhead River. Something had to be done.
In 1990, that something was a roadblock on the Duffy Lake Road, which made it impossible for logging trucks to come in and take trees from the area. The province eventually obtained an injunction against the roadblock. Sixty-three Lil̓wat7úl were subsequently arrested, charged and imprisoned pending trial. The roadblock was dismantled. The courts refused to hear the activists’ sovereignty defense. In 1991, a second blockade was set-up near sacred burial sites on the far side of Lillooet Lake.
Today, Mkwalcs is now a conservancy, with the Líl̓wat having “won” protection of this area, including the prohibition of planned commercial activities including logging and power projects. Conservancies have also been established in the Upper Soo and Twin Two.
As the Nation gains more control of its lands and resources, greater economic opportunities are emerging. Independent power plants (IPPs) and forestry partnerships that respect the values of the Lil̓wat7úl people and fit with the Líl̓wat Nation̓s vision are a priority.
With the signing of a 2002 Legacy Agreement, Líl̓wat joined Musqueam, Tsleil-Waututh, and Squamish as one of the Four Host First Nations of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. The Líl̓wat Nation was an important partner in building many Olympic venues, which they now co-own through Whistler Sports Legacies. As well, the Olympics provided an opportunity for Lil̓wat7úl culture to be on the world stage with Lil̓wat7úl leadership and dancers opening The Games.
In 2005, The Líl̓wat signed forest and range agreement with the provincial government to provide jobs and revenues from the nation’s forests. Shortly after that, an agreement was entered into with the Squamish Nation to build the Squamish Líl̓wat Cultural Centre.
Today, Líl̓wat continues to move towards the goal of self-determination, creating economic and educational opportunities for the community.
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"url": "https://lilwat.ca/wearelilwat7yul/history/"
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Soup and its history
Food historians tell us the history of soup is probably as old as the history of cooking. The act of combining various ingredients in a large pot to create a nutritious, filling, easily digested, simple to make/serve food was inevitable. This made it the perfect choice for both sedentary and travelling cultures, rich and poor, healthy people and invalids. Soup (and stews, pottages, porridges, gruels, etc.) evolved according to local ingredients and tastes. New England chowder, Spanish gazpacho, Russian borscht, Italian minestrone, French onion, Chinese won ton and Campbell’s tomato…are all variations on the same theme.
Soups were easily digested and were prescribed for invalids since ancient times. The modern restaurant industry is said to be based on soup. Restoratifs (wheron the word “restaurant” comes) were the first items served in public restaurants in 18th century Paris. Broth [Pot-au-feu], bouillion, and consomme entered here. Classic French cuisine generated many of the soups we know today.
Advancements in science enabled soups to take many forms…portable, canned, dehydrated, microwave-ready. “Pocket soup” was carried by colonial travellers, as it could easily be reconstituted with a little hot water. Canned and dehydrated soups were available in the 19th century. These supplied the military, covered wagon trains, cowboy chuck wagons, and the home pantry. Advances in science also permitted the adjustment of nutrients to fit specific dietary needs (low salt, high fiber, etc.).
“Cereals, roasted to make them digestible and then ground and moistened or diluted with water to make a paste, either thick or thin, did not become gruel or porridge until people had the idea and means of cooking them. They may initially have been cooked by hot stones in receptacles of natural substances, and then in utensils which could go straight over the fire. Soup, in fact, derives from sop or sup, meaning the sliced of bread on which broth was poured. Until bread was invented, the only kind of thick soup was a concoction of grains, or of plants and meat cooked in a pot. Gruel or porridge was thus a basic food, a staple from of nourishment, and long held that place in Western countries, for in practice bread was a luxury eaten only in towns. A thick porridge of some kind is still the staple food of many peoples, and it is not always made of cereals, but may consist of other starch foods: legumes, chestnuts or root vegetables.”
“Our modern word “soup” derives from the Old French word sope and soupe. The French word was used in England in the in the form of sop at the end of the Middle Ages and, fortunately, has remained in the English language in its original form and with much its original sense. We say “fortunately” because it is clear that nowadays a “sop” is not a “soup.” The distinction is important. When cooks in the Middle Ages spoke of “soup,” what they and the people for whom they were cooking really understood was a dish comprising primarily a piece of bread or toast soaked in a liquid or over which a liquid had been poured. The bread or toast was an important, even vital, part of this dish. It was a means by which a diner could counsume the liquid efficiently by sopping it up. The bread or toast was, in effect, an alternative to using a spoon…Soups were important in the medieval diet, but the dish that the cook prepared was often a sop that consisted of both nutritious liquid and the means to eat it. The meal at the end of a normal day was always the lighter of the two meals of the day, and the sop appears to have had an important place in it. In fact it was precisely because of the normal inclusion of a sop in this end-of-the-day meal that it became called “souper” or “supper.
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"url": "http://letoilecatering.com/soup-and-its-history/"
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An inscription now deciphered shows that ancient Japan was more cosmopolitan than previously thought. Archaeologists on Wednesday said that an inscription on wood shows a Persian official was working in Nara more than 1,000 years ago.
It is known that Iran and Japan had trade relations since as early as the 7th century, but the new evidence indicate the Persian official would actually work in Nara. It is known that Persian merchants would travel to Nagasaki for trade, but now it is thought that the relations between the two countries started much earlier.
The piece of wood, discovered in the 1960s, bore an inscription which was not readable. With the help of infrared imaging researchers have managed to decipher the carvings, said Akihiro Watanabe from the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties.
According to the document, the Persian lecturer worked at an academy training government officials. He could have taught maths, considering ancient Iran’s expertise.
This piece of wood, a material later replaced by paper, is the first document actually verifying that a person from a far-away country actually lived in Japan. Therefore, the city of Nara was a cosmopolitan city.
The city of Nara was the capital of Japan in about 710-784, known as Heijokyo. Then the capital was moved to Kyoto and later on to present-day Tokyo.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9849085211753845,
"url": "https://www.archaeology.wiki/blog/2016/10/07/ancient-inscription-shows-persian-resident-japanese-city/"
}
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Most people take the partitions that divide the traffic on U.S. highways for granted. But these seemingly simple barriers are actually deceptively sophisticated: Their designs have been well-tested and tweaked to ensure driver safety on both sides of the road in the event of a crash. The most common name for these ubiquitous concrete slabs is “Jersey Barriers”—but why?
Concrete road barriers were first used in California in 1946; they replaced the standard (but weak) wood beam guardrails on the treacherous Grapevine section of the state’s Ridge Route highway—the home of the original “Dead Man’s Curve”—where the roads had a 6 percent downgrade that led to many head-on collisions. Then, in 1949, the state of New Jersey adopted comparable concrete structures and installed preventative parabolic median barriers on the Jugtown Mountain section of US Route 22 in Hunterdon County, which had a similarly hazardous downgrade to the Ridge Route highway.
These original barriers measured 19 inches high and 30 inches wide, with 2 inches buried in the road to provide stability. Each was anchored to the roadbed by steel dowels and consisted of a 2-inch thick outer layer of white concrete to make it more visible at night. Though the initial barriers were somewhat successful in reducing the impact of collisions, New Jersey state highway engineers continued to tinker with the design, creating progressively larger prototypes based on amounts of observed accidents (as opposed to performing controlled crash testing). Eventually, in 1959, they settled on a standard barrier height of 32 full inches above the pavement with a 24-inch-wide base. The base is 3 inches high and is followed by a 13-inch side slope before the barrier becomes vertical. These barriers would be implemented in various states, but would bear the name of the state in which they were developed.
Jersey Barriers are designed to redirect a crash, using the car’s momentum to absorb the impact and slide the vehicle up parallel along the side of the barrier to prevent a rollover. In high-speed crashes with small cars along Jersey Barriers, however, there is a greater likelihood that the car will roll over, so an alternate barrier was created. According to the Federal Highway Administration, the F-Shape barrier has the same 3-inch-high base, but features a side that slopes 10 inches above the pavement—three inches less than the side slope of the Jersey Barrier—and is thus able to better absorb proportional impacts from smaller chassis to prevent a rollover. Though the F-Shape is generally preferred, the use of Jersey Barriers—as well as other barrier designs, including constant slope, single slope, and vertical—are still acceptable, because they adequately pass crash tests administered by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
Additional Source: Federal Highway Adminstration [PDF]; primary image courtesy of NYC Dot Flickr.
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"url": "https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/51603/why-are-road-partitions-called-jersey-barriers"
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Our Lady and St Anselm'sRoman Catholic Primary School
Growing together in faith, hope and love.
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The Pendle Witches - Crime and Punishment through time
What we will be learning:
In this topic, it will focus upon a local history study - The Pendle Witch Trials. The children will gain an understanding of the religious, political and social aspects that once were prevalent in a local area. It will focus on a time beyond 1066, and consider the imapct of trials in Britain.
The children will then move onto exploring crime and punishment through these ages to make comparisons and draw contrasts; ready for their learning of the Saxons and Vikings within Year 5.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.01881641149520874,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9052155017852783,
"url": "https://www.olsa.lancs.sch.uk/the-pendle-witches-crime-and-punishment-through-ti/"
}
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Reno's Dilemma
Students analyze information to determine good and bad debt. They calculate percentages when given interest and return on investment information. They also analyze positive and negative debt/return information to determine the preferred debt to incur.
3 Views 3 Downloads
Classroom Considerations
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"fasttext_score": 0.9998811483383179,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8181319832801819,
"url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/lesson-plan-renos-dilemma--2"
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Simply Psychology Logo
Little Peter, Cover Jones (1924)
By Dr. Julia Russel, published May 20, 2021
Mary Cover-Jones studied several children to investigate the best way to remove fear responses in children.
This was important as Watson & Rayner (1920) had demonstrated that a fear could be produced experimentally in a child (little Albert) but, although they had planned to remove his phobia of rats using classical conditioning, he was taken away before this could happen.
• To investigate whether a phobia in a child could be counter-conditioned.
• To demonstrate whether counter-conditioning would generalise to other objects.
The case described was of Peter, an active, easily interested, intelligent boy (with an IQ of 102). He was 2 years 10 months when Jones began observing him and his general behaviour was typical of a child of his age.
On the first day of with peter, Jones watched him playing with toys including some beads. An experimenter (who was out-of- sight) put a white rat into Peter's cot. Peter screamed and fell over.
He was moved away, leaving his beads behind. Another child, Barbara, was put in his cot.
When the rat appeared she was unafraid and picked the rat up. When the rat touched Peter's beads he protested, saying 'my beads', but he didn't object when Barbara touched them.
The next day Peter's reactions to different situations and objects were observed.
Object(s) Peter's Reaction
white ball, rolled in picked it up and held it
fur rug over cot cried until it was removed
fur coat over cot cried until it was removed
cotton cried, withdrew
hat with feathers cried
blue woolly jumper looked, turned away, no fear
white cloth rabbit no interest, no fear
wooden doll no interest, no fear
Peter was also shown a live rabbit and he was more afraid of this than of the rat, so a rabbit was chosen for counter-conditioning. Peter had daily play sessions with three other children and the rabbit.
The other children (Laurel, Arthur and Mary) were unafraid of the rabbit. Peter was sometimes observed alone to observe his progress. New situations were used to get Peter closer to the rabbit
Six people (psychology students and instructors) were given the descriptions A-Q in a random order and asked to put them in order of improvement. The resulting list is called a tolerance series.
Peter's different reactions to the rabbit (the tolerance series)
1. Rabbit in cage anywhere in room causes fear
2. Accepts rabbit in cage 12 feet (4 metres) away
3. Accepts rabbit in cage 4 feet (1.3 metres) away
4. Accepts rabbit in cage 3 feet (1 metre) away
5. Accepts rabbit in cage close by
6. Rabbit accepted free in room
7. Rabbit touched when experimenter holding it
8. Rabbit touched when free in room
9. Peter reacted badly to rabbit eg throwing things at it but also imitated it
10. Rabbit allowed on tray of high-chair
11. Squats beside rabbit
12. Helps experimenter to carry rabbit to cage
13. Holds rabbit on lap
14. Alone in room with rabbit
15. In playpen with rabbit
16. Fondles rabbit
17. Lets rabbit nibble fingers
Sometimes Peter's behaviour improved (eg between sessions 11 and 22, from b to m) and sometimes it worsened - eg in session 33 when he was scratched by the rabbit (so it fell from n to f). However, the changes were not continuous or equally spaced in time.
In the figure below the scale along the x-axis is the session number.
Sometimes Peter's behaviour improved (eg between sessions 11 and 22) and sometimes it worsened
Sometimes Peter was observed frequently (eg twice a day in sessions 11 and 12), at other times less frequently (eg two months between 7 and 8).
Just before this long break, Peter had touched the rabbit following positive comments from the other children such as 'Arthur saying 'Peter doesn't cry when he sees the rabbit come out'. Peter was then ill in hospital. When he came back after this long break, a big dog jumped at him and his carer, scaring both of them.
Following this event, from session 8 onwards, classical conditioning was used to help Peter. He was given food he liked at the same time as the rabbit was brought within sight in its cage. This pairing of nice food and the rabbit was repeated, moving that rabbit closer but only as close as Peter would allow and still carry on eating.
Little Peter (1924) Counter-Conditioning
Other children also acted as role models. In session 9 the rabbit made Peter cry. Another child ran over saying 'Oh, rabbit'. Peter followed and watched, so the child acted as a role model to help Peter to move closer to the rabbit.
In session 21 an experimenter sat the rabbit in front of Peter while he was eating but he cried out 'I don't want him' and pulled away. Another child sitting nearby held the rabbit. Peter then wanted the rabbit on his lap and held it briefly.
Peter was sometimes asked about what he did at the laboratory. At the start he didn't mention the rabbit but later he would say 'I like the rabbit'. He also lost his fear of cotton, the fur coat and feathers.
The reaction to rats and the fur rug with a stuffed head improved but he didn't like them as much as the rabbit. He also accepted new animals such as frogs, worms and a mouse.
Classical conditioning and social learning both helped to decondition Peter. This deconditioning also reduced the fear which had generalised to other objects so helped Peter to cope with new animals
Critical Evaluation
Jones studied Peter over a long period of time so was able to track his progress showing the changes clearly. She made detailed observations so the data was very thorough.
In designing the tolerance series Jones asked other people to put the items in order. This meant that she avoided introducing bias herself.
Jones developed two techniques to help to reduce Peter's phobia (classical conditioning by pairing the rabbit with food and social learning using the other children as models).
These techniques were effective in counter-conditioning him and have been followed up by other researchers. Wolpe (1990, p 7), who is responsible for the development of modern systematic desensitisation, described Jones as 'a pioneer in behavior therapy'.
However , the gaps between Jones' sessions with Peter were variable, so progress could be due to changes over time rather than the deconditioning process.
Also, Jones used two different techniques (classical conditioning and social learning) as well as other people who made Peter feel confident. This makes it difficult to tell which factor was most effective in his recovery.
1. Explain why was it important that the other children were not afraid of the rabbit.
2. In general, food is only effective in reconditioning children (rather than adults). Why might this be the case?
3. Why did the response of his carer to the big dog make such a difference to Peter's fear?
4. Suggest two other objects that Peter's fear might have generalised to.
APA Style References
Watson JB & Rayner R (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1): 1-14.
Wolpe J (1990). The Practice of Behavior Therapy. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
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What Are Executive Orders?
Executive orders are the most common presidential papers.
One of the most common “presidential” papers is the executive order. Every American president has created at least one. There have been more than 13,731 since George Washington took office in 1789.
What It Is
An executive order is a written order from the president of the United States that manages the federal government.
Executive orders are not laws made by Congress, they are like “instant laws” made by the president. Only a sitting U.S. president can make or overturn an executive order.
The Document
The Department of State began numbering executive orders in 1907, and even worked backward to assign numbers to all the orders on file since 1862.
In 1936, the Federal Register Act put into place the system that is still used today.
An executive order is made up of a few parts:
Heading. Executive orders are generally labeled in the heading.
Title. Each executive order has a title, which usually describes the order’s topic.
Introduction. The introduction usually starts with the words “by the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America…” and then introduces the subject.
Body. The body talks about the orders being made, and how to turn that into action.
Signature. Executive orders are signed by the president.
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"language_score": 0.9552794694900513,
"url": "https://lngenz.com/what-are-executive-orders/"
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How Plains Tribes Predicted the Weather
How the Plains Tribes Predicted the Weather
Much of the weather folklore we are familiar with today comes from European traditions. Some of it works, some of it doesn’t.
But what about the weather wisdom of those who inhabited the Great Plains first? What nuggets of insight did they pass down through their generations?
Observations and Lore
It does not take much imagination for those who work outdoors regularly to realize that the Native Americans of the Plains would have been in a prime position to observe the weather and thus learn the sequences that precede and follow each weather system. For instance:
• To the Omaha, the call of a curlew in the early morning foretold a cloudless day.
• Some tribes noted that a wind from the east in summer preceded a hailstorm.
• Kiowas knew that profound stillness came before a tornado.
• The Crow observed that the persistence of insects and reptiles into the fall suggested a mild winter.
• Many northern tribes believed that muskrats built sloppy houses with thin walls if the winter would be mild.
• The Sioux claimed that a heavy crop of buffalo grass seeds foretold a hard winter and deep snow.
• Several tribes predicted a cold winter when corn husks grew thick.
• Another popular sign of a long, cold winter was early bird migration.
• The Sioux believed that the cry of the gray screech owl signaled a very cold night.
A Natural Calendar
Because they lived from the land, Native Americans were extremely observant of changing seasons. Different tribes kept track of different flora and fauna species, but all had a calendar of sorts:
• The first calls of the nighthawk signaled spring and the return of buffalo hunting season.
• The full moon in August was known as the time when the plums and cherries were ripe.
• The first frost of fall signaled the start of buffalo berry harvest.
• Acorns, rains, and an abundance of bird and insect pests signaled that winter was close at hand.
Weather Modification
Some tribes even had beliefs regarding man’s ability to affect the weather, particularly when it came to inducing rain. This was not quite as common among Plains tribes as it was in the Desert Southwest, but some Osages reportedly offered rain dances to white settlers for pay.
The Kansa had a tradition that, because they were the Wind People, they could request the end of a blizzard. This was done by covering the youngest son of a tribe member with red paint and having him roll over and over in the snow to make a trail of paint.
A discussion of Native American insight into the weather should definitely involve a seriously underestimated aspect—their record-keeping abilities. Oral tradition was by no means the only method used to record the weather. Northern Plains Indians, for instance, had professional historians known as “winter count keepers.” The winter count keepers would draw pictographs on buffalo hides to keep a timeline of events, sometimes dating back several hundred years.
Because of this great attention to their surroundings and their dedication to recording what they had learned, the Native Americans developed superb weather sense. Keep in mind, however, that their observations tended to be most effective in their own locality and environment.
Helpful Resource
Weather Folklore
Weather Folklore
More weather forecasting lore.
Farming Practices of the Plains Indians in Kansas
More on how the Native Americans adapted to the seasons.
By hsotr
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"edu_score": 3.8125,
"fasttext_score": 0.02317965030670166,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9649718999862671,
"url": "https://homesteadontherange.com/2020/07/29/how-plains-tribes-predicted-the-weather/"
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2019-03-19 01:44 阅读 179
Problem Description
A toothpick expression uses toothpicks to represent a positive integer. The expression consists of operands and operators.
Each operand consists of one or more vertical toothpicks ("|"); the value of the operand is the number of toothpicks.
The operators that can appear in an expression are addition and multiplication. The addition operator is the plus sign ("+"), which consists of one vertical and one horizontal toothpick. The multiplication operator is the letter "x", which also consists of two toothpicks. Multiplication has precedence over addition.
The expression must begin with an operand. Thereafter, operators and operands alternate. Finally, the expression must end with an operand. Given a positive integer, your program must represent it as a toothpick expression, using the smallest number of toothpicks.
The input file will consist of one or more lines; each line will contain data for one instance of the problem. More specifically, each line will contain one positive integer, not exceeding 5000.
Each line of input will give rise to one line of output, consisting of: the number of toothpicks used in the expression, the expression, and the given integer from the input, formatted as shown in the sample output. The word "toothpicks" (even if the answer is 1) will be preceded by one blank space and followed by a colon and one blank space. An equal sign (but no blank spaces) will separate the expression from the given number. The expression should not contain any spaces.
If there are multiple expressions which use the smallest number of toothpicks, any such expression is acceptable.
Sample Input
Sample Output
14 toothpicks: |||||||x|||||=35
17 toothpicks: ||||||x||||||+|=37
21 toothpicks: |||||x|||||x||+|||=53
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<urn:uuid:8343715f-d7db-487d-b563-f0633d037cb3>
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"fasttext_score": 0.46679234504699707,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8647396564483643,
"url": "https://ask.csdn.net/questions/752571"
}
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Multiplication Bingo
The purpose of this activity is to help your child to recall multiplication basic facts up to 10 x 10.
Link to the Number Framework:
Number Facts, Stage 6
What you need:
Bingo Cards.(PDF, 28 KB) You can print these or make your own.
8 buttons/counters/little squares of paper for each player
What to do:
Cut out the bingo question cards and place in a pile face down. Give a bingo board to each player.
Players take turns to take a bingo question, and read it out loud.
Encourage your child to answer the question as quickly as they can. You may want to keep note of facts your child has difficulty recalling quickly and practice them again at the end of the game.
Players who have the answer on their bingo board can cover it with a counter.
The winner is the first person to cover all of their bingo board and call “Bingo”.
What to expect your child to do:
To answer the multiplication questions quickly. They should progress to instantly recalling the answer.
There are four bingo boards so players can play again with a different board.
Have a “caller” who reads the bingo questions.
Players can only cover the number on their bingo board if they are the first to answer the bingo question.
Related Māori vocab:
number board
papa tau
whakarea (tia)
Download a file of this activity:
PDF (76KB) or Word (38KB)
PDF (116KB) or Word (46KB)
Download a Pasifika version of this activity:
PDF (80KB) or Word (273KB)
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"edu_score": 4,
"fasttext_score": 0.11405140161514282,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9098849296569824,
"url": "https://nzmaths.co.nz/content/multiplication-bingo"
}
|
From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Ruhr
The Ruhr is a river in western Germany. It flows into the Rhine River. It is 218 kilometres (135 mi) long. The Ruhr begins near the town of Winterberg and flows into the Rhine River near Düsseldorf. Winterberg is located in the Sauerland region and Düsseldorf lies in North Rhine-Westphalia in the west of Germany. It runs through Arnsberg, Iserlohn, Schwerte, Bochum and Essen, among other cities.
Several Ruhr-area cities joined the Hanseatic league during the middle ages.[1] The Ruhr became a center for business and industry. Beginning in the mid 14th century coal was mined along the Ruhr.[1] It became a center for coal and steel production in Germany for over 200 years.[1] In the mid 20th century coal and steel industries came to an end. The buildings were then used for cultural events and entertainment purposes.[1]
References[change | change source]
1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Full Story". UA Ruhr. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
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"language_score": 0.9434417486190796,
"url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhr"
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Welding Defects
Any discontinuity (or irregularity) in the weld metal, which exceeds the applicable code limit, is termed as a WELD DEFECT (or Welding Defect). Please note that a discontinuity can be called as a defect only when if it exceeds the specified code limit, hence we can say that every defect present in the weld metal is a discontinuity but every discontinuity present in the weld metal may not necessarily be a defect. A defect can be macroscopic or microscopic.
(Note: Discontinuity is also termed as “reflector” in some codes and texts)
Defects may occur due to the following reasons;
1. Incorrect welding parameters
2. Inappropriate welding procedures
3. Poor process condition
4. Inappropriate selection of filler metal and parent metal
5. Unskilled welder or welding operator
6. Incorrect job preparations
Classification of Defects:
Defects can be classified as external defect (also known as visual defect or surface defect) or internal defect (also known as hidden defect or subsurface defect). External defects are those which are found on the surface itself. Internal defects are those which exist in the material at some depth. We can say that defects that are not present on the surface are internal defects. Please see the following table;
classification of weld defects
Different types of welding defects along with their causes and remedies are explained below;
It is the most dangerous of all defects. Cracks may be of any size or shape; it can be either microscopic or macroscopic. Cracks may appear anywhere i.e. on the surface, subsurface, at any depth, or at the root. The crack occurs when localized stress exceeds the ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) of the material. It may propagate within the material.
Crack - Welding defect
Cracks are of two types;
• Hot Cracks
• Cold Cracks
Hot cracks occur during welding or soon after the completion of welding, It is most likely to occur during the solidification of the molten weld pool. Hot cracks mostly occur in the weld metal but it may occur at the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) region too.
When a hot crack occurs on the weld metal, then it is termed as Solidification Crack and if it occurs in the HAZ then called Liquation crack.
Causes of Hot Crack:
1. High concentration of residual stress
2. Rapid cooling of the molten weld pool
3. High thickness of base material
4. Poor ductility of welded material
5. High welding current
6. Inadequate heat treatment
1. Preheating and post-heating to avoid rapid cooling
2. Using right filler metal
Cold cracks occur after the solidification of weld metal; it can even develop several days after completion of welding. Most of the time it develops in the HAZ but may occur on the weld metal too. It is often associated with non-metallic inclusion.
Causes of Cold Crack:
1. Diffusion of Hydrogen atoms: Hydrogen atoms cause cold cracking. These hydrogen atoms may be induced in the weld metal from the surrounding, electrode, base metal, or any contamination present on the root face.
2. Lack of Preheating: Due to inadequate preheating, microstructural changes may take place. Microstructural crystals may re-structure itself to form martensite. Martensite is very prone to cracks. Preheating also helps in reducing the diffusion of hydrogen atoms and ensures no moisture on the joint before welding.
1. Preheating and post welding the weld metal
2. Using low Hydrogen electrode
Star crack is a type of hot crack and it develops at the crater on the weld metal. A crater is a depression formed on the weld bead where the arc gets broken or when the electrode is changed.
It develops when the center of the weld pool solidifies before its surroundings and due to this the center pulls the outer weld and thus star cracks are formed.
Porosity is a cavity-like discontinuity and occurs due to the entrapment of gases in the molten weld pool. These entrapped gases don’t get a chance to escape from the molten weld pool and hence cause porosity or blowholes. Porosity is basically a small pore or void, whereas, blowholes are comparatively larger hole or cavity.
Porosity may be present on the surface or inside the weld metal. Porosity can occur individually or it may occur in groups also (mostly), group of porosity is known as cluster porosity.
Porosity is of five types mainly, these are;
1. Scattered Porosity
2. Cluster Porosity
3. Piping Porosity
4. Linear Porosity (Aligned Porosity)
5. Elongated Porosity
Gases that are entrapped and cause porosity are mostly Hydrogen, Carbon mono oxide, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, and Oxygen. These gases are formed due to the fluxes present on the welding electrode, Moisture, Oil, Grease other foreign contaminants present on the joint, or on the welding electrode or on the filler wire. Insufficient flow of shielding gas also causes porosity in GMAW, FCAW, GTAW & PAW welding processes.
Porosity - Welding Defect
1. Use low Hydrogen electrode
2. Baking of electrodes before welding as per the recommended procedure
3. Thorough cleaning of the joint surface and adjacent area before welding
4. Preheat the joint before welding
5. Ensure sufficient flow of shielding gases if using TIG or MIG welding
Undercut appears as a narrow groove on the base metal adjacent to the weld metal along the edge. Undercut always runs parallel to the weld metal. It acts as a stress raiser during fatigue loading.
Undercut - Welding Defect
Causes of Undercut:
1. High welding current and arc voltage
2. Large electrode diameter
3. Incorrect electrode angle
4. Longer arc length
When the weld metal surface remains below the adjacent surface of the base metal then it is called an underfill. Basically, Underfill is undersized welding.
Underfill - Welding Defect
When the weld metal doesn’t completely penetrate the joint, then it is called a Lack of Penetration or Incomplete Penetration. It is one of the most dangerous defects since it acts as a stress raiser, and hence crack may originate or propagate from there.
Lack of penetration (LOP) or Incomplete penetration (IP) - Welding Defect
Causes of Lack of Penetration:
1. Root gap too small
2. Fast travel speed
3. Low heat input
4. Too large an electrode diameter
1. Proper joint preparation i.e. providing a suitable root gap.
2. Proper heat input
3. Correct travel speed
4. Using electrode of suitable size
Lack of penetration can be repaired by proper back gouging.
It is the lack of proper melting (or proper fusion) either between the weld metal with the base metal or one layer of the weld with the other layer. Lack of fusion is also called as Cold lapping or cold shuts. One of the most prominent reasons for the cause of lack of fusion is poor welding techniques. Lack of fusion is an internal defect, but it can occur on the external surface too if the sidewall of parent metal doesn’t get properly fused with the base metal, as shown in the below figure and for this case lack of fusion can also be called as ‘lack of sidewall fusion’.
Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion (LOF or IF) - Welding Defect
Causes of Lack of Fusion:
1. Low welding current
2. Travel speed to high or too low
3. Unfavorable heat input
Spatters are small globular metal droplets (of weld metal) splashed out on the base metal during welding. Spatters stick on the base metal hence can be removed by wire brush or buffing.
Spatters - Welding Defect
Causes of Spatters:
1. Excessive arc current
2. Excessive long arc
3. Improper shielding gases
4. Electrode with improper flux
5. Damp electrodes
Overlap occurs due to the overflow of weld metal on the surface of base metal. During welding, molten metal overflows on the base metal without fusing with the base metal.
Overlap - Welding Defect
Causes of Overlap:
1. Current too low
2. Large deposition in a single run
3. Longer arc
4. Slow arc travel speed
When the penetration of weld metal is too high, through the joints, then it is called as excessive penetration. It acts as a notch where stress concentration takes place. In addition to this, it results in economical wastage too.
Excess Penetration - Welding Defect
Causes of Excessive Penetration:
1. Too wide a root gap
2. High welding current
3. Slow travel Speed
Any entrapped solid material (either metallic or non-metallic) in the weld metal, is called as Inclusion. Tungsten, Oxides, Slag, and Flux are some of the common foreign materials which are entrapped in the molten weld pool and form inclusion.
Inclusion may occur in most of the fusion welding processes but are very common in flux shielded arc welding processes such as Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), Flux core arc welding (FCAW), and Submerged arc welding (SAW).
Tungsten inclusion occurs in those welding processes which use “Tungsten” as electrodes such as TIG welding and Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Inclusions are of four types, these are;
1. Tungsten Inclusion
2. Oxide Inclusion
3. Slag Inclusion
4. Flux Inclusion
When slag gets entrapped and doesn’t get a chance to escape from the molten weld pool then such inclusion is called as Slag Inclusion. Similarly, sometimes droplets of tungsten get entrapped within the weld metal resulting in Tungsten Inclusion (in TIG welding or Plasma Arc Welding – PAW). Surface oxides also get entrapped resulting in Oxide Inclusion. The words Flux and slag are often used interchangeably but they are different. Flux is electrode coating (Solid material which covers the electrode) whereas, Slag is a byproduct formed by the reaction between flux and the molten weld pool metal.
Inclusion acts as a stress raiser hence should be avoided.
Inclusion - Welding Defect
Linear slag inclusion along the axis of the weld is called as wagon tracks. During root pass, a groove is formed at the toe, due to wrong welding techniques, and that groove is filled by slag (especially Hydrogen which has been trapped by the solidified slag) and thus wagon tracks are formed. It is also known as worm tracks.
Wagon Tacks - Welding Defect
When the electrode or the electrode holder, unintentionally or accidentally strikes with the workpiece, an unwanted arc is generated causing an arc strike. Arc strikes may initiate failure in bending and cyclic loading. In addition to this, it also affects the aesthetics of the workpiece.
During solidification of the molten weld pool, metal shrinkage occurs. Due to the shrinkage of weld metal, a cavity is formed known as the shrinkage cavity.
Please click here, to read the acceptance/rejection criteria for weld defects.
Please watch this video lecture (given below) for a better understanding of welding defects:
Sandeep Anand
17 thoughts on “Welding Defects
• March 31, 2018 at 7:33 am
One defect I never new the cause of. Worm hole porosity in FCAW welding. Can you comment ?
• March 31, 2018 at 3:56 pm
Happens especially when on a T joint on side is welded already and you weld the other side and the gas gets trapped under the plate.
• April 1, 2018 at 11:43 am
Thanks for basic information or welding
• April 1, 2018 at 5:23 pm
Wagontracks should be parallel lines. What is depicted is an ElongatedvSlag Inclusion (ESI)
• June 11, 2018 at 9:27 am
Thanks for valuable Basic Information with Remedies
• June 11, 2018 at 9:38 pm
Excellent work, great demonstration
• June 12, 2018 at 2:08 am
In my personal experience the main cause of porosity are the air currents in smaw and gmaw process
• October 23, 2018 at 12:27 pm
Thanks sir for the valuable information about welding defects
• November 4, 2018 at 6:43 am
Porosity came in ss welding by 309l what to do?
• May 2, 2019 at 8:19 am
Thanks and i appreciate for this explanation about Defects.
• August 28, 2019 at 5:05 am
Explainations were made easier to remember and valuable thankq sir
• September 9, 2019 at 1:23 pm
Weld spatter is not considered a weld defect according ISO-5817, acceptance depends on application so if not specific specified weld spatter is not an rejection criteria
• March 12, 2021 at 9:18 am
Great Job,keep on adding new subjects
• June 8, 2021 at 1:03 pm
we found porosity in fillet joint 1/2″ nipple to ring joint Inconel 625 after in side installation but we have performed hydro test and DP test in our shop and not found at our shop. wt is reason behind of this.
Leave a Reply
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Inspired by nature | KS2 | Year 4 | Grammar
Past and Present Perfect Tense: wood ant
4 - Writing Ideas
Inspired by Nature Worksheet
Writing Ideas
• Pause the main film clip and role play what the animals featured might be thinking or saying at this point in time. These could be recorded as either speech or thought bubbles or as a conversation that uses direct speech.
• You are a wood ant. On behalf of the colony, you have been tasked with writing a letter to a herd of cows. The cows in question have already damaged your nest, and it vital that further damage is avoided. Your best persuasive writing will be required!
• Ant-Man is a Marvel superhero. He is known for spraying a gas over his body, causing him to shrink to the size of an ant. Can you write your own superhero story that features Ant-Man as the main character?
Related Clip
Wood ants are able to avoid disease by using tree resin.
Credit: BBC Two – Attenborough and the Empire of the Ants
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"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.03696942329406738,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9540116786956787,
"url": "https://www.naturalcurriculum.co.uk/year-4-grammar-lessons/past-and-present-perfect-tense/wood-ant/screen-4/"
}
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La lunga marcia
• YEAR
Piero Badaloni
Nicola Berti
Nicola Berti
Land Comunicazioni
• ON AIR
Rai Storia
When the First World War began, many women put themselves at the service of the state, despite the opposition of many. Some did it out of their own free will, others out of necessity. In any case, their efforts were fundamental because they allowed the state to continue their efforts in a moment of astounding difficulties. This was the first significant opportunity for the emancipation of women. It was also a crucial step towards the equalization of gender rights.
But what happens to all of these women when peace returned? How many spaces did they manage to keep among those who painstakingly conquered in the emergency of the long years of conflict? Parliament ruled that women should “In a dignified manner retire on the sidelines and resume their domestic life. Giving back their undisputed family affections pre-eminence.” Many did not give up a started again to fight for further emancipation, insisting on gaining the right to vote. It still took decades of fighting and struggling and another world war to achieve it. The documentary talks about the story of these women secular and catholic, many of which are semi-unknown, that with their courage fought, each in their own way, against the ferocious ostracism of the fascist regime.
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"edu_score": 3.796875,
"fasttext_score": 0.19999492168426514,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9692766666412354,
"url": "https://www.landcomunicazioni.it/en/the-long-march/"
}
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Select Citation Style
Thank you for your feedback
External Websites
Alternative Title: khān
Khan, type of inn once found in the Middle East and parts of North Africa and Central Asia that effectively functioned as a trading centre and hostel. A square courtyard was surrounded by rows of connected lodging rooms, usually on two levels and arcaded. Although some stable space was provided, the khan was intended primarily for people, providing food as well as shelter for travelers and traders. The earliest extant khans, found in Syria, date to the Umayyad period. In the 16th century, under Ottoman rule, khans became one feature of a larger complex that could include a mosque, a fortress, a bath, and other amenities.
Although khans are often confused with caravansaries (a public building used for sheltering caravans and other travelers), khans were much smaller than caravansaries and were built within towns rather than on the outskirts. Modern motels and motor inns may be considered descendants of the khan and attest to the success of the design, with their easy access to rooms and storage space for transport.
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"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.10651260614395142,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9594945311546326,
"url": "https://www.britannica.com/technology/khan-architecture"
}
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One of the most fascinating aspects of life around TBI is how different organisms cope with the heat and drought. The main mammal herbivores in this region are goats. Goats are browsers that are very efficient at consuming vegetation. Due to many years of overgrazing, large areas of northern Kenya are referred to as ‘goated’ i.e., they are overgrazed by these voracious animals.
But what exactly is the effect of overgrazing?
How much does it impact the growth and reproduction of plants?
Many plants are able to respond to grazing by producing more thorns and growing more bushy. So it could be that plants can recover from being heavily grazed.
The students set out to investigate the effect of grazing on one important plant, the Indigofera, that is the mainstay of the goats’ diet.
This involved measuring three different aspects of the Indigofera bushes at TBI: the height of individual plants, the number of pods that each plant produces and the weight of pods produced by each plant. As new Indigofera bushes grow from seeds that are the result of the flowers being pollinated by bees and producing healthy seed pods, these measurements will allow us to quantify the impact of a herbivore on the plant community.
Students get down to work measuring the Indigofera
The TBI compound served as a ‘control’ to look at a situation where goats were not present and the plants grew freely without being heavily grazed.
Measuring Indigofera heights and seed pods with Tom's assistance!
We measured a total of 360 different individual Indigofera split evenly between inside and outside the TBI compound. We were careful to spread out and measure Indigofera randomly, so as not to bias our sampling.
The results were striking!
Firstly, the Indigofera were around three times taller in the absence of grazing by goats:
Differences in height of Indigofera in protected and grazed areas
And they produced a lot more seed-pods within the protected compound:
Differences in seed-pods produced in protected and grazed conditions
This was also reflected in the weight of pods that were collected from a randomised sub-sample of Indigofera:
Differences in weight of pods between protected and grazed areas.
This indicates that goats have an impact not just on the individual plants by grazing them down, but also on the whole community by directly consuming the seed pods.
Goat grazing on Indigofera outside TBI
This sort of data and information is an important first step in understanding the environment of northern Kenya and working towards more sustainable use of the landscape in the face of climate and social/demographic changes.
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{
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"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.13679832220077515,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9649305939674377,
"url": "https://www.turkanabasin.org/2013/09/of-goats-and-overgrazing/"
}
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主页 > 钢琴谱库 > 古典
钢琴谱：Brahms Lullaby
音乐人/Brahms 18302次 28次 难度：1级
Brahms Lullaby-Brahms钢琴谱
Cradle Song is the common name for a number of childrens lullabies with similar lyrics, the original of which was Johannes Brahmss Wiegenlied: Guten Abend, gute Nacht (Good evening, good night), Op. 49, No. 4, published in 1868 and widely known as Brahms Lullaby. The lyrics of the first verse are from a collection of German folk poems called Des Knaben Wunderhorn and the second stanza was written by Georg Scherer (1824–1909) in 1849. The lullabys melody is one of the most famous and recognizable in the world, used by countless parents to sing their babies to sleep. The Lullaby was dedicated to Brahms friend, Bertha Faber, on the occasion of the birth of her second son. Brahms had been in love with her in her youth and constructed the melody of the Wiegenlied to suggest, as a hidden counter-melody, a song she used to sing to him. The lullaby was first performed in public on 22 December 1869 in Vienna by Louise Dustmann (singer) and Clara Schumann (piano). The Lyrics of Brahms Lullaby: Guten Abend, gute Nacht, mit Rosen bedacht, mit Näglein besteckt, schlupf′ unter die Deck! Morgen früh, wenn Gott will, wirst du wieder geweckt. Guten Abend, gute Nacht, von Englein bewacht, die zeigen im Traum dir Christkindleins Baum. Schlaf nun selig und süß, schau im Traum ′s Paradies.
Brahms Lullaby
Brahms LullabyBrahms
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Music History and Appreciation Essay assignment questions Due date: July 31, 2016 (5:00 pm) Please answer, in 3 to 5 double-spaced pages, one (1) of the following questions: The three hillbilly musicians that we read bout- Fiddlin’ John Carson, Charlie Poole, and Dave McCarn – all worked in textile/cotton mills during their lives. How did such experiences influence their approach to music – and what role did these larger processes of industrialization and urbanization have on the genre of hillbilly music itself? Our first reading dealt with the rise of gangsta rap in postindustrial Los Angeles. We then turned our attention to the rise of hillbilly music in the Piedmont South. Obviously, these two genres are distinct in many crucial ways – most importantly, they sound incredibly different. But are there also similarities between these two genres, in things like subject matter and relationship to work/the economy? Use your answer as a way to make a case for why it may make sense to discuss these genres, and their relationships to the environments from which they emerged, together. How would you describe the evolution of the sound of hillbilly music? Were there moments of great transition, or was this evolution a more subtle process? What instruments were crucial to the development of the hillbilly sound – and did such instruments change over time? Finally, what was the role of hillbilly music in the broader history of country music? Did it influence those that came after, or did it simply fade away?
Hillbilly music
During the nineteenth generation as the kingdom headed inside recentization and industrialization, rustic herd started to move from the Appalachia South territory during the majestic dejection, exoteric afar from need and self-containedness from the mainstream America to the emerging industrial centers. The insure and reasoning of securing harmonious possession and the recent form of conduct attracted the rustic folk and moneyless mountaineers, barring the probability of leaving their cultivation and outside a newlightlight individual was very daunting and menacing. As locomotion from the south mountains territory to the industrializing southern cities continued, numerous features of rustic conduct were carried
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Study Guide
2 Kings Elijah and Elisha Cross the Jordan
Elijah and Elisha Cross the Jordan
This scene is a pretty neat set-piece—and it's full of symbolism. When Elijah and Elisha cross the river Jordan with miraculous aid, the big symbol here is pretty obvious: in the same way that Moses parted the Red Sea, Elijah parts the river Jordan. But in this case, Elijah and Elisha aren't leading Israel out of Egypt or into the Promised Land or the wilderness. They're trying to lead the people out of the worship of foreign gods—which is symbolically the same thing as being enslaved to Egypt because it's a form of slavery to a system of beliefs that Elijah and Elisha consider to be full of illusions.
Before Elijah departs into heaven in a whirlwind, riding on a chariot of fire, Elisha asks him for a "double-share of his spirit." Elijah says this will be tough, but he'll succeed in doing it if Elisha sees him fully ascend. Elisha sees him go all the way up. He then takes off his old clothes, tears them up, and then puts on Elijah's prophetic mantle.
Kind of like a Baptism
For one thing, this symbolizes that Elisha is Elijah's successor, and it's also a form of baptism. By taking off his old clothes and putting on Elijah's prophetic garb, Elisha is symbolically taking off the clothes that the fallen Adam and Eve needed to wear and putting on a new garment, symbolizing his return to an un-fallen and pure state of nature. (Consider that this happens at the Jordan, where John the Baptist later baptizes Jesus—if you happen to be reading the Christian Version of the Bible.)
Returning to the other side of the Jordan, Elisha discovers he really has received a double-sized helping of Elijah's spirit, his prophetic power. He's able to perform the same miracle with God's aid: parting the Jordan and crossing over to meet the other prophets. It shows that now that Elijah's mission is finished, Elisha is the one who will, symbolically, help lead the Israelites (metaphorically) back into the Promised Land by leading them from the worship of foreign Gods back to Israel's God.
Elijah Ascends to Heaven
Elijah knows how to make an exit. He famously departs into heaven on a "chariot of fire" carried up into heaven on a whirlwind sent by God. This image has given birth to the movie Chariots of Fire—which is about Olympic runners—in addition to plenty of allusions in poetry, literature, and elsewhere. As Parliament-Funkadelic once said, "Swing down sweet chariot, stop / And let me ride."
While the narrator may have believed that Elijah quite literally flew into the sky where heaven was actually located and lived there for the rest of eternity without physically dying, the chariot of fire has since become a symbol of passion and energy at the service of a righteous cause (like in Chariots of Fire).
The British poet William Blake said, "Bring me bow of burning gold / Bring me my arrows of desire / Bring my spear, O clouds unfold / Bring me my chariot of fire." But Blake says that this is part of "mental warfare"—it's not literal, it's part of an attempt to persuade people to view reality from a more spiritual perspective. So, although the narrator may mean that Elijah flew into the sky on a literal chariot, the history of the image in culture has lent it a new, symbolic meaning.
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Home Page
St Francis de SalesCatholic Junior School
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Aquisition of knowledge and skills
Traditional Greek Cusine
Year 4 pupils have been investigating Greek cuisine, including the foods traditionally grown, reared and produced in Greece. In additon, pupils have been researching a range of tradional Greek dishes, focusing on Souvlaki kebabs, Tzatziki dressing, traditional Greek salads and pitta breads.
As part of their research, pupils also taste tested a range of ingredients used to make tradional Greek dishes to find out: which ingredients they did and didn't like; what combination of ingredients would be included in their finished dishes; and the food preparation and cooking skills needs to make each of the dishes to be included in their celebration meals.
'I didn't know anything about Greek foods, but now I know more about tradional Greek dishes and the healthy ingredients used to make them.' - Riley K
'Taste testing all the different ingredients helped me to decide which foods to include in my dishes. I really liked the Tzatziki because it tased nice with the lamb and chicken and also the other salad ingredients.' Lilly D
Fantasy Torches - Contextual knowledge and skills
As part of their Fantasy Torches design project, Year 4 have been learning about the invention of the torch (or 'flashlight', as they was originally called), the different practical ways in which torches are used and the impact this important invention has had on the modern world.
Children aslo investigated torch designs of the past and present and where surprised to discover that even though advances in technology have led to improvements in the efficiency, effectiveness and the design of torches, modern torches work in basically the same way as Liverpool born, David Misell’s original 1899 design.
In addition, children explored a range of different torches to find out how they were made and how they work. Using their knowledge of electricity, learnt in Science, children were able to identify the electrical components used to make a torch and drew their own annotated diagrams to show how the electrical circuit in a torch works.
'I really enjoyed taking the different torches apart to see how they work!' - Harry M
'I drew an annotated diagram to show how to make an electrical torch circuit with a switch to turn it on and off.' - Joe G
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20 Mathematicians Who Changed The World
Gottfried Leibniz
Christoph Bernhard Francke, 1700
We're changing that right now.
We've identified the 20 mathematicians responsible for the modern world.
William Playfair, inventor of charts
Chart of the Day in 1786
William Playfair / Public Domain
William Playfair, a Scottish engineer, was the founder of graphical statistics. Besides that signature accomplishment, he was at various times in his life a banker, an accountant, a journalist, an economist, and one of the men to storm the Bastille.
It's difficult to overstate his importance. He was the inventor of the line graph, bar chart, and the pie chart. He also pioneered the use of timelines. You're probably familiar with his work.
James Maxwell, the first color photographer
Public Domain
How crucial was he? Einstein kept a framed photo of Maxwell on his desk beside pictures of Michael Faraday and Issac Newton. He was the first to develop a color photograph. Connecting light with electromagnetism is considered one of the greatest accomplishments of modern physics. He's in many ways the founder of his field.
Alan Turing, World War II codebreaker
A statue of Turing at Bletchley Park
Sjoerd Ferwerda
Alan Turing is a British mathematician who is hailed as the father of computer science. His work laid the groundwork for the PC you're presumably reading this on.
Turing is especially unique on this list for his efforts during the Second World War. Working at the famous Bletchley Park, Turing is credited as one of most important people in devising the techniques for breaking the German Enigma cipher.
He developed the method by which the Bombe - a massive electromechanical machine built by the Allies - could crack the Enigma on an industrial scale, allowing them to read nearly all German communication. In that regard, he is one of the founders of modern cryptanalysis, and by all rights played one of the most crucial parts in winning the Battle of the Atlantic for the Allies.
Pierre-Simon Laplace, pioneer of statistics
Sophie Feytaud, 1841
The marquis de Laplace was pivotal in the development of mathematical astronomy and, most significantly, statistics.
Laplace was one of the first people to propose the existence of black holes. He was one of the central forces behind systematizing probability theory, laying the groundwork for what is now termed Bayesian statistics. He was one of the first to study the speed of sound
Thomas Bayes, advancer of statistics
Wikimedia Commons
Thomas Bayes, a Presbyterian minister, laid the groundwork for Bayesian Statistics.
Essentially, that interpretation of statistics looks into what can be said about an existing state given the results of a statistical test. Bayes' Theorem allows for the computation of conditional probabilities. Without getting into too much detail, that theorem is an essential concept in the field of predictive statistics.
Charles Babbage, computer visionary
The Illustrated London News, 1871
Babbage, an English mathematician and inventor, is considered the general "father of the computer" for his proposal of the invention of the first mechanical computing device.
Babbage's difference engine was uncompleted in his life, but the work he did motivated the field as it progressed. Funding problems plagued the process, but his designs would go on to be proven sound. He later designed an Analytical Engine which could hypothetically be programmed with punch cards.
Ada Lovelace, the first computer programmer
Margaret Sarah Carpenter, 1836
Working with Charles Babbage, Countess Ada Lovelace is considered by some to be the world's first computer programmer.
She was the daughter of poet Lord Byron and was a corespondent of Babbage's as he tried to build his difference and analytical engines. She considered herself an "analyst" and Babbage described her as an "Enchantress of Numbers." Dying at the age of thirty six, her translations and notes today stand as both a historical record of Babbage's research and one of the initial discussions of computer programming.
David Hilbert, the patron saint of math teachers
David Hilbert, besides his immense contribution to functional analysis, may as well be the patron saint of math teachers.
He is one of the founders of proof theory and was a leader in the mathematics field. One of his most important accomplishments was creating, in 1900, a legendary collection of 23 unsolved problems. The problems would go on to set the syllabus for the entire field for the 20th century. In doing so, Hilbert inspired and motivated generations of mathematicians.
Euclid of Alexandria, prover of math
Mark A. Wilson
Euclid, an ancient Greek mathematician alive during the reign of Ptolemy I in 323-283 BC, was the author of Elements, which served as the primary textbook for mathematics until the dawn of the 19th century. He originated Euclidean Geometry, and while perhaps not demonstrably responsible for the modern era, Euclid was certainly responsible for most of the elementary mathematics that led to it.
Euclid was among the first to formalize mathematical proofs, the primary method of exposition for the discipline.
Issac Newton, inventor of calculus
Godfrey Kneller , 1689
While not exactly obscure, this list would be incomplete without a mention of Sir Issac Newton, the English luminary of the Scientific Revolution.
Newton developed early physics, a scientific method, the theory of universal gravitation, and calculus. He advanced the technology of the telescope, and developed Newtonian Mechanics. Newton's laws are well known today even by people outside of the scientific community. His impact on modern physics is nearly impossible to overstate.
Gottfried Leibniz, always in Newton's shadow
Christoph Bernhard Francke, 1700
German Gottfried Leibniz invented infinitesimal calculus independent of Englishman Sir Issac Newton. His notation is still widely used today.
He was an avid inventor of mechanical calculators and added multiplication and division functions to Pascal's calculator. He refined the binary number system in the late 1600s, enabling the development of digital computers centuries later. A notorious optimist, Leibniz coined the phrase "the best of all possible worlds."
Joseph Lagrange, simplified Newton's work
Unknown Artist, 18th Century
Few mathematicians have made as great a contribution to the field as Lagrange. His legacy is so immense, his is one of 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower and he is buried in the Pantheon, the national tomb for great Frenchmen.
Lagrange essentially created the science of partial differential equations from 1772 to 1785. Today that science is used to model heat, sound, electrodynamics and additional difficult-to-model information. Besides that, he entirely re-formulated and simplified Newton's equations of classical mechanics. Lastly, he also advanced the solution to the three-body problem, one of the trickiest problems in physics.
Blaise Pascal, inventor of the first calculator
Anonymous Portrait
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician and physicist active in the 17th century. He clarified the concept of pressure and vacuum.
Pascal invented an early version of the roulette wheel and created the hydraulic press. He developed the syringe. He also made early contributions to probability theory and actuarial science, and made the first mechanical calculator.
John von Neumann, early developer of the digital computer
von Neumann's Los Alamos I.D. picture
Public Domain
Hungarian-American John von Neumann was credited as one of the greatest mathematicians of his age. Besides his widespread contributions to broad disciplines within pure mathematics, he also did a great deal of work in the applied fields.
Von Neumann was the first to propose the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction to the United States during the Cold War. Besides that, he also proposed the concept of a self-replicating automata. He is a key figure in the development of the digital computer. He worked out steps to completing a thermonuclear reaction.
Leonhard Euler, a mathematician with an imagination
Public Domain / Wikimedia
A Swiss mathematician who spent most of his life in Russia, Leonhard Euler is considered the preeminent mathematician of his generation.
Euler was the first to introduce the concept of the function which in and of itself is an immense achievement. That set the stage for all mathematical development since. He was the first to ascribe the letter "e" to mean the base of the natural logarithm, the first to use "i" for the imaginary unit, and he assigned sigma for summation. He introduced Euler's formula, a trigonometric equation, and he developed the Euler's identity, eπi + 1 = 0. His impact on mathematics is profound.
Daniel Bernoulli, built the foundations of aerodynamics
Johann Jakob Haid, Public Domain
Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, is remembered for his contributions to fluid mechanics and his work in statistics and probability. He was one of many members of the Bernoulli family to make significant contributions to mathematics.
He was one of the first people to try to develop a kinetic theory of gasses. Bernoulli's principle is a critical aspect of aerodynamic research. He was a medical pioneer, applying available statistics to describe a smallpox outbreak in 1766. For those in finance and economics, he wrote the initial theory on risk aversion and utility.
Carl Freidrich Gauss, behind everything we know about statistics
Astronomische Nachrichten, 1828
Gauss is considered to be one of history's most influential mathematicians. A German child prodigy, Gauss would later lend his name to an immense amount of discoveries even after his death.
The bell-curved normal distribution is a now central element of modern-day statistics and is sometimes referred to as the Gaussian distribution. Gauss also was interested in the field of differential equations, which are pervasive in modern engineering. He was also central in developing the theorem which established important properties of curvature. He would later co-design the first electromagnetic telegraph in 1833.
Joseph Fourier, explained the greenhouse effect
Public Domain / Wikimedia
Joseph Fourier was orphaned at the age of eight and later served on his local Revolutionary Committee during the French Revolution. Fourier joined Napoleon on his expedition to Egypt, and played a role in the translation of the Rosetta Stone.
He contributed to thermodynamics, dimensional analysis, and developed a partial differential equation describing the diffusion of heat that is today taught in elementary physic lectures. In the 1820s he was one of the first to recognize the atmosphere's impact on retaining heat, now known as the Greenhouse Effect.
Theodore von Kármán, the mind behind the helicopter and supersonic flight
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Born to a Jewish family in Budapest, von Kármán exited Europe in 1930 to accept a position at Cal Tech. He founded the company Aerojet.
Early in his career he designed a primitive helicopter. Von Kármán became an important mathematician behind the idea of supersonic flight, conducting research about turbulence, airfoil and supersonic aerodynamics. During the Second World War, von Kármán consulted for the Air Force about German rocket potential. He founded NATO's aeronautics research group.
Stanislaw Ulam, developer of the Monte Carlo simulation
Los Alamos Laboratory
A participant in the Manhattan Project, the Polish Jewish mathematician is the latter half of the Teller-Ulam design of a thermonuclear weapon.
Besides his work in nuclear physics, Ulam also developed the Monte Carlo method of simulation. This method involves running hundreds of simulations to estimate the probability of an event. This strategy is in consistent and pervasive use in modeling today.
And that barely scratches the surface.
More: Math Numbers Features
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Takadimi and Solfège - Tools for Teaching Music
As part of the Curriculum Review process our Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) went through in recent years, the K-12 Music PLC chose to specifically use takadimi and solfège to teach rhythmic and tonal literacy in General Music, Vocal Music, and Instrumental Music (we do not have an orchestra program in our district). Before delving in to the details of these tools, I want to emphasize that these are only tools. They are not necessarily the way, the truth, and the light. They are a means we use to teach to our power standards. This is my first year teaching using these tools in band, but it is our district's fourth or fifth year of implementation. Students in fourth grade or below have received nothing but these tools in their instruction. Students in fifth grade or above have received a mixture of these and other tools. From my personal experience teaching vertically in a 6-12 Instrumental Music PLC, the consistency is the key. Because students have received a consistent method of instruction on rhythmic and tonal literacy, they are better at decoding the musical symbols on the page. So how do we use these tools?
Takadimi The Wikipedia article on takadimi does a good job of explaining this counting system. Other resources can be found at takadimi.net.
Takadimi is focused on the beat, its division, and its subdivision. Regardless of time signature, the beat is always ta. In simple meter (beat divides into 2), the division of the beat is always di; the four subdivisions of the beat will be ta ka di mi. In compound meter (beat divides into 3), the three divisions of the beat are ta ki da, and the six subdivisions of the beat are ta va ki di da ma.
This system creates a rhythmic vocabulary, distinct words for nearly every possible rhythm under the sun. Distinct words is the most important part. No two different rhythms will have the same "word" associated with it. Rhythms can be borrowed from simple meter into compound meter and vice-versa (triplets in simple meter are ta ki da, duplets in compound meter are ta di). If the division-subdivision does not fall into this 2-4 or 3-6, the syllable ti is added (ex: a quintuplet is ta ka di mi ti, a septuplet is ta va ki di da ma ti). Yes, there will be some rhythms that will not fit the mold, but the vast majority of rhythms our students will encounter in K-12 Music can be described using takadimi.
Solfège Again, the Wikipedia article on solfège does an excellent job of explaining this tonal system. We apply the system using movable do and la-based minor.
The solfège system applies syllables to each tone in a scale. With the movable do system we use, do moves as the tonal center/key signature move. Thus, the syllable pattern for notes in a major scale are always: do re mi fa so la ti do. We use guideposts like "The farthest flat is fa" and "The last sharp is ti" to help students always be able to find do.
With the la-based minor system, students use the familiar syllable pattern for the major scale but change the starting pitch to lala ti do re mi fa so la. We then incorporate si (raised so) for harmonic minor and fi (raised fa) for melodic minor. Because students are so successful at finding do, moving the starting pitch to la for minor is not very difficult. We have also found that students are successful because of their familiarity with pitch patterns using those seven syllables instead of the modified syllables for do-based minor (do re me fa so le te do).
I was pleasantly surprised at how well this worked with a band full of transposing instruments. In General Music, students develop the skill of being able to find do. In 5th Grade Band, they further that skill with finding do on their instrument and developing the understanding that do may be different on the different instruments in the band. The most important thing is that they can find do on their instrument. In 6th Grade Band and beyond, we further that skill by helping them find do from concert pitch. Because students are so well-versed in solfège at this point, we can typically relate their transposing instrument to a different solfège pitch:
Do for Concert Bb on...
1. C Instruments is Do
2. Bb Instruments is Re
3. F Instruments is So
4. Eb Instruments is La
Again, consistency is key. This system works for us because the students are receiving consistent instruction on this K-12. Pick a system that works for you and stick with it! A lot of our conversations around the success/failure of the implementation of the curriculum has revolved around students only having this for 3-4 years thus far. Each class that has had more experience in the system is getting better and better at utilizing the tools to decode music.
How do we use it? In a variety of different ways! As a high school director, I am not as well-versed in how our General Music, Vocal Music, or 5th Grade Band teachers are utilizing it. I know by the time the students reach me in 6-12th Grade brass lessons or 10th Grade Band, they have a basic understanding of the vocabulary. I try to help them solidify their understanding so they can use takadimi to decode the music in front of them as an individual.
Many of our strategies are based off Dr. John Fierabend's Conversational Solfège, whose strategies work for solely rhythm, solely pitch, or both rhythm and pitch based patterns. There are twelve stages students move through:
1. Readiness - Rote: Teacher models on neutral syllable, students repeat on neutral syllable
2. Conversational Solfège - Rote: Teacher models using takadimi/solfège, students repeat using takadimi/solfège
3. Conversational Solfège - Decode Familiar: Teacher models familiar rhythm/tonal pattern using neutral syllable, students repeat using takadimi/solfège
4. Conversational Solfège - Decode Unfamiliar: Teacher models unfamiliar rhythm/tonal pattern using neutral syllable, students repeat using takadimi/solfège
5. Conversational Solfège - Create: Students create original rhythm or tonal patterns using takadimi/solfège
6. Reading - RoteTeacher reads notated rhythm/tonal pattern using takadimi/solfège while students read silently, students repeat using takadimi/solfège
7. Reading - Decode Familiar: Teacher asks students to think through notated familiar rhythm/tonal pattern, students respond using takadimi/solfège
8. Reading - Decode Unfamiliar: Teacher asks students to think through notated unfamiliar rhythm/tonal pattern, students respond using takadimi/solfège
9. Writing - Rote: Students copy existing patterns using proper manuscript techniques
10. Writing - Decode Familiar: Teacher models familiar rhythm/tonal pattern using a neutral syllable, students think the rhythm/tonal pattern (Step 3) then write using notation
11. Writing - Decode Unfamiliar: Teacher models unfamiliar rhythm/tonal pattern using a neutral syllable, students think the rhythm/tonal pattern (Step 4) then write using notation
12. Write - Create: Students write original rhythm/tonal patterns using notation
I find that in my 10th Grade Band rehearsals, I am typically helping the students in Steps 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, and 11. I know I need to begin incorporating more of the creating steps in my teaching, but this has been a great start! I plan on writing a bit more in the near future on how these line up with our power standards and our transition to standards-based learning.
Burton Hable
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Tuesday, October 20, 2009
In Parerga and Paralipomena, published in 1851, Arthur Schopenhauer created a parable about the dilemma faced by porcupines in cold weather. He described a "company of porcupines" who "crowded themselves very close together one cold winter's day so as to profit by one another's warmth and so save themselves from being frozen to death. But soon they felt one another's quills, which induced them to separate again." And so on. The porcupines were "driven backwards and forwards from one trouble to the other," until they found a "mean distance at which they could most tolerably exist."
Schopenhauer's tale was later quoted by Freud in a footnote to his 1921 essay Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, where it was invoked to illustrate what Freud called the "sediment of feelings of aversion and hostility" adhering to any long-lasting human relationship [...]
Freud may have kept the true basis for his fascination with porcupines secret from his followers because exposing it would have meant conceding a familiarity with Schopenhauer, thereby contracting the boundaries of his own originality - and, perhaps, revealing the limitations of the scientific as opposed to philosophical authority of his claims.
George Prochnik, "The Porcupine Illusion", Cabinet, Issue 26, 2007.
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Comparing Probabilities of Spinners
The probability of a spinner stopping at a certain area is the ratio of that area to the area of the entire region. Here is a question about comparing probabilities to test your understanding of this concept.
Four students are examining three spinners. They are discussing the probabilities of the spinners stopping at the shaded region.
For each of the following statements, state whether it is Completely TruePartly True or Completely False. If one sentence is true, but the other is false, check Partly True.
1. Sherry says, “The probability is twice as large for Spinners 2 and 3 compared to Spinner 1 because they have two regions to stop on and Spinner 1 has only one region.” (Completely TruePartly True or Completely False?)
2. George says, “Spinners 1 and 2 have the same probability since the shaded regions have the same area. Spinner 3, however, has a higher probability than Spinner 2 because the shaded region is a larger area.” (Completely TruePartly True or Completely False?)
3. Paul says, “Spinners 1, 2 and 3 have the same probability because the angles of the shaded regions are the same size.” (Completely TruePartly True or Completely False?)
4. Rainey says, “The probabilities for Spinners 1 and 2 are the same because those areas are the same proportion of the whole circle. For Spinners 2 and 3, however, the probabilities are different because the shaded areas for Spinner 3 are a bigger proportion of the whole square than they are of the circle.” (Completely TruePartly True or Completely False?)
Source of the question: Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics (TEDS-M) Policy, Practice, and Readiness to Teach Primary and Secondary Mathematics Conceptual Framework.
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<urn:uuid:78bfb09b-f672-479f-ac7a-15db07493be8>
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.18156909942626953,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9208663702011108,
"url": "http://math-problems.math4teaching.com/comparing-probabilities-in-spinners/"
}
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English Reading Practice
Moral Story Number 6:
Set a Good Example
1. Watch the video at the top of the page.
2. Read the story "Set a Good Example" just below it.
3. Do the exercises at the bottom of the page.
Here is the Set a Good Example video. You can watch it in your own language at The Way to Happiness Foundation. (Simply click the word "language" at the top right corner of that page.)
Principle number 6 is "Set a Good Example."
Now read the short story about this important principle.
Set a Good Example
In a small town lives an old man named Mr. Benson. He lives alone. He has a big scar on his face that makes him look a little scary. No one talks to him, and no one helps him carry his things up the difficult stairs to his home.
Mr. Benson does not have any friends. He is not married. But one day, a new family moves into the neighborhood. They are a nice couple, Mr. and Mrs. Clarence, and their children, Amanda and David. They move into the building where Mr. Benson lives.
The other people who live in the building welcome the new family. They say hello to Amanda and David, but they tell them not to talk to Mr. Benson. "He is a scary old man. He has no friends and he has a strange scar."
Amanda, David, and their parents think this is very silly advice. When they see Mr. Benson in the hallway or in the street outside their building, they always say hello with a smile and ask how he is feeling today.
Mr. Benson is very happy to see them. He tells them they are always welcome in his home. He gives Amanda and David some delicious cupcakes to eat.
Mr. and Mrs. Clarence always help Mr. Benson with his groceries, and Amanda and David like to sit and drink tea with him. He tells wonderful stories! He was once a very famous chef, and he makes the most delicious desserts in the whole world, in Amanda's opinion.
One evening, all the neighbors in the building hear laughter and the sounds of cups and plates and silverware in Mr. Benson's apartment. They are very confused! It sounds like a delightful dinner. They all wonder why they are not invited.
The next day, Mrs. Clarence talks to her neighbors. "You really must get to know Mr. Benson. He is so funny! And he is a fantastic chef. He told us the amazing story of his scar. He had an accident when he was helping his parents on their farm."
The neighbors all feel very silly. They do not know anything about Mr. Benson. They all start to follow the examples the Clarences gave them.
Soon, they all enjoy Mr. Benson's delicious cakes every weekend at their potluck dinners. Everyone brings something to these weekly dinners, and they share their food and their time with each other. What they love most of all are Mr. Benson's funny stories!
As they watch Amanda and David play and laugh with Mr. Benson, the neighbors all see that there was nothing to be afraid of. They were not kind to the old man, and he is really a good person. Everyone in the building is happier because of the good example the Clarence family set for them. They all live better together now, and Mr. Benson does not feel lonely anymore because he is now part of the community.
And now, practice:
Vocabulary Questions
1. What does "set an example" mean?
a) to explain to someone how to do something
b) to learn how to do something
c) to use your actions to show good behavior
d) to tell others what they are doing wrong
2. What does "potluck" mean?
a) a meal shared by lots of people where everyone contributes something
b) a big party with lots of food to celebrate an event
c) a special traditional meal to celebrate a national holiday
d) a time to say thank you for the good food we eat
3. What does "get to know" mean?
a) to talk about someone
b) to ask other people about someone
c) to get something from someone
d) to spend time with someone and learn about him or her
Grammar Questions
1. No one talks ________ him.
a) to
b) by
c) for
d) from
2. They ________ know anything about Mr. Benson.
a) does not
b) do not
c) are not
d) is not
3. Mr. Benson does not feel lonely ________.
a) already
b) still
c) yet
d) anymore
Comprehension Questions
1. Why do the neighbors stay away from Mr. Benson?
2. What do Amanda and her parents think about this?
3. In your opinion, can the examples you set change other people's ideas or behaviors?
Join now and get a special bonus:
First 2 chapters of the English Short Stories Book and Workbook.
Are you a teacher or a student?
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<urn:uuid:77a31994-2398-4f61-8ac3-3bfa424f0121>
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.43473124504089355,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9628822207450867,
"url": "http://www.really-learn-english.com/english-reading-practice-article-moral-stories-6.html"
}
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Visual Encyclopedia
The euphonium is a large, conical-bore, baritone-voiced brass instrument that derives its name from the Ancient Greek word εὔφωνος euphōnos, meaning "well-sounding" or "sweet-voiced" (εὖ eu means "well" or "good" and φωνή phōnē means "sound", hence "of good sound"). The euphonium is a valved instrument; nearly all current models are piston valved, though rotary valved models do exist. Outside of Brass Bands (in the British tradition where the instrument plays in B♭ and in treble clef) the euphonium is a non-transposing instrument. A person who plays the euphonium is sometimes called a euphoniumist, euphophonist, or a euphonist, while British players often colloquially refer to themselves as euphists, or euphologists. Similarly, the instrument itself is often referred to as eupho or euph.
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Euphoniums are one of the less popular instruments most commonly found in concert bands and full orchestra but also in marching band and jazz bands lacking trombones. Euphoniums are categorized as low brass instruments and share very similar structure to baritones but have straight bells and 4 valves where the baritone has a curved bell and 3 valves. I have played euphonium for 8 years now and have found there are many techniques that can be used during playing that make it unique like lip trills, growls, flutter tongue, trills, and half-valve murmurs. I have also found its sound compatible with the flute and piano to make for beautiful duets.
Contributed by Abi Heppner
What is Sussle?
What's a visual encylopedia?
5 reasons you should add your own images and videos:
2. Help others learn in a fun way.
Ready to start?
Just click on the red module above.
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<urn:uuid:228c62ed-a9db-4f87-a933-af0defc3de0c>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.242992103099823,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9345802664756775,
"url": "https://sussle.org/t/Euphonium"
}
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Aws4 request&x amz signedheaders=host&x amz signature=e9bf2765f46e818d334c57cf99730c07a83acd60ac7ae7266e211e367a067a02
Great white sharks are terrifying, but also awesome. They’re huge, their teeth are as sharp as knives, and some even have a taste for human flesh.
But as frightening as great white sharks may be, their ancestor, the megalodon, was even scarier. In this lesson, students model the bodies of different sharks using cylinders, and explore how the volume of a cylinder changes when its dimensions change. They learn that the megalodon was a massive ocean beast, but after estimating the dietary needs of such a large animal, they discover that its size may ultimately have led to its downfall.
Students will
• Use cylinders (and optionally, cones) to model the shape of a great white shark and a megalodon
• Apply the volume formulas for cylinders (and optionally, cones) to estimate the volume of different sharks
• Explore how the volume of a cylinder (or cone) changes as the radius/height change
• Estimate how much food the megalodon would have needed to eat in order to stay alive
• Apply arguments about megalodon’s dietary needs to discuss possible reasons for the megalodon’s extinction
Before you begin
Students should know what cylinders are, and be able to evaluate the volume formulas for cylinders given their radii and heights (for example, if a cylinder has a radius of 2 and a height of 3, they should be able to evaluate the formula V = πr2h at h = 3 and r = 2). The modeling students do can also incorporate volumes of cones, though this is not required. Finally, it’s best if students don’t have a crippling fear of sharks.
Common Core Standards
Content Standards
Mathematical Practices
Discovery Channel's Shark Week, National Geographic, Stephen Godfrey
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<urn:uuid:251228df-15b6-4605-bdd7-23d0c26cfa49>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4,
"fasttext_score": 0.05559980869293213,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9025998711585999,
"url": "http://mathalicious.com/lessons/belly-of-the-beast"
}
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History of The Hague
The Hague, from Founding to the 13th Century
There was no trace of Amsterdam, Rotterdam or The Hague in the first two centuries of the second millennium. Between AD 993 and 1299, the territory was known as the County of Holland, ruled by Frisian Counts. During the early 1200s, Count Floris IV of Holland purchased some land near Loosduinen and began building a house atop a dune adjacent to a small lake, called the ‘Court Pond’ today. The house was probably made of stone, but there were also wooden buildings nearby inhabited by servants, and stables for cattle, as well as defensive walls and probably a canal. The house and surroundings were called Haga (‘land surrounded by walls’), and later was renamed Haag.
The Middle Ages boasted a sport called ‘jousting’, which included martial competitions between two mounted knights using a variety of weapons. Count Floris IV lost his life in this sport, in France. He was succeeded by Willem II, who built a larger and impressive house on the land near Loosduinen, as his power and influence gradually rose. In 1256, weeks before his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor, Willem lost his life in a battle against the Frisian tribe, the same year his son Floris V was born. When Floris V was in his teens, he decided to sell his rights to the Scottish crown instead of going to war in Scotland. With the proceeds, he built part of the Royal Palace in Haga, which still stands today as the Hall of Knights, with a small fountain and statue of Willem II in front of the building.
Floris V pursued a peacekeeping policy. Instead of battling the Frisians, he chose to make peace and settle in Haga permanently, perhaps because the castle stood on its ‘own’ ground, and major cities, such as Delft and Leiden, could lay no claims to it. From then on the castle drew more and more settlers. Even though there were no rivers or major roads in the area, Haga developed into a village, with its inhabitants protected by the standing army of the count.
A myriad of small castles and wooden houses soon sprung up around the main edifice at Haga because powerful landlords from all over Holland wanted to own property there. The Hague then became the political centre of Holland. In 1296, Floris V was kidnapped by the Lords of Amstel, who were associated with the founding of Amsterdam. When the people demanded his return, the kidnappers were reluctant to turn him over for fear of their own lives, and they killed him. The last count was Willem III, who married Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of King Edward I of England. Willem only ruled for three years and died without an heir.
From the 14th to 16th Century
From t
Counts from other lineages came into power in The Hague, but not all lived in the castle of The Hague. One of the most significant counts of The Hague and Holland was Aalbrecht of Bavaria, who brought prosperity to Holland through his wise decisions. Aalbrecht waged a successful war against the city of Delft and ordered the people to raze its city walls and bring the stones back to The Hague castle to build an imposing wall. The Spui gate of this wall survived until 1861.
After Aalbrecht’s death, civil war erupted in Holland, with Holland becoming part of the Spanish Empire. During the late 13th Century, the castle looked about the same as it does today, with exception to the old castle’s thick walls, stables, gardens and a church. The large garden behind the castle became a public square in 1632. The Outer Court, today also a square, was located in front of the Inner Court. Before the 1920s, it was encircled by military buildings and stables, and could only be entered through the Prison Gate and the small street Halstreat.
Holland, with The Hague as its capital city, was ruled by foreign counts and kings between the 14th and 16th Centuries. King Philip II of Spain was the last foreign ruler. The locals were not too concerned about who ruled the city, evident from their saying ‘God is too high, and the king is too far’. Moreover, other cities, namely Dordrecht and Leiden, still wielded much power. Taxes were paid and there was peace. Representatives of the king lived in The Hague, as well as the administration.
Cities, such as Delft and Leiden, were in danger of potential rivalry with The Hague, so attempts were made to prevent it from building fortifications. Nevertheless, The Hague became rich from commerce, and in the 17th Century, the only European ships allowed to trade with Japan were Dutch.
The Hague, in the mid-16th Century, was attacked by an army from Gelre (present-day Gelderland province in the Netherlands) under the command of Maarten van Rossem, occupying and ransacking the city because of the lack of walls. Only the castle and the inner and outer courts, being surrounded by walls, water and gates, were not destroyed. After this, the people of The Hague saved enough money to build city walls, but instead, local authorities used it to build a new City Hall, modeled after the town hall of Antwerp.
The Spanish Inquisition then hit The Hague, through which the Spanish king tried to impose Catholicism. In response, Protestants in Holland and Belgium destroyed Catholic churches, in what was called the ‘Statue Storm’ because of the large number of religious statues that were damaged.
The war of independence between Holland and the Spanish crown broke out in 1568. Dutch cities revolted against the king under the leadership of Prince William of Orange, when the Spanish army and the liberation army both plundered The Hague. The rebel movement established its headquarters in Delft, where Prince William was assassinated in 1584. The Orange family returned to their castle in The Hague and William was succeeded by his son Maurits, the next leader of the rebellion.
The Hague between the 17th to 19th Centuries
Prince Maurits was a Stadtholder, a post resembling that of commander-in-chief, and had great powers in times of war, but in peace time he was subject to numerous checks and balances. In the 17th Century, the seven northern provinces of Holland (the Netherlands) were declared a Republic, while the southern provinces (Belgium today) remained under Spanish rule. The Hague was the centre of government and was made capital of the Republic.
However, the other Dutch cities refused to pay for Maurits’ city walls, and The Hague itself was ravaged by war and poverty; the defensive canals were all the city had. The Hague had practically been leveled to the ground during the war, and the castle, the church and City Hall were the only buildings left standing. The Hague had to be reconstructed within the defensive canals. There were plans to erect houses directly behind the palace of the prince, but Maurits thwarted them. The Outer Court was redesigned as a square instead, where a statue of William of Orange with his dog stands. It has been claimed that his dog saved his life in battle once.
The Netherlands and the Orange dynasty nurtured a close relationship in The Hague’s historical scheme, hence the Dutch national anthem praising William of Orange and the country’s national color, orange. Before Napoleon’s invasion, the Netherlands was a republic, but members of the Orange family served as heads of state.
All the buildings around the Outer Court, except the Prison Gate, were torn down between the 17th and early 20th Centuries. Johan de Witt was among the few Stadtholders not associated with the Orange family. But in 1672, the Year of Disaster, the Netherlands entered a war against four great European nations and De Witt was murdered by the people of The Hague from desperation of poverty and hunger. The Oranges returned to power until the time of Napoleon and the seat of the princes of Orange was in The Hague, which officially was still not a city. Delft and Leiden continued to deny The Hague city rights, until the French armies occupied the Netherlands and put an end to the rule of these major cities. The heritage of these powers lies in the embassies (Logementen) in The Hague.
The Kingdom of Holland was proclaimed during the French occupation. Napoleon Bonaparte’s brother became the first king and established a royal residence in The Hague, but the surroundings were too pastoral for his taste, so he granted city rights. However, he soon moved to Amsterdam, which was the largest city in the country. Napoleon had visited The Hague only once and found that his brother was incapable of ruling and ordered him to go back to France. Holland then became a French province.
Independence was restored to the Netherlands after the Battle of Waterloo and it became a kingdom again. The first king was (predictably) a member of the Orange dynasty, who also held the title Duke of Luxembourg. The Southern Netherlands achieved independence in the 19th Century as a part of Belgium, and The Hague became the capital of South Holland.
Most of the city canals of The Hague were closed between 1645 and 1905. Today, many impressive buildings in The Hague date from the 19th Century, which span a wide variety of epochs in architecture, such as Art Nouveau, Neo-Renaissance and Eclecticism. These are located in the areas of Statenkwartier, Archipelbuurt, Benoordenhout and Bezuidenhout. After Napoleon lost power, Amsterdam remained the capital city, but only formally. The headquarters of the Dutch government are in The Hague, as well as almost all the foreign embassies.
The Hague in the 20th and 21st Centuries
The Netherlands stayed neutral in the First World War, but the Dutch government maintained a standing army on the Dutch coast to prevent potential invasions from England. In 1918, an unsuccessful socialist revolution took place in The Hague headed by Troelstra, an MP who wanted to establish a socialist republic. During this time, the powerful monarchies Russia, Germany and Austria had disintegrated, and there were indications that this could happen also in the Netherlands. The revolution was followed by a mass demonstration of supporters of the monarchy in The Hague.
The Second World War had far more disastrous consequences for The Hague. The Netherlands hoped to remain neutral again, but Germany attacked the country in 1940. The Dutch still relied on water as a mean of blocking foreign entry, but the Germans simply flew over the country. There were four airfields around The Hague, and the Germans captured all of them on the very first day of war. Later, The Hague was retaken, and the Queen and the government, whose members had been held hostage, escaped. Many German planes were destroyed and the Nazis retaliated by incessantly bombing Rotterdam, and threatened to do the same to The Hague if the Netherlands didn't capitulate. The country did not have sufficient air defenses and soon surrendered.
Both the Germans and the Allies did extensive damage to the city. The Germans destroyed many 19th- Century buildings near the Scheveningen. Many houses and forest areas were bombed beyond recognition, as well as the zoo, built in 1863. In March 1945, the Allies accidentally bombed the 19th-Century Bezuidenhout, as well as some 17th-Century buildings, such as the elegant American and French embassies.
The Hague’s population increased significantly after the war, largely due to the Dutch colonies of Indonesia and Suriname becoming independent people, consequently arriving in the Netherlands. The Old Town of The Hague today has very few canals left, but still attracts tourists with multicultural festivals and annual events commemorating historical dates, such as April 30, when the Dutch celebrate Queen's Day in memory of their former queen Juliana. There is also a free open-air festival, Parkpop, held since 1981 on the last Sunday in June, attracting some 350,000 fans.
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<urn:uuid:a81177d0-cb1c-456e-a0ba-a832771d510f>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.11980050802230835,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9862856268882751,
"url": "http://www.europe-cities.com/destinations/netherlands/cities/the_hague/history-period/"
}
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Drawing straws
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Drawing straws is a selection method, or a form of sortition, that is used by a group to choose one member of the group to perform a task after none has volunteered for it. The same practice can be used also to choose one of several volunteers, should an agreement not be reached. It is a form of the practice of drawing lots, only using straws instead.
Drawing straws is a fair game; every participant has a chance to draw a short straw and chance NOT to draw it, where is the initial number of straws before the drawing starts.
For example, the chances of the second person to draw the short straw are the product of the chances of the short straw NOT to be pulled out by the first person: , and the chances of the second person to pull it out of the smaller (by one) bunch of straws: . The multiplication gives: .
For the fourth person the chances to draw the short straw are a product of chances of the first three people consecutively NOT pulling the straw out and the fourth person to draw it afterwards (the size of the bunch gets progressively smaller by one for every next person): .
The fact that it's more likely to draw the short straw from a smaller bunch is perfectly compensated by the chance of somebody else pulling the straw out before you.
United Kingdom[edit]
On 5th May 2017, Local election candidates in Northumberland drew straws to decide the winner in South Blythe Ward. Liberal Democrat candidate Lesley Rickerby was declared the winner, denying Conservatives overall control of Northumberland County Council.
On 20 November 2015, a Mississippi state election was settled by drawing straws after both candidates received 4,589 votes. This resulted in Blaine Eaton being re-elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives.[2]
See also[edit]
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<urn:uuid:946775f9-0341-430c-91f2-51ab740efc78>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.6875,
"fasttext_score": 0.09356987476348877,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9548788070678711,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawing_straws"
}
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The sonification was developed to support the analysis of changes in the environment captured by satellite imagery. The data consists of the difference in the reflectivity of the ground in satellite images taken twenty years apart. An analyst can click on a visualization of this dataset to hear the sonification of the change at a particular point using the ImageListener
It was difficult to compare differences between different points from the image due to the small size of individual pixels. However the sonification did not solve this problem because it was not easy to remember the sound at the previous point while clicking on another. This problem was solved by looping the sonifications of the two points, which made comparisons much easier. Similar values produced a sound that was distinct from those that had greater differences. These alternating looped points sounded quite similar to the Van Noorden gallop that is used in experiments on auditory stream perception [Van Noorden, 1977]. This observation laid the foundation for further exploration of the Van Noorden effect in the following case studies. The ImageListener also raised questions about auditory memory related to sonification. How long can we hold a sound in memory? Is it possible to compare two sounds in memory? What is the effect of time on the judgment of difference between two sonified data points? How many levels of quantitative difference can be judged between two sonified points?
Barrass S. (2009) Developing the Practice and Theory of Stream-based Sonifications, SCAN Journal of Media Arts Culture, Vol 6, Number 2, September 2009, Maquarie University, ISSN: 1449-1818.
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<urn:uuid:154cc6c5-502b-4185-869b-45a31b0cc6c5>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.3175644278526306,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9429203867912292,
"url": "https://stephenbarrass.com/1996/04/16/imagelistener/"
}
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The experiment designed in Otto Loewi’s dream: synaptic signaling used chemical messengers
(by Haohao Wu, 16/12/2013)
Charles Scott Sherrington
Sir Henry Hallett Dale
(1875 - 1968)
Otto Loewi
Otto Loewi
(1873 - 1961)
It was proposed by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the 1906 Nobel laureate, that the neurons are not continuous even though they communicate with each other. This idea waslater known as neuron doctrine.The neurons are discrete entities with gaps between them and this gap was termed "synapses" by Charles Scott Sherrington.What is the nature of synapse and how impulses transmit across it? The common held belief at that time was that the synaptic transmission is electrical. However, Otto Loewi, a German-born pharmacologist, thought that the signaling through synapses was chemical but he didn’t know how to prove until seventeen years later in 1921 when an important dream occurred to him.
What Loewi had done on that early morning was to dissect two beating hearts from frogs, one with vagus nerve attached and the other not. These two hearts were bathed in saline solution and connected to the mechanical device to record heart beats. Then the vagus nerve of one heart (the donor heart) was electrically stimulated. This caused the donor heart slow down, as expected. Loewi took the liquid passing though the donor heart and applied it to the second heart (the recipient heart). Consequently, the recipient heart beat also slower, proving that some soluble chemical released from vagus nerve acted on the recipient heart directly. Loewi named this liquid "Vagusstoff".
Loewi’s experiment: synaptic signaling uses chemical messengersn
Fig.1: Loewi’s most famous experiment which shows that synaptic signaling uses chemical messengers.(Credit: Nrets)
While seven years before Loewi discovered Vagusstoff, Henry Hallett Dale and his colleagues had identified a chemical, acetylcholine, from fungus ergot which stimulated organs in a similar manner. Henry Dale then hypothesized that the Vagusstoff and acetylcholine might mean the same thing. This had been proved when he further found that acetylcholine was produced naturally in mammals from nerve endings in many tissues and organs than heart.
The chemicals known as neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, are the major way of transmission of nerve impulses. For their discovery, Otto Loewi and Henry Hallett Dale were awarded Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1936. And Otto Loewi’s inspiration from his dream probably suggests that when the mind rests, the subconscious whispers.
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<urn:uuid:39a6a62d-08e0-46d3-b536-af7c33fbd604>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.699522078037262,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9682473540306091,
"url": "http://brainbeans.net/history/4"
}
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Some insects forage randomly, eventually (at some risk) discovering suitable resources (Dixon 1985, Raffa et al. 1993). However, most insects respond to various cues that indicate the suitability of potential resources. The cues to which searching insects respond may differ among stages in the search process. For example, gross cues, indicative of certain habitats, might initially guide insects to a potentially suitable location. They then respond to cues that indicate suitable patches of resources and finally focus on cues characteristic of the necessary resources (Bell 1990, Mustaparta 1984). Experience at the habitat scale can affect search at finer scales. Insects search longer in patches where suitable resources have been detected than in patches without suitable resources, resulting in gradual increase in population density on hosts (Bell 1990, Risch 1980, 1981, Root 1973, Turchin 1988). Orientation toward cues involves the following steps.
Oplan Termites
Oplan Termites
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Post a comment
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<urn:uuid:f9166f4d-0f0e-4584-b3d7-318cc6bedc5b>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.40872907638549805,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.800163984298706,
"url": "https://www.78stepshealth.us/plant-species/b-orientation.html"
}
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Nobel art of science
Santiago Ramón y Cajal’s drawings lay out the brain in surprising detail—and beauty.
“An entire universe that has scarcely been explored lies before the scientist… Each cell presents us with the unknown, and each heartbeat inspires profound meditation within us.”
He grew up in poor Spanish hill towns near the French border, bright, impulsive, strong-willed, prone to escapades that have more than a touch of the medieval. He was endlessly curious, experimental, energetic, determined to think things through by himself. By eight years old he was drawing incessantly wherever he could, coloring his drawings with paint flaked from walls, bitterly opposed by his doctor father. He was a famously disobedient student, often beaten by teachers, once locked up by himself for more than a day. His father pulled him out of school and apprenticed him to a shoemaker for a year. He was an enthusiast and expert for drawing, painting, birds, nature walks, wooden cannons he built himself. Years later, he plunged deeply into gymnastics, chess, gymnastics, philosophy, hypnotism and whatever else caught his interest. When he grew excited by photography, he not only taught himself excellent shooting skills but developed emulsions for developing prints that were better than what he could buy. He and his father stole bones from a graveyard to help their anatomy studies. He joined the Spanish army as it fought rebellions at home and in Cuba. He survived malaria and then tuberculosis.
Such was the education of Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the world’s greatest neuroscientist.
He won the Nobel Prize in 1906 and is best known for his theory that nerve cells in the brain are not directly wired together but connected by chemicals—a theory not confirmed until the electron microscope debuted, decades later. He possessed an astonishing intuition for guessing at brain function based on structure, backed by an astonishing amount of hard work to reveal that structure. He couldn’t afford a good microscope until he was given one for his help in a cholera epidemic. He taught himself German, the language of biomedical science, to keep in touch with the latest findings. He published his own scientific journal when it was the only way to spread his own discoveries, which were numerous and major.
Perhaps most famously, Ramón y Cajal presented what he saw in the brain in thousands of drawings that elegantly show the brain’s wild menageries under the microscope, artwork that is stunningly created to emphasize structure and concepts. You can now see 80 of these masterpieces in the well-received Beautiful Brain exhibition at the MIT Museum.
Ramón y Cajal lived in a very different time—for instance, his autobiography has nothing but good to say about his wife but never mentions her name. He was not just genius but appealing human being. He was thoughtful, kind, wryly humorous, sociable, patient with others, resourceful, surprisingly tough, endlessly curious. He wrote superbly on science and his own remarkable life. His aphorisms are still quoted. His lessons still stand.
“Drawing enhances discipline and attention, for it forces us to observe the totality of the phenomenon and see details overlooked in ordinary observation.”
“In our parks are there any trees more elegant and luxurious than the Purkinje cell from the cerebellum?”
“Nature is a harmonious mechanism where all parts, including those appearing to play a secondary role, cooperate in the functional whole.”
Raging hormone
Why is insulin so expensive in this country?GoFundMe insulin
We run on sugar, and sugar needs insulin to get into our cells. It’s no surprise that insulin was the first genetically engineered drug, approved by the FDA in 1982. Synthetic insulin keeps millions of people with type 1 diabetes, and a greater number of people with type 2 diabetes, alive.
Basic research keeps turning up surprises about the hormone—its starring roles in the brain, for instance, and its production by some viruses.
Drug companies mostly focus, though, on fiddling with how quickly the body absorbs it. Insulin variants that work either very quickly or very slowly are very important, but why can’t we have insulin that doesn’t need refrigeration? Or “smart insulin” that responds to blood glucose levels, first proposed when Jimmy Carter was president? Although Sanofi supports interesting projects aimed at smart insulin, as do the other market leaders Novo Nordisk and Lilly, there’s little visible progress toward the clinic.
But the biggest question about insulin is: Why is it so expensive in this country?
A 2016 study published in JAMA, for instance, showed that insulin costs doubled between 2002 and 2013. This trend is only accelerating, because there’s no price competition. Irl Hirsch, an endocrinologist at the University of Washington, summarized the story well in an ADA presentation back in 2016 and his points still apply. Year after year, extremely profitable drug makers and pharmacy benefit managers point their fingers at each other. But as Hirsch noted, “we can point our fingers at everyone.”
New entries such as Basaglar, the first biosimilar insulin approved by the FDA, delayed by predictable patent battles but now available, don’t seem to change the story.
And the story has plenty of human faces. Among them was Shane Patrick Boyle, who died a year ago, unable to raise the money to buy insulin for his type 1 as he saved up for his mother’s funeral. Look at GoFundMe today to see similar personal pleas for help.
As with every other problem in healthcare cost, there are no simple solutions.
One new approach comes from the Open Insulin Project and similar biohacking groups that are making worthy efforts to create generic insulins. But those are only early steps in the process, and clinical trials are too expensive to crowdfund.
You can argue that in a more rational world, the federal government would step in. Why not launch a 28th National Institute of Health that develops selected high-value high-need generics and biosimilars, brings them through clinical testing and into the clinics? Or simply control the costs of crucial drugs, lowering prices in the years after generics or biosimilars enter the market, as Australia apparently is now doing? OK, not likely. But what actually would help?
Celling out cancer
As immunotherapies start to change clinical practice, we hope for more.
For a blockbuster drug, pembrolizumab comes with a strange history, nicely told here by David Shaywitz.
Pembro is a “checkpoint inhibitor”, a biologic designed to take the brakes off T cells so that they can wipe out tumors. Back in 2014, it was the first drug that targets the PD-1 protein on the surface of T cells to get FDA approval. Also now known as Keytruda, pembro has received FDA green lights for many kinds of cancers. It accounts for billions of dollars each year and is in more than 500 clinical studies.
But it was born in a small Israeli biotech trying to develop treatments for autoimmune diseases by putting brakes on T cells (yes, the reverse of checkpoint inhibition). The small biotech that created pembro and realized it was a promising cancer drug candidate was soon bought by a larger pharma firm, which was then acquired by Merck & Co. As Shaywitz notes, the giant pharma shut down development not once but twice, before successful trials of other checkpoint inhibitors changed its mind.
Today pembro comes as a colorless liquid in a small IV pouch, looking very much like saline solution. It lists at around $50 a milligram, one case in point for the extremely real concern about how any country can pay for such drugs as they start to become standard of care.
You don’t think about costs, however, if you’re in a clinic as I was earlier this month, watching a friend with metastatic melanoma joke with the nurse hooking up his IV. You just hope the treatment works.
It’s been a pleasure to edit this month’s Nature Outlook on cancer immunotherapy. Many thanks to the outstanding authors, editors and designers who put it together! And to Elin Svensson, who created the great cover art above.
Pub read
It’s a golden age for magazines on science and the environment.
Each year as I help to filter out the National Association of Science Writers’ Science in Society Awards nominees, I run across remarkable new-to-me publications. You could spend wholly unworkable amounts of time on their dazzling stories and videos.
Some of these magazines seem to generate cash (Quartz offers one clue: sponsored content that you actually might want to read.) But most of the pubs run on institutional funding and/or donations, which is not always a recipe for long-term survival. Here are a few favorites, each with a story or two picked fairly randomly (except that I wrote two of them).
Aeon, Votes for the future
Ensia, Could this one simple idea be the key to solving farmer–environmentalist conflicts? and With storms intensifying and oceans on the rise, Boston weighs strategies for staying dry
Hakai, Damming Eden
High Country News, Why western wildfires are getting more expensive
Mongabay, Abandoned by their sponsors, Madagascar’s orphaned parks struggle on
Pacific Standard, Libya’s slave trade didn’t appear out of thin air
Quanta, Artificial intelligence learns to learn entirely on its own
Quartz, AI is now so complex its creators can’t trust why it makes decisions
Sapiens, Sea level rise threatens archaeological sites
Undark, The allure and perils of hydropower and Putting digital health monitoring tools to the test
Towers of power
Public Spectacle
A beacon of hope in a changing climate.
kid Spectacle
Blossoms in biomedicine
The remarkable global push for cancer immunotherapies.
El_Talayón.byJose Ignacio Martinez Navarro
Editing a Nature special report on cancer immunotherapies, I’m struck most by the sheer scale of the development effort. Something like 3,000 clinical trials are underway, 800 of them combining treatments. The FDA has approved five checkpoint inhibitors, designed to unleash T cells against tumors. The agency seems close to approving the first CAR-T cell treatment, in which a patient’s T cells are removed, reengineered to attack cancer cells, regrown in volume and returned to the patient. Old dogs of immunotherapies are learning new tricks. Some newer approaches are getting much attention—notably personalized neoantigen vaccines, in which individual tumors are sequenced to give clues on how to best target their unique sets of immune-system-alarming antigens. Some clinical trials fail, some do surprisingly well. The competition is more than intense and trials are not always carefully planned or analyzed. But the landscape is changing.
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the romantic period 1785 1830 l.
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The Romantic Period (1785-1830). The following short lecture on the romantic period serves as an introduction to the subject, but also involves the ideas and philosophy that can be associated with David Lurie, the main protagonist of J. M. Coertzee’s Disgrace .
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the romantic period 1785 1830
The Romantic Period (1785-1830)
Six poets were singled out as the embodiment of the Romantic period (1785-1830):
William Wordsworth,
Lord Byron,
Samuel Taylor Colleridge,
John Keats,
Percy Bysshe Shelley
William Blake.
As you have probably noticed, the poets are all male poets. You may have heard of them before, but have you heard of these poets who were active in the same period?
Anna Barbauld
Charlotte Smith
Mary Robinson
These three women poets were well known at the time that the other male poets were writing and Wordsworth and Colleridge were almost unknown – they learned there craft or parts of their craft from the three women.
However, in Coetzee’s Disgrace, it is only the male poets who are referred or alluded to.
The period was dominated by a number of historical events.
The French Revolution (1785) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Urbanisation and enclosure
Industrialisation and invention
the french revolution
The French revolution
As the French Revolution turned violent, the idea of a peaceful development of society so that property would be equally distributed began to lose its supporters.
The executions in France under Robespierre (the September Massacres of the nobility, the execution of the King and Queen and the Reign of Terror where thousands were guillotined) and the invasion of other countries brought France and England into a war.
Wordsworth refers to the events in The Prelude (first published 1850)
become Oppressors in their turn,
Frenchman had changed a war of self-defence
For one of Conquest, losing sight of all
Which they had struggled for….
Napoleon, the champion of the French revolution had become a despot and the spirit of the revolution was lost.
urbanisation and enclosure
Urbanisation and Enclosure
• The largely agricultural society of England changed to a manufacturing society and power-driven machinery replaced labour by hand.
The movement from agriculture to manufacturing meant that urbanisation took place and the mill towns’ populations exploded.
Typical cottage: Mill town:
This movement of people from agricultural areas to towns was aided by a process of enclosure. The checkerboard of fields enclosed by hedges or stone walls that are evident in many parts of England are the result of this.
More efficient methods of agriculture meant that communally worked farms were converted to privately owned farms and a landless class emerged who moved into the towns.
industrial revolution and invention
Industrial revolution and invention
• Steam power replaced wind power and the power to run the manufacturing industries was produced by water.
Steam train: Watt’s Steam Engine:
The economic philosophy of laissez-faire, or the “let alone” theory in economics meant that the economy would be left to run itself and the government should not interfere.
The consequences of this economic philosophy were many:
Inadequate wages
Long hours of work, harsh discipline and bad working conditions
The large-scale unemployment of women and children (the family worked together as a unit before).
Gendered working roles came into play at this time – and poor houses put children to work.
Petitions, protest meetings, hunger riots. (the workers had no vote and it was illegal to form unions).
Oppressive measures by the ruling class.
The introduction of new machinery led to more unemployment and attempts to destroy the machinery.
A Spinning Jenny:
The House of Lords passed a bill (1812) that sentenced anyone who destroyed weaving machinery to a death penalty.
As the poor suffered, the landed classes and industrialists prospered and the British Empire expanded.
influences of the romantic poets
Influences of the romantic poets
• The distress of the working class and everyday life
• The move from agriculture and nature to the overfilled towns and industrialization.
• The “romantic” idea of the French Revolution
These influences led to what was called ”The Spirit of the Age”
the spirit of the age
The Spirit of the age
• A sense that there was a new intellectual climate.
• A release of energy that was captured by experimentation and creative power and accompanied by a spirit of political and social revolution.
• The French Revolution had given rise to a time of promise and revolution; this was expressed in the poetry of the time.
• Traditions and customs were discarded and new ideas and renewal were the future.
Before the Romantic period, poetry was considered to be an imitation of life or a “mirror held up to nature.”
Wordsworth, for example, saw poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings,” thus reversing the previous ideas.
Wordsworth located the source of a poem inside the individual instead of the outer world – in the inner feelings, emotion or the imaginative vision of the author.
There is an insistence on the role of instinct, intuition and the feelings of the heart over the logical thoughts located in the head.
This change is a deliberate revolt against the 18th century scientific worldview and the dominant poetic tradition of the time.
the main subject of the romantic poets
The main subject of the Romantic poets:
• Everyday life and the usage of plain language.
• The humble person, the outcast, convicts, female and male vagrants, idiot boys, peasants, village barbers, peddlars and mothers (similar subjects were on the periphery of poetry before).
• The focus on imagination
Only Lord Byron among the romantics stayed loyal to the poets’ decorum and the aristocratic ways of old:
’Peddlars,’ and ‘Boats,’ and ‘Wagons’! Oh! Ye shades
Of Pope and Drydon, are we come to this?
Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and John Dryden (1631-1700) belonged to the older poetic tradition.
lord byron and david durie
Lord Byron and David Durie
When you have read Disgrace you will be aware that there are many references to Lord Byron (1788-1824) , in fact Durie is in the process of writing an opera about Byron.
What is the influence of Lord Byron on English literature and even further afield?
Aspects of Lord Byron's poetry influenced not only writers like Goethe, Balzac, Stendahl, Pushkin, Dostoevsky and Melville, but also painters and composers (for example, Beethoven).
Lord Byron and his influence also extends to Emily and Charlotte Brontê.
Emily Bronte's character Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights and Charlotte Bronte's Rochester in Jane Eyre have been described as "Byronic heroes."What characteristics does a Byronic hero have?
In The Norton Anthology of English Literature Vol.2 (7th Edition) the Byronic hero is described:
[H]e is an alien, mysterious, and gloomy spirit, superior in his passions and powers to the common run of humanity, whom he regards with disdain. He harbors the torturing memory of an enormous, nameless guilt that drives him toward an inevitable doom. He is in his isolation absolutely self-reliant, pursuing his own ends according to his self-generated moral code against any opposition, human or supernatural. And he exerts an attraction on other characters that is the more compelling because it involves their terror at his obliviousness to ordinary human concerns and values. This figure, infusing the archrebel in a nonpolitical form with a strong erotic interest; was imitated in life as well as in art and helped shape the intellectual and the cultural history of the later nineteenth century (552).
Can you see any connections to David Lurie in the description of a byronic hero?
I am sure you can.
The information in this slide show is adapted from:
The Norton Anthology of English Literature (7th ed., vol. 2), “The Romantic Period 1785-1830” (1-14) (552).
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Kindship of the Inuit
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Kinship of the Inuit People
Shannette M Hoskins
ANT 101
17 February 2013
When people live in harsh environments it causes them to work together in different ways to ensure their survival such as the Inuit people of the Artic. For the most part the Inuit people are considered to be foragers, this means they rely heavily on the environment to sustain their way of life. The social organization of the Inuit is described as a “band” (Effland, 2013). These bands can consist of anywhere from sixty to three hundred people shared bilaterally. This means that relatives are from both the mother and fathers side of the family. This type of kinship allows for a greater chance of survival as a group and as an individual family.
Due to the Inuit dependency on the environment they are forced to move during the different seasons to areas where food sources are more abundant, cause them to display three very distinct behaviors communal fusion and fission, and general reciprocity, and ritual participation (Versistilte, 2012). During the winter months several families come together, as few as fifteen to as many as twenty-five in order to have a greater catch during hunting. The Inuit survive in the winter mainly on seal and a few other small animals. This act of “coming together” is known as fusion (Nowark & Laird, 2010). In the summer when hunting and fishing is good the groups will split up and provide for smaller groups, possibly even just the nuclear family. This is known as fissions. “Fissions reduces the stress on the environment, helping to eliminate the possibility of over exploitation of resources or a hunger scare due to lack of resources (Nowark & Laird, 2010). At times due to natures unpredictability food resources are scarce and this is when the Inuit people practice “generalized reciprocity”. In this instance they will share food with other families to ensure the survival of the group as a whole (Effland, 2013). “ Generalized reciprocity” is a...
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Open in the curiosity app
Who Won The Great Emu War?
The Great Emu War began because around 20,000 emus were occupying the farmland of World War I veterans in Australia. The veterans requested military assistance, and received it in the form of machine guns and soldiers led by Major G.P.W. Meredith. But by the time the "fighting" was over, the emus had proven themselves especially deft at avoiding shots: Meredith calculated that only one bird was killed for every 10 bullets fired.
Share the knowledge!
Key Facts In This Video
1. After World War I, veterans who became farmers in Australia had to contend with thousands of emus invading their fields. 00:08
2. The soldiers deployed during the Great Emu War were armed with two Lewis machine guns. 00:35
3. During the Great Emu War, some emus would escape even after being shot by a machine gun. 01:29
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Tracing Upper Case Letter A: Airplane Landing Strip
In this letter A worksheet, students use a pencil to follow the direction arrows and trace one large example of upper case letter A. Students see that the letter looks like a landing strip for an airplane.
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Center of origin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Center of diversity)
Jump to: navigation, search
A center of origin (or centre of diversity) is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties.[1] Centers of origin are also considered centers of diversity. Nikolai Vavilov initially identified 8 of these, later subdividing them into 12 in 1935[citation needed].
Locating the origin of crop plants is basic to plant breeding. This allows one to locate wild relatives, related species, and new genes (especially dominant genes, which may provide resistance to diseases). Knowledge of the origins of crop plants is important in order to avoid genetic erosion, the loss of germplasm due to the loss of ecotypes and landraces, loss of habitat (such as rainforests), and increased urbanization. Germplasm preservation is accomplished through gene banks (largely seed collections but now frozen stem sections) and preservation of natural habitats (especially in centers of origin).
Vavilov centers[edit]
A Vavilov Center (of Diversity) is a region of the world first indicated by Nikolai Vavilov to be an original center for the domestication of plants.[3]
Vavilov developed a theory on the centers of origin of cultivated plants. He stated that plants were not domesticated somewhere in the world at random but there are regions where the domestication started. The center of origin is also considered the center of diversity.
Vavilov centers are regions where a high diversity of crop wild relatives can be found, representing the natural relatives of domesticated crop plants. Later in 1935 Vavilov divided the centers into 12, giving the following list:
1. Chinese center
2. Indian(Hindustan) center
3. Indo-Malayan center
4. Central Asiatic center
5. Persian center
6. Mediterranean center
7. Abyssinian center
8. South American center
9. Central American center
10. Chilean center
11. Brazilian center
12. North American center
World centers of origin of cultivated plants[4][5]
Center Plants
1) South Mexican and Central American Center Includes southern sections of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica.
2) South American Center 62 plants listed; three subcenters
2) Peruvian, Ecuadorean, Bolivian Center:
2A) Chiloe Center (Island near the coast of southern Chile)
2B) Brazilian-Paraguayan Center
3) Mediterranean Center Includes the borders of the Mediterranean Sea. 84 listed plants
4) Middle East Includes interior of Asia Minor, all of Transcaucasia, Iran, and the highlands of Turkmenistan. 83 species
5) Ethiopia Includes Abyssinia, Eritrea, and part of Somaliland. 38 species listed; rich in wheat and barley.
6) Central Asiatic Center Includes Northwest India (Punjab, Northwest Frontier Provinces and Kashmir), Afghanistan, Tadjikistan, Uzbekistan, and western Tian-Shan. 43 plants
7) Indian Center Two subcenters
7) Indo-Burma: Main Center (India): Includes Assam and Burma, but not Northwest India, Punjab, nor Northwest Frontier Provinces, 117 plants
7A) Siam-Malaya-Java: statt Indo-Malayan Center: Includes Indo-China and the Malay Archipelago, 55 plants
8) Chinese Center A total of 136 endemic plants are listed in the largest independent center
In 2016, researchers linked the origins and primary regions of diversity ("areas typically including the locations of the initial domestication of crops, encompassing the primary geographical zones of crop variation generated since that time, and containing relatively high species richness in crop wild relatives") of food and agricultural crops with their current importance around the world in modern national food supplies and agricultural production. The results indicated that foreign crops were 68.7% of national food supplies as a global mean, and their usage has greatly increased in the last fifty years.[6]
See also[edit]
1. ^ ITPGRFA, Article 2
2. ^ Ladizinsky, G. (1998). Plant Evolution under Domestication. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers
3. ^ Blaine P. Friedlander Jr (2000-06-20). "Cornell and Polish research scientists lead effort to save invaluable potato genetic archive in Russia". Retrieved 2008-03-19.
4. ^ Adapted from Vavilov (1951) by R. W. Schery, Plants for Man, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972
5. ^ History of Horticulture, Jules Janick, Purdue University, 2002
6. ^ Khoury, C.K.; Achicanoy, H.A.; Bjorkman, A.D.; Navarro-Racines, C.; Guarino, L.; Flores-Palacios, X.; Engels, J.M.M.; Wiersema, J.H.; Dempewolf, H.; Sotelo, S.; Ramírez-Villegas, J.; Castañeda-Álvarez, N.P.; Fowler, C.; Jarvis, A.; Rieseberg, L.H.; Struik, P.C. (2016). "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide". Proc. R. Soc. B. 283 (1832): 20160792. doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.0792.
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Hexagon Learning
Have you tried...?
Hexagon Learning Case Study: The Rise of Stalin
Using hexagons is a simple and effective way of developing these skills, as the following case study seeks to demonstrate.
Historical Context
How Stalin was able to emerge as leader of the USSR against apparently overwhelming odds is one of the most intriguing questions which we study at IB Level. In the years that following the Bolshevik Revolution, due to a series of blunders and miscalculations, Stalin had lost the support of the party leadership: so much so that on his deathbed, Lenin dictated a formal 'Testament' describing Stalin as a liability who needed to be removed from his post. He was also hated by Lenin's closest ally, Leon Trotsky, who was widely expected to step into the leadership position after Lenin's death. Yet just five years later Stalin was undisputed leader of the USSR and Trotsky was in exile.
The story of how Stalin transformed his fortunes so dramatically is a great story revolving around Stalin's treachery, cunning and downright charm. But the danger of this is that the essays that are then written become mere narrative, storybook accounts which do little more than provide a step-by-step account of the main events between 1924-1929.
The Hexagon Approach
After a study of the events culminating in Stalin emerging as leader of the party, I made a list of factors which could be used to explain why Stalin became dictator of the USSR. I then put these into the Classtools.net Hexagons Generator to create two single-page documents containing a total of 40 hexagons.
Stage 1: Selection and Categorisation
Following this, I gave each students a blank sheet of hexagons. The challenge was to identify other factors which could help to explain Stalin's rise to power and write these directly into the hexagons. After five minutes, each pair of students took it in turns to suggest an idea. If this was a valid (and fresh) idea, then the other students copied it into their pair's version of the sheet, and the students who shared the idea were each given a sweet (we had a bag of these left over as a result of our 'Rise of Stalin through sweet-eating' lesson which had preceded this lesson!). This process was repeated until the students had run out of ideas.
Stage 2: Linkage and Prioritisation
By this stage, the students had decided upon the main factors to explain Stalin's rise to power, organised into key categories. Each of these categories could form the basis of a paragraph in an essay. However, it was still necessary to decide two things.
"Economic problems in the country > created > Divisions in the party > exploited by > Stalin's Cunning"
Stage 3: Essay preparation
The final part of the process was to use the completed diagrams as an essay plan. I photographed each of the diagrams and shared them with the students. Their task was to use the diagrams as the basis of their essay on "Why did Stalin become leader of the USSR?". Each paragraph was to focus on separate categories of hexagons, and the points made in each paragraph should have some logical order and 'flow'. Moreover, the order of the paragraphs should be dictated by the arrows linking the categories, with the opening sentence of each paragraph after the first one being based on the explanation over each arrow.
Reflections and Conclusions
The 'Hexagon Approach' worked very well. It steered students away from a narrative approach and into an analytical frame of mind. It helped them frame categories of analyis, build up their command of the material step-by-step. It provided them with the opportunity to easily change their initial assumptions, connect factors together both within and between categories, and give them a very effective basis of an accomplished written piece.
It is also a very simple approach that can be transferred to other topics and other curriculum subjects. All that is needed is an initial list of factors - contributed either by the teacher or the students - which can then be written into a blank hexagons template or turned into hexagons automatically using the Classtools.net Hexagons Generator. Thereafter, all that is needed is a pair of scissors, some sugar paper and a glue stick. And, ideally, a bag of sweets!
All rights reserved
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San Blas Longfellow Connection, Mexico Pacific Coast,
A travel article about abandoned church bells in San Blas, a village just below the Tropic of Cancer on Mexico's Pacific Coast, inspired Longfellow to write a poem, his last poem.
An article in Harpers magazine prompted Longfellow to write The Bells of San Blas.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, a celebrated American poet in the mid 1800s due in part to his poem, Evangeline, and Paul Revere's Ride, wrote a poem in 1882 about church bells the town of San Blass, In, "The Bells of San Blas", Longfellow used the bells as a symbol when he wrote about the small Mexican coastal village just before the end of his life. Although he never visited San Blas, he wrote about the bells in the old church and how mariners could hear them as they sailed south from Mazatlan. The bells, for him, stood as symbols of the changing world.
San Blas was founded 1768 as a boat building center because of its harbor and its surrounding hardwood forests.
From San Blas, Junipero Serra built a ship and departed for his mission building in California
The bells were the "voice of the past," the voice of the 16th and 17th century when Spain was spreading its power over the New World and over the Pacific to Asia. This was the age when priests and the church ruled the new lands. In doing so, they had enslaved the indigenous people.
By the mid eighteen hundreds, the time of Longfellow's writing, the old church, where the bells once hung, had fallen to disuse. The church, still a ruin today, had been abandoned when San Blas lost its importance as a commercial port. The hardwood forests used in shipbuilding had been stripped, the harbor silted up, and shipping had moved south to the deep water ports of Manzanillo and Acapulco. Sixty years earlier, Mexico had fought its 1810 revolution and gained independence from Spain. The new secular governments had expelled many of the religious orders and had federalized church property. Longfellow in the last few lines of the poem celebrates the end of church domination in the new world.
"O Bells of San Blas, in vain
Ye call back the Past again!
The Past is deaf to your prayer;
Out of the shadows of night
The world rolls into light;
It is daybreak everywhere.
In his use of the word light in the second to last line, Longfellow likely refers to the age of enlightenment. During this age of change, institutions, morals and customs were being questioned and challenged throughout Europe and the New World. The enlightenment would have been a common topic of philosophical debate in Longfellow's meetings with other scholars during his many trips to Europe.
The bells of Longfellow's poem once hung in the belfry of the church pictured right, now a ruin on a hill to the left as you enter the town of San Blas.
For a time the bells hung from a crude wooden scaffold at the base of the church in the village. They were then moved into the belfry of the church in the center of town.
Mexico had adopted a constitution based on the US constitution, both influenced by the enlightenment, both creating governments of a secular nature.
Longfellow was a lifelong supporter of the anti-slavery movement. This poem, his last, reveals his support for the end of slavery and injustice. Some reviewers of the poem believe that it reveals Longfellow's nostalgia for the past but the last six lines, added just before his death, would indicate his embracing of the future when he wrote, "it is daybreak everywhere."
The Bells of San Blas was the last poem written by Henry W. Longfellow. He wrote it in March of 1882, inspired by a travel article he had read in Harpers Magazine. He died on March 24 1882
Some information taken from Questia: See Full Poem:
Other views on the meaning of the Bells of San Blas:
San Blas has a Longfellow Connection. He wrote about the Mexico Pacific Coast fishing village in Nayarit in the Poem, The Bells of San Blas
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Amur–Zeya Plain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Amur–Zeya Plain (Russian: Амурско-Зейское плато) is plateau in Amur Oblast, Russia, located on the left bank of the middle reaches of the Amur River, between the Amur and Zeya river.
The average height of the plateau is about 300 meters, the highest - 904 m. The plateau is dominated by plains, ridged and hilly terrain; in the Amur valley terrain extremely dismembered. Crystalline basement rocks are overlain by layers of sand and clay deposits in the Neogene period lakes and ancient channels of the Amur and Zeya.
On the territory of the plateau common features include larch and pine forests and birch. In the south is characterized by shrub thickets of oak and set of marshes and wetlands. Mostly found sporadic permafrost. The climate is continental with features of the monsoon, with cold, snowless winters and moderately warm summers. There are places gold deposits. The first information on the plateau were obtained Russian pioneers in the 17th century.
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The earliest mention of a Carnival celebration is recorded in a 12th-century Roman account of the pope and Roman citizens watching a parade through the city, followed by the killing of steers and other animals. The purpose was to play and eat meat before Ash Wednesday, which marked the beginning of Catholic Lent - the forty-day fast leading up to Easter. The Latin term carnem levare, to remove oneself from flesh or meat, was used to refer to the festival.
The pre-Lenten celebration grew in popularity over the next few centuries, spreading to other European cities and rural communities. Italians eventually shortened the name to Carnevale - flesh farewell - and the word was translated into Spanish and Portuguese as Carnaval, into English as Carnival, and into German as Karneval. Other terms are also used for the festival such as the British English - Shrove Tide (fasting time), the Swiss-German - Fasnacht (night before fasting), and the French - Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday).
By the 15th and 16th centuries Carnival had become a raucous tradition featuring boisterous games and masquerades adopted from a variety of late winter and early spring festival practices with pre-Christian roots. Carnival continued to evolve in Europe throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, while colonists from Spain, Portugal, and France carried this festival tradition into North and South America.
Today Carnival is celebrated all over the world with many different rites and traditions. To learn more please choose a celebration:
Carneval De Quebec - Quebec, Canada
Mardi Gras - Louisiana, USA
Carnaval de Ponce - Puerto Rico, USA
Mas - Trinidad and Tobago
Carnaval de Barranquilla - Barranquilla, Colombia
Carnaval de Olinda - Olinda, Brazil
Carnaval de Rio - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Entroido de Laza - Galicia, Spain
Fastnact - Switzerland
Fastelavn - Denmark
Carnaval de Nice - Nice, France
Carnaval di Venezia - Venice, Italy
Apokries - Greece
Kurentovanje - Slovenia
Carnival de Binche - Binche, Belgium
Karneval - Germany
Maslenitsa - Russia
Carnaval de Oruro - Boliva
Carnival - Tlaxcala, Mexico
AYS enriches the learning and well-being of children in a safe, caring and fun environment outside of the school day. To learn more about AYS please visit www.ayskids.org.
AYS, Inc.
4755 Kingsway Drive, Suite 300
Indianapolis, IN 46205
(317) 283-3817
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Skip to Content
English Club : Learn English : Vocabulary
Vocabulary : Idioms : P : put the brakes on
put the brakes on
Meaning: If you put the brakes on something, you stop it or slow it down.
For example:
• Many companies are putting the brakes on new investment until the economy improves.
• The government has to put the brakes on the water treatment project until the corruption enquiry is over.
Origin: This metaphorical idiom is based on the fact that if you're driving a car and you "put the brakes on", the car slows down and stops.
Quick Quiz:
1. find more money
2. waste more money
3. print more money
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"url": "http://www.englishclub.com/ref/esl/Idioms/P/put_the_brakes_on_471.htm"
}
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Pascal's Adding Machine Design
From Gamewiki
Jump to: navigation, search
Pascal's Adding machine is a simulation of the first mechanical adding machine that Pascal designed and later Leibniz improved to carry out multiplications.
• Math
• Computer Science
• History
Concept One: the carry
Pascal designed the first mechanical adding machine in 1642. The most important feature of his adding machine was the carry. The carry involves raising the value of the next digit when the current digit passes from 9 to 0. The carry could easily have been implemented with a long tooth designed to rotate the next gear as the current gear passes from 9 to 0. However if fifty gears were all lined up in the 9 position every gear's long tooth would be ready to turn the next gear. A person would have to apply the force necessary to turn fifty gears to turn the first gear from 9 to 0.
Pascal's solution was have each increment of a gear raise a weight by a small amount. When the gear passed from 9 to 0 the weight was released. It was the falling of the weight that turned the next gear producing the carry. Pascal emphatically claimed with this method "it is just as easy to move one thousand or ten thousand dials, all at the same one time".
Concept Two: the multiplicand teeth
In 1671 Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von Leibniz constructed an improvement to Pascal's machine which could perform multiplication. His machine worked with variable toothed multiplicand gears and variable sized multiplier discs. He built his machine on top of Pascal's assuming Pascal's carry mechanism would take care of all caries.
The multiplicand gears are set to have the number of teeth corresponding to the digit they represent. This means that as each multiplicand gear rotates once, the number of teeth it has will catch the corresponding gear in Pascal's adding machine incrementing it the digit the multiplicand gear represents. So if the multiplicand was set to 23, a two and a three toothed gear, turning each gear once will produce 23 on Pascal's machine. Turning each gear twice would produce 46 or 2 * 23.
Concept Three: the multiplier ratio
Each multiplier disc has a different size corresponding to the digit it represents. The 1 multiplier disc has a diameter the same size as the pulley disc it is connected to. Thus every time it is rotated the pulley disc will rotate once. The 2 multiplier disc is has a diameter twice the size of the pulley disc. The 3 disc has diameter three times the size and so on.
Multiplication is performed by connecting one of the multiplier discs to the multiplicand gears. If the 2 multiplier disc is chosen it will rotate the multiplicand gear twice for every time it rotates. Every time the multiplicand gear rotates it will produce its result on Pascal's machine. Thus if the multiplicand gear is 3, having three teeth, the multiplier disc will rotate it twice incrementing Pascal's addition gear three times for each rotation. The result will be six.
For the multiplier it is the ratio between the multiplicand disc and the pulley disc that creates the effect of multiplication.
Using the simulation
• Open the "pascalsmachine" worksheet in AgentSheets or in the Java Applet and run it
• The 'Hand' tool can be used
• on numbers to increment them
• on gears to rotate them
• Addition: Addition is performed by simply incrementing each of the digits at the top to the first number you would like to add and then adding incrementing the appropriate digit that corresponds to the second number you'd like to add - and so fort. If for example you want to add 23 + 35:
• enter the first number (that is, 23) by clicking with the "Hand" tool on the tens digit twice and the ones digit three times (see movie -- if flash movie below does not show properly, please use the Quicktime version)
• increment each digit by the numbers indicated by the corresponding digit of the number you would like to add. For our example (adding 35), you would click the tens digit (currently showing a 2) three more times and the ones place (currently showing a 3) five more times. This would result in 58 (see movie below -- if flash movie below does not show properly, please use the Quicktime version).
This can be repeated for as many numbers you are adding. The role of the machine is simply to take care of the carries for you. For example, if instead you were adding 37 to 23, you would:
• enter 23 as described above
• add 37 by clicking 3 times on the tens digit and 7 times on the ones digit. This would automatically result in carrying over a digit into the tens (because 3 + 7 is 11) and reseting the ones digit to start counting from 0 again, to end up displaying 61 (see movie below -- if flash movie below does not show properly, please use the Quicktime version).
• Multiplication: Multiplication is performed using the multiplicand disks (the variable toothed gears in the middle, next to the blue left and right shift arrows) and the multiplier disks (the variable radius disks at the bottom). Set the multiplicand disks to the first number you would like to multiply (the multiplicand). For instance, if you want to multiply 32 times 3, set the multiplicand disks to 32 by selecting the "hand" tool and clicking on the digits below the disks as many times as necessary (see movie below -- if flash movie below does not show properly, please use the Quicktime version).
Select the disc at the bottom corresponding to the number you are multiplying by, i.e. the multiplier (in our example 3), and connect it to one of the multiplicand pulleys. Perform the multiply by clicking on the multiplier disk with the "hand" tool. Connect the disc to the other multiplicand pulley and perform its multiplication as well. The result shown on the machine should be 96. (see movie below -- if flash movie below does not show properly, please use the Quicktime version).
For double digit multipliers, after you perform the multiplication of the ones digit of the multiplier as described above, you need to shift the multiplicand to the left using the "hand" tool on the left shift arrow, before multiplying with the tens digit of the multiplier. See movie for example of multiplying 21 times 13.
• This simulation was created by Jonathan Phillips
• Gear graphics generated by Andri Ioannidou
Personal tools
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"url": "http://scalablegamedesign.cs.colorado.edu/wiki/Pascal's_Adding_Machine_Design"
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biology daily - the biology and biochemistry encyclopedia
• A blowtorch is a tool used in gas welding and metal cutting and brazing and sometimes in soldering. See gas welding for more information.
• The blowtorch effect occurs when a vaccuum is created near a fire or an area of intense heat and oxygen is sucked in through an opening to effectively "fan the flames."
• The word blowtorch is sometimes used loosely to mean a blowlamp .
• The word blowtorch occurs in the names of various pop music singers and fictional characters and websites and computer programs.
07-14-2008 23:18:10
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"url": "http://www.biologydaily.com/biology/Blowtorch"
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Re : dinosaur nesting behaviour
Extant birds, such as birds, create nesting colonies on isolated islands as
protection against predators . Did hadrosaurs build their nesting sites on
islands or dyr land, and if on dry land , how did they protect the eggs or
infants from predators ?
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"url": "http://dml.cmnh.org/1998Mar/msg00644.html"
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Task DescriptionDiscussion (0)
Task :: Pčelice
Bees, as we all know, have an important role in pollinating flowers. It is less known that bees have an awkwardly precise protocol for choosing which flowers to pollinate. There are N flowers on a meadow. The meadow is a square on the plane with opposite corners in (0, 0) and (M, M), and sides parallel to the coordinate axes. Flowers are points inside the meadow. A swarm of bees chooses some flower as their base camp and gathers around it. Four warrior bees then take off, one in each of the four cardinal directions: up, down, left and right. Warrior bees stop when they encounter another flower or reach the edge of the meadow. The rectangle formed by the four warrior bees with sides parallel to the coordinate axes is the area the bees will pollinate. Flowers on the edge of this rectangle will not be pollinated. Write a program that, given the coordinates of all flowers, for each flower calculates the total number of pollinated flowers if that flower is chosen as the base camp.
The first line contains an integer (2 ≤ M ≤ 1 000 000), the dimension of the meadow. The second line contains an integer N (1 ≤ N ≤ 300 000), the number of flowers. Each of the following N lines contains two integers x and y (0 < x, y < M), the coordinates of a flower. No two flowers will share the same pair of coordinates.
For each flower, output the number of pollinated flowers if that flower is chosen as the base camp.
1 2
2 2
2 1
1 1
Submit Solution
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Task info
Time:3 sec.
Memory:64 MB
AddedBy: dario-dsa
Source:DMIH 2009
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"language_score": 0.8509809374809265,
"url": "http://www.z-trening.com/tasks.php?show_task=5000000639&lang=uk"
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debris cone
A debris cone is commonly made when rock from a high-up narrow slit or gorge falls into a flat-floored valley. Here the soil and loose materials are deposited, leaving a mound of conical shape. While an alluvial fan is formed when flowing water rushes rock and soil down a slope, debris cones come from a dry process known as “mass wasting”—that is, gravity pulling loose materials downslope. Such mounds can reach sizes large enough to obstruct river channels. Similar deposits can also be found lying on boulders moved by a landslide, or on a glacier, where a cone-shaped mound of ice or snow may be covered with a veneer of debris thick enough to prevent the underlying ice from melting. A debris cone is also called a dirt cone or cone of detritus.
Lan Samantha Chang
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"edu_score": 3.921875,
"fasttext_score": 0.14577919244766235,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9532206654548645,
"url": "http://test.ourhomeground.com/entries/definition/debris_cone"
}
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{4F805597-AC32-42F4-9EE2-BAD88CE3B8B2} Activities
Search Advanced
You are here : Jewish Zionist Education Compelling Content Jewish Life Life Cycle Jewish Life Cycle Activities
Compelling Content
Jewish Peoplehood
Israel and Zionism
Jewish Life
Festivals and Memorial Days
Life Cycle
Jewish Sources
Jewish Values
Jewish History
CHAPTER TWO - Birth Ceremonies and Life Beginnings
1. Naming [Sections 1 – 6]
2. How Many Names? [Section 3]
3. Father Moses [Sections 4,6]
4. Covenanting [Sections 9 – 11]
5. Choosing Circumcision [Section 9]
6. Elijah’s Chair [Section 11]
7. What of the Girls? [Section 13]
8. Elaborating [Section 14]
9. That Wonderful Wimple [Section 14]
We bring here a number of ideas for educational activities on some of the issues addressed in this chapter. We do not suggest using all of the activities together, but choosing those most relevant for your group or class. Next to each activity is the name of the relevant section from the background file for this chapter, i.e. the section that discusses the issue examined in the activity.
(One and a quarter - one and three quarter hours.) [ Sections 1– 6 ]
The aim of this exercise is to think about the question of a birth name, the factors that go into choosing a birth name and the role of a chosen name in developing the future identity of a child.
• The group members/students should come to the activity having researched their first names. This research should include discussing with parents the factors that went into the choice of their vernacular names, the meaning and associations of the vernacular name, and the factors that went into the choice of their Jewish (Hebrew) name, if they have one.
• Introduce the idea of names with the two Biblical readings from Bereishit ( readings 2 and 3 in text section ). Use them to suggest that the issue of naming is taken very seriously in Judaism: with G-d and Adam as models, how could it be otherwise?
You can amplify this with the wonderful poem by Susan Donnelly (from D. Curzon (ed.) Modern Poems on the Bible ), in which Eve protests that Adam in his heavy-handed way knows nothing about naming and has saddled her with an entirely unsuitable name.
• In small groups of three or four, the members of the group should discuss what they know about their own vernacular names and the factors that went into those names. If their vernacular and Jewish names are the same, then they should naturally talk about those names and the reasons for the names being the same, adding these reasons as factors to the list.
• The group should be brought together and the lists shared to create one large list. Each factor on the list should be examined to see how many people in the group had at least one of their names chosen for that particular reason.
• The question of having separate vernacular and Jewish names should now be discussed:
• Why are people given two kinds of names?
• What does it mean when parents give a child a vernacular name that is the same (even in anglicized form) as the Hebrew name?
• What do these choices say about the way that parents want their children to develop their identity within the wider society?
• Do the members of the group think it a good idea or a bad idea to have different Jewish (Hebrew) and vernacular names?
• Would they choose to do that for their children, or not? Why?
• Now introduce the story The Name by Aharon Megged (see bibliography ). Either bring the whole story and allow a good half hour to read it, or choose part of the story to read together.
• Discuss the dilemma in the story and the reactions of the different characters to the issue.
• Is it fair to give the baby the name that the grandfather wishes to give it in order to remember a dead relative? With whose position do the group members sympathize?
• In their original small groups they should talk about whether they like or don’t like the names that they have and what they think of the reasons that they were given their names.
• Finally, the group should be given the excerpt by Franz Rosenzweig.
• What is he saying?
• What do the group members think of his point of view?
• Review with the group:
• What were the main factors in choosing a name in our experience and in these stories?
• What were the exceptional factors?
• What have we learned about naming?
(An hour to an hour and a half.) [ Section 3 ]
The aim of this activity is to examine the question of the multiple meanings of the idea of a name to an individual.
• Each person sits alone and writes their name in large letters on a piece of paper. Around the name, they should write as many associations as they can. (An association in this context is anything that they think of when they think about themselves, e.g. smart, funny, short, dark, serious, chess-player, soccer-player, good friend, lonely, shy etc.) They are writing only for themselves, no one else will see what they write. They then put the sheet of paper away.
• Now divide the group into pairs. Each person writes down the name of their partner on a piece of paper in large letters. Underneath that, they should write down up to half a dozen associations that they think of when they think about their partner. Explain to participants that none of the associations should be insulting or negative. They can be neutral or positive. That sheet of paper should also be put away.
• Bring two sets of pairs together to create small groups and give each group the midrash on the different names that a person develops .
• Each group reads the text and tries to work out the difference between the three names.
• What do the Rabbis mean by the three names?
• Does the group agree that each individual has three such names?
• Is there any sense in which an individual gains additional names?
• If they were trying to put over the general idea that the Rabbis are conveying in the midrash, how would they state it?
• Revert to the earlier pairs and each person should pass to the other one the sheet of paper with the associations that they wrote about the other. They should examine the papers and then comment on them to the other.
• Do they agree with the associations?
• Do they think that this is a fair representation of themselves?
• Is it very different from the page that they wrote for themselves?
• If it is different, why do they think that there is such a large difference between the way that they see themselves and the way that they are seen by the other?
• Is such a difference inevitable?
They can choose two items from their own list that they wish to add to the other list, in order that the other list should reflect them more accurately.
• At this point, on an individual level, they should look at the poem Every Person has a Name – written by the poet Zelda and found in many anthologies of Jewish and Hebrew verse (incl. the Penguin Book of Hebrew Verse , ed. T. Carmi p558). They should try and understand the poem, which talks of the many things that influence a person’s name and identity. They should consider which images are strongest for them.
• The entire group should come together and share their thoughts regarding the strength of the images in Zelda’s poem.
• Finally, ask the following review questions:
• How important is the name that a person receives from their parents in the overall name (i.e. identity) that they develop during their lifetime?
• How much is your birth-name an important part of your identity?
• Why?
(An hour to an hour and a half.) [Sections 4 , 6 ]
The aim of this activity is to examine the role of names in transmitting cultural identity down the generations.
• Explain to the group that the subject of the activity is the power of names to affect identity. Bring the excerpt from Shemot in which Moses decided to name his son Gershom (reading 21 in the text section). Go through the text and examine the reasons that would have caused Moses to give his son such a strange name. (Follow the textual analysis in the background & text files above).
• The group should be divided into pairs. Each pair should try and come up with a list of pros and cons for Moses’ final decision to name his son Gershom. The list should be as detailed and exhaustive as possible.
• The group should be brought together and a full list should be compiled representing the thoughts of the entire group.
• At this point, one of the group should be chosen as Moses and another as Gershom. There should be a role play of a confrontation between father and son, in which Gershom asks for the first time why on earth his father has given him this strange and conspicuous name which all the children talk about, causing him embarrassment and social difficulties. Moses’ first line of response should be: “I’ve been waiting for years for you to ask that question…” (This can be done either in a number of groups in parallel, or as one group).
• At the end, the group should revert to its original pairs and make a list of pros and cons, but this time for Gershom’s state of mind after he hears Moses’ explanations. This should be followed by each participant sitting and writing a first person piece in which, as Gershom, s/he puts her or his state of mind down on paper in the form of a letter to Moses.
• Bring the group together and read some of the letters and discuss them. The central questions to be raised are:
• Has Moses been fair to Gershom?
• Is cultural continuity and group identity a good enough reason to give different and potentially embarrassing names?
• Finally, bring the midrash on the role of names keeping the identity of the Jews in Egypt (reading four in the text section).
• Can names in fact preserve identity?
• If the midrash were a true story, would it have justified entire generations of parents in Egypt giving Jewish names to their children, creating difficulties and embarrassment for them every time they tried to mix in Egyptian society?
(Two hours to two and a half hours. For older groups.) [ sections 9 – 11 ]
The aim of this activity is to examine the concept of Covenant and to introduce the participants to the deep symbolism of the Brit ceremony.
• Ask the group whether any of them has ever declared or promised loyalty to a friend or a group of friends.
If there are those present who have done so, ask for volunteers to relate the experience, if they are willing. Ask whether there was any kind of a ceremony and did they do anything to swear loyalty to each other (either by some kind of an oath, or by a written letter or by the drawing of blood, or some other kind of physical mark).
• Ask the group why people create ceremonies with spoken or written formulae or physical expressions.
• Is it not enough simply to promise friendship or to agree to a particular line of action?
• What does a formal ceremony add, if anything?
• Bring the Brit agreement from Bereishit (Reading 8c in the text section ). Explain the concept of Covenant to the group.
• Ask what the Brit ceremony is meant to add to the relationship between Abraham and G-d.
• Ask them to comment on the text in which the consequences of non-circumcision are spelled out.
• Explain that there are some Jewish men and women who are unhappy about their circumcision and are taking measures to reverse the process. Bring the Jerusalem Report piece on the RECAP organization ( reading 9 in the text section). Draw attention to the quote saying that many Jewish rituals have changed and that circumcision should be dropped too.
• Divide the group up into pairs and ask each pair to write a response to the RECAP organization from the vantage-point of an editorial article in a Jewish newspaper.
• Come together and share some of the responses.
• Bring the group a copy of the Brit ceremony and give each pair some twenty minutes to half an hour to go over the ceremony, learn it and try and spot any values and ideas that the ceremony is trying to suggest. You will need first to explain terms such as Elijah’s chair, sandak and kvatter.
• As a group, list the values that they have found, asking them to show where they think they have found the values in the particular details of the ceremony. Then go through the ceremony from beginning to end, concentrating on the elements that we have brought above in the main part of the section.
• Following this, each individual should write a personal response to RECAP responding to the ideas presented in the article. At this point they represent themselves and they should explain their reactions and the reasons they are putting forward their position. They are free to accept the RECAP position, or to reject it.
• Coming together, the responses should be shared and discussed, and the final question asked:
• For those who think that circumcision is an important commandment/ tradition that should not be laid aside, how important do they see it in the hierarchy of commandments/traditions. Why?
• Finally, if possible, bring the extraordinary true story “Circumcision” (from the book Hassidic Tales of the Holocaust by Yaffa Eliach pp. 175-7), which tells of the determination of a woman to circumcize her new born baby in the hell of a Nazi slave labor camp. It provides good closure to the activity.
(An hour to an hour and a half. Also for older groups.) [ Section 9 ]
The aim of this activity is to examine the issue whether circumcision as an irreversible mark of identity should be chosen, rather than imposed at birth. This activity is recommended for older participants, including students and adults.
• Ask the participants whether circumcision is important.
• What does it represent?
• Why is it seen as so central?
In explanation raise the issue of Covenant, of membership, of a physical sign of belonging, of identity.
• Ask the participants why circumcision takes place on the eighth day. (Answer: it is mandated by G-d in his command to Abraham). Ask who was the first Jew to be circumcised and how old he was when it took place. (Abraham at ninety nine).
Now read the relevant passage from Bereishit (reading #8c in the text section).
• Ask whether Abraham had a choice in the matter: begin with this question and lead the discussion using the guidelines below to launch a structured, formal debate:
Could he have said no - and had he done so, what would have been the consequences?
Presumably he was free to reject the demand, but that would have been the end of his relationship with G-d and the end of the chance to fulfil all the Divine promises that had been promised previously. The passage is very explicit:
• Any uncircumcized male will be regarded as having broken the Covenant agreement.
• He will be cut off from his people.
It is clear from the story that Abraham had already thrown in his lot with G-d. He was not about to renounce the Covenant with all of its benefits, both material and spiritual, by refusing to pay the price of joining the club.
But the fact is that he had a choice:
Possibly, the penalty for so doing would have been worse than being cut off from the Covenant: it might have been death – but he still had a choice. He was a mature person; he could refuse to honor an agreement; he could refuse to pay the price.
The question naturally arises: if circumcision is an irreversible membership sign within the Jewish collective, should we, too, not have choice? This is the issue to be examined and we suggest doing so through a formal debate on the subject of:
This house believes that circumcision should be a meaningful conscious act undertaken by a mature individual. the age of circumcision should be postponed until an age when a person can make a conscious decision.
• The debate should be prepared ahead of time (or during a recess) with two proposers, two opposers and a moderator. The debate can be held with Abraham as the opposer, or it can be held without named characters. Rules should be agreed upon and the debate held.
• At the end, a vote should be taken and then a proper, open discussion should be held, examining the various points that the two sides have brought up.
• After the debate, suggest that the circumcision is really about parental identity and the determination to start off life as part of the collective. This way, a person has to make a more conscious decision to move out of the group rather than to move in.
• Is cultural and religious continuity a reason to allow parents to make this decision for their children?
(An hour to an hour and a quarter.) [ Section 11 ]
The aim of this activity is to introduce the multi-faceted figure of Elijah, and to discuss the “faithfulness” of the Jewish People to their traditions and commandments.
• Open with the following questions:
• What is the role of Elijah’s chair?
• What is Elijah doing at the Brit ceremony?
• Around the answers received, explain three of the four reasons that brought earlier (in the background file to this chapter and the source texts) to explain Elijah’s presence.
These are:
• As an intermediary between people and G-D.
• As a symbol of the messianic hope.
(Both of these are drawn from reading #10a in the text section.)
• As a faithful guarantor of the covenant who is a valuable enforcer of G-D’s law .
(This is drawn from reading #10b in the text section.)
• At this point “Elijah” should enter, played by one of the better actors among the group, or by a teacher or youth leader, if there is more than one working with the group. (The part needs to have been well prepared ahead of time and, if possible, should incorporate costume.The Elijah figure needs to prepare a full list of questions beforehand and should try and fit the specific questions to the specific characters in the group.)
"Elijah" explains that he has come to assess the faithfulness of the Jews to G-d’s commandments. He should challenge the individuals of the group to see how faithful each of them are to G-d’s laws. They need to answer him, explaining what they do and why they don’t do the things that perhaps they should do, according to Elijah.
(He should be firm, but not aggressive, and should encourage the members of the group to explain why they do what they do and why they don’t do other things. Having probed, he should accept the answers of each individual and then move on. He should not mention circumcision!)
• Having asked each individual, "Elijah" should then start to sum up, concentrating on the balance between the things that they do and the things that they do not do.
• He should then move on to the situation of the community (the particular community, or the Jewish People as a whole, if the group has enough knowledge to answer on that level).
(N.B. If there is a chance that any boys in the group are not circumcized, on no account use this stage:)
Finally, "Elijah" should go return to the topic of the group and exclaim that he has forgotten the most important thing of all. He should explain that he has a particular responsibility to check that a most important commandment is carried out.
• He should ask the group about circumcision.
• Hearing that the boys are indeed circumcized, he should express pleasure.
• He should then comment that even if other things are not in as good a state as he would have liked to have seen, this essential aspect of G-d’s Covenant with the Jews is being carried out in this group at least.
• He can ask why they are so careful about this particular custom.
• If "Elijah" skips the above section, he should then ask about circumcision in the Jewish community generally; this question can be asked of all groups. If the RECAP article, ( reading #9 in the text section ), has not been used in a previous activity, he can pull the article out and ask the group what they think about it.
• Finally, "Elijah" should announce that he has heard what he came for and that now he must leave. He should explain that he came as the chief inspector of G-d’s commandments and that he must go off to give his report.
• As he is about to leave, the teacher/youth leader should stop him and say that he is at least partly an imposter. S/he should explain that there are very good authorities in Judaism that say that there is a very different reason why Elijah has to be present at a Brit: The reason he has to come and quiz Jews on the commandments and check that the Covenant is still being observed is because G-d was angry with him for slandering the Jewish People, by maintaining that they were not carrying out the Covenant ( # 10b in the text section ). As a result, he is condemned to be present at every Covenant ceremony in order to see that after, three thousand years, on the whole, the Jewish People are still holding on to this central tradition, at least with regard to the ultimate Covenant ceremony, the Brit milah.
• Elijah should admit the charge and sum up the situation as he sees it today: there are many areas where the Jews are slipping away from their traditions, but in relation to the Brit milah, with only a few exceptions, he has to admit that he was wrong. Jews on the whole take care to keep the commandment/tradition.
• If you have not previously used the true story “Circumcision,” (from the book Hasidic Tales of the Holocaust , by Yaffa Eliach, pp. 175-7), "Elijah" can bring the story as an example of Jewish faithfulness and determination in the keeping of the Brit milah.
(An hour and a half to two hours.) [ Section 13 ]
The aim of this activity is to raise the question of ceremonies for girls and to suggest alternative ways of celebrating the births of girls. This activity should be held after activities relating to the Brit milah.
• Ask the group what the name is for an uncircumcised Jewish baby of more than eight days old. The answer – a girl!
• Explain the accepted traditional ritual for a girl: a naming ceremony at the synagogue the Shabbat after birth, in which the father and the mother are called up to the Torah and the name of the daughter is announced, a ceremony traditionally followed by a Kiddush – a celebration after the end of the service with food and drink for the congregants.
• Ask the group which elements mentioned in connection with the Brit milah ceremony are missing here. The answer, of course, is: almost all the ritual elements of the Brit milah ceremony. Not only the “cut” itself, but any of the many elements connected to the idea of Brit are all totally absent.
• Divide the group up into small gender-mixed groups. Let them discuss the issue and see if they have any suggestions.
• Bring the group back together. Ask the group what they think about the situation.
• Is there a difference between the responses of the boys and the girls?
• Were there any suggestions for changing the situation?
• Raise the question: Should Judaism develop a parallel ritual for the acceptance of baby girls?
This is a good opportunity to raise in discussion the rationale for ritual, asking the group whether or not it makes any difference, since the child will never remember the ceremony anyway.
• Explain that the group is going to examine different ideas for developing a ritual for girls.
As a first step, take out the Brit milah ceremony and go over the different elements with the group. (Hopefully, they will already be familiar with the ritual and the ideas behind the different elements from a previous activity).
• Divide up into working groups: the aim is to create the basis of a parallel ceremony and to explain the rationale behind the suggestions. The groups should work on a detailed basis and at the end they should come together and present their suggestions to the entire group. If there are many subgroups, this feedback could be processed in two parallel groups. The various suggestions should be compressed into a list of suggested different elements, with each element being discussed.
• If they do not appear on the list, suggest the additional two ideas that were explained in the main text above – the use of water and immersion and the incorporation of the welcoming of the new moon into the ceremony. Get reactions to the ideas.
• Finally, talk about a name for a ceremony. The traditional name for the welcoming ceremony for a girl is Simchat Bat .
Is that a good name, or should it be called by a different name which incorporates an element of Brit?
Some call it Brit bat or banot (Covenant of a daughter or daughters); some call it a Brita (an attempt to feminize the word for a Covenant).
• (Optional) Raise the question of some kind of a physical cut for the girl to parallel the circumcision element. This might, or might not, have been raised by the group in one or more of their suggestions. Explain the fact that a suggestion was made in the mid-1970’s and read the excerpt from E.M. Broner’s novel A Weave of Women (from the chapter called “The Birth”), in which a hymendectomy is part of a welcoming ceremony.
Ask the group for responses.
• Is this a suitable element or not? Why?
(An hour to an hour and a quarter.) [ Section 14 ]
The aim of this short exercise is to examine the possibilities of adding elements to the basic birth ceremony and to encourage creative thinking around ritual moments.
• Ask the group whether there is anything that is missing in the traditional ceremony.
Here we are really talking about the Brit for a boy, since there is no proper ceremony for a girl - and, therefore, if one is to be created for a girl, (as we saw in the last activity), it must be developed creatively from start to finish.
• Are there any elements that would enrich a ceremony and make it more meaningful as a ceremony?
In order to do this, you must review with the group what a birth/Brit ceremony is trying to achieve.
• Present them with the idea of tree planting around the source from the Talmud (reading 29 in the text section).
• Ask if this could be a meaningful addition as some have suggested.
• Why? Why not?
• Explain the idea of elaboration and personalization of the ceremony. Explain that the group is going to examine this process.
In the text section earlier, is an excerpt from the Talmud, in which the students of a great teacher gave a collective blessing to their teacher, Rav Ami, when they left his house after studying. We bring it again here.
May you live to see your world fulfilled,
May your destiny be for worlds still to come,
And may you trust in generations past and yet to be.
May your heart be filled with intuition
And your words be filled with insight.
May songs of praise ever be upon your tongue
And your vision be on a straight path before you.
May your eyes shine with the light of holy words
And your face reflect the brightness of the heavens.
May your lips speak wisdom
And your fulfillment be in righteousness
Even as you ever yearn to hear the words of the Holy G-d.
Bab. Talmud, Brachot 17a
Distribute it to the group; analyze and discuss it.
• How do they think Rav Ami felt when he heard his students blessing him in this way?
• Was it a good thing for them to do?
• Why?/ Why not?
• This blessing should now be made the basis of an activity in which the group has to construct their own collective group blessing for a newly arrived baby.
This can be done in a number of ways:
One suggestion is to bring a series of traditional texts for inspiration and allow the members of the group time to sort through the materials in order to take ready made elements or to inspire them creatively to develop their own.
The traditional elements can include parts of Biblical books such as Song of Songs , Psalms and Proverbs , or a rabbinic compendium like Ethics of the Fathers .
Small groups can work on a whole prayer, or sections which can then be brought together.
• Bring the group together to examine the final product or products.
• Ask the group what they think the family will feel when they hear this blessing being given to the baby.
• Is it a successful addition to the traditional ceremony?
• Why?/Why not?
• Finally, discuss the question whether it is good to make additions and, if so, what kind of additions can and should be made. Examine and discuss any extra ideas that the group might have.
(Up to one and a half hours.) [ Section 14 ]
The aim of this activity is to provide an interesting and creative approach to the Brit and to life cycle ideas.
• Explain to the group that there is an old Jewish custom that goes by the name of the “Wimple.”
According to the custom, the cloth that was used to swaddle the child at a Brit (for a boy) or for a naming ceremony (for a girl), would be washed and cut up into strips, prior to the next stage of the process. The strips would then be sewn together to form one long piece of cloth, perhaps two or three feet long. This would then be decorated with pictures, blessings and verses from the Tanach (the Hebrew Bible) that were felt to be suitable to the child and conveyed the hopes and wishes of the family towards the child. It would then be put away and used at different Jewish ritual events and ceremonies during the child’s life.
• Divide the group up into pairs and get each pair to choose up to two texts that they like from a selection that they should be given. We suggest using traditional sources, such as:
• The morning blessings that can be found at the beginning of the regular daily service in any Siddur (prayer book);
• A selection of some of the proverbs found in the Biblical book of Proverbs ;
• A few selections from Ethics of the Fathers , the section of the Mishnah that can be found in most siddurim .
Not more than fifteen or twenty options should be given.
They should also be asked to compose one blessing that they themselves would wish for a child newly arrived in the world, starting a journey through life.
• In the group, each pair should explain their choices and be asked to explain what each choice signifies for them.
• They should then be given strips of white cloth about two feet long, with art materials and be asked to decorate their strip with the utmost care. For those who can write in Hebrew it is certainly worth encouraging them to do so: (they should be given the choice of texts in both English and Hebrew, even if they do not know the Hebrew language).
• Having decorated them, they should return to the group and a discussion should be held regarding the suggested uses for the piece of cloth at different Jewish ceremonial times during a person’s life.
• The traditional uses were as a Torah wrapper, when the child was taken to the synagogue as a youngster, but old enough to understand what was going on, (or one could suggest a bar or bat mitzvah), and as part of a wedding canopy.
• One could also suggest the piece of cloth becoming part of a tallit, or being woven into, or hung up in the sukkah, or even being made into part of a shroud at death.
Discuss which would be the most suitable uses for the wimple.
• What does it add to the connection between birth and other stages of life? OR:
• Optional: Conclude by telling a fictitious story, in a round, of a person’s life, starting at birth and carrying on through the different stages of life, where the wimple has to be brought in, say, five times at different points in the life story. The story should be told with participants taking over the telling from each other, in order to create a collective group story of one person’s life (or perhaps two persons – one boy and one girl).
• What does the wimple add to the connection between birth and other stages of life?
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What Has Happened in Darfur?
The conflict in Darfur began in the spring of 2003 when two Darfuri rebel movements – the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) – launched attacks against government military installations as part of a campaign to fight against the historic political and economic marginalization of Darfur. The Sudanese government, at the time engaged in tense negotiations with the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) to end a three decades long civil war between North and South Sudan, responded swiftly and viciously to extinguish the insurgency. Through coordinated military raids with government-armed militia (collectively known as the janjaweed), the Sudanese military specifically targeted ethnic groups from which the rebels received much of their support. The civilian casualties were immense. Over 400 villages were completely destroyed and millions of civilians were forced to flee their homes.
An immense humanitarian crisis resulted from the mass displacement of these civilians. From direct attacks and the deterioration of living conditions, many experts estimate that as many as 300,000 people lost their lives between 2003 and 2005. In September 2004, President George W. Bush declared the crisis in Darfur a “genocide” – the first time a sitting American president had made such a declaration regarding an ongoing conflict. Despite the world’s growing outcry, the violence continued in Darfur and the number of dead and displaced increased considerably.
In May 2006, the Sudanese government signed a peace agreement with one of the rebel movements (SLM-Minni Minawi). However, the Sudanese government continued to fight the two other groups (SLM-Abdel Wahid and JEM) that refused to sign the agreement. The rebels also suffered from serious internal divisions and due to political differences, the movements began to fight one another, making the conflict in Darfur even more complex and jeopardizing the lives of more civilians in the process.
The United Nations-African Union peacekeeping force (UNAMID) now in Darfur replaced an underfunded and underequipped African Union peacekeeping mission in Darfur in January 2008. UNAMID to this day remains without the necessary resources to protect the 2.7 million internally displaced persons who live in large camps across Darfur. There are also around 300,000 Darfuri refugees living across the Sudanese border in neighbouring Chad. Overall, the UN estimates that roughly 4.7 million people in Darfur (out of a total population of roughly 6 million) are still affected by the conflict.
Today, fighting between the rebel movements and the government continues. In the last few years, opportunistic bandits and militias have also taken advantage of the anarchy in Darfur. General banditry and looting jeopardize humanitarian aid and gender-based crimes are now being committed by many different sides. Despite this chaotic environment, the Sudanese government remains the most responsible for the violence in Darfur. President al-Bashir and others in his government created the anarchic conditions presiding in Darfur today through their violent violent counterinsurgency campaign targeting innocent men, women and children. Furthermore, the Sudanese government has obstructed the deployment of an international peacekeeping force, avoided serious negotiations with the rebel groups, refused to prosecute any individuals responsible for crimes against humanity committed in Darfur, and most recently expelled thirteen international humanitarian aid groups from Darfur. These actions continue to leave many civilians in Darfur unprotected and dispossessed of their basic human rights.
Darfur: Underlying Tensions & Dispelling Myths
It is important to dispel a few common myths surround ing the conflict.
1. The first myth is that the crisis in Darfur is an Arab versus African conflict.
While the janjaweed are often described as Arab militias, this labeling does not imply that all Arabs in Darfur are fighting on the side of the janjaweed. Many Arabs in Darfur have actually opposed the janjaweed and some Arabs have fought with the rebel movements. Furthermore, Darfur is a diverse land – people speak many different languages. The terms “Arab” and “African” apply not only to ethnic and linguistic similarities but also to cultural and socio-economic connections. Intermarriage and mixed settlement makes it difficult to tell the difference between ethnic groups. It is true, however, that the conflict has intensified identity differences between groups in Darfur.
2. The second common myth is that the conflict is a dispute over water resources.
The Sahel region of sub-Saharan Africa has been severely affected over the last twenty years by desertification which some climatologists attribute to global warming. Severe droughts have become more frequent in both Darfur and Chad. These droughts and general alterations in rain patterns have affected migration patterns of Darfuri nomadic tribes who breed cattle and camels. These changes subsequently led to increasing clashes between nomadic and sedentary farmers about the traditional land-tenure system. Most disputes, however, were handled through traditional means of consultation and arbitration.
The Sudanese government took advantage of rising tensions over land and water when it planned its response to the Darfuri rebel attacks in 2003. It sought recruits for the janjaweed from the nomadic tribes that had been most affected by the changes in weather patterns and land-tenure system. The government in some cases offered these tribes land and other financial incentives for their participation in the attacks against the largely sedentary tribes from which the rebel groups drew much of their support. Other theories about the conflict in Darfur being a result of oil or other natural resources do not have any real legitimacy.
3. It is also a common misperception that the conflict is Muslim versus Christian.
This is not correct. Ninety-nine percent of Darfurians are Muslim, and the leaders of the Sudanese government and the janjaweed that carried out the genocide in Darfur are predominantly Muslim.
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Famous Japanese Swordsmen
of the Warring States Period
by William de Lange
“Rich in disasters, dreadful in its battles, rent by its seditions, and even cruel in its times of peace,” the Warring States period (1467–1568) was the most destructive in Japan’s long history of civil strife. It began when the dearly won supremacy of the Ashikaga clan was squandered by a weak and indecisive ruler, allowing the jealous rivalry between local warlords to spiral irrevocably out of control. It was a time when thousands upon thousands of warriors either perished on the battlefield, or persevered simply on the strength of their martial skill. At the end of the day, only those with superior skill remained standing to survey the carnage and to make up the balance by counting the severed heads of their fallen foes. In spite of all the mayhem and bloodshed, they were also men with an inextinguishable moral core, who adhered with almost religious devotion to the bushidô dictates of duty, fidelity, decorum, indeed, even of benevolence.
Two such men were Iizasa Chôisai Ienao and Kami Izumi Nobutsuna. Both not only witnessed but actively participated in the dramatic events of the period at hand. Thus, Ienao served on the Shogunal guard when, following the outbreak of the Ônin War in 1467, the capital Kyoto was reduced to ashes in a decade of trench warfare. And thus Nobutsuna had to witness how, in the terrible wave of anarchy that followed in its wake, all that his ancestors had toiled for was lost. Their story, told against the greater historical backdrop of ruthless political intrigue and vast military campaigns, is a story of the tragedy of civil war experienced at the personal level—it is a story of sacrifice, of blind devotion, of seemingly insurmountable setbacks. Yet it is at the same time a testimony to the kind of perseverance and dedication that can have no equal in times of peace.
William de Lange studied Japanese language and culture at the University of Leiden and at Waseda University in Japan. Active as a translator and interpreter, he is the author of Japanese Idioms, Iaido, and Pars Japonica: The First Dutch Expedition to Reach Japan.
256 pp, 5.25 x 8.25, Soft
62 monochrome illustrations, 23 maps, 3 diagrams, glossary, index
History / Martial arts / Japanese swords and swordsmanship
ISBN: 978-1-891640-43-8
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previous sub-section
4 Measure of Ideas, Rule of Language: Mathematics and Language in the 18th Century
next sub-section
Artificial Languages
In the last third of the 18th century, perceived flaws in existing languages called forth a spate of proposals for artificial ones free from flaws—and the very profusion of existing languages, like antiquated social structures and inconsistent systems of weights and measures, cried out for rationalization. To answer this call, several authors proposed a "pasigraphy," from the Greek terms for "universal" and "writing"—a set of rational, universal symbols each person could read in his or her own language. Consider the artificial language proposed by György Kalmár in his Praecepta grammatica atque specimina linguae philosophicae sive universalis, ad omnevitae genus adcommodatae .[16] The fact that Kalmár thought it necessary to publish his proposal in Latin, German, and Italian editions in the space of just two
years testified to the need, as he saw it, for a universal mode of communication. Clearly, his native Hungarian would not suffice; nor, he thought, would other existing languages. All were crippled by grammatical irregularities and orthographic confusion. For his new language, Kalmár constructed both a general, rational grammar and a new set of 400 primitive characters. Kalmár's familiarity with Hungarian as well as other languages helped him to construct a general language capable of accommodating "the details, and even the anomalies, of all existing languages."[17]
Two more examples, taken from opposing camps in the political turmoil of the 1790s, illustrate further the broad appeal of the rationalization of grammar and the invention of a language all nations might share. In 1795 Jean Delormel presented to the National Convention in Paris his project for a new and universal language. Shortly thereafter Joseph de Maimieux, a nobleman who had fled to Germany and no friend of the Convention, published his own pasigraphy. Both Delormel and de Maimieux intended their schemes to further the objectives of rationalization and universal communication; both drew inspiration and justification from the esprit géometrique .
Delormel recognized that "extraordinary epochs" offer the opportunity, impossible in normal circumstances, to realize "interesting projects." He presented his own proposal during just such an epoch, at a moment ripe for disseminating "the principles of equality." Delormel's proposal included a binomial classification of substantives by genera and species. In tune with the call for rationalization, Delormel coupled the taxonomy with a system for the regular formation of derivative words; no longer would language need to submit to the tyranny and caprice of usage. As a reviewer of Delormel's scheme commented in 1797, "changes on words are to be rung with all the regularity of a multiplication-table."[18] Such comments doubtless
pleased Delormel, who considered the analogy to numeration to be a prime reason for the simplicity of his scheme.
His system prescribed ten vowels, according to the spirit of the day, and twice that number of consonants. The thicket of synonyms was cleared away, replaced by seven degrees of comparison. Delormel measured the advantages to be gained: where ordinary dictionaries contained 30,000 words, he claimed that one-tenth that number would suffice in his project. More than that, he proclaimed that his new language would promote the "central unity" of the Republic and, by uniting savants of different nations, would spur the progress of science. "Enlightenment brings together men of all sorts, and this language, by facilitating communication, will propagate enlightenment."[19]
Joseph de Maimieux also billed his pasigraphy as offering all the advantages of a rational scheme of knowledge expressed in a universal form. And, he claimed, an enthusiastic audience awaited. One exuberant disciple would later honor the all-encompassing nature of de Maimieux's scheme by dubbing him a second Leibniz. De Maimieux likened pasigraphy to numerals in arithmetic, lines of music, and "characters of chemistry" — "equally intelligible from Petersburg to Malta, Madrid to Peru, London and Paris to Philadelphia or the isle de Bourbon."[20] He devised twelve characters, some of which were mirror images of one another; twelve grammatical rules universally applicable and permitting no exceptions; and three sets of tables. These sets of tables corresponded to the three species of pasigraphic words: those of three, four, or five characters respectively. Words of three characters constituted what de Maimieux called the Indicule . In the Indicule , the first character specified the relevant column (out of twelve columns); the second specified the tranche (six for each column); and the third, the line (one of six) within a given tranche . The Indicule , together with the Petit
Nomenclateur (for words of four characters) and the Grand Nomenclateur (for words of five characters), made up the second part of the Maimieux's pasigraphy. Each page of the tables contained scores of French words, arrayed according to de Maimieux's outline of knowledge.
He claimed much for this scheme. Unlike the "alphabetic chaos" of standard dictionaries, "the pasigraphic order is a natural order." Every word in the system could express "thought, state, action, or passion by means of a progressive analytic development, but without any analytic appareil ." The twelve grammatical rules governed declension, modification, conjugation, and enunciation, and, de Maimieux puffed, yielded up great logical and grammatical riches. The tables of the Indicule, Petit Nomenclateur , and Grand Nomenclateur also provided a mappemonde intellectuel of visual, analytic, and mnemonic convenience.[21]
Although the printer might have complained about having to cast a new font of type (which might never be used again), de Maimieux was fortified by enthusiasm. The relative complexity of concepts would be evident at a glance, measured by the number of characters used in a given word; nature and knowledge could be surveyed with ease from an armchair. De Maimieux proclaimed his lowered expectations, at least by comparison to those held by Wilkins and others in the creation of universal characters in the late 17th century. De Maimieux aimed, not at a representation of truth, but at a handy chart to facilitate communication across linguistic boundaries.
The coordinates in this mappemonde covered varied lexical terrain. Column 9 of the Indicule concerned simple aspects of "science, grammaire, calcul." At the 6th tranche , line 1, de Maimieux put "Plus, au plus, de plus"; four lines down he placed "Beaucoup, bien, très, fort."[22] Cadre 6, column 6 of the Petit Nomenclateur listed civil acts, including privilège, procès-verbal , and confronter ; more lively were the inhabitants of cadre 3, column 6, tranche 4: "Rhinoceros, girafe, onagre, zèbre, buffle, cerf, daim, rène, chamois, gazelle,
grisbock, chevreuil, cabri, vigogne, musc, élan, original." In the Grand Nomenclateur de Maimieux mapped out more complex concepts, with columns for such diverse categories as Dieu, etre, esprit; astres, signes, élémens; insouciance; actes religieux; meubles; arts chymiques . He paid tribute to the reigning confusion of measures and money by supplying an additional four-page alphabetic, multilingual list of available units.
De Maimieux thus borrowed from the encyclopedic spirit of the age, reckoned with the profusion of measures and tongues, marshaled concepts of universal grammar, and hammered his system into a numerical matrix. By analogy to latitude and longitude, de Maimieux's characters could lead a reader straight to the location of the idea in the "topographic map of the domain of thought."[23] De Maimieux followed this with a Carte générale pasigraphique in 1808. Containing some 8,000 words, the tableau of 1808 was nearly as complete as the original version, but multiplied pasigraphic confusion by its incompatibility with its predecessor.[24]
Both de Maimieux and his defenders resorted to mathematical terms in describing the merits of his pasigraphies. De Maimieux saw his system as "a sort of general glossomètre which will give the measure of the richness of each language [and] rectify the inexactitudes of translations, in applying to languages a common scale."[25] One of his disciples went so far as to describe algebra as "that pasigraphy of quantities."[26]
De Maimieux's pasigraphy is a multidimensional variant on proposals in the 17th and 18th centuries for numerical dictionaries—polyglot dictionaries with numbered entries. All these proposals built upon what was seen as the universal intelligibility of Arabic numerals.[27] As Robert Boyle had written in the mid-17th century,
"Since our arithmetical characters are understood by all the nations of Europe the same way, though every several people express that comprehension with its own particular language I conceive no impossibility that opposes the doing that in words, that we see already done in numbers."[28] The idea that mathematical concepts, especially the concepts of number and their representation by Arabic numerals, were universally comprehensible, held persistent appeal to those who aimed at universal, rational languages. In 1801, for example, Zalkind Hourwitz proposed a Polygraphie that relied on the assignment of a number to each word in a basic polyglot dictionary. The same number thus served to designate words with the same meaning in several languages.[29] As the subtitle of his book indicates, Hourwitz intended polygraphy to facilitate the art of communication across national boundaries. Not long afterward Jacques de Cambry did likewise, explicitly invoking the blessings of numeracy in his Manuel interprète de correspondance, on Vocabulaires polyglottes alphabétiques et numériques en tableaux .[30] His mappemonde encompassed not merely Francophones, but also speakers and writers of Italian, Spanish, German, English, Dutch, and the ever-vexing "Celto-breton."
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jump to: navigation, search
English [edit]
Etymology [edit]
From Middle English schalowe (not deep, shallow); apparently related to Old English sceald (shallow). See also shoal.
Pronunciation [edit]
Adjective [edit]
shallow (comparative shallower, superlative shallowest)
1. Having little depth; significantly less deep than wide.
This crater is relatively shallow
Saute the onions in a shallow pan
2. Extending not far downward.
The water is shallow here
3. Concerned mainly with superficial matters.
It was a glamorous but shallow lifestyle
4. Lacking interest or substance.
The acting is good, but the characters are shallow
5. (tennis) Not far forward, close to the net
Antonyms [edit]
Translations [edit]
Noun [edit]
shallow (plural shallows)
The ship ran aground in an unexpected shallow.
Usage notes [edit]
• Usually used in the plural form.
Translations [edit]
See also [edit]
Verb [edit]
1. To make or become less deep
Anagrams [edit]
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The Full Wiki
Southwestern United States: Map
Wikipedia article:
Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:
The Southwestern United States is a region defined in different ways by different sources. Broad definitions include nearly a quarter of the United States, including Californiamarker, Nevadamarker, Arizonamarker, New Mexicomarker, Utahmarker, Coloradomarker, Oklahomamarker, and Texasmarker. Narrowly defined the Southwest might include only portions of Arizona and New Mexico.
Regional Geography
The geographer D. W. Meinig defines the core of the Southwest as the portion of New Mexico west of the Llano Estacadomarker and the portion of Arizona east of the Mohave-Sonoran Desertmarker and south of the "canyonlands", and also including the El Pasomarker district of western Texas and the southernmost part of Colorado. He identidies four distinct subregions with this core.
He calls the first subregion "Northern New Mexico", and describes it as focused on Albuquerquemarker and Santa Femarker. It extends from the San Luis Valley of southern Colorado to south of Socorromarker and including the Manzano Mountains, with an east-west breadth in the north stretching from the upper Canadian River to the upper San Juan River. Important ethnic groups include Hispanos, Anglo-Americans, and the Puebloan peoples. The area around Albuquerque is sometimes called Central New Mexico. During the Spanish era the term Rio Abajo and Rio Arriba were used for the settled areas around Albuquerque and Santa Fe, respectively. During the 19th century Hispano people expanded north into the San Luis Valley west of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, and east of the mountains along the Purgatoire River in Colorado. Hispano expansion to the east reached into the Texas Panhandlemarker and, to the west, along the San Juan River and Little Colorado River into Arizona.
"Central Arizona" is vast metropolitan area spread across one contiguous sprawling oasis, essentially equivalent to the Phoenix metropolitan area. The city of Phoenixmarker is the largest urban center, and located in the approximate center of the area, but it is just one of many urban centers, such as Tempemarker, Mesamarker, and many others. None are clearly dominant although the whole can be considered the greater metropolitan area of Phoenix.
Meinig calls the third subregion "El Paso, Tucson, and the Southern Borderlands". While El Pasomarker and Tucsonmarker are distinctly different cities they share a similar and somewhat overlapping hinterland between them. El Paso is about half Hispano and, with Ciudad Juárezmarker, just half of the largest metropolitan area along the Mexico – United States border. Tucsonmarker occupies a large oasis at the western end of the El Paso-Tucson corridor. The region between the two cities is a major transportation trunk with settlements servicing both highway and railway needs. There are also large mining operations, ranches, and agricultural oases. Both El Paso and Tucson have large military installations nearby; Fort Blissmarker and White Sands Missile Rangemarker north of El Paso, and, near Tucson, the Davis-Monthan Air Force Basemarker. About to the southeast are the research facilities at Fort Huachuca. These military installations form a kind of hinterland around the El Paso-Tucson region, and are served by scientific and residential communities such as Sierra Vistamarker, Las Crucesmarker, and Alamogordomarker. El Paso's influence extends north into the Mesilla Valley, and southeast along the Rio Grande into the [Trans-Pecos]] region of Texas. The entire region has a large Hispano population. The Native American Tohono O'odham and Yaqui Native Americans continue to preserve cultural traditions and link Tucson with native lands to the west and south.
The fourth subregion Meinig calls the "Northern Corridor and Navaholands". A major highway and railway trunk connects Albuquerque and Flagstaffmarker. Just north of the transportation trunk are large blocks of Native American land. Once regarded as a bleak wasteland populated by a dying culture, the native cultures, especially the Navajo Nation, have undergone a strong resurgence and is playing an increasingly important role. Other tribes such as the Hopi and Zuni have also experienced a similar resurgence. Several towns and cities serve as contact points between the native peoples and other groups. Notable examples include Farmington, New Mexicomarker, Gallupmarker, Window Rock, Arizonamarker, Flagstaff, Arizonamarker, and, to a lesser degree, Prescott, Arizonamarker. In the Little Colorado River and Mogollon Rim country there is an old and continuing Mormon influence. Many old Mormon settlements have grown rapidly with the arrive of migrants mainly from Texas, the American South, and the Pacific Northwest. Districts around old Mormon villages such as Ramah, New Mexicomarker are often populated by a mix of at least five ethnic groups and culture, such as Mormons, Pueblo Zunis, Navajos, Hispanos, and Texans.
The Phoenix metropolitan area dominates the western half of the Southwest's core region, so much so that it subordinates the subregions around Flagstaff and Tucson. Thus the basic spatial structure of the Southwest can be seen as focused on the three largest metropolitan areas of Phoenix, Albuquerque, and El Paso. This core of the Southwest is directly linked to other regions. The Mojave Desert separates it from Southern California. Several corridors and urban centers in the desert link the two region, most significantly at Las Vegas, Nevadamarker, where the Arizona and California systems interlock. The Mormon Corridor links the Southwest to the main body of Mormon settlements in Utah. Mormons have colonized areas of Arizona and New Mexico since the 19th century, especially in the San Juan Basin near Farmington and along the Mogollon Rim and Little Colorado River in Arizona. Las Vegas also served as a pivotal point of Mormon Corridor between Utah, northern Arizona, and southern California. These areas link the Southwest with the main concentration of Mormon settlements in Utah and eastern Idaho. New Mexico is directly linked with Colorado, with cities such as Durangomarker, Alamosamarker, Walsenburgmarker, and Trinidadmarker having characteristics of both regions. The Southwest is loosely linked with the Midwest in northeast New Mexico, into which the grain farming system of Kansas had been extended. The Southwest-Midwest link via the Santa Fe Trail was historically of enormous importance. The Southwest is linked to Texas in eastern New Mexico, especially along the Pecos River and on the Llano Estacado, where an early mass influx of Texan farmers was later reinforced by the oil industry. Roswell, New Mexicomarker occupies a border position between Albuquerque and the Texan system. Finally, the Southwest is intimately linked to Mexicomarker, most tightly at El Paso and Cuidad Juarez and secondarily at Tucson and Nogales.
With the European colonization of the Americans, New Spain, later to become Mexicomarker was dominant until the 19th century. With Manifest Destiny, United States gradually gained control over the west. Pro-Confederate Texas and Pro-Union Utah were important at this point, although California rapidly became the main western power. Utahns moved west into Nevada and Northern California, whereas Texans moved into New Mexico and Arizona. Parts of New Mexico and Arizona were briefly a Confederate territory, then were transformed into a Union territory, then Union state. Arizona's original government and military were similar to those Texasmarker at the time had. Arizona, in the form of the Gadsden Purchase also has connections to the Republic of Sonora. See California in the American Civil War for elements of Southern origin in that state.
Southwestern like vegetation that thrives in dry conditions such as the Spanish Dagger, Prickly Pear Cactus, Barrel Cactus, Desert Spoon, Creosote Bush, Texas Live Oak Tree, Honey Mesquite Tree, and Ashe Juniper can be seen growing beginning roughly around the far west side of Fort Worthmarker, 10 miles east of downtown Austinmarker, and 55 miles east of downtown San Antoniomarker. South Texas, while flat and of low elevation, also exhibits characteristics of the Southwest with large amounts of brush, Prickly Pear Cactus, and bare topsoil. All of the above features are not found to be native to or existing in signifcant amounts to the more eastern parts of Texas which includes, for example, , , , , and . Some sources, however, put this boundary line much further west (for example at the beginning of the ) and classify most of Texas and Oklahoma as a "southwestern" sub-region of the American South; thus distinguishing them from the other states commonly considered Southwestern. Regardless, there are still signifcant similarities between Central, South, and West Texas and the rest of the established Southwest.
The Southwest is ethnically varied, with significant European American and Hispanic American populations in addition to more regional African American, Asian American, and American Indian populations.
Cities and urban areas
The area also contains many of the nations largest cities and metropolitan areas, despite relatively low population density in rural areas. Houstonmarker, Dallasmarker, Phoenixmarker and San Antoniomarker are among the top ten most populous cities and metro areas in the country. Many of the states in this region, such as Arizonamarker, Nevadamarker, New Mexicomarker and Texasmarker have witnessed some of the highest population growth in the United States. Urban areas in this region, like Albuquerquemarker, Austinmarker, Las Vegasmarker, Phoenixmarker, Tucsonmarker and El Pasomarker are some of the fastest-growing cities in the country.
1. Southwest, pp. 3-8
2. Southwest, pp. 95-101
3. Southwest, pp. 28-29
4. Southwest, pp. 103-106
5. Southwest, pp. 112-114
6. Southwest, pp. 114-119
7. Southwest, pp. 123-136
8. Gastil,Raymond "Cultural Regions of the United States" University of Washington Press, pp.199-204
9. 50 most populous cities in the U.S.,
External links
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North German Plain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Physical map of Germany. The North German Plain largely corresponds to the dark green surfaces north of the tan-coloured low mountain ranges
Morning fog in East Frisia.
The North German Plain or Northern Lowland[1][2] is one of the major geographical regions of Germany. It is the German part of the North European Plain. The region is bounded by the coasts of the North Sea and Baltic Sea to the north and Germany's Central Uplands (Mittelgebirge) to the south.
In the west, the southern boundary of the North German Plain is formed by the Lower Saxon Hills - specifically the ridge of the Teutoburg Forest, the Wiehen Hills, the Weser Hills and the Lower Saxon Börde - which partly separate it from that area of the Plain known as the Westphalian Lowland. Elements of the Rhenish Massif also act a part of the southern boundary of the plain: the Eifel, Bergisches Land and the Sauerland. In the east the North German Plain spreads out beyond the Harz mountains and Kyffhäuser further to the south as far as the Central Saxon hill country and the foothills of the Ore Mountains.
Landscape, soils and their formation [edit]
It is known that the North German Plain was formed during the Pleistocene era as a result of the various glacial advances of terrestrial Scandinavian ice sheets as well as by periglacial geomorphologic processes.[citation needed] The terrain may be considered as part of the Old or Young Drift (Alt- or Jungmoräne), depending on whether or not it was formed by the ice sheets of the last glacial period, the Weichselian Ice Age, The surface relief varies from level to undulating. The lowest points are low moorlands and old marshland on the edge of the ridge of dry land in the west of Schleswig-Holstein (the Wilster Marsh is 3.5 metres below sea level) and in the north west of Lower Saxony (Freepsum, 2.3 metres below sea level). The highest points may be referred to as Vistula and Hall glaciation terminal moraines (depending on the ice age which formed them) – e.g. on the Fläming Heath (200 metres above sea level) and the Helpt Hills (179 metres). Following the ice ages, rain-catching high moor bogs originated in western and northern Lower Saxony during warm periods of high precipitation (cf the Atlantic warm period). These bogs were formerly widespread but much of this terrain has now been drained or otherwise superseded.
The coastal areas consist of Holocene lake and river marshes and lagoons connected to Pleistocene Old and Young Drift terrain in various stages of formation and weathering. After or during the retreat of the glaciers, wind-borne sand often formed dunes, which were later fixed by vegetation. Human intervention caused the emergence of open heath such as the Lüneburg Heath, and measures such as deforestation and the so-called Plaggenhieb (removal of the topsoil for use as fertiliser elsewhere) caused a wide impoverishment of the soil (Podsol) . The most fertile soils are the young marshes (Auen-Vegen) and the Börde areas (Hildesheim Börde, Magdeburg Börde, with their fertile, loess soils). High level bog peat can be found in the poorest soils, e.g. in the Teufelsmoor. In the loess areas of the lowland are found the oldest settlement locations in Germany (Linear Pottery culture).
The north eastern part of the plain (Young Drift) is geomorphologically distinct and contains a multitude of lakes (e.g. the Mueritz lake in the Mecklenburg Lake Plateau) which are vestiges of the last ice age. The retreating glaciers left this landscape behind around 16,000 to 13,000 years ago. In comparison, the dry plains of northwestern Germany (Lower Saxony, western Schleswig-Holstein and the Bochum area of North Rhine Westphalia) are more heavily weathered and levelled (Old Drift) as the last large scale glaciations here occurred at least 130,000 years ago.
The region is drained by rivers that flow northwards into the North Sea or the Baltic. The Rhine, Ems, Weser, Elbe and Havel are the most important rivers which drain the North German Lowlands into the North Sea and created woods in their flood plains and folds, e.g. the Spreewald ("Spree Forest").[3] Only a small area of the North German Plain falls within the catchment area of the Oder and Neiße rivers which drain into the Baltic.
Climate and vegetation [edit]
The North Sea coast and the adjacent coastal areas of the facing East and North Frisian Islands are characterised by a maritime climate. South of the coast, a broad band of maritime and sub-maritime climate stretches from the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein to the western edges of the Central Uplands. To the south east and east, the climate becomes increasingly subcontinental: characterised by temperature differences between summer and winter which progressively increase away from the tempering effect of the ocean. Locally, a drier continental climate can be found in the rain shadow of the Harz and some smaller areas of upland like the Drawehn and the Fläming. Special microclimates occur in bogs and heathlands and, for example, in the Altes Land near Hamburg, which is characterised by relatively mild temperatures year round due to the proximity of the North Sea and lower Elbe river, providing excellent conditions for fruit production.
Azonal vegetation complexes of moors, riparian forests, fens and water bodies originally stretched along the rivers Ems, Weser, Elbe, Havel and Spree. Distinctive salt marshes, tideflats and tidal reed beds in the estuaries existed permanently in the tidal zone of the North Sea coast. The natural vegetation of the North German Plain is thought to have been forest formed mainly by the dominant species European Beech (Fagetalia).
Natural regions [edit]
According to Germany's Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, the BfN, the North German Plain consists of the natural regions listed below. Where possible, their names have been derived from authoritative English-language source(s), as indicated by the references.
* D01 Mecklenburg Coastal Lowland[2]
* D02 Northeast Mecklenburg Lowland (including the Szczecin Lagoon)
* D03 Mecklenburg Lake Plateau Hinterland
* D04 Mecklenburg Lake Plateau[2]
* D05 Mecklenburg-Brandenburg Plateau and Upland
* D06 East Brandenburg Plateau
* D07 Oder Valley
* D08 Lusatian Basin and Spreewald[2]
* D09 Middle Elbe Plain
* D10 Elbe-Mulde Plain
* D11 Fläming Heath[1][2]
* D12 Brandenburg Heath and Lake District
* D13 Upper Lusatian Plateau[2]
* D14 Upper Lusatia[1]
* D21 Schleswig-Holstein Marsch
* D22 Schleswig-Holstein Geest[1][2] (older moraines above marsh level)
* D23 Schleswig-Holstein Upland[1] (more recent moraines)
* D24 Lower Elbe Marsch[1]
* D25 Ems and Weser Marsch
* D26 East Frisian Geest[1]
* D27 Stade Geest[1]
* D28 Lüneburg Heath[1][2]
* D29 Wendland and Altmark[1]
* D30 Dümmer and Ems-Hunte Geest[1]
* D31 Weser-Aller Plain
* D34 Westphalian Lowland[1] or Basin[2]
* D35 Lower Rhine Plain[1] and Cologne Lowland[1][2]
Military importance [edit]
Probable axes of attack of the Warsaw Pact through the Fulda Gap and the North German Plains according to the U.S. Army.
NATO military strategists identified the North German plain as an area which might be used as one of two major invasion routes into Western Europe by Warsaw Pact forces, led by the Soviet Third Shock Army, should the Cold War have ever gotten "hot". The plain's geography which makes it suitable for the deployment of armoured and mechanized manoeuvre, was the main reason for it being identified as a significant risk similar to that presented by the alternative route, the Fulda Gap. The defence of the Plain was the responsibility of NATO's Northern Army Group and Second Allied Tactical Air Force, made up of German, Dutch, Belgian, British and U.S. forces including 1st British Corps.
See also [edit]
References [edit]
Footnotes [edit]
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Dickinson, Robert E. (1964). Germany: A regional and economic geography (2nd ed.). London: Methuen. p. 84. ASIN B000IOFSEQ.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Elkins, T.H. (1972). Germany (3rd ed.). London: Chatto & Windus, 1972. ASIN B0011Z9KJA.
3. ^ "Germany's Geography" (in English). Retrieved 2008-06-27.
Bibliography [edit]
• Ellenberg, Heinz. Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen in ökologischer, dynamischer und historischer Sicht: 170 Tabellen. Stuttgart: Ulmer, 1996. ISBN 3-8252-8104-3.
External links [edit]
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What is Federalism?
Why a Federal System?
Power and Federalism
Controversies in Federalism
"Small nations are often miserable, not because they are small, but because they are weak; and great empires prosper less because they are great than because they are strong... Hence it occurs that, unless very peculiar circumstances intervene, small nations are always united to large empires in the end, either by force or by their own consent... The federal system was created with the intention of combining the different advantages which results from the magnitude and the littleness of nations." -- Alexis de Tocqueville
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Scientific Method / Science & Exploration
Archerfish aim like humans, despite missing visual cortex
Despite vastly different neural architecture, archerfish and humans share a …
Archerfish are capable of some pretty incredible feats: from underwater, they can pick out an insect flying or hanging on a leaf above the surface, accurately shoot it with a stream of water, and analyze the prey’s falling trajectory to determine the spot in the water where it will land. As if that weren’t impressive enough, a new study in PNAS finds that archerfish share a complex visual processing ability with humans, despite lacking the particular area of the brain that we rely on for advanced visual tasks.
Humans exhibit orientation-based saliency, which essentially means that objects oriented differently than their backgrounds tend to “pop out” at us. This ability, which helps us quickly identify important things in our visual field, comes from an area of our brain called the visual cortex. Archerfish completely lack visual cortices, but their astounding visual accuracy led a team of Israeli researchers to hypothesize that these fish might exhibit orientation saliency anyway.
Using LCD screens positioned above the water, the researchers exposed captive archerfish to various images of two bars against a patterned background, simulating prey items in the habitat. The bars were oriented in one of three ways: either both in the same direction as the background pattern, both in the opposite direction, or one in each direction. The archerfish were shown the image for two seconds, and any time they shot water at an image, the researchers would determine which bar, or prey item, they detected and aimed at.
Overwhelmingly, the archerfish shot most often at the bars that were oriented in the opposite direction as the background pattern, indicating that these bars were more visually obvious to them. When tested with the same stimuli, human subjects were also much more adept at picking out the bars oriented opposite the background pattern.
These findings suggest that, like humans, archerfish experience a “pop out” effect when the orientation of objects contrasts that of the background. However, since these fish have no visual cortex, the study raises questions about the mechanism behind orientation saliency in archerfish: is the neural mechanism similar to that in humans, but located in another area of the brain, or is this effect caused by another mechanism altogether in archerfish?
Evolutionarily, there are two potential scenarios. First, it’s possible that archerfish and humans have an ancient common ancestor with the capacity; this scenario suggests that orientation saliency is so useful that it has been conserved over millions of years, and no better alternative has evolved during that time. On the other hand, it’s also possible that orientation saliency has evolved independently in each species.
Both scenarios suggest that orientation saliency may be a more effective and widespread mechanism than previously assumed.
PNAS, 2010. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1005446107 (About DOIs).
Listing image by University of Michigan
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Centre for Applied Linguistics & Language Education
Idioms Explained
This page will feature explanations of idioms and words of idiomatic root. The history of phrases, sayings, and curious names is always interesting. It is hoped that understanding the root of such speech may aid in understanding its usage. New Entries will be added and placed into alphabetical order. Requests for explanation can be made via the ?Ask CALLE link at top.
Blue Jeans
Jeans are sturdy trousers made of heavy cotton fabric and are by far among the most common types pants in the world today. The common colour for jeans is blue. Blue became common hundreds of years ago because indigo dye was inexpensive and bound well to the cotton fabric. The colour blue is so standard today that most people just say ‘jeans’ and the understood colour is blue unless otherwise specified. ’Jeans’ is actually not just short for blue jeans, but for blue jean pants. That’s because jean refers not to a style of trousers, but to the fabric from which they are made and how they are sewn.
Europe was a centre of trade and innovation following the middle ages, with many cities becoming known for the specific products their artisans and factories produced. Often these products became known for the city in which they were made. The English word “jeans” comes from the French phrase bleu de Gênes, referring to the unique fabric of Genoa, Italy. The Italians did not create the fabric known today as jeans, but were the first to fashion them into such sturdy pants. Jeans fabric is actually called denim and seems to have been created independently in two areas — the French town of Nîmes (the English word denim coming from the French de Nîmes), and in India, where trousers made of similar material were worn by the sailors from the region of Dhunga (from which we get dungarees).
Eventually tailors in Chieri, a town near Turin, Italy became known for sewing quality trousers out of the hardy denim fabric. These trousers were an early export good, manufactured for sale abroad and were sold through the markets of Genoa, a major center and naval power. Ships from Genoa sailed all around Europe selling Italian wares at port. One of the many popular staples of these shipments were the sturdy blue Genoese (say it quickly) pants. It is said that King Henry VIII was so impressed with the durability of the fabric that he bought 262 bolts of it for manufacture of uniforms within the royal estates. These ‘jeans’ developed quite a following among workers and outdoorsmen and have been popular ever since.
During the Elizabeth era, people in England used the word flower to mean “the best” of something. It was applied to merchandise, weapons, animals, and even people who were considered superior. In this time when bread was made in the kitchen of each house, grain played an important role. And, like every other product there were different levels of quality for it. In the mills of this period, wheat was ground by a crude process, then sifted into varying grades of meal. Only the finest meal passed through the cloth sieve (a fine filter). The highest quality of milled wheat was originally reserved for the nobility, and being as it was “the best” was called flower of wheat. Over time the milling process improved so that most wheat was milled to this higher standard so that flower of wheat eventually was reduced to flour which became the standard term for any finely milled product (meal still being used for more coarsely ground products).
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Maternal and Child Health Bureau HomeModule IntroTable of ContentsGlossary
Training Module: Head Circumference
Large head size
Choose a sectionSection 1Section 2Section 3Section 4
3. Large Head Size
Large head size (macrocephaly) is commonly defined as more than two standard deviations above the mean. The causes are numerous and include normal familial growth patterns, hydrocephalus, malformations, and genetic, metabolic, and other disorders.
Figure 2. This child's head is large and becoming larger. The head circumference is rising across percentile lines and exceeds 2 standard deviations (the 98th percentile). This child should be evaluated.
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"url": "http://depts.washington.edu/growth/ofc/text/page3a.htm"
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Why aren’t all chillies hot?
By Ed Yong | December 20, 2011 7:00 pm
Chillies come in many degrees of heat, from the sweet painless bell peppers to the “Trinidad Scorpion Butch T pepper”, a superlatively hot chili that needs to be handled with gloves. A less dramatic range also exists in the wild: some chillies are hot, and others are not. In supermarkets, the spectrum of heat is the result of clever breeding. It the wild, it’s due to a tension between two threats: drought and disease.
Hot chillies owe their mouth-watering bite to substances call capsaicinoids – a unique breed of chemical weapon wielded only by these plants. The weapon targets proteins that detect excessive heat, delivering an intense burning feeling without any actual burning. Birds, which pollinate chillies, don’t have these proteins and are immune to the fiery tastes. Mammals aren’t so fortunate; against them, capsaicinoids are an effective deterrent.
But pilfering mammals are not the biggest threats that wild chillies face. In 2008, Joshua Tewksbury at the University of Washington showed that their most important foe is a fungus called Fusarium semitectum, which rots the fruits and kills the seeds. Tewksbury showed that capsaicinoids kill the fungus, and chillies that lack their protection have half as many seeds in areas where Fusarium is around.
Tewksbury studied wild chillies across 1,000 square miles of Bolivian rainforest. Those at the south-western corner are almost uniformly loaded with capsaicinoids, while most of those in the north-eastern corner aren’t hot at all. That seems puzzling: if being hot affords such valuable protection, why aren’t all chillies as pungent as possible?
Back in 2008, Tewksbury suggested that the fungus was responsible – it’s more common in the south-western area. With less pressure to defend themselves, the north-eastern chillies could afford to be milder. But this explanation was never entirely convincing. Even in the north-east, the fungus was still a significant threat. Now, Tewksbury has a different idea. He thinks that being a red hot chilli pepper comes at a price: hot chillies suffer when it’s dry.
The chillies in Tewksbury’s patch of Bolivia experience very different levels of rainfall: the south-western corner is drenched in rain, and the north-eastern one is relatively dry. Tewksbury mimicked these conditions in a greenhouse.
When he gave the chillies all the water they wanted, all of them did equally well. When he deprived them of water, the ones that were fortified with capsaicinoids produced half as many seeds as their milder cousins. The hot plants have 40 percent more pores – stomata –on the undersides of their leaves, so they’re more likely to lose water when it’s dry. The milder plants, with their relatively sparser stomata, are better at retaining water.
It might seem strange that hot flavours and drought tolerance could be so intimately connected. But Tewksbury thinks that the genetic changes which alter levels of capsaicinoids in the chillies’ fruits also affect the number of stomata in their leaves. He now wants to work out what these changes are.
On top of that, chillies produce capsaicinoids using the same sets of chemical reactions that produce lignin – the sturdy substance that coats their seeds. If they’re channelling their resources into defensive chemicals, they might not have enough to protect their seeds.
The fact that not all chillies are hot shows two important lessons about evolution. First, living things live in a world of varied restrictions, and something that’s adaptive in one place (like pungent chemicals) could be your downfall in another. Second, living things aren’t made from independent modules – it’s very difficult to tinker with one bit without affecting something else.
For the chillies, the ideal situation would be to pack defensive chemicals while still resisting drought – that doesn’t seem possible. People often think that evolution is about progress and improvement; in reality, it’s more often about compromise and trade-offs.
Reference: Haak,McGinnis, Levey & Tewksbury. 2011. Why are not all chilies hot? A trade-off limits pungency. Proc Roy Soc B http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.2091
More on chillies: The fiery taste of chillies is a defence against a fungus
Photo by Daniel Risacher
CATEGORIZED UNDER: Evolution, Plants
Comments (3)
1. Octavo Dia
Fungus is much more of a problem in wet climates than dry ones, so the chilies have doubly-adapted to their environment. In a wet climate plants both respirate freely and need anti-fungal agents.
2. Yes, but why do two chilies on the same plant have different heat?
3. Kevin
Birds do possess TRPV1 channels but their variant of the channel is not responsive to capsaicin.
Source: http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/Capsaicintech.pdf (search “bird”)
Which in turn sources:
Geisthövel, E.; Ludwig, O.; Simon, E. Capsaicin fails to produce disturbances of autonomic heat and cold defence in an
avian species (Anas platyrhynchos). Pflügers Arch. 1986, 406, 343-350.
Jordt, S.-E.; Julius, D. Molecular basis for species-specific sensitivity to “hot” chili peppers. Cell 2002, 108, 421-43
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<urn:uuid:c81ac5f4-e0f4-41da-9018-335d6c314fef>
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A diplococcus (plural diplococci) is a round bacterium (a coccus) that typically occurs in the form of two joined cells. Examples are gram-negative Neisseria sp., ¨Haemophilus¨, ¨Acinetobacter¨ or ¨Brucella¨, and gram-positive Streptococcus pneumoniae or enterococcus.[1]
Its name comes from diplo, meaning double, and coccus, meaning berry.
In former times, a bacterial genus Diplococcus was recognized, but it is not used anymore.
1. ^ Richard A. Harvey (Ph.D.) (2007). Microbiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 395–. ISBN 978-0-7817-8215-9.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Craft or handicraft is about making things with one's own hands and skills. The different types of crafts can be put in groups according to the material being used. In the Middle Ages the most common materials were metal, wood or clay.
A Craftsman is a person who has the knowledge and skills of a craft. When they have a lot of experience they may be called a master craftsman. If they are young people learning a craft they are called an apprentice
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Gryllus campestris
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Gryllus campestris
Gryllus campestris 3.jpg
Gryllus campestris
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Family: Gryllidae
Genus: Gryllus
Species: Gryllus campestris
Binomial name
Gryllus campestris
Linnaeus, 1758
Gryllus campestris and its burrow
Late instar Nymph
Gryllus campestris is one of many crickets known as the Field cricket. These flightless dark colored insects are comparatively large; the males range from 19 to 23 mm and the females from 17 to 22 mm.
The Field cricket Gryllus campestris prefers dry, sunny locations with short vegetation, like dry grasslands and is restricted to heathlands and oligotrophic grasslands at the northern edge of its range. They are flightless and unable to migrate long distances.
The reproductive season of the univoltine species lasts from May to July. The males make a burrow with a platform at the entrance from which they attract females with their courtship stridulation. They chirp during daytime as well as the first part of the night, only when the temperature is well above 13 °C. Nymphs hatch in June till mid July and hibernate during their tenth or eleventh instar. The final moult takes place at the end of April or at the beginning of May. Males are territorial and defend their burrows fiercely, while females are vagrant and are attracted by singing males. They lay their eggs in bare ground either close to a burrow or inside the burrow. Populations of G. campestris are known to undergo extreme fluctuations and are strongly affected by weather conditions.
The Field Cricket Gryllus campestris is the most endangered cricket species in Britain. It is declining and red-listed in large parts of Central and Northern Europe, such as the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark and Lithuania. It has declined severely in part of its northern range due to the disappearance of its heathland habitat and by the early 1990s the species was reduced to a single surviving colony of just 100 individuals in Coates, West Sussex
Conservation efforts[edit]
Fragmentation of habitats and loss of (sub-)populations have been recognized as main threats for many species, including the Field cricket. The artificial establishment of new populations is, therefore, a consistent method for enhancing the survival probability of a species. The aim of translocation projects is usually to reduce the risk of extinction for an endangered species by creating more self-sustaining populations. Studies of translocation and natural populations of G. campestris in Germany[1] have shown that translocation does not result in a significant loss of genetic diversity. Translocation of nymphs from different subpopulations may in fact be a suitable method to decrease the loss of genetic diversity and reduce the risk of inbreeding, and large numbers of nymphs may be translocated without negative effect on the source population.[2]
• Pearce-Kelly P, Jones R, Clarke D, Walker C, Atkin P, Cunningham AA (1998) The captive rearing of threatened Orthoptera: a comparison of the conservation potential and practical considerations of two species’ breeding programmes at the Zoological Society of London. J Insect Conserv 2:201–210
• C. Venne, F. Ahnfeldt (2003) Neuansiedlung der Feldgrille (Gryllus campestris) in Bielefeld? Ber. Naturwiss. Verein für Bielefeld u. Umgegend, 43, 407-417
• S. Fischer (1994) Die Bedeutung der Wanderschäferei für den Artenaustausch zwischen isolierten Schaftriften. Diplomarbeit Univ. Marburg. FB Biologie, Naturschutz
• A. Hochkirch, K. Witzenberger, A. Teerling, F. Niemeyer (2007) Translocation of an endangered insect species, the field cricket (Gryllus campestris Linnaeus, 1758) in northern Germany. Biodivers Conserv. 16:3597–3607
2. ^ K. Witzenberger, A. Hochkirch, (2008) Genetic consequences of animal translocations: A case study using the field cricket, Gryllus campestris L. Biological Conservation, Volume 141, Issue 12, 3059-3068
External links[edit]
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Site hosted by Build your free website today!
What does it mean?
Travelling from one place to another, usually by land, often far away
How do we use it? If you are going on a long car journey, make sure the vehicle's in good condition. Word quiz What do you think was happening in the world when "journey" first became a part of the English language?
A. Marco Polo was beginning his famous journey from Europe to Asia.
B. Columbus was embarking on his journey that would lead to the New World.
C. Lewis and Clark were preparing for their journey across North America.
D. The astronauts of Apollo 11 were blasting off on their journey to the moon.
Key [A]
"Journey" made the trip from French to English in the 13th century, the same century during which Marco Polo made his famous trip to China. "Journey" comes from the Old French word "journee," meaning "day's journey." The English word also originally had the meaning of "a distance that can be traveled in a day," which, during the Middle Ages, usually figured as twenty miles. If you travel back through the history of "journey," the connection with "day" becomes clear. The French "journee" developed from the French word "jour," meaning "day." "Jour" traces back to Latin "diurnus," meaning "of the day." "Diurnus" comes from "dies," the Latin word for "day."
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Definitions for
Overview of noun rear
The noun rear has 5 senses? (first 3 from tagged texts)
1. (16) rear
(the back of a military formation or procession; "infantrymen were in the rear")
2. (6) rear, backside, back end
(the side of an object that is opposite its front; "his room was toward the rear of the hotel")
3. (4) back, rear
(the part of something that is furthest from the normal viewer; "he stood at the back of the stage"; "it was hidden in the rear of the store")
5. rear, back
(the side that goes last or is not normally seen; "he wrote the date on the back of the photograph")
Overview of verb rear
The verb rear has 5 senses? (first 3 from tagged texts)
1. (7) rear, rise up
(stand up on the hind legs, of quadrupeds; "The horse reared in terror")
2. (2) rear, raise, bring up, nurture, parent
(bring up; "raise a family"; "bring up children")
3. (1) rise, lift, rear
(rise up; "The building rose before them")
4. rear, erect
(cause to rise up)
5. raise, erect, rear, set up, put up
(construct, build, or erect; "Raise a barn")
Overview of adj rear
The adj rear has 1 senses? (first 1 from tagged texts)
1. (0) rear, rearward
(located in or toward the back or rear; "the chair's rear legs"; "the rear door of the plane"; "on the rearward side") © 2001-2013, Demand Media, all rights reserved. The database is based on Word Net a lexical database for the English language. see disclaimer
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"url": "http://www.synonym.com/definitions/rear/"
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A traditional jack-o'-lantern, made from a pumpkin, lit from within by a candle
A jack-o'-lantern in the shape of the Wikipedia logo
A jack-o'-lantern is a carved pumpkin, or turnip, associated chiefly with the holiday of Halloween, and was named after the phenomenon of strange light flickering over peat bogs, called will-o'-the-wisp or jack-o'-lantern. In a jack-o'-lantern, the top is cut off to form a lid, and the inside flesh then scooped out; an image, usually a monstrous face, is carved out of the pumpkin's rind to expose the hollow interior. To create the lantern effect, a light source is placed within before the lid is closed. This is traditionally a flame or electric candle, though pumpkin lights featuring various colors and flickering effects are also marketed specifically for this purpose. It is common to see jack-o'-lanterns on doorsteps and otherwise used as decorations during Halloween.
An assortment of carved pumpkins
The term jack-o'-lantern is in origin a term for the visual phenomenon ignis fatuus (lit., "foolish fire") known as a will-o'-the-wisp in English folklore. Used especially in East Anglia, its earliest known use dates to the 1660s.[1] The term "will-o'-the-wisp" uses "wisp" (a bundle of sticks or paper sometimes used as a torch) and the proper name "Will": thus, "Will-of-the-torch." The term jack-o'-lantern is of the same construction: "Jack of [the] lantern." See Origin: Folklore below.
A traditional Irish Jack-o'-Lantern in the Museum of Country Life, Ireland
Modern carving of a Cornish Jack-o'-Lantern made from a turnip
The origin of Jack o' Lantern carving is uncertain. The carving of vegetables has been a common practice in many parts of the world, with gourds being the earliest plant species domesticated by humans c. 10,000 years ago, primarily for their carving potential.[2] Gourds were used to carve lanterns by the Maori over 700 years ago,[3] with the Māori word for a gourd also used to describe a lampshade.[4] There is a common belief that the custom of carving jack-o'-lanterns at Hallowe'en originated in Ireland, where turnips, mangelwurzel or beets were supposedly used.[5][6] According to historian Ronald Hutton, in the 19th century, Hallowe'en guisers in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands commonly used jack-o'-lanterns made from turnips and mangelwurzels.[7] They were "often carved with grotesque faces to represent spirits or goblins".[7] In these areas, 31 October–1 November was known as Samhain and it was seen as a time when spirits or fairies were particularly active. Hutton says that they were also used at Hallowe'en in Somerset (see Punkie Night) during the 19th century.[7] Christopher Hill also writes that "jack-o'-lanterns were carved out of turnips or squashes and were literally used as lanterns to guide guisers on All Hallows' Eve."[8] Some claim that the Jack-o'-lanterns originated with All Saints' Day (1 November)/All Souls' Day (2 November) and represented Christian souls in purgatory.[9] Bettina Arnold writes that they were sometimes set on windowsills to keep the harmful spirits out of one's home.[10] An 1834 account of a Halloween night at a house in Ireland makes no mention of any jack-o'-lantern or carved vegetables acting as lanterns,[11] nor does Robert Burns mention them in his famous poem "Halloween".[12] Thomas Johnson Westropp does not mention them in Folklore of Clare (1910)[13] and an "internationally accepted authority on Irish folk tradition", Seán Ó Súilleabháin, does not mention them in Irish Folk Custom and Belief (1967).[14] So despite the commonly held belief that the carving of the Jack-O'-Lantern was an ancient Irish custom, no scholarly research into Irish mythology and customs includes a contemporary reference to such a practice being present during Samhain.
There is however evidence that turnips were used to carve what was called a "Hoberdy's Lantern" in Worcestershire, England at the end of the 18th century. The folklorist Jabez Allies recalls how
In literature and popular culture[edit]
The application of the term to carved pumpkins in American English is first attested in 1834.[16] The carved pumpkin lantern association with Hallowe'en is recorded in 1866 in the U.S.[17] In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became an emblem of Hallowe'en.[18] In 1900, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities.[18] The poet John Greenleaf Whittier, who was born in Massachusetts in 1807, wrote "The Pumpkin" (1850):[19]
Cornish folklorist Dr. Thomas Quiller Couch (d. 1884) recorded the use of the term in a rhyme used in Polperro, Cornwall, in conjunction with Joan the Wad, the Cornish version of Will-o'-the-wisp. The people of Polperro regarded them both as pixies. The rhyme goes:[20]
Jack o' the lantern! Joan the wad,
Who tickled the maid and made her mad
Light me home, the weather's bad.
A commercial "R.I.P." pattern
Hallowe'en jack-o'-lantern
Pumpkin projected onto the wall
The story of the Jack-O'-lantern comes in many variants and is similar to the story of Will-o'-the-wisp[21] retold in different forms across Western Europe,[22] with variations being present in the folklore of Norway, Sweden, England, Ireland, Wales, Germany, Italy and Spain.[23] An old Irish folk tale from the mid-19th Century tells of Stingy Jack, a lazy yet shrewd blacksmith who uses a cross to trap Satan. One story[24] says that Jack tricked Satan into climbing an apple tree, and once he was up there Jack quickly placed crosses around the trunk or carved a cross into the bark, so that Satan couldn't get down. Another tale[citation needed] says that Jack put a key in Satan's pocket while he was suspended upside-down.
Another version[citation needed] of the story says that Jack was getting chased by some villagers from whom he had stolen, when he met Satan, who claimed it was time for him to die. However, the thief stalled his death by tempting Satan with a chance to bedevil the church-going villagers chasing him. Jack told Satan to turn into a coin with which he would pay for the stolen goods (Satan could take on any shape he wanted); later, when the coin (Satan) disappeared, the Christian villagers would fight over who had stolen it. The Devil agreed to this plan. He turned himself into a silver coin and jumped into Jack's wallet, only to find himself next to a cross Jack had also picked up in the village. Jack had closed the wallet tight, and the cross stripped the Devil of his powers; and so he was trapped.
In both folktales, Jack only lets Satan go when he agrees never to take his soul. After a while the thief died, as all living things do. Of course, his life had been too sinful for Jack to go to heaven; however, Satan had promised not to take his soul, and so he was barred from hell as well. Jack now had nowhere to go. He asked how he would see where to go, as he had no light, and Satan mockingly tossed him an ember from the flames of Hades, that would never burn out. Jack carved out one of his turnips (which were his favorite food), put the ember inside it, and began endlessly wandering the Earth for a resting place. He became known as "Jack of the Lantern", or Jack-o'-lantern.
Jack-o-lanterns were also a way of protecting your home against the Undead. Superstitious people used them specifically to ward away vampires. They thought this because it was said that the Jack-o-lantern's light was a way of identifying vampires and, once their identity was known, they would give up their hunt for you.[citation needed]
• In the Grim Adventures Halloween special Billy and Mandy's Jacked-Up Halloween, Jack was depicted as the village trickster of Endsville long before the series' events. Despite being pleasant, he constantly pulled pranks on the villagers, bad enough to make them send a prank gift to their queen and frame Jack for it. She sent a knight to his home and do away with him. When Grim came to reap him, Jack refused to go and managed to take Grim's scythe, only giving it back in exchange for eternal life. When he was granted it however, Grim, who does not like being tricked, decided to cut Jack's head off to make sure he doesn't bother the villagers anymore. Not long afterwards, Jack had found a pumpkin to use as a new head, giving him the name Jack o' Lantern, though he was shunned from society and only came out every Halloween night to play his pranks.
• In Quest 64, the Jack-O'-Lantern is an enemy and can be found in Windward Forest. The element is fire for this monster.
• In Bully and Bully: Scholarship Ship, there are 30 Jack-O'-Lanterns to break to get a Jack-O'-Lantern hat. They are found Around Bullworth Academy on Halloween mission. If not all of them are destroyed, they can be found in the Bullworth Academy Basement.
• In a Smurfs comic book story, Halloween, the Smurfs' archenemy the evil wizard Gargamel connives with a wicked witch to conjure up Jack himself to get revenge on the Smurflings for pulling some Halloween pranks on them using pumpkin jack o'lanterns. Unfortunately, instead of granting their request, Jack insists on carrying away whoever summoned him. When neither Gargamel and the witch will own up to summoning Jack, and try to pin it solely on each other, Jack punishes them both by turning Gargamel into a pumpkin and causing a string of sausages to grow from the witch's nose.
Pumpkin craft[edit]
Pumpkin craft for Halloween.
Sections of the pumpkin are cut out to make holes, often depicting a face, which may be either cheerful, scary, or comical. More complex carvings are becoming more commonly seen. Popular figures, symbols, and logos are some that can now be seen used on pumpkins. A variety of tools can be used to carve and hollow out the gourd, ranging from simple knives and spoons to specialized instruments, typically sold in holiday sections of North American grocery stores. Printed stencils can be used as a guide for increasingly complex designs. After carving, a light source (traditionally a candle) is placed inside the pumpkin and the top is put back into place. The light is normally inserted to illuminate the design from the inside and add an extra measure of spookiness. Sometimes a chimney is carved, too. It is possible to create surprisingly artistic designs, be they simple or intricate in nature.
Picking out and carving pumpkins for Halloween.
World records[edit]
A sugar cookie decorated with frosting in the shape of a jack-o'-lantern.
For a long time, Keene, New Hampshire held the world record for most jack-o'-lanterns carved and lit in one place. The Life is good company teamed up with Camp Sunshine, a camp for children with life-threatening illnesses and their families, to break the record. A record was set on October 21, 2006 when 30,128 jack-o'-lanterns were simultaneously lit on Boston Common.[25] Highwood, Illinois tried to set the record on October 31, 2011 with an unofficial count of 30,919, but did not follow the Guinness regulations so the record did not count. Guinness still holds Boston as the world record holder.[26][27]
The world's largest jack-o'-lantern was carved from the then-world's-largest pumpkin on October 31, 2005 in Northern Cambria, Pennsylvania, United States by Scott Cully. The pumpkin was grown by Larry Checkon and weighed 1,469 lb (666.33 kg) on October 1, 2005 at the Pennsylvania Giant Pumpkin Growers Association Weigh-off.[28]
See also[edit]
1. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Jack o'lantern (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
2. ^ Paris, H.S. (1989). "Historical records, origins, and development of the edible cultivar groups of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae)". Economic Botany, 43 (4): 423–443.
3. ^ "Te Ao Hou - The Maori Magazine June 1962". National Library of New Zealand. Retrieved 2013-10-16.
4. ^ Buse, Jasper; Raututi Taringa (1995). Cook Islands Maori Dictionary. p. 537.
6. ^ They continue to be popular choices today as carved lanterns in Northern England, Scotland and Northern Ireland, although the British purchased a million pumpkins for Hallowe'en in 2004. "Pumpkins Passions", BBC, 31 October 2005. Retrieved on 19 October 2006. "Turnip battles with pumpkin for Hallowe'en", BBC, 28 October 2005. Retrieved 23 September 2007.
11. ^ "The Irish Peasants - Halloween". The Dublin Penny Journal. 25 October 1834. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
12. ^ Burns, Robert. "Halloween". Poems, Songs, and Letters: Being the Complete Works of Robert Burns. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
13. ^ Westropp, T.J. (1910). Folklore of Clare - A Folklore survey of County Clare.
14. ^ Ó Súilleabháin, Seán (1967). Irish Folk Custom and Belief.
15. ^ Allies, Jabez (1856). The British, Roman, and Saxon antiquities and folklore of Worcestershire. London: J.R. Smith. p. 423.
16. ^ "Jack-o'-lantern," Oxford English Dictionary. The earliest citation is from 1663.
17. ^ Daily News (Kingston, Ontario), November 1, 1866: The old time custom of keeping up Hallowe'en was not forgotten last night by the youngsters of the city. They had their maskings and their merry-makings, and perambulated the streets after dark in a way which was no doubt amusing to themselves. There was a great sacrifice of pumpkins from which to make transparent heads and face, lighted up by the unfailing two inches of tallow candle. Agnes Carr Sage, "Halloween Sports and Customs," Harper's Young People, October 27, 1885, p. 828:
It is an ancient British custom to light great bonfires (Bone-fire to clear before Winter froze the ground) on Hallowe'en, and carry blazing fagots about on long poles; but in place of this, American boys delight in the funny grinning jack-o'-lanterns made of huge yellow pumpkins with a candle inside.
18. ^ a b "The Day We Celebrate: Thanksgiving Treated Gastronomically and Socially," The New York Times, November 24, 1895, p. 27. "Odd Ornaments for Table," The New York Times, October 21, 1900, p. 12.
19. ^ Whittier, John Greenleaf. "The Pumpkin".
20. ^ Jacqueline Simpson, Steve Roud, A Dictionary of English Folklore, Oxford University Press, 2000
21. ^ Jack Santino All around the year: holidays and celebrations in American life, p.157 University of Illinois Press, 1995
23. ^ Newell, William Wells (1 January 1904). "The Ignis Fatuus, Its Character and Legendary Origin". Journal of American Folk-Lore 17.
24. ^ Mark Hoerrner (2006). "History of the Jack-O-Lantern". buzzle.com. Retrieved 2007-05-09.
25. ^ Michael Levenson and Kathy McCabe, A love in Common for pumpkins, The Boston Globe, October 22, 2006, p. B6.
26. ^ "most lit Jack-o'-lanterns displayed". Retrieved 2012-10-31.
27. ^ "Highwood sets pumpkin-carving record - Highland Park News". Highlandpark.suntimes.com. Retrieved 2012-10-30.
28. ^ "Largest Jack O'Lantern". Guinness World Records 2009. Archived from the original on 2011-05-18. Retrieved October 10, 2009.
External links[edit]
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The Battle of Kloster Kamp
War: Seven Years War
Date: 15th October 1760
Place: At the junction of the Rhine and the Lippe Rivers in North West Germany.
Combatants: British, Prussian, Hanover, Brunswick and Hessen troops against the French.
Generals: The Hereditary Prince (the Erbprinz) of Brunswick against Lieutenant General the Marquis de Castries.
Hessen Horse
Hessen Horse
Size of the armies: 20,000 in the allied army: 25,000 in the French.
Uniforms, arms and equipment:
Winner: The battle is considered a qualified victory for the French.
British Regiments:
1st Royal Dragoons; now the Blues and Royals.
6th Inniskilling Dragoons; later the 5th Inniskilling Dragoon Guards and now the Royal Dragoon Guards.
23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers.
25th Foot; now the King’s Own Scottish Borders.
33rd Foot; now the Duke of Wellington’s Regiment.
87th Highlanders; disbanded after the war.
88th Highlanders; disbanded after the war.
Kloster Kamp is not a British battle honour.
Battle of Kloster Kamp
Battle of Kloster Kamp
Account: In the early autumn of 1760 the Archduke Ferdinand of Brunswick, the commander in chief of the allied army, lay behind the line of the River Diemel with his army. The French threatened Hanover. To create a diversion and draw the French armies to the West, the Archduke dispatched an army of some 20,000 men under the command of the Erbprinz to seize Wesel on the lower Rhine.
Hanoverian Regiment of Horse Grenadiers
Hanoverian Regiment of Horse Grenadiers
The fortified town of Wesel lies at the junction of the River Lippe and the Rhine. The French commander prepared the town to resist attack, destroying the bridge across the Rhine at the mouth of the Lippe. French forces under the Lieutenant Genearl the Marquis de Castries hurried from the South East to relieve the garrison.
The Erbprinz invested Wesel and finding that the town could not be taken by storm prepared for a formal siege. Heavy siege artillery was brought down from Holland with bridging equipment. Crossings were established above and below the town and the Erbprinz’s army moved to the west bank to block the advancing French forces.
Castries’ troops took up positions behind the Fossa Eugenica, an abandonned section of canal running from Rheinberg to the hilltop convent of Kloster Kamp. Castries intended to await the arrival of further French forces before beginning the assault on the lines of the besiegers around Wesel.
The Erbprinz resolved to attack Castries’ army with a movement round the French left flank at Kloster Kamp. His force began its approach march late in the evening of 15th October 1760. The Major General George Augustus Eliott commanded the advance party, two squadrons of Prussian Hussars, the Royal Dragoons, the Inniskilling Dragoons and the 87th and 88th Highlanders.
The main attacking force comprised 2 battalions of grenadiers, the 20th Foot, 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers, the 25th Foot, 2 battalions of Hanoverians and 2 battalions of Hessians, commanded by Lieutenant General Waldegrave. Behind came a force of cavalry, the 10th Dragoons and 10 squadrons of Hanoverian and Hessian cavalry.
A reserve under Major General Howard lay some miles back with the 11th, 33rd and 51st Foot and 5 Hessian battalions.
Beginning the assault in the middle of the night Eliott’s force drove the French out of Kloster Kamp convent and took the bridge over the canal. The sounds of firing alerted the main French army and senior officers moved forward to reconnoitre. All these officers were captured. One, the Chevalier D’Assas, a captain in the Regiment of Auvergne, shouted to his soldiers before being bayoneted. The Auvergne Regiment rushed to arms and more French regiments came up.
Hanoverian Regiment of Horse von Walthausen
Hanoverian Regiment of
Horse von Walthausen
Dawn broke as the British and German foot went into the attack, the Highland regiments spilling around the French flank. The assault was successful, driving the French back and capturing the village of Kamperbruch on the canal.
The Marquis de Castries, an energetic young general, brought up his reserves and, rallying the retreating regiments, attacked the allied foot. The countryside was divided into small hedged fields, making movement of formed regiments difficult. The success of the assault broke up the formations of the British and German regiments. The soldiers expended their battlefield issue of 24 rounds, with no method for resupplying them with ammunition. The French counter attack drove the allied foot back and across the canal. At this critical point in the battle the Erbprinz was injured falling from his wounded horse, putting him out of action for a time. Once recovered he sent an aide de camp to bring forward Howard’s reserve. This took time and in the meanwhile the French pressed their attack.
At the western end of the canal General Eliott took the initiative, leading the three British cavalry regiments, the Royals, the Inniskillings and the 10th Dragoons, in a charge along the south bank of the canal. Eliott’s charge disrupted the French advance and enabled the allied foot to regain the north bank. Howard’s regiments coming up from the rear formed a cordon which enabled the retreating foot to be stopped and reformed. The Erbprinz, recovered from his fall, ordered his troops to fall back towards the Rhine.
He there found that the bridge of boats had been swept away by the fast flowing river, stranding his army on the west bank for two further days.
Fortunately for the allies Castries failed to follow up his success, choosing to wait in his positions behind the canal for reinforcements to come up.
The French suffered 3,123 casualties. The allies suffered 1,615, mostly from the British regiments.
The casualties in the British Regiments were:
Royal Dragoons: 38
6th Inniskilling Dragoons: 12
10th Dragoons: 42
2 Grenadier battalions: 265
20th Foot: 209
Royal Welch Fusiliers: 175
25th Foot: 184
87th and 88th Highlanders: 77
During the following days the allies were permitted to cross back over the Rhine and to withdraw from the siege of Wesel. Castries’ attacks were too late to impede the retreat.
The allied expedition to capture Wesel had been a failure but the French enabled it to escape.
Anecdotes: Lieutenant General George Augustus Eliott went on to command the garrison in the siege of Gibraltar in the Bourbon War (the American Revolutionary War) 1775 to 1779. Eliott was created Baron Heathfield for his success in resisting the Spanish and French assaults.
Fortescue’s History of the British Army
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Food / Clothing / Housing
Lifestyle / Festival
Cultural Heritage
Food / Clothing / Housing
Winter weather in Goguryeo was very cold. So, a warm dwelling environment was very important in Goguryeo people's lives. Goguryeo people invented the "ondol [meaning: Warm Stone]" heating system in which a floor stone is heated by burning fire at one end of the room with the smoke traveling underneath and exiting at the other end, making the living space warm. The system was widely used in palaces, temples and military posts, as well as houses of ordinary citizens. Ondol heating that is in use at most of the contemporary Korean dwellings today originated from Goguryeo. However, in Goguryeo, only part of a large room had hot-floors heated by this method. Other furniture such as wooden tables, beds or chairs were placed in other parts of the room so that people could sleep at night or sit around for daily routines.
Comfortable jackets and trousers for outdoor activities were the basic garments for Goguryeo men. Unlike Chinese men who wore skirts, Goguryeo men wore trousers that were favorable for horse riding like nomadic people of the northern region. They closed the front of a jacket to the left and tied the waist without buttons. This style was intended to increase efficiency and convenience when shooting arrows.
Goguryeo Women wore a variety of skirts such as pleated, rainbow-striped or polka-dot skirts. But they also wore comfortable trousers. Often they would enjoy wearing outer robes adorned with bright patterns.
pic) men jacket, women korea dress
Most Goguryeo men wore a topknot hairstyle and a hat. Women wore various hairstyles and sometimes used wigs. In Goguryeo, colorful clothing styles flourished as a variety of clothing materials including silk was produced thanks to its advanced dying technology. Even serfs wore colorfully patterned clothes. Generally, men preferred comfortable and practical clothes, and women liked to wear comfortable yet beautiful dresses.
Goguryeo people enjoyed diverse diets. Rice, beans and millet were staple grains, while barley, wheat and Indian millet served as a subsidiary diet. Toward the latter period of the kingdom, consumption of rice increased. With regard to diet of the early period, Goguryeo poeple ate hot gruel by grinding up grains and boiling them with water in earthenware (like "grits"). They soon switched to grains steamed in an earthenware steamer, and then they learned to boil rice in a cauldron (which is the way Koreans cook rice today). The representative Goguryeo dish was "maeg-jeok, or roasted meat with seasonings. This is the predecessor of today's "bulgogi" (roast beef), one of the most famous Korean dishes. A dinner table of Goguryeo people would consist of half a dozen different foods prepared in
various-sized dishes, including fine dinnerware called "judu," on a table called
"joban." They ate their meals with spoons and chopsticks.
pic) Bulgogi
Goguryeo people also used a small knife called "ojado" to cut meat into small pieces. They would also have cabbage, lettuce and radish preserved with salt. In later generations, people would add red peppers to the dish, and this is the origin of Korea's world famous "kimchi" (fermented vegetable dish). The home of beans, Goguryeo would use beans to make various sauces made from beans, like soybean paste and soy sauce. They also enjoyed brewing rice wines.
[Source : Korea.Net]
Copyright © 2004 OSO All rights reserved.
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Amharic Citations Amharic Links Select a New Language
Number of Speakers: 17.4 million
Geographical Center: North-central Ethiopia (Amhara region)
Amharic is spoken by over 17 million people in Ethiopia, where (in addition to Oromo) it is a national language, and by 40,000 people in Israel. Amharic is also spoken in Egypt and Sweden. Close to 15 million Amharic speakers are monolingual. The remainder of the population speaks English, Oromo, Arabic, and Tigrinya as well. Together with Oromo, Amharic is one of the most important languages of Ethiopia. Amharic is known by a number of alternate names including Abyssinian, Amarinya, Amarigna, and Ethiopian.
Amharic is a South Ethiopian language of the South Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Within the South Ethiopian group, it is a Transversal language of the Amharic-Argobba subgroup. It is thus most closely related to Argobba.
Minimal variation outside of pronunciation. All dialects are highly mutually intelligible.
The Amharic alphabet is called fidäl, meaning ‘letter’. It is a syllabary writing system, since in the orthography consonants and vowels do not exist independently of each other. The Amharic alphabet is written from left to right and consists of 33 consonants, each having seven ‘orders’ or shapes depending on the vowel with which the consonant is combined.
The Amharic phoneme inventory is comprised of 31 consonants and 7 vowels, depending on the analysis. The glottalized or ejective series of consonant phonemes in particular is characteristic of the Amharic sound system. Consonant clusters are tolerated, but not in initial position. All but two phonemes in the Amharic consonant inventory may occur in geminated (double consonant) form. Gemination is phonemic or contrastive in the language. Consonantal assimilation is widespread. The distribution of stress on each syllable is for the most part uniform, although as a general rule the last syllable of a word tends not to be stressed. (Note: some Amharic scholars contest this assessment of stress.) The syllable structure of Amharic can be schematized as follows: (C)V(C)(C), where C is a variable for ‘consonant’, V is a variable for ‘vowel’, and items in parentheses are optional. Reduplication is productive and serves a variety of grammatical functions.
Amharic nouns inflect by adding affixes in the following order: gender (masculine/feminine), number (singular/plural), definiteness (definite/indefinite), case nominative/accusative/genitive/vocative) and direct object status. Affixation in the language is predominantly suffixal, although prefixation occurs as well. Few primary adjectives exist in the language. Most are derived from nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech. As in other Semitic languages (such as Hebrew, for example), Amharic verb forms are derived by applying various templates (vowel and affix patterns) to a set of roots consisting of between three to five consonants. Verbs inflect for person, number, gender, aspect (perfect/imperfect – n.b. tense and complex/compound tenses are expressed by means of auxiliary verbs), mood (indicative/imperative/interrogative/optative), voice (active/passive), and polarity (positive/negative). Verbs agree with their subjects and optionally with their objects. Prepositions and postpositions are both attested. In fact, both may co-occur (with rare exceptions, postpositions are used in combination with prepositions) to mark a particular relation in a given sentence. Most postpositions are of nominal origin. The typical clause of order in Amharic is SOV. Nonetheless, extraposition (cf. “left dislocation”), that is, the clause-initial positioning (plus pronominal resumption) of objects, verbs, modifiers, or other expressions that do not typically occur clause-initially, is a characteristic feature of Amharic word order. In this way, OSV word orders are often encountered in colloquial usage. Genitives, articles, relative clauses, and modifiers precede their head nouns in noun phrases. Objects precede verbs within the verb phrase.
Amharic is one of the official or national languages of Ethiopia. As such, it is used in governmental administration, public media and mass communication (television, radio, literature, entertainment, etc.), and national commerce. Amharic is taught in schools up to the seventh grade in many areas. Roughly one quarter of the population is literate in the written form of the language.
The Amharic people descend from an ancient tribe who inhabited the Amhara region of the Ethiopian state. Amharic has been the language of the ruling class in Ethiopia since the end of the 13th century. The earliest written records of Amharic are the Imperial songs, which date back to the 14th century. Amharic was used by Portuguese missionaries in the early 17th century. Around that time, Amharic became the lingua franca in Ethiopia. The first attestation of Amharic’s use in the arena of national government was the publication of the royal chronicles, which were written in the 19th century at the time of Emperor Theodoros II. From that point forward, Amharic officially became the written language of Ethiopia, developing one of the most extensive written literatures (if not the largest) in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Alone, J.P.H.M. 1959. Short Manual of the Amharic Language. Fifth edition. Madras: Macmillan and Company Limited.
Appleyard, David. 1995. Colloquial Amharic. London and New York: Routledge.
Leslau, Wolf. 1969. An Amharic Reference Grammar. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Leslau, Wolf. 2000. Introductory Grammar of Amharic. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Titov, E.G. 1976. Modern Amharic Language. Nauka Publishing House.
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Skip to definition.
Noun: preparation ,pre-pu'rey-shun
1. The activity of getting ready for some future act or event
"preparations for the ceremony had begun";
- readying
2. A substance prepared according to a formula
"the physician prescribed a commercial preparation of the medicine";
- formulation
"his preparation for retirement was hindered by several uncertainties";
- planning, provision
4. (military) the state of having been made ready or prepared for use or action (especially military action)
"their preparation was more than adequate";
- readiness, preparedness
6. Activity leading to skilled behaviour
- training, grooming
7. Preparatory school work done outside school (especially at home)
- homework, prep
8. The act of preparing something (as food) by the application of heat
"he left the preparation of meals to his wife";
- cooking, cookery
Derived forms: preparations
See also: ready, unready
Type of: activity, cerebration, change of state, chemical compound, compound, harmony, intellection, mentation, musical harmony, school assignment, schoolwork, state, thinking, thought, thought process
Antonym: resolution
Part of: didactics, education, educational activity, instruction, pedagogy, teaching
Encyclopedia: Preparation
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Physical Description
"A large group containing both compound and simple ascidians, distinguished chiefly by the character of the branchial sac, which is flat, without large pleats or folds, though minute undulations may occur. A system of slender, tubular, internal longitudinal vessels (usually numerous and equally spaced) raised on supporting papillae is normally present on the inner surface of the sac, though in a few genera it has become rudimentary or lost. Branchial tentacles always simple; stigmata either straight or spiral in arrangement; gonads present on one side of the body only, usually situated in, or in close relation to, the intestinal loop. Test usually more or less gelatinous and translucent, though often tough." (Van Name 1945: 155)
• WG Van Name (1945) The North and South American Ascidians. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 84.
Supplier: Brandon Seah
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Definitions for o'odham language
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word o'odham language
1. O'odham language
O'odham or Papago-Pima is an Uto-Aztecan language of southern Arizona and northern Sonora where the Tohono O'odham and Pima reside. As of the year 2000, there were estimated to be approximately 9,750 speakers in the United States and Mexico combined, although there may be more due to underreporting. It is the 10th most-spoken indigenous language in the United States, the 3rd most-spoken indigenous language in Arizona after Apache and Navajo. It is the 3rd most-spoken language in Pinal County and the 4th most-spoken language in Pima County. Approximately 8% of O'odham speakers in the US speak English "not well" or "not at all", according to results of the 2000 Census. Approximately 13% of O'odham speakers in the US were between the ages of 5 and 17, and among the younger O'odham speakers, approximately 4% were reported as speaking English "not well" or "not at all". Native names for the language, depending on the dialect and orthography, include Oʼodham ha-ñeʼokĭ, Oʼottham ha-neoki, and Oʼodham ñiok.
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Hypothesis testing
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Hypothesis testing
• Two siblings, Arlen and an Robin agree to resolve their disputed ownership of an Ert´epainting by tossing a penny. Arlen produces a penny and, just as Robin is about to toss it in the air, Arlen smoothly suggests that spinning the penny on a table might ensure better randomization. Robin assents and spins the penny. As it spins, Arlen calls “Tails!” The penny comes to rest with Tails facing up and Arlen takes possession of the Ert´e. Robin is left with the penny.
• That evening, Robin wonders if she has been had. She decides to perform an experiment. She spins the same penny on the same table 100 times and observes 68 Tails. It occurs to Robin that perhaps spinning this penny was not entirely fair, but she is reluctant to accuse her brother of impropriety until she is convinced that the results of her experiment cannot be dismissed as coincidence. How should she proceed?
• What to is the true value of p? More precisely, what is a reasonable guess as to the true value of p?
• Is p = 0.5? Specifically, is the evidence that p 6= 0.5 so compelling that Robin can comfortably accuse Arlen of impropriety?
• What are plausible values of p? In particular, is there a subset of [0, 1] that Robin can confidently claim contains the true value of p?
Another example
Another Example to
A sociologist has been hired to assess the effectiveness of a rehabilitation program for alcoholics in her city. The program serves a large area, and she does not have the resources to test every single client. Instead, she draws a random sample of 127 people from the list of all clients and questions them on a variety of issues. She notices that, on the average, the people in her sample miss fewer days of work each year than the city as a whole. Are alcoholics treated by the program more reliable than workers in general?
• We can see that there is a difference in rates of absenteeism and that the average rate of absenteeism for the sample is lower than the rate for the community.
• Although it’s tempting, we can’t make any conclusions yet because we are working with a random sample of the population we are interested in, not the population itself (all people treated in the program).
Explanation 1
Explanation 1 absenteeism and that
• The first explanation, which we will call explanation A, is that the difference between the community mean of 7.2 days and the sample mean of 6.8 days reflects a real difference in absentee rates between the population of all treated alcoholics and the community.
• The difference is statistically significant in the sense that it is very unlikely to have occurred by random chance alone.
• If explanation A is true, the population of all treated alcoholics is different from the community and the sample did not come from a population with a mean absentee rate of 7.2 days.
Explanation 2
Explanation 2 absenteeism and that
• The second explanation, or explanation B, is that the observed difference between sample and community means was caused by mere random chance.
• In other words, there is no important difference between treated alcoholics and the community as a whole, and the difference between the sample mean of 6.8 days and the mean of 7.2 days of absenteeism for the community is trivial and due to random chance.
• If explanation B is true, the population of treated alcoholics is just like everyone else and has a mean absentee rate of 7.2 days.
0.4 absenteeism and that
Remember that this is the distribution of s. From sample to sample measured values deviate. Also remember that the deviation is
• Which explanation is correct? As long as we are working with a sample rather than the entire group, we cannot be absolutely (100%) sure about the answer to this question.
• However, we can set up a decision-making procedure so conservative that one of the two explanations can be chosen knowing that the probability of choosing the incorrect explanation is very low.
This decision-making process begins with the assumption that explanation B is correct. Symbolically, the assumption that the mean absentee rate for all treated alcoholics is the same as the rate for the community as a whole can be stated as
• If explanation B (the population of treated alcoholics is not different from the community as a whole and has a μ of 7.2) is true, then the probability of getting the observed sample outcome ( = 6.8) can be found.
• Let us add an objective decision rule in advance. If the odds of getting the observed difference are less than 0.05 we will reject explanation B.
• If this explanation were true, a difference of this size (7.2 days vs. 6.8 days) would be a very rare event, and in hypothesis testing we always bet against rare events.
unknown not different from the
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Vientiane Province
Set on a bend in the Mekong River, Vientiane was first settled around the 9th century AD and formed part of one of the early Lao valley meuang (city-states) that were consolidated around the 10th century. The Lao who settled here did so because the surrounding alluvial plains were so fertile and initially the Vientiane meuang prospered and enjoyed a fragile sovereignty.
In the ensuing 10 or so centuries of its history, Vientiane’s fortunes have been mixed. At various times it has been a major regional centre, at other times, it has been controlled by the Vietnamese, Burmese and Siamese.
The height of Vientiane’s success was probably in the years after it became the Lan Xang capital in the mid-16th century. (King Setthathirat moved the capital of the Lan Xang kingdom from the city now known as Luang Prabang.) Several of Vientiane’s wats were built following this shift and the city became a major centre of Buddhistlearning.
It didn’t last. Periodic invasions by the Burmese, Siamese and Chinese, and the eventual division of the Lan Xang kingdom took their toll on the city.
It wasn’t until the Siamese installed Chao Anou (a Lao prince who had been educated in Bangkok) on the throne in 1805 that the city received an overdue makeover. Chao Anou’s public works included Wat Si Saket, built in 1815.
Unfortunately, Chao Anou’s attempts to assert Lao independence over the Siamese resulted in the most violent and destructive episode in Vientiane’s history.
In 1828 the Siamese defeated Chao Anou’s armies and wasted no time in razing the city and carting off much of the population. Wat Si Saket was the only major building to survive, and the city was abandoned.
In 1867, French explorers arrived but it wasn’t until late in the century, after Vientiane had been made capital of the French protectorate, that serious reconstruction began. A simple grid plan was laid out for the city and a sprinkling of colonial-style mansions and administrative buildings emerged. However, Vientiane was always low in the French order of Indochinese priorities, as the modest building program testifies.
In 1928 the ‘city’ was home to just 9000 inhabitants – many of them Vietnamese administrators brought in by the French – and it wasn’t until the end of WWII that Vientiane’s population began to grow with any vigour. It was a growth fed primarily by Cold War dollars, with first French and later American advisors arriving in a variety of guises.
After a couple of coups d’état in the politically fluid 1960s, Vientiane had by the early ’70s become a city where almost anything went. Its few bars were peopled by an almost surreal mix of spooks and correspondents, and the women who served them.
Not surprisingly, things changed with the arrival of the Pathet Lao (PL) in 1975. Nightclubs filled with spies were the first to go and Vientiane settled into a slumber punctuated by occasional unenthusiastic concessions to communism, including low level collectivisation and an initial crackdown on Buddhism. These days the most noticeable leftovers from the period are some less-than-inspired Soviet-style buildings. Things picked up in the 1990s and in recent years Vientiane has seen a relative explosion of construction, road redevelopment and vehicular traffic.
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From left to right: Assistant professor Brian Mann, graduate student Samuel Stanton, and undergraduate student Clark McGehee. (Duke)
Duke University engineers have developed a novel approach that they believe can more efficiently harvest electricity from the motions of everyday life. Although motion is an abundant source of energy, only limited success has been achieved because the devices used only perform well over a narrow band of frequencies.
These so-called “linear” devices can work well if the character of the motion is fairly constant, such as the cadence of a person walking. However, the pace of someone walking, as with all environmental sources, changes over time and can vary widely.
“The ideal device would be one that could convert a range of vibrations instead of just a narrow band,” said Samuel Stanton, graduate student in Duke’s Pratt School of Engineering, working in the laboratory of Brian Mann, assistant professor of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Sciences. The team also included undergraduate Clark McGehee.
The device they constructed is basically a small cantilever, several inches long and a quarter inch wide, with an end magnet that interacts with nearby magnets. The cantilever base is made of a piezoelectric material, which has the unique property of releasing electrical voltage when it is strained.
The range of applications for non-linear energy harvesters varies widely. Mann is currently working on a project that would use the motion of ocean waves to power an array of sensors that would be carried inside ocean buoys.
(Duke University)
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What is the formula for Radius of gyration?
Radius of gyration is the distance between the given axis and the centre of mass of the body. The centre of mass of a body is point where the entire mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. It is denoted by ‘K ’.
If M is mass of the body, the moment of inertia is given as,
Moment of inertia (I) = mass of the body (M) × (radius of gyration)2
So, the formula for radius of gyration (K) is given as,
radius of gyration
where K = radius of gyration, I = Moment of inertia and M = mass of the body.
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Rabbit Proof Fence and the Rabbits,
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How does the film Rabbit Proof Fence and the picture book The Rabbits, by Phillip Noyce and John Marsden respectively, position a responder to feel sympathetic for the Aboriginal people in the film and book?
The Aboriginal people of Australia have endured great suffering since white settle began in 1788. Despite this, they have shown both resilience and determination to maintain their cultural identity. Phillip Noyce's Rabbit Proof Fence examines such suffering through its portrayal of three indigenous girls who were victims of the stolen generations in Western Australia. The film aligns itself with an Aboriginal perspective to demonstrate how prejudiced views about race held last century in Australia led to discriminatory actions. Additionally, the film presents the Aboriginal people as having a definite culture and sense of belonging, which positions a responder to sympathise with the way they were treated by the authorities of the time. Likewise, John Marsden and Shaun Tan's picture book The Rabbits also evokes a sympathetic response through its allegorical depictions of the brutal treatment the aborigines experienced during the process of white settlement and colonisation.
Prejudice invariably leads to discriminatory actions. Noyce's Rabbit Proof Fence shows this through its portrayal of 2 sisters and their cousin who were forcibly removed from their mothers because they were deemed as 'half cast'. In one scene early in the film, the girls are grabbed by the authorities and thrust into a car. Ominous non-diegetic music is played you underscore the wills of the aboriginals women and the looks of fear on the girls' faces, which are captured through a range of close-up shots. This has the fact of making a responder feel sympathetic towards the Aboriginal people in the film as they are depicted as being victims of brutal and inhumane campaign that failed to understand their culture and feelings. Similarly, The Rabbits also conveys the theme of prejudice...
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Escaping the Malthusian Trap
Chile had escaped the Malthusian trap around the early 20th century. In this I will examine the factors that had enabled substantial growth in the Chilean economy including geography and trade, population, and institution within the period 1840-1930. The Chilean War of Independence against Spanish control began in 1810 with it ending in an independent republic being declared in 1818. From this point onwards Chile began to expand its territorial holdings in regards to assimilating the Mapuche population and gaining Northern territory, but it was only in 1840 that the economy had truly opened (Mamalakis, Markos J).Chile has a diverse regional market due to its geographic nature, as the country spans 6435 km of coastline going from desert in the North to arctic conditions in the South. (Please click to expand images!)
Screen Shot 2014-11-05 at 11.38.44
As Chile lies upon the North-South axis it has distinct diversity in climate and geography, the economy had been able to surpass the Malthusian trap as a consequence of this rather than be limited by it. This diversity enabled trade, demand for its exports, and increasing market integration. Chile had a particular trade advantage due to access to the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean through the Drake Passage, and the Strait of Magellan (The World Factbook). This was to prove pivotal for the export of the factor endowments present in Chile. In the central and southern zones there is particularly fertile soil for wheat production and grazing. Then in the northern zone there is the Atacama Desert, which is the source of Nitrate and Copper (The World Factbook). While the border to Argentina is defined by the Andes Mountain range providing Chile with access to natural minerals (The World Factbook).
Trade routes proved to be integral to the growth of the export and import market that drove forward Chilean growth, which is exemplified by their increasing rate in growth rate of exports considering the data for 1850-1900, 1870-1920, and 1890-1900 shown in the table.
Screen Shot 2014-11-05 at 14.04.58Further examining exports Chile had an absolute advantage in the production of wheat during what was noted as the Great Wheat Trade between 1865 and 1900 (Mamalakis, Markos J).This wheat boom had begun in 1850 as a consequence of demand from the Californian and Australian gold rushes, as exports peaked at 276,664 qq.m (quintals) for California in 1850, then 323,607 qq.m for Australia in 1855 (Mamalakis, Markos J). This highlighted Chile’s advantage due to the pacific trade routes and fertile soil, while the wheat trade was to become global with England becoming a central importer, as production between 1867 and 1900 did not fall below 800,000 qq.m (Mamalakis, Markos J). This absolute advantage in wheat production attracted foreign investment, and led to the introduction of steam ship use in Chile (Mamalakis, Markos J). The wheat trade began to decline by 1900, due to California and Australia producing their own wheat (Mamalakis, Markos J). This decline in the pacific export market for wheat did not hinder Chile’s growth due to the export of copper and nitrate.
The nitrate boom began after the War of the Pacific in 1880-82, as Chile had gained the entire Atacama Desert region from Bolivia and Peru (Hutchison, Elizabeth Q., Thomas M. Klubock, Nara B. Milanich, and Peter Winn). This had also landlocked Bolivia, resulting on a trade dependence on Chile. Between 1900 and 1930 more than 50% of government revenue came from nitrate and iodine export taxes (Mamalakis, Markos J), with the nitrate sector resource surplus averaging 14% of GDP between 1882 and 1930 (Mamalakis, Markos J). In regards to helping Chile escape the Malthusian trap the nitrate boom was far more important in regards to it being a source of modernization. Integrally, bringing it closer towards modern capitalism and into contact with the United States and the United Kingdom. However, due to the synthetic production of nitrate, Chile had experienced a rapid boom and bust cycle (Mamalakis, Markos J). In this the greater move towards capitalism became the main benefit of the nitrate boom, as the nitrate bust left behind it ghost mining towns and structural unemployment showing an example of mineral theory (Adelman, M. A., and G. C. Watkins). This left copper as the most sustained specialized export, ensuring growth.
It was specialisation in the extraction of copper that was to lead to sustained growth, institutional development, and greater market integration within the Chilean economy. Until 1880 Chile had been the world’s largest copper producer, but it experienced a rapid decline in easily available stocks as production fell (Mamalakis, Markos J).
Screen Shot 2014-11-19 at 20.12.57
After 1910 the Chilean copper sector experienced a massive transformation, as increasing foreign investment led to greater human and physical capital that resulted in large-scale mining. This had revived copper production, while emphasising an institutional and financial link with the United States (Mamalakis, Markos J). It is debated whether the foreign presence had upheld a weak Chilean economy, or whether it provided the backbone for the modernisation.
The geography of Chile proved to be vital in providing the correct environment for access to trade, as well as a diverse range of exports. Proving essential to an increase in economic growth and modernisation, in regards to escaping the Malthusian trap increasing income per capita was a result of this trade based growth. However, it is important to consider the demographic transition that occurred in the period.
The demographic transition in Chile took advantage of growth through trade, aiding in the escape of the Malthusian trap. In the table below we see a decreasing rate of increase in population for Chile during the period in question 1840-1930, with the authors estimates with a boom in population growth for 1915-1930. There was no dramatic change in population, with the main factor being the assimilation of indigenous Mapuche population through expanding the Chilean frontier in the south through war (Hutchison, Elizabeth Q., Thomas M. Klubock, Nara B. Milanich, and Peter Winn). Instead this demographic transition was based upon increasing urbanisation and a switch to more service based sectors. In 1930 49.4% of the country’s population was located in urban areas, and increasingly the capital Santiago (Mamalakis, Markos J).
Screen Shot 2014-11-06 at 00.12.57
Screen Shot 2014-11-06 at 00.10.13
This was a consequence of the movement of employment from agriculture to industry and services, shown by the graph considering the production indices, as the public sector, and industry began to match then exceed agriculture in terms of production. This suggests that the Chilean economy had escaped the Malthusian trap between the period 1915-1930, especially considering the table below which considers the relative income and employment between 1907 and 1930, as 43% of the working population was employed in services which accounted for 50% of relative income, compared to 36% of the population being employed in agriculture (Mamalakis, Markos J).
Screen Shot 2014-11-06 at 10.40.54It is important to place the trade and demographic transition that allowed Chile to experience rapid levels of growth into context with the institutions that were available at the time. Having been a Spanish colony there was already the physical and human capital required to facilitate trade, moreover the Spanish had focused on the mining of silver and gold that was to benefit the Chilean economy in regards to the production of copper and nitrate (Hutchison, Elizabeth Q., Thomas M. Klubock, Nara B. Milanich, and Peter Winn). Chilean institution in relation to aiding the escape from the Malthusian trap may be more closely examined through considering capital accumulation through physical and human capital investment, this is a consequence of the government being able to focus on aiding the export sector. Travel was the greatest institutional issue as a result of the length of the country. Therefore, between 1888 and 1930 government development expenditure increased at a rate of 4% per year (Mamalakis, Markos J), this went towards the development of customs facilities, rail network, roads, and ports. Chile had effectively set up new institutions as a result of investment into human capital through education. The government realised that it had previously failed to spread education between 1840 and 1900 this was due to rural population, poverty, inequality, and inadequate enforcement. In 1900 the system was nationalised, creating a progression from primary education until university education. This also led to the rise of vocational education in agriculture, mining, industry, and trade (Mamalakis, Markos J). Therefore, Chile had inherited some degree of institution due to being a Spanish colony creating the base of development, but then was able to develop its own institutions enabling it to improve standards of living and aid in increasing wages beyond subsistence level.
The combination of geography, trade, population, and institution between 1840 and 1930 had placed Chile on the path to escape the Malthusian trap. Chile had a geographic advantage for trade with access to both the Atlantic and pacific oceans, while also being endowed with resources to export such as wheat, nitrate, and copper. Then due to the nature in which foreign investment defined the export sector there was a demographic transition, which resulted in increasing urbanisation. This was led with through the trading institution inherited from the Spanish colonialists. The economy was then transformed, as a strong government was able to build new institutions specifically education. Thereby, leading Chile out of the Malthusian trap by 1910-1920. Correlating to some degree with data map shown below:
Screen Shot 2014-11-06 at 14.04.46
Chile was to go on to experience economic and political turmoil that would stagnate the economy, which meant that it didn’t follow a similar to path to other countries escaping the Malthusian trap until the era of neo-liberalist economics under Augusto Pinochet (Solimano, Andrés)
Adelman, M. A., and G. C. Watkins. Reserve Prices and Mineral Resource Theory. International Association for Energy Economics, 2008. Print.
Hutchison, Elizabeth Q., Thomas M. Klubock, Nara B. Milanich, and Peter Winn. The Chile Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Print.
Mamalakis, Markos J. The Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy: From Independence to Allende. New Haven: Yale UP, 1976. Print.
Solimano, Andrés. Chile and the Neoliberal Trap: The Post-Pinochet Era. New York: Cambridge UP, 2012. Print.
The World Factbook. “South America: Chile.” Central Intelligence Agency, 22 June 2014. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.
Staring, Chris. “The Nitrate Towns of Chile Photography.” Atlas Obscura.
Web. 29 Oct. 2014.
Copyright Almog Adir © 2014 · All Rights Reserved · My Website
South Africa: Sink or Swim
South Africa is currently suffering from a high rate of unemployment making it difficult for the economy to grow. Forecasted growth rates have already been downscaled as the largest economy in Africa is struggling to meet targets. The countries main contributor to GDP can be identified as consumer spending and this is why the persistent unemployment is having a considerable effect on growth forecasts.
Key Terms:
Unemployment – “Those out of work, actively seeking work at the current wage rate”
GDP/Growth – Measured by the output of an economy (gross domestic product)
Consumer Spending – Spending on retail goods, energy consumption, transportation, housing costs, and other areas where disposable income is spent.
Due to the high levels of unemployment it can be noted that there is a decline in aggregate demand within the economy. Colen Garrow states that the retail sector is weakening and there is going to be pressure overall as there is a lack of demand. It can be noted that to an extent the South African economy is contracting as there has been increased inflation as a result of a cost-push and fall in aggregate demand (shown below).
The shift for aggregate demand from AD to AD1 is a result of the rise in unemployment, the people have less spending power and therefore there is an overall decrease in consumer demand. The shift of aggregate supply is a result of the tightening credit environment as firms struggle to meet their costs. The red rectangle represents the inflationary response in the economy as a result of the shift in aggregate supply. So as a whole the South African economy has retracted as output has significantly decreased (resulting in forecasts for future growth to decline) and there has been an inflationary response, as the price level has increased.
There is also the factor of unemployment which is 24.9% falling from the peak during Q4 of 2012 at 25.5%.This is shown simply below with a demand and supply relationship of labour in South Africa.
Currently in the market labour is only being demanded at the point of LD but the supply is at LS. This surplus of labour is the current unemployment. With so many out of work and seeking work it is clear that economy is not working to full capacity. If a production possibility frontier for the economy was shown it would be operating within the curve. This further explains the economies inability to have substantial growth.
Consumer spending has radically decreased, making it difficult for the economy to grow and therefore attempt to combat the unemployment. This is realised by the fact that private sector demand for credit dropped from 10.09% to 8.64%. This is why the retail sector is struggling, as the unemployment and inflation has led to the decline of demand.
The unemployment in South Africa can be seen as a combination of structural and cyclical unemployment. Mining has been one of the major consumers of labour in the region, and recent closing of mines and movement by companies to other African regions for mining has meant a structural change in labour demand. The cyclical unemployment is a result of the struggling economy, as different firms reduce the amount of people they employ to meet the higher costs of production.
In the short run the economy is not likely to recover, growth is a must if the government aims to combat the high rate of unemployment. It is essential to restore consumer confidence in the economy, and also enable people to obtain credit more easily as to restore the aggregate demand of the economy.
In the long run for the economy to attempt to maintain growth, eliminating unemployment is essential to attempt to get the economy working back at a point of the PPF. However this could lead to an inflationary response in the form of a demand pull, and the government will need to begin considering how to reduce already increasing inflation as a result of increasing production costs.
Currently in the South African economy the rate of unemployment is pulling it down, in this situation there are no winners within the country. Exports may become more favourable as the inflation will weaken the South African Rand, but make investing in South Africa unlikely. To solve the unemployment in South Africa is difficult as a result of its cyclical and structural qualities; the first step would be to create more job opportunities. However, it is also essential that a greater majority of people achieve education and training whether it is academic or vocational to help improve employability prospects.
Expected growth by 2014 is forecasted at around 3.4% which is still considerable in comparison to some countries in the EU. There is still risk though investing within the country and the government must do more to encourage foreign investment and begin a round of serious structural investment such as roads to create jobs and spur on growth.
There is the potential for South Africa to climb out of the current situation, and unemployment stands at the centre of it. The country is still Africa’s biggest economy and will continue to be so if it can achieve consistency with its currency and sustained growth.
Minimum Wage (Harkness)
Discuss arguments for and against a national minimum wage
• Sets the living standards for the country, and also establishes what should be expected from the state. It gives a representation of the type of income one needs to live within the country
• Ensures that employees are not being exploited by private companies
• Generally improve the income of workers
• Does not rely on the demand and supply of labour
• National minimum wage may cost jobs, as employers may not be able to afford hiring as many employees as needed
• Does not solve the issue of those unemployed whom are still a burden on welfare states
• Difficult to decide what a national minimum wage should be in proportion to, as 50% of average income is not always a reliable indicator
• If the minimum wage is too low it may undermine the employees ability to sustain a living
Should National Minimum wage be raised or lowered?
• If the minimum wage was to increase this would lessen the burden on the state to give welfare.
• The poor tend to spend a higher portion of their income, with the increase of minimum wage there can be increased savings, and greater monetary flexibility.
• Since the state provides welfare for those unemployed and those with low-level salaries, it in a manner subsidises the businesses. If minimum wage were to be raised the employers owe more to the worker rather than the government.
• People rather take benefits than an unsecure job at minimum wage, so if the minimum wage were increased there would be a greater incentive to get a job.
• If it is lower than people will begin to struggle as almost all of their income is used up in basic necessities and families will have to have two working parents which may lead to the need for more welfare.
There is speculation that tighter control of wages simply means the economy is no longer as free and that labour within certain countries is less competitive, however it can be noted that countries such as China who have an export based market are increasing the minimum wage of employees considerably.
Discuss the possibility of an International Minimum Wage?
There are several problems with the concept of an international minimum wage. Firstly, the minimum wage would be subject to value of currencies and foreign exchange market. The second issue would be the fact that the cost of living is different in every country. Finally, not all countries offer welfare and the minimum wage set may not be enough to sustain a family or basic lifestyle.
If an international were to be set it would be as problematic as setting a single currency for multiple countries, there are both pros and cons. In the case of minimum wage it would become problematic if a certain currency was worth more than another currency which is the case globally when comparing all the varieties of currency.
The cost of living changes drastically from country to country, and even from state to state in the U.S. If a person were to move from San Francisco (CA) to Manhattan (NY) 28% increase in cost of groceries and a 57% increase in cost of utilities.[1] This is why in the United States there is a federal minimum wage, but states can increase the minimum wage e.g. Illinois, Connecticut, & Nevada. This current example clearly represents why it would be difficult to introduce an international minimum wage without effective policies to support it, which is difficult to do internationally.
Countries such as the United Kingdom offer a variety of welfare services, whether it is tax exemption or healthcare. The majority of countries outside of Europe don’t have such comprehensive welfare systems, therefore if an international minimum wage is set those in Europe on minimum wage are in a far better position than others. The concept of an international minimum wage is to increase equality, and stop exploitation in LEDs. However it would be difficult to enforce, and on what factor would the wage be decided on.
While in class we brought up the issue of competition. If there was an international minimum wage then every country would be equally competitive for the price of labour. It is important to note that country’s do not want to move over to a high minimum wage as it may deter producers, as they rather produce for a cheaper price improving their profit margin on products. But if there was to be an international wage it would ensure that people were not being exploited in any specific region. It would be difficult to speculate what affects an international minimum wage would have on the global economy, as it could cause the creation of a black market for labour.
Discuss whether regional variations to the National Minimum Wage are a good idea
Politically it is difficult to explain variation of minimum wage within a country, as the argument would be that there is a greater cost of living within a certain area, therefore establishing that there is serious inequality within the country. Economically, variation to minimum wage with respect to region is logical. As noted in the example of the United States, were each state is allowed to set its own minimum wage as long as it is greater than the federal minimum wage. In England the cost of living is greater in remote areas due to the reliance on personal transportation (driving) and the lower supply of basic goods. Therefore, it would only make sense if the minimum wage for that area was increased.
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The Chinese Written Language
The Chinese very early saw that a sophisticated, loose and elegant style of writing was a clear sign of intellectual prowess and ethical refinement.
The written language has changed very little from its origins more than three thousand years ago. There are several characters here that are written the same way they are today.
All of the countries around China, Japan, Korea, Viet Nam, Singapore, saw her as the Middle Country, the giant in their midst, so that even today China may be written as the “center.” Center country.
See how the line is drawn through the center of the rectangle on the left?
There are other ways to write “China” but this is the one that is easiest and most often used.
“Sun” was originally drawn as a circle with a dot in the middle, and it evolved into this character.
And this is moon.
bright ming
Putting the sun and moon together made a brilliant light, so the meaning of this combination of sun and moon is “bright, enlightened” (ming).
ming coin
You can see the word “ming” on this coin. The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) was a brilliant time of exploration, new ideas.
bright mirror still water
This means “bright mirror still water.” It is a four character summary of a Chinese Taoist text used for meditation in Zen Buddhism to suggest a calm and clear state of mind. The first character is ming which can be mei in Japanese. Meikyoo shisui.
kurosawa akira
When ming is used in Japanese as a given name, it can be pronounced Akira and it is the “first” name of director Kurosawa Akira.
This character ben is a pictograph of a tree with the root emphasized. It means root, origin, source.
When the root character is put together with the character for sun, it means Japan, the origin of the sun because to the Chinese Japan was to the east and so was the land of the rising sun. In Japanese these characters are pronounced Nihon. Sun root.
Míng bái means “understand” or “clear.” The second character means “white, bright, clear.”
This is how the character for woman evolved.
And this is child. See how her arms are stretched out?
good hao
The Chinese write woman and child together to mean good (hao).
hello ni hao
This is how you say “hello” in Chinese: Ni hao. You good?
If you put woman under a roof, the meaning is peace, tranquility.
If you put a child under a roof, the meaning is “letter,” because children learned their letters under a roof.
If you put a pig under a roof, the meaning is “family” or “home.”
Putting a woman next to a home is the Chinese way of writing “to marry a man.”
qi wife
A woman with a broom is a wife.
The character for tree or wood is very straightforward.
plum li
A child under a tree is how Chinese write “plum.”
This character plum is pronounced LI (lee). It is the second most common surname in China, but the most common surname on planet Earth, because we have many Lees here and they have many, many Lees there.
Two trees are a wood and three trees mean “forest.”
east dong
When you see the sun rise through a tree, that means “east.”
The Chinese have simplified their written language so that the character to the left above is how “east” is written today. Traditionalists like me regret the passing of the old beautiful ways, but we have to recognize that this makes life simpler for a billion plus people. You do lose a sense of the etymology of the words, though. It is rather as if in English we would spell history histree thus losing the idea of “story.”
Tokyo means “east capital,” and the Japanese write it like this.
east capital
But the Chinese now write it like this.
dong east
You know what I mean? We lose a bit of history here.
“West” (xi) was originally a drawing of a nest because birds nest when the sun goes down. This still looks a bit like a bird in a nest, doesn’t it?
mountain shang
“Mountain” is a drawing of a mountain. Shang. Shan.
There is a province in China called Shanxi. Now you know why it is called that. Because it is a mountain in the west.
North East South West
san yama
The Japanese pronounce mountain “san” and their beautiful mountain is called Fujisan. ”Yama” is the native Japanese word for “mountain,” so they say Fujiyama or Fujisan, but never Fujiyamasan, as I said when I first went to Japan at age six. I was saying Mount Mount Fuji in effect. Rather like someone saying “We’re going to the El Sombrero tonight.”
When the Japanese adopted the Chinese writing there was trouble making a fit, because Chinese is an extremely analytical language and Japanese is as inflected as Latin, so the Japanese created no less than three different systems of writing so they could add endings and prefixes to Chinese words.
shan mountain
Adding to the complexity was the fact that the Japanese often adopted the Chinese word as well as the writing of it, so that there are many, many pairs like “yama” and “san” in Japanese. Almost every noun, it seems, has a native Japanese word and then a Chinese borrowed word for its name.
child zi
The character for child above is called zi in Chinese, as we have seen, but in Japanese it can be SHI, SU, ko, -go and most nouns have this many pronunciations.
This character, by the way, is the ending for women’s names which was very common until the advent of womens’ liberation. Women were called Yuriko, Yukiko, Hanako, Yoko, Chisuko, Tomiko, where the -ko was written with this character which means “child.” Now many women have dropped this -ko.
My friend Yukiko made this beautiful flower arrangement.
This character for heart is a fairly accurate anatomical drawing of the heart and it is pronounced xin in Chinese. In Japanese the pronunciation is SHIN, close enough to xin. The native word in Japanese for heart is kokoro and -gokoro in combinations.
This is the old way of writing “love” in Chinese and the Japanese still write it this way. Note that heart is there in the middle of the character which is pronounced ai in Chinese.
In China they now write “love” this way, so it lost its heart.
Too bad.
Here are some “heart” words. This one is “think, recall,” pronounced SHI, omo(u) in Japanese.
“Bad, evil.” Pronunced AKU, waru(i) in Japanese.
“Sad, sorrowful.” Pronounced bei in Chinese and HI, kanashii in Japanese. The top part of this character means “not,” so not heart = sad.
Grass or herb can be written this way. The line at the top of this character with two other lines through it is used in many words relating to plants. This is called “the grass radical.”
The character for young has the grass sign, probably because grass is spring and youth.
This kanji (kanji = han letter, Chinese letter) is gei which means “art(s),” especially the popular arts like music, weaving, origami, crafts.
A geisha is an art person.
This character also has the grass crown. This is “flower” which is KA or hana in Japanese. When I go to Hana on Maui, I always think of this character because there are so many flowers. The pronunciation is hua in Chinese. This was originally a man falling head over heels with the grass symbol added on top.
This is bamboo. Zhú.
Tea. Chá. You probably know the word chai. Same difference.
Cha iro is Japanese for tea color, brown.
At the top of this character is the “grass” radical and it is used to write this word: plant.
medicine grass music
This is the grass radical combined with the character for music which makes the word “medicine.” Grass (herb) and music to mean medicine gives an insight into the Chinese view of healing at the time this character was formulated.
The Chinese write “brave” or “hero” this way to imply that the person is in the jungle (grass component) in a large space.
ying kuo
Because the pronunciation is “ying” they use this character to write England. Ying guó. Brave country. England is a brave country, but the ideogram seems chosen more for its sound than for meaning.
mei koku
Characters are often chosen for their sounds, especially if they are complimentary.
mei guo ren
“America” is called mei koku (beautiful country) in Japan and mei guo in China because those names sound like “America.” Mei guo ren is an American, a beautiful country person.
Pa ris greatly desire village
“Paris” was often written in China with two characters that sound like Pa ri and mean “greatly desire village.” There are a lot of puns and rebuses involved in writing of foreign names.
The character for “horse” evolved somewhat like this.
In Chinese this horse character is pronounced ma and in Japanese BA, uma.
Chinese Horse with script
Many of the characters for animals have four legs.
a run, gallop
This horse radical is used to write to run, to gallop.
This is a station, like a railway station or a bus station. It dates from when horses were the main mode of transportation. Pronunciation is EKI. This is a useful word to be able to read if you live in Japan.
This will give you some idea of the stroke order involved in making these characters. The order of drawing the strokes is very well established. Learning it, I believe, was what led me to become an artist. The stroke order in Chinese writing is logical and well thought out.
In Chinese, fish have legs. Well, they did before the Chinese Communists simplified the written language and did away with legs altogether, replacing them with a single stroke. The Japanese and the people of Taiwan still write the character for fish with the legs.
It evolved in something like this manner.
kingyo goldfish
In China now, “goldfish” is written like this. The character on the left means “gold.” The character on the right is how the Chinese write fish now. One stroke for the old four strokes. More efficient, more convenient, but something is lost.
year of the goldfish
This is the year of the goldfish.
person people
Person is written like this.
So mermaid or merman is written like this. A person fish.
This is the character for eternity and it contains every kind of stroke used in Chinese calligraphy.
shiawase da
In Japanese for “I am happy,” you can say “Shiawase da.
The first character on the left is called by the Japanese KOO, saiwa(i), sachi or shiawa(se). It means good fortune or happiness.
If you really want to express happiness, you write the character twice… double happiness.
You see this double happiness character everywhere, especially in San Francisco, because everyone wants to be doubly happy and fortunate.
double bonheur
Artists challenge themselves to see how loosely, elegantly and artistically they can make this word double happiness and yet still have it be understoo0d.
Can you still read the two happinesses here?
Of course this is a wonderful message for weddings and anniversaries because there are two characters for two people. Looks a bit like kissing, doesn’t it?
My friend Peggy Pettigrew Stewart is a glass artist and she may want to consider using some variation of this beautiful image in her work.
two happy
Double your pleasure, double your fun, double your happiness everyone.
When characters were written on bones and bronze, double happiness looked like this.
jade double
Here it is in jade. Can you still read it?
And some modern silly versions.
We’ll see you next week?
doble felicidad
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Praying Hands
Only available on StudyMode
• Topic: Albrecht Dürer, Nuremberg, Man
• Pages : 1 (365 words )
• Download(s) : 100
• Published : February 19, 2013
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The Praying Hands
It was about 1490 that 19 year-old Albrecht Durer and another young man slightly older served as apprentices in a wood carving establishment in Nuremberg, Germany. Both men came from homes of poverty, so they shared a room to save expenses as they pursued their common ambition to become a master artist. Frustrated by their lack of money, they hit on a plan ---- one would study while the other worked supported both of them, then the other would study while the first worked. Each was willing to yield first benefits to the other, so they finally tossed a coin, and the decision was made that Durer would go to first. Durer left Nuremberg and went to Vienna to study under the greatest painter of his time. The other young man went to work, first, in a restaurant and then in a blacksmith shop. No toil was too menial or hard because he was helping his friend to receive the training. He, himself, also desired and looked forward too. Durer returned to Nuremberg with a large sum of money from the sale of one painting. Now he would do for his friend what his friend had done for him. Arriving unannounced and unexpected at the room of his friend, Durer recognized the voice of his friend in prayer, with his hands uplifted. Durer stood spellbound gazing intently at those toil worn hands with enlarge joints, twisted fingers, and stiffened muscles. Instantly, Durer realized that the toil worn hands of his friend could never become the hands of a master artist. Durer made a brush drawing of those praying hands, and no doubt, you have seen a copy of his famous work which for nearly 500 year has inspired men and women around the world and told the story of devotion and friendship. Durer’s friend and benefactor, whose faith in God was far stronger than any disappointment in life, took his experience as one of the blessings handed to him from the all-loving Father who knows what is best. He found satisfaction in knowing that he had helped Durer to be what he wanted to...
tracking img
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