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The Egyptian and Israeli Conflict of the mid 1970's
The Egyptian and Israeli conflict of the mid 1970's posed a dilemma. There were peripheral parties that also posed problems for the negotiators. Syria had grave concerns about the Palestinian issue while Israel had no particular desire to sit down and negotiate with the Palestinian Liberation Organization. Egypt had concerns about the growing influence of the Soviet Union in the Middle East Region. This tangle of opposing interests posed quite a challenge to the negotiators to overcome.
1. In the mid 1970's, what are the key interests for the Syrian people? What are the key interests for the Israeli people?
2. Why could they not solve their problem by themselves?
3. What made the U.S. join and become the mediator? How do you like this action and do you think it is beneficial to the U.S.?
4. What technique did the U.S. use to reach an agreement? Do your own research, is it an effective tool?
5. Do you have any additional comments regarding this case?
Solution Preview
1. Israelis wanted stability and potential military advantage by entering into peaceful agreement with the Egyptians. Syrians consider Palestine as their own region and were seen as a protector of palestinians. Syria has serious concerns about the palestinian issue.
2. They could not solve their problems themselves as each party focused on their own agendas, interests and benefits and did not pay ...
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Gestbook Riseingsouthernstar-Africa AWB Weskaap
The Vow
The Day of the Vow (Afrikaans: Geloftedag or Dingaansdag) is the name of a religious public holiday in South Africa until 1994, when it was renamed the Day of Reconciliation. The holiday is 16 December. Commemorating a famous Boer victory over the Zulu, the anniversary and its commemoration are intimately connected with various streams of Afrikaner nationalism,
According to an Afrikaner tradition, the Day of the Vow traces its origin as an annual religious holiday to The Battle of Blood River on 16 December 1838. The besieged Voortrekkers took a public vow or covenant, together before the battle, led by either Andries Pretorius or Sarel Cilliers, depending on whose version is correct. In return for God's help in obtaining victory, they promised to build a church. Participants also vowed that they and their descendants would keep the day as a holy Sabbath. During the battle a group of about 470 Voortrekkers and their servants defeated a force of about ten thousand Zulu. Only three Voortrekkers were wounded, and some 3,000 Zulu warriors died in the battle.Two of the earlier names given to the day stem from this prayer. Officially known as the Day of the Vow, the commemoration was renamed from the Day of the Covenant in 1982. Afrikaners colloquially referred to it as Dingaansdag (English: Dingane's Day), a reference to the Zulu ruler of the defeated attackers.
No verbatim record of the vow exists. The version often considered to be the original vow is in fact W.E.G. Louw's ca. 1962 translation into Afrikaans of G.B.A. Gerdener's reconstruction of the vow in his 1919 biography of Sarel Cilliers (Bailey 2003:25).
The wording of the Vow is:Afrikaans: Hier staan ons voor die Heilige God van hemel en aarde om ʼn gelofte aan Hom te doen, dat, as Hy ons sal beskerm en ons vyand in ons hand sal gee, ons die dag en datum elke jaar as ʼn dankdag soos ʼn Sabbat sal deurbring; en dat ons ʼn huis tot Sy eer sal oprig waar dit Hom behaag, en dat ons ook aan ons kinders sal sê dat hulle met ons daarin moet deel tot nagedagtenis ook vir die opkomende geslagte. Want die eer van Sy naam sal verheerlik word deur die roem en die eer van oorwinning aan Hom te gee.
• English: We stand here before the Holy God of heaven and earth, to make a vow to Him that, if He will protect us and give our enemy into our hand, we shall keep this day and date every year as a day of thanksgiving like a sabbath, and that we shall erect a house to His honour wherever it should please Him, and that we will also tell our children that they should share in that with us in memory for future generations. For the honour of His name will be glorified by giving Him the fame and honour for the victory.
The "official" version of the event is that a public vow was taken by a Trekker commando on 16 December 1838 at Ncome River (Blood River) which bound future descendants to commemorate the day as a religious holiday (sabbath) in the case of victory over the Zulu. In 1841 the victorious Trekkers built The Church of the Vow at Pietermaritzburg, and passed the obligation to keep the vow on to their descendants.
As the original vow was never recorded in verbatim form, descriptions come from the diary of Jan Bantjes ,possibly written on 9 December; a dispatch written by Pretorius to the Volksraad on 23 December 1838; and the recollections of Sarel Cilliers in 1871. A participant in the battle, Dewald Pretorius, wrote his recollections in 1862, interpreting the vow as including the building of churches and schools (Bailey 2003:31).
Jan B. Bantjes (1817–1887), Pretorius' secretary, indicates that the initial promise was to build a House in return for victory. He notes that Pretorius called everyone together, and asked them to pray for God's help. Bantjes writes that Pretorius told the assembly that he wanted to make a vow, "if everyone would agree" (Bailey 2003:24). Bantjes does not say whether everyone did so. Perhaps the fractious nature of the Boers dictated that the raiding party held their own prayers in the tents of various leading men (Mackenzie 1997:73). Pretorius is also quoted as wanting to have a book written to make known what God had done to even "our last descendants".
Pretorius in his 1838 dispatch mentions a vow (Afrikaans: gelofte) in connection with the building of a church, but not that it would be binding for future generations.
we here have decided among make known the day of our victory...among the whole of our generation, and that we want to devote it to God, and to celebrate [it] with thanksgiving, just as we...promised [beloofd] in public prayer
Andries Pretorius,
Contrary to Pretorius, and in agreement with Bantjes, Cilliers in 1870 recalled a promise (Afrikaans: belofte), not a vow, to commemorate the day and to tell the story to future generations. Accordingly, they would remember:
the day and date, every year as a commemoration and a day of thanksgiving, as though a Sabbath...and that we will also tell it to our children, that they should share in it with us, for the remembrance of our future generations
Sarel Cilliers
Cilliers writes that those who objected were given the option to leave. At least two persons declined to participate in the vow. Scholars disagree about whether the accompanying English settlers and servants complied (Bailey 2003). This seems to confirm that the promise was binding only on those present at the actual battle. Mackenzie (1997) claims that Cilliers may be recalling what he said to men who met in his tent.
Up to the 1970s the received version of events was seldom questioned, but since then scholars have questioned almost every aspect. They debate whether a vow was even taken and, if so, what its wording was. Some argue that the vow occurred on the day of the battle, others point to 7 or 9 December. Whether Andries Pretorius or Sarel Cilliers led the assembly has been debated; and even whether there was an assembly. The location at which the vow was taken has also produced diverging opinions, with some rejecting the Ncome River site for (Bailey 2003).
Disagreements exist about the extent to which the date was commemorated before the 1860s. Some historians maintained that little happened between 1838 and 1910. Historian S.P. Mackenzie argues that the day was not commemorated before the 1880s. Initial observations may have been limited to those associated with the battle at Ncome River and their descendants. While Sarel Cilliers upheld the day, Andries Pretorius did not (Ehlers 2003).
Informal commemorations may have been held in the homes of former Voortrekkers in Pietermaritzburg in Natal. Voortrekker pastor Rev. Erasmus Smit announced the "7th annual" anniversary of the day in 1844 in De Natalier newspaper, for instance. Bailey mentions a meeting at the site of the battle in 1862 (Bailey 2003:29,32).
In 1864 the General Synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in Natal decreed that all its congregations should observe the date as a day of thanksgiving. The decision was spurred by the efforts of two Dutch clergymen working in Pietermaritsburg during the 1860s, D.P.M. Huet and F. Lion Cachet. Large meetings were held in the church in Pietermaritzburg in 1864 and 1865 (Bailey 2003:33).
In 1866 the first large scale meeting took place at the traditional battle site, led by Cachet. Zulus who gathered to watch proceedings assisted the participants in gathering stones for a commemorative cairn. In his speech Cachet called for the evangelization of black heathen. He relayed a message received from the Zulu monarch Cetshwayo. In his reply to Cetshwayo, Cachet hoped for harmony between the Zulu and white Natalians. Trekker survivors recalled events, an institution which in the 1867 observation at the site included a Zulu (Bailey 2003:35).
Huet was of the same opinion as Delward Pretorius. He declared at a church inauguration in Greytown on 16 December 1866 that its construction was also part of fulfilling the vow (Bailey 2003:35).
Die Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek declared 16 December a public holiday in 1865, to be commemorated by public religious services. However, until 1877, the general public there did not utilize the holiday as they did in Natal. Cricket matches and hunts were organized, some businesses remained open, and newspapers were sold. The name Dingane's Day appeared for the first time in the media, in an 1875 edition of De Volksstem. That newspaper wondered whether the lack of support for the holiday signaled a weakening sense of nationalism (Bailey 2003:37,38).
After the Transvaal was annexed by the British in 1877, the new government refrained from state functions (like Supreme Court sittings) on the date (Bailey 2003:41).
The desire by the Transvaal to retrieve its independence prompted the emergence of Afrikaner nationalism and the revival of 16 December in that territory. Transvaal burgers held meetings around the date to discuss responses to the annexation. In 1879 the first such a meeting convened at Wonderfontein on the West Rand. Burgers disregarded Sir G.J. Wolseley, the governor of Transvaal, who prohibited the meeting on 16 December. The following year they held a similar combination of discussions and the celebration of Dingane's Day at Paardekraal (Bailey 2003:43).
Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic, believed that failure to observe the date led to the loss of independence and to the first Anglo-Boer war as a divine punishment. Before initiating hostilities with the British, a ceremony was held at Paardekraal on 16 December 1880 in which 5,000 burghers [citizens] piled a cairn of stones that symbolized past and future victories (over the Zulu and the British).
After the success of its military campaign against the British, the Transvaal state organized a Dingane's Day festival every five years. At the first of these in 1881, an estimated 12,000 to 15,000 people listened to speeches by Kruger and others (Gilliomee 1989). At the third such festival in 1891, Kruger emphasized the need for the festival to be religious in nature (Ehlers 2003).
The Free State government in 1894 declared 16 December a holiday (Bailey 2003).
The Union state in 1910 officially declared Dingane's Day as a national public holiday.
In 1938 D.F. Malan, leader of the National Party, reiterated at the site that its soil was "sacred." He said that the Blood River battle established "South Africa as a civilized Christian country" and "the responsible authority of the white race". Malan compared the battle to the urban labour situation in which whites had to prevail (Ehlers 2003).
In 1952 the ruling National Party passed the Public Holidays Act (Act 5 of 1952), in which section 2 declared the day to be a religious public holiday. Accordingly, certain activities were prohibited, such as organized sports contests, theatre shows, and so on (Ehlers 2003). Pegging a claim on this day was also forbidden under section 48(4)(a) of the Mining Rights (Act 20 of 1967; repealed by the Minerals Act (Act 50 of 1991).
The name was changed to the Day of the Vow in order to be less offensive, and to emphasize the vow rather than the Zulu protagonist (Ehlers 2003).
In 1961 the African National Congress chose 16 December to initiate a series of sabotages, signaling its decision to embark on an armed struggle against the regime through its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe.
In 1983 the South African government vetoed the decision by the acting government of Namibia to discontinue observing the holiday. In response, the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance resigned its 41 seats in Namibia's 50-seat National Assembly.
Act 5 of 1952 was repealed in 1994 by Act No. 36 of 1994, which changed the name of the public holiday to the Day of Reconciliation.
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission started its work on 16 December 1995.
Those who celebrate the holiday argue that commemoration has nothing to do with racial dynamics; they are simply remembering to give thanks for divine deliverance from certain destruction. Detractors from this viewpoint claim that the victors were of one and the defeated from another race and that celebrating the breaking of the power of a Zulu tyrant creates racial tension. Yet others point out that the defeated Zulu leader, Dingane, was in fact a usurper of the throne who murdered the famous King Shaka; that the ultimate victors of the greater conflict were an alliance of Boers and a Shaka loyalist Zulu force led by Prince Mpande, who was the rightful heir; and that consequently, it is illegitimate to politicize the events at all, whether in a nationalist or liberal sense.
Scholars like historian Leonard Thompson have said that the events of the battle were woven into a new myth that justified racial oppression on the basis of racial superiority and divine providence. Accordingly, the victory over Dingaan was reinterpreted as a sign that God confirmed the rule of whites over black Africans, justifying the Boer project of acquiring land and eventually ascending to power in South Africa. In post-apartheid South Africa the holiday was criticized as a racist holiday, which celebrates the success of Boer expansion over the black natives.
By comparison with the large number of Afrikaners who participated in the annual celebrations of the Voortrekker victory, some did take exception. In 1971, for instance, Pro Veritate, the journal of the anti-apartheid organization the Christian Institute of Southern Africa, devoted a special edition to the matter.
Historian Anton Ehlers traces how political and economic factors changed the themes emphasized during celebrations of the Day of the Vow. During the 1940s and 1950s Afrikaner unity was emphasized over against black Africans. This theme acquired broader meaning in the 1960s and 1970s, when isolated "white" South Africa was positioned against the decolonization of Africa. The economic and political crises of the 1970s and 1980s forced white Afrikaners to rethink the apartheid system. Afrikaner and other intellectuals began to critically evaluate the historical basis for the celebration. The need to include English and "moderate" black groups in reforms prompted a de-emphasis on "the ethnic exclusivity and divine mission of Afrikaners" (Ehlers 2003).
The Trekkers called Voortrekkers after 1880 decided to dethrone Zulu chief Dingane kaSenzangakhona after the betrayal murder of chief Trekker leader Piet Retief, his entire entourage, and some of their women and children living in temporary wagon encampments during 1838.
On 6 February 1838, two days after the signing of a negotiated land settlement deal between Retief and Dingane at UmGungundlovu, which included Trekker access to Port Natal in which Britain had imperial interest, Dingane invited Retief and his party into his royal residence for a beer-drinking farewell. The accompanying request for the surrender of Trekker muskets at the entrance was taken as normal protocol when appearing before the king. While the Trekkers were being entertained by Dingane's dancing soldiers, Dingane suddenly accused the visiting party of witchcraft.Dingane's soldiers then proceeded to impale all Retief's men, lastly clubbing to death Retief, while leaving the Natal treaty in his handbag intact.
Immediately after the UmGungundlovu massacre, Dingane sent out his impis (regiments) to attack several Trekker encampments at night time, killing an estimated 500 men, women, children, and servants, most notably at Blaukraans.
Help arrived from farmers in the Cape Colony, and the Trekkers in Natal subsequently requested the pro-independence Andries Pretorius to leave the Cape Colony, in order to dethrone chief Dingane.After the Battle of Blood River, the Dingane-Retief treaty was found on Retief's bodily remains, providing a driving force for an overt alliance against Dingane between Zulu prince Mpande and Pretorius.
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Tornillos and Explosions
We have been analysing tornillos, a particular type of seismic signal from Galeras, to learn about the movement of fluids in the volcanic system. In 1992 and 1993, tornillos occurred at Galeras prior to explosions (Narváez et al, 1997), so they have been considered a precursory signal. They are distinct seismic events with identifiable onsets and relatively long, gradually decaying event tails (codas) and their name comes from the resemblence of their shape on the seismic record to a screw (Figure 13.33). Ninety tornillos recorded at Galeras Volcano, Colombia, from December 1999, to December 2002, were not immediately associated with explosions. Then, no tornillos were observed from December 2002, until well after the beginning of eruptive activity, in September 2004 (Figure 13.34. As a class, the tornillos are complex, each having from one to 15 spectral peaks between 1 and 40 Hz. The peaks for frequencies which extend into the coda are extremely narrow, while those present only during the initial excitation are relatively broad. The frequency of the lowest spectral peak present in any of the tornillos recorded between December 1999, and December 2002, was higher than 1.6 Hz. In contrast, tornillos occuring after the eruption began included frequencies between 1.0 and 1.3 Hz.
Figure 13.34: Occurrence of tornillos and their frequencies (dots). Triangles mark reported explosions.
Most analysis of tornillos has concentrated on the coda which gives them their name. However, each tornillo waveform is actually made up of three parts (Figure 13.35). In the high quality broadband recordings, the tornillos start with a very small, but clearly recognizable P-onset. This is followed about 0.25 s later by the arrival of wave energy on the horizontal traces, probably S-waves. This arrival becomes a complex wavepacket lasting between two and three seconds which then transitions into the coda. Preliminary comparisons of these wavepackets for many different tornillos suggest two things: that they can be classified into families, and that these families are only indirectly related to the exact frequency or family of frequencies present in the long-lasting coda into which they segue.
Figure 13.35: Displacment seismograms of the beginning of a tornillo. The first onset has polarization consistent with a P-wave, while the second onset is likely to be an S-wave. It is followed by a 2-3 s transition before the characteristic coda develops.
We are currently investigating and quantifying the characteristics of both the onsets and the intermediate wavepackets more thoroughly, as they bear important information about the mechanism which triggers a tornillo.
For the spectral peaks below 5 Hz, the polarization both remains constant during an individual tornillo, and varies little from one tornillo to the next. This suggests that tornillos are all generated within a limited volume of the volcanic edifice. The variation in the polarization at higher frequencies should allow us to constrain the size of this volume (Hellweg, 2003)..
Berkeley Seismological Laboratory
Questions or comments? Send e-mail:
© 2005, The Regents of the University of California
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What Is Fill Power?
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• Written By: T. L. Childree
• Edited By: R. Halprin
• Last Modified Date: 15 January 2017
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Fill power is a measurement of the fluffiness of down and is also related to its insulating ability. Down is a layer of soft, inner feathers that is most frequently harvested from geese. Small, standardized samples of down are compressed in a cylinder to determine the material’s loft ability. Fill power is commonly used to determine the weight and insulating ability of down-filled outerwear, comforters, and sleeping bags. Fill power ratings for pillows and mattresses refer only to their comfort.
Down is typically rated according to its insulating strength and fluffiness. Both of these measurements affect the quality and usefulness of down-filled articles. Fill power is a measurement of the material’s ability to remain fluffy after compression. Greater fluffiness allows more air to become trapped in the down for better heat retention. The down’s fluffiness typically determines the overall weight and insulating ability of an article. Higher ratings generally indicate a well-insulated, lighter weight item while lower numbers are usually assigned to heavy, less-insulated variants.
Down is a material consisting of fine, soft feathers located beneath a bird’s exterior covering. It is a very good type of thermal insulation and has long been used in clothing and comforters. Down is most often harvested from geese, although other bird species such as ducks are also used. Geese raised for consumption are usually stripped of their down before being processed. This commercially harvested down typically has a lower fill power rating than feathers collected by hand.
A small standardized sample of down is tested to determine its fill power. This test is conducted by placing the sample into a transparent cylinder and compressing it with a weight. The weight is then removed, and the down is allowed to return to its normal height in the cylinder. The return height is then measured to determine the fill rating. Although the rating ia also an indication of the down’s insulating ability, it is only used to determine its lofting power.
Fill power ratings are typically assigned to down in insulating bedding and clothing. Down-filled winter outerwear such as jackets and parkas must be thick enough to retain body heat, but light enough to be worn. Comforters filled with down must remain fluffy to provide adequate insulation, but lightweight for comfortable use. Down-filled sleeping bags must also have high fill ratings to provide adequate insulation against cold temperatures. The fill rating of down-filled pillows and mattresses is typically a gauge of comfort rather than insulating ability.
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Is the theme of "Thirteen ways if looking at a Black bird" is that there is only one possible truth?
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lsumner | High School Teacher | (Level 2) Senior Educator
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In "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird," I believe the author's theme is to look beyond outer characteristics. Just in the title itself, the author encourages or suggests that there is more than one way to look at one thing. The fact that the author chooses a blackbird for his multiple observations is ironic in that a blackbird has no distinctiveness in its appearance, in comparison to another type of bird, such as a peacock. The blackbird is just black with no variation in shades of color. How ironic that the author would write of thirteen ways of looking at such a plain, ordinary bird. For this reason, it is apparent the author is challenging the reader to look at such an ordinary part of life in many different ways. Such a varied study would prove to the reader that life may seem ordinary, but beyond the typical, jet black feathers, there are interesting actions associated with the blackbird that account for at least thirteen different ways to look at it.
Perhaps your first interpretation of there being only one truth could be changed to thirteen possible truths. Why would the author suggests thirteen ways of looking at something? Why only thirteen? Why not ten as in the children's song "Ten little blackbirds sitting in a tree?" Why not "four and twenty blackbirds" as were "baked in a pie?" Wallace challenges the reader to look at one simple blackbird thirteen ways, not twelve which would at least be an even, balanced number.
Even more interesting, why does the author choose of all birds a blackbird, which has very little, if any, outstanding features? The only thing I can really perceive, infer, is that the author's theme is an underlying one of look beyond what you see with the physical eye. Since reading the poem, I am now more curious than ever about what Stevens sees in a blackbird. If this simple, yet complex, poem can so arouse my curiosity, perhaps the author's point is well taken. Look at something again and again and again and one may have a different perspective.
Stevens alludes to this in stanza II..."I was of three minds, like a tree in which there are three blackbirds. How can one person have three minds?
If you study each stanza, the reader will see that Stevens is indicating that there is more than one way to look at something. My favorite is stanza VII when Stevens questions the "thin men of Haddam" about their imagining gold birds. Stevens alerts them to the fact the the simple, ordinary blackbird brushes the feet of their women around them.
Again in stanza VIII, Stevens "[knows] noble accents, but he points out that "the blackbird is involved in what [he knows] as well. Here is it inferred that the blackbird is involved in Stevens' noble knowings. Perhaps I have given you a number of ways to look at Stevens' poem. Maybe not thirteen, but hopefully enough to help you better understand the poem.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Windrows of straw, along with stubble.
Grass silage in a windrow
A windrow is a row of cut (mown) hay or small grain crop. It is allowed to dry before being baled, combined, or rolled. For hay, the windrow is often formed by a hay rake, which rakes hay that has been cut by a mowing machine or by scythe into a row, or it may naturally form as the hay is mown. For small grain crops which are to be harvested, the windrow is formed by a swather which both cuts the crop and forms the windrow.
By analogy, the term may also be applied to a row of any other material such as snow, earth or materials for collection. [1]
Snow windrows are created by snow plows when clearing roads of snow; where this blocks driveways the windrow may require removal. Snow windrowed to the centre of the street can be removed by a snow blower and truck. In preparing a pond or lake for ice cutting, the snow on top of the ice, which slows freezing, may be scraped off and windrowed.[2]
Earth windrows may be formed by graders when grading earthworks or dirt roads
Leaf windrows may be required for municipal collection.
Fossil windrows, also 'gyres', are a grouping of fossils that have been deposited together as a result of turbulence or wave action in a marine or freshwater environment. Fossils of similar shape and size are commonly found grouped or sorted together as a result of separation based on weight and shape.
Seaweed windrows form on sea or lake surfaces because of cylindrical Langmuir circulation just under the surface caused by wind action.
Windrow composting is a large scale vermicomposting system where garden and other biodegradable waste is shredded, mixed and windrowed for composting.
1. ^
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the area of soil that surrounds the roots of a plant and is altered by the plant’s root growth, nutrients, respiration, etc.
the region of the soil in contact with the roots of a plant. It contains many microorganisms and its composition is affected by root activities
The soil zone that surrounds and is influenced by the roots of plants. Within the rhizosphere, roots secrete a slimy lubricating substance, called mucigel, that cause the particles of soil to adhere to the roots, assisting in the uptake of water, and encourages the growth of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other beneficial microorganisms.
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noun 1. See under Rh factor. noun, Physiology. 1. any of a type of specific antigen present on the surface of red blood cells, persons having inherited such antigens being designated Rh+ (Rh positive) and persons lacking them, a much smaller group, being designated Rh− (Rh negative) blood of Rh− persons is incompatible with Rh+ […]
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noun, plural rhos. 1. the 17th letter of the Greek alphabet (P, ρ). 2. the consonant sound represented by this letter. 1. Rhodesia. noun (pl) rhos 1. the 17th letter in the Greek alphabet (Ρ, ρ), a consonant transliterated as r or rh rho n. Symbol ρ The 17th letter of the Greek alphabet.
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What was a city-state in Mesopotamia?
Quick Answer
The city-states of ancient Mesopotamia were independent cities constructed around temples and entirely self-contained within mighty perimeter walls. City-states were unified with each other only by their shared use of the Sumerian language. They spent most of their time engaged in conflict over resources.
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Full Answer
Each city-state's central temple was devoted to a specific deity and administrated by a priest king. This priest king was also responsible for fortifying the perimeter and protecting the citizens.
The priest king of each city-state was housed in a palace, while his citizens typically lived in thatched and tightly packed homes. Most people worked in agriculture, either on their own land or land owned by the state. Others beneath the ruling priest class served as scribes, artisans or merchants.
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Cell Size and Division or How Big Would You Want To Be If You Were A Cell
Nicholas DiGiovanni Naperville Central High School
440 W. Aurora Rd
Naperville IL 60540
1. For all grades: to illustrate the usefulness of models to represent things
which are too small (cells or molecules) or too large in science.
2. For primary grades: to learn to measure with a ruler, to cut a cube, and
determine smaller particles react faster than larger particles.
3. For middle grades: to determine surface area and volume of a cube in addition
to the above.
4. For upper grades: to determine the surface area to volume ratio and relate
this to cell size, to determine why cells divide and 1-3 above.
2500 ml 2% agar solution (sufficient for 15-20 set-ups or pairs)
a cake pan
phenolphthalein powder
1 250 ml beaker or cup
50 ml .4% NaOH solution
a metric ruler, stirrer or spoon, plastic knife, and paper towels
1.Advance Preparation:
Mix enough agar powder in boiling water to make a 2% agar solution. Use enough
water to fill a cake pan to a depth of 3 cm (approximately 2500 ml). Stir until
all the powder is dissolved. As the agar cools, add 1 g of phenolphthalein (if
solid is unavailable, add several ml of liquid phenolphthalein indicator) per
liter of solution and stir thoroughly. If the color is pink, add dilute acid
drop by drop until the solution turns colorless. Pour the mixture into the cake
pan to solidify. This will provide the agar for the model of the cells. If
agar is unavailable, substitute potatoes, but then razor blades must be used and
a dye found which will penetrate the potato in a short time.
2. Discuss models and their importance with the class. In this activity we will
use agar blocks to represent cells.
3. Give the students a 6x3x3 cm block of agar cut from the cake pan, a plastic
knife, and metric ruler. Ask them to cut three separate cubes 1x1x1, 2x2x2, and
3x3x3 cm from the block.
4. Ask the students, "If you were a cell which cell would you rather be (small,
medium, or large) and why?" Write this down.
5. Ask the students to place the cubes into the beaker. Then the teacher pours
the NaOH into the beaker to just cover the cubes. (CAUTION: Sodium hydroxide
is caustic and can burn the skin and eyes.)
6. The cubes should remain in the solution for 10 minutes. They should be
stirred occasionally with the spoon. When the NaOH comes into contact with the
agar blocks, the blocks and perhaps the solution will turn a pink color. The
students enjoy this.
7. Depending on the grade level, students should be given a task to do while the
cubes are "soaking". Primary grades may be asked if this were a cell, what type
of things might move into it. Older students may be asked the same as well as
to explain diffusion since this is what is happening. They should also be asked
to set up a data table in which they determine the surface area, volume, and
surface area to volume ratio for each cube.
8. After 10 minutes the cubes are taken out of the beaker with a spoon and dried
off with a paper towel. The students should cut the cubes in half and measure
the distance from the outer edge inward that has turned pink and record this.
9. Students will discover that the distance that the solution travelled in each
cube is the same (5 mm). There is a pink border around the 2x2x2 cm and 3x3x3
cm cube, but the 1x1x1 cm cube is pink throughout. Ask if the pink represented
food, water or something else needed by the cell to survive, which "cell" got
the needed substance distributed to all its parts. They should see that the
smallest cell is most efficient since it is pink throughout.
10. Mathematically, students should observe that the smallest cube has the
largest surface area to volume ratio (SA:VOL). Therefore this illustrates that
a large SA:VOL promotes better efficiency in moving things into and out of cells
and thus survival. This can also be related to smaller particles reacting
faster than larger particles in chemical reactions (i.e. Granular sugar
dissolves easier than sugar cubes.)
Students can be asked which type cell they think would have a better chance
for survival, one which is 1x1x1 cm or one which is .1x.1x.1 cm. They need to
justify their response. 5 points for a proper mathematical as well as written
explanation. 4 points for an explanation which is a little unclear. 3 points
for a proper explanation but improper or no math. 2 points for an unclear
explanation but shows thought. 1 point for an honest attempt.
Adapted from Biological Sciences: An Ecological Approach. Kendall Hunt. 1987
Return to Biology Index
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Appalachians Are Finding Pride in Mountain Twang
<< Back to Page 1 Page 2 of 2
Hicks's speech is rich with the heritage of the hills. He says "heared" instead of "heard," for example.
The region known as Appalachia includes parts of 13 states, from western New York to northern Mississippi. But the heart of Appalachia spreads across the mountains of several southern states, including West Virginia, southwestern Virginia, western North Carolina, northwestern South Carolina, northern Georgia and Alabama, and eastern Tennessee and Kentucky.
Dialects from Scotland and Ireland
Many of the first European settlers in this area moved from Scotland to Ireland and then to the United States, and they brought their native pronunciations and dialects with them. But there are smatterings of other influences, and there are variations in dialect in different parts of Appalachia.
Wolfram, the North Carolina State University scholar, said a "constellation of features" makes the mountain speech distinctive. Those features include the way Appalachia residents pronounce certain words, some of their grammar, and lots of unique words and phrases.
For example, words such as "across" and "twice" are pronounced as though they end with the letter t. So, "across" becomes "acrosst" and "twice" becomes "twicet."
This pronunciation, Wolfram noted, was common among English speakers centuries ago, but was lost everywhere in the U.S. except Appalachia.
In certain words, such as "light" and "fire," the pronunciation of the letter i is much different than in other parts of the United States. So, "light" comes out sounding something like "laht," and "fire" becomes "far."
One of the better known examples of an Appalachian pronunciation is the way singer Loretta Lynn says the name of her home town of Butcher's Hollow in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. She calls it "Butcher's Holler."
The use of words such as "growed" and "knowed" dates back to the common speech of 18th-century England. And if no word exists to express a thought or observation, mountain people often coin their own word. That's a possible explanation for the origin of the word "sigogglin," which is used in the hills to describe something that is unusually crooked.
Montgomery, the South Carolina scholar, says the stigma of sounding like a hillbilly began in the late 19th century. After the U.S. Civil War, writers created fictional illiterate characters whose fractured grammar established an enduring negative stereotype of Appalachia residents.
Later, television comedies such as The Beverly Hillbillies presented the stereotype to an even larger audience. And the focus on Appalachia during the U.S. government's War on Poverty in the 1960s portrayed residents of the region as impoverished and illiterate.
Wolfram says there's no danger of the colorful mountain dialect disappearing anytime soon. But he wonders about the more distant future.
"There are 20 million people in the Appalachia region, so it's still a pretty vibrant dialect," he said. "It's not going to disappear in the next generation. But it's changing. It's losing some of its distinctiveness."
This National Geographic News series is underwritten with a grant from the Appalachian Regional Commission.
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Navigation Links
Sticky end/blunt end
In biology, sticky end and blunt end are the two possible configurations resulting from the breaking of double-stranded DNA. DNA exhibits a stabilizing interaction between complementary base pairs, providing specificity to the pairing of two strands of DNA. If two complementary strands of DNA are of equal length, then they will terminate in a blunt end, as in the following example:
However, if one strand extends beyond the complementary region, then the DNA is said to possess an overhang:
If another DNA fragment exists with a complementary overhang, then these two overhangs will tend to associate with each other and each strand is said to possess a sticky end:
5'-ApTpCpTpGpApCpT pGpApTpGpCpGpTpApTpGpCpT-3'
3'-TpApGpApCpTpGpApCpTpApCpGp CpApTpApCpGpA-5'
5'-ApTpCpTpGpApCpT pGpApTpGpCpGpTpApTpGpCpT-3'
3'-TpApGpApCpTpGpApCpTpApCpGp CpApTpApCpGpA-5'
The two fragments may then be covalently bonded by DNA ligase. Blunt ends may be ligated, but the reaction is significantly slower. These terms are most commonly used to describe the product of a restriction enzyme digestion of DNA.
Breaking Biology News(10 mins):
Other biology definition
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Battle of Salamis
The Battle of Salamis was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states and the Achaemenid Empire of Persia in September 480BC in the straits between the mainland and SalamisUniversal History Archive/Getty
A 2,500-year-old naval base has been discovered deep in the sea, off the coast of Athens, archaeologists have announced. The ancient structure played a crucial role in the defence of Greece during antiquity.
Since 2001, major excavation works - known as the Zea Harbour project - have been taking place near the port of Piraeus, Athens. However, because of a poor visibility in the harbour, the remains of the old naval base were found only recently hidden underwater in the marina of Mounichia.
Such a major naval base would have been key in a number of the major naval battles of antiquity.
The archaeologists believe it would have been used during the famous Battle of Salamis in 480BC against Persian forces.
Grandiose construction
With fortified walls and colossal ship containers for hundreds of Greek warships – known as triremes – the naval base would have been a very grandiose military complex protecting Athens.
"Visibility in the harbour is on many days down to 20cm, so we have had very poor working conditions, but we managed to finally locate the remains and excavate six ship houses," explains underwater archaeologist Bjørn Lovén, from the University of Copenhagen, who led the excavation. "They were used to protect Greek ships against woodworm and desiccation when they were not in use".
underwater archaeology Greece
The naval base was found underwater near the coasts of Athens.University of Copenhagen
These ship containers are particularly big. The foundations were up to seven and eight metres high and 50m long.
Using carbon-14 dating on a piece of wood and analysis of pottery, the archaeologists dated the containers to around 520-480BC. These dates seem to confirm the fact that the naval base and the ship containers were used for the battle of Salamis, during the Persians wars.
Battle of Salamis
The decisive battle was probably the first great naval battle recorded in history. It was fought during the Persian wars in September 480BC in the straits at Salamis, between the island of Salamis and the Athenian port-city of Piraeus.
underwater archaeology Greece
The University of Copenhagen led the excavation.University of Copenhagen
The Greek fleet was outnumbered, and only possessed about 370 triremes, while King Xerxes, who led the Persian forces, had a big fleet of nearly 800 larger galleys.
Nevertheless, they managed to win the battle, as Greek commander Themistocles lured the Persian fleet into the narrow waters of Salamis, where the massed Persian ships had difficulty manoeuvring.
They thus managed to attack and scatter the Persian fleet, delaying Xerxes' offensive against Greek cities who eventually united against him.
"This naval battle was a pivotal event in Greek history; it is difficult to predict what would have happened if the Greek fleet had lost at Salamis, but it is clear that a Persian victory would have had immense consequences for subsequent cultural and social developments in Europe. The victory at Salamis rightly echoes through history and awakens awe and inspiration around the world today", Lovén concludes.
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The name Cibotium is derived from the Greek kibotion, a small box often used to hold medical remedies. This is in reference to spore on the underside of fronds which look like small boxes.
Cibotium glaucum, from Hawaii, is the most common Cibotium species found. Other species found in Hawaii include Cibotium chamissoi, Cibotium menziesii and Cibotium nealiae. Identification of Cibotium species can be difficult, as all have shiny and rather waxy fronds when viewed from above. The only obvious differential between species is the size of the plant and the colour of hairs seen on the stipe bases.
Cibotium habitats in Hawaii have come under increasing pressure over the last two decades as developers encroach on the pristine forest peripheries. This is especially prevalent in lower lying areas which are more accessible and therefore commercially attractive for land clearance. Another major threat comes from Cyathea cooperi which is widely cultivated in private gardens and has escaped and now out-competes the endemic flora. Wind-blown spores from this fast growing Australian tree fern can migrate many miles into pristine Cibotium forests. This is a fairly recent phenomenon, but one which may eventually have grave consequences for the tree fern ecosystem in Hawaii.
The other Cibotium species that often surface in botanical collections are Cibotium schiedei and Cibotium regale (Mexico), plus Cibotium barometz (Asia). The latter species is best known for its role in ancient medicine, and even today its hairs are a staple ingredient in ointments used in natural Chinese remedies.
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How the Soviets Drilled the Deepest Hole in the World
By Alexis Madrigal Write to the Author
In the Cold War '60s, as the space race heated up, another race began: to the center of the earth.
Well, perhaps the Soviets and Americans couldn't drill quite that deep, but they could try to get to the so-called Moho, more formally the Mohorovicic Discontinuity, the theorized but much-disputed boundary between the mostly solid crust and the magma-filled mantle.
After the launch of an American drilling program to reach the boundary, the Russians joined the race to drill the deepest hole in the world.
"Between 1960 and 1962, the combination of economic interest and national pride during the Space Race period inspired scientists of the Soviet Union to plan drilling a "Russian Mohole" whose objective was to reach the Mohorovicic Discontinuity before the American drilling program," Dean Dunn writing in the book, Science of the Earth.
At the Kola Institute, pictured, the Russians drilled for more than 15 years to reach a crust depth of 40,226 feet, a record that's never been broken. But however successful the mission was as an exploration, the geological findings from the site remain murky and obscured by the way they emanated out of the fading Soviet scientific machine.
Stanford geologist and drilling expert, Mark Zoback, said that the Kola borehole was "an anomaly" even within the rather grandiose field of superdeep drilling projects.
Photo: Kola Institute
1 - 10 of 10 images
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Hooked on Science - Phone Book Friction
hooked science 300KENTUCKY (9/4/13) - Did you know your phone book has muscles? Using phone books you can prove two phone books are stronger than one.
• 2 Large Phone Books
STEP 1: Overlap the pages of each phone book. For example, page one of the first phone book should overlap page one of the second phone book.
STEP 2: Have one person grasp the spine of one of the phone books, while another person grasps the spine of the other phone book.
STEP 3: Attempt to separate the phone books by pulling.
Because of friction, it is difficult to separate the phone books. Friction is the resistance between two objects. By overlapping all the pages in each phone book, you created a lot of friction, which made it very difficult to separate the phone books.
Go to www.hookedonscience.orgfor more experiments that might get you and your family “Hooked on Science.”
Jason Lindsey
Hooked on Science
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Before the NFB
At the beginning of the 20th century the Canadian government began exploiting film for educational and promotional purposes. For example, when the railway was built as a first step towards the political unification of the country, the Canadian Pacific Railway received government support for its series of films called Living Canada, intended to encourage American and British immigration to the Canadian northwest.
In 1917, the Exhibits and Publicity Bureau, which came under the jurisdiction of the Department of Trade and Commerce, used film for the first time. Until 1921, the Bureau expanded considerably and produced films and photographs for several different government departments. To respond to increasing demand for a wider range of services, it was restructured and set up in new headquarters and renamed Canadian Government Motion Picture Bureau.
For ten years the Bureau had a solid reputation, and Canada was the country in the British Empire that most successfully used film for information and promotional purposes. But the Depression led to severe budget cuts and Canada neglected its film industry. The Bureau fell far behind in terms of technology and even continued to produce silent films until 1934.
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Abundance Codes
Abundance Code represents the number of estimated breeding pairs in a surveyed block:
1. 1 breeding pair
2. 2-10 breeding pairs
3. 11-100 breeding pairs
4. 101-1000 breeding pairs
5. more than 1000 pairs
Abundance was desirable (although optional) for atlasers to record. In order for atlasers to estimate total number of breeding pairs in a given block, they were to determine how much suitable breeding habitat was in the block for a given species and extrapolate from the number of breeding pairs in the surveyed portions of the block.
Abundance code was not necessary for observations with a breeding code of just Observed (O).
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प्रारम्भिक कीट विज्ञान/३
नेपाली विकिपुस्तकबाट, स्वतन्त्र पुस्तकालय
यसमा जानुहोस्: अन्वेषण, खोज्नुहोस्
Insect body wall is called as Integument or Exoskeleton. It is the external covering of the body which is ectodermal in origin. It is rigid, flexible, lighter, stronger and variously modified in different body parts to suit different modes of life.
Body wall consists of an inner cellular layer (Epidermis) and an outer non cellular part (Cuticle).
It is an inner unicellular layer resting on basement membrane with the following function. i. Cuticle secretion ii. Digestion and absorption of old cuticle iii. Wound repairing iv. Gives surface look
It is an outer non cellular layer comprising of three sub layers.
i. Endocuticle Compared to others it is the inner and thickest layer. This layer is made up of Chitin and arthropodin. This layer is colourless, soft and flexible.
ii.Exocuticle Outer layer, much thicker with the composition of Chitin and sclerotin. This layer is dark in colour and rigid.
iii. Epicuticle: Outer most layer which is very thin. Pore canals present in the exocuticle helps in the deposition of epiculticle. This layer is differentiated into the following layers.
a. Inner epicuticle: It contains wax filaments
b. Outer epicuticle: It makes the contact with cuticulin
c. Cuticulin : Non chitinous polymerised lipoprotein layer.
d. Wax layer: It contains closely packed wax molecules which prevents desiccation.
e. Cement layer: Outer most layer formed by lipid and tanned protein. It protects wax layer.
Composition of cuticle
i.Chitin: It is the main constituent of cuticle, which is Nitrogenous polysacharide and polymer of N-acetylglucosamine. It is water insoluble but soluble in dilute acids, alkalies and organic solvents.
ii.Arthropodin: An untanned cuticular protein, which is water soluble.
iii.Sclerotin: Tanned cuticular protein, which is water insoluble.
iv.Resilin: An elastic cuticular protein responsible for the flexibility of sclerites, e.g., wing articulatory sclerites.
Cuticular in growth of body wall providing space for muscle attachment is known as endoskeleton. There are two types
i.Apodeme: Hollow invagination of body wall.
ii.Apophysis: Solid invagination of body wall.
Non-cellular: Non-cellular appendages have no epidermal association, but rigidly attached. e.g. minute hairs and thorns.
Cellular: Cellular appendages have eipdermal association. Unicellular a. Clothing hairs, plumose hairs. e.g. Honey bee. Bristles. e.g. flies. b. Scales - flattened out growth of body wall e.g. Moths and butterflies c. Glandular seta. et. caterpillar d. Sensory setae - associated with sensory neuron or neurons e. Seta - hair like out growth (Epidermal cell generating seta is known as Trichogen, while the socket forming cell housing trichogen is known as Tormogen. Study of arrangement of seta is known as Chaetotaxy). Multicellular e.g. Spur - movable structure Spine- Immovable structure
Cuticular glands are either unicellular or multicellular. Following are some of the examples. i. Wax gland - e.g. Honey bee and mealy bug ii. Lac gland - e.g. Lac insects iii. Moulting gland secreting moulting fluid. iv. Androconia or scent scale - e.g.moth v. Poison gland - e.g. slug caterpillar Functions of Body wall i. Acts as external armour and strengthen external organs like jaws and ovipositor ii. Protects the organs against physical aberation, injurious chemicals, parasites, predators and pathogen. iii. Internally protects the vital organs, foregut, hindgut and trachea. iv. Provides space for muscle attachment and gives shape to the body. v. Prevents water loss from the body. vi. Cuticular sensory organs helps in sensing the environment. vii. Cuticular pigments give colour.
MOULTING (Ecdysis)[सम्पादन]
Ecdysis Periodical process of shedding the old cuticle accompanied by the formation of new cuticle is known as moulting or ecdysis. The cuticular parts discarded during moulting is known as Exuvia. Moulting occurs many times in an insect during the immatured stages before attaining the adult-hood. The time interval between the two subsequent moulting is called as Stadium and the form assumed by the insect in any stadium is called as Instar.
Steps in moulting
1. Behaviroual changes: Larva stops feeding and become inactive.
2. Changes in epidermis: In the epidermis cell size, its activity, protein content and enzyme level increases. Cells divide miotically and increases the tension, which results in loosening of cells of cuticle.
3. Aolysis: Detachment of cuticle from epidermis
4. Formation of Sub cuticular space
5. Secretion of moulting gel in the sub cuticular space which is rich with chitinase and protease.
6. New epicuticle formation: Lipoprotein layer (cuticulin) is laid over the epidermis.
7. Procuticle formation: Procuticle is formed below the epicuticle.
8. Activation of moulting gel: Moulting gel is converted into moulting fluid rich in enzymes. This activates endocuticle digestion and absorption.
9. Wax layer formation: Wax threads of pore canals secrete wax layer.
10. Cement layer formation : Dermal glands secretes cement layer (Tectocuticle).
11. Moulting: This involves two steps
i. Rupturing of old cuticle: Insect increases its body volume through intake of air or water which enhances the blood flow to head and thorax. There by the old cuticle ruptures along prede-termined line of weakness known as ecdysial line
ii. Removal of old cuticle: Peristaltic movement of body and lubricant action of moulting fluid helps in the removal of old cuticle. During each moulting the cuticular coverings discarded are the cuticular of legs, internal linings of foregut and hindgut and trachea.
12. Formation of exocuticle: The upper layer of procuticle develops as exocuticle through addition of protein and tanning by phenolic substance.
13. Formation of endocuticle: The lower layer of procuticle develops as endocuticle through addition of chitin and protein. This layer increases in thickness.
Control of Moulting: It is controlled by endocrine gland like prothoracic gland which secrete moulting hormone. Endocrine glands are activated by prothoracico-tropic hormones produced by neurosecretory cells of brain.
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The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, or East Timor, has a long and storied history, involving struggles for both freedom and national identity that span hundreds of years.
The Beginning
Historians believe the country has been inhabited for roughly 40,000 years. The people today are the descendants of three markedly different migrations.
The first is believed to be that of Vedo-Australoid people, who arrived between 40,000 and 20,000 B.C.; the Melanesians arrived around 3,000 B.C., and then, most recently, the Malay and Hakka people.
The Timorese people of more historically recent times preferred to concentrate on the cultivation of their land, rather than embarking outward on seafaring adventures of discovery. Thus, most of the island’s contact with the rest of the world came from being a trading port that dealt with merchants from places as far reaching as China and India.
There is evidence of Timorese-Chinese trade taking place in the seventh century. The island’s main attraction for trade was its wealth of spices, beeswax and, perhaps most importantly, sandalwood, which was used to make both furniture and fragrances. In turn, the Timorese traded these resources for rice, silks, metal and more.
Rock painting and carvings from the Lene Hare Cave Complex in Timor-Leste. These carvings have been estimated at 10,000 years old.
portugeus-timor-native-stampsThe Portuguese were the first Europeans to actively begin colonising Timor-Leste, having first arrived around the beginning of the sixteenth century. Upon their arrival, the country was divided into an assortment of tiny kingdoms, the largest of which was known as Wehale. Originally drawn by the abundance of sandalwood, they eventually began to exhaust the island’s wealth in the timber, and so, around three hundred years later, began farming coffee, sugar cane, and cotton in Timor-Leste.
The Portuguese also brought with them Dominican priests and the Catholic faith, which remains to this day as the largest religion. The eastern half of the island was weakly held by the Portuguese, while the western half was the dominion of the Dutch East India Company. Portuguese military expansions began in 1642, and though their control over the island was anything but certain, in 1702 they renamed the area Portuguese Timor. The border between the Dutch and Portuguese sides of the island was not solidified until 1916, when The Hague made an official ruling.
WWII: A heavy PRICE Paid by the People for helping allies
World War II saw Australian and Dutch soldiers occupying Timor Leste, in the hopes they would be able to stop the likely invasion of the island by Japan.
Unfortunately, the Japanese succeeded in their occupation, for the most part.
The Japanese retaliation for the Timorese supporting the Allies, called Sparrow Force, left more than 50,000 people dead.
One small Australia force, the 2/2nd Company was able to continue the fight, largely due to massive amounts of support from the East Timorese people.
The Japanese retaliation for the Timorese supporting the Allies, called Sparrow Force, left more than 50,000 people dead. To put just how devastating this loss of life was into context, it is estimated that the population of the region at the time was somewhere in the region of half a million: they was literally decimated.
When the Japanese surrender took place in 1945, control of Timor Leste was officially returned to Portugal.
Sparrow Force - The Men of Timor (1942)
PORTUGUESE Influence wanes
As of the end of 1960, the United Nations declared Timor-Leste to be under Portuguese control, but, through a series of resolutions from 1962 to 1973, the UN General Assembly recognised the Timorese right to self-determination. The successive regimes of Salazar and Marcelo Caetano did not recognise this right.
1974 saw democratic revolution in Portugal. The new Portuguese government, under the direction of Governor Mario Lemos Pires, committed wholeheartedly to allowing all Portuguese colonies the right to determine their own political destiny.
As such, three main parties came to control the East Timorese political spectrum. These were:
1. The Timorese Democratic Union (UDT), which felt integration into the Portuguese community was the way forward.
2. The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FREITLILIN), which supported the idea of independence.
3. The Popular Democratic Association of Timor (APODETI), which believe assimilation into the Indonesian community while retaining some level of sovereignty was the best course.
The results of elections showed the that they were uninterested in assimilating into Indonesia, due in no small part to cultural differences.
Tension between UDT and FRETILIN reached a boiling point in mid-1975, and in August 1975, UDT staged a coup in the capital city Dili and a small-scale civil war broke out with between 2000-3000 people dead. The Portuguese government was forced to the nearby island of Arturo.
FRETILIN prevailed, forcing the pro-Indonesian forces into Indonesian territory. This led to a series of incursions into Timorese territory by Indonesian forces and UDT militia, including the infamous Balibo raid, where five Australian journalists were killed.
The video above features Greg Shackleton, one of the Balibo five reporting from Timor in 1975. He was killed soon after shooting this video.
Late 1975 saw FREITILIN officially declare Timorese independence in an attempt to gain international support against Indonesian incursions. However this was a move that was not recognised by Portugal, Indonesia, or Australia.
This decision led to war: Indonesia, under the Suharto government, invaded and declared the region a province of Indonesia. This was at least in part due to Indonesian government’s fear and hatred for FREITILIN’s perceived communist leanings. They had the support of the United States Government, who considered the socialist tendencies of FREITILIN to be a potential threat.
The Whitlam Government, which had close ties to Suharto, also feared that an independent East Timor would likely provoke instability in the region.
An Australian news report from before the Indonesian Invasion
The invasion began in December, and the arms used by the Indonesian government for its sea and air invasion were supplied almost entirely by the US Government, though both President Ford and Henry Kissinger believed in silence on the issue publicly. In the same way, Australian political leaders objected publicly to the invasion but behind closed doors promised that no practical action would be taken.
In less than three months, the Indonesian invasion cost 60,000 East Timorese lives. These numbers are terrifying by any standards, but when your population is less than 700,000, they become even more abhorrent. A puppet government was installed, and an attempt by the United Nations Secretary General’s representatives to visit FREITILIN areas of the country was thwarted by the Indonesians. Journalists were forbidden on the island, leading it in in some historical circles to be referred to as the forgotten conflict. The Portuguese language was also forbidden.
The effect of this on the East Timorese community can still be felt today. The people of Timor-Leste weren’t just robbed of their freedom and lives; they were robbed of a sense of cultural identity. Throughout the years of the occupation, the East Timorese people rejected the Indonesian government’s ruling; having fought so long for their independence, they were desperate to not give it up so soon after attaining it.
Reports differ upon the amount of East Timorese lives lost, but between 1974 and 1994, there were over one hundred thousand deaths, some caused by killings but most caused through hunger and illness. It is worth noting that the occupation was never recognised by the Portuguese government, the former occupants of the land, nor the United Nations.
The turning point for this occupation came in 1991, when a few thousand students staged a non-violent protest at Santa Cruz Cemetery in Dili, where they protested the killing of a fellow student and independence activist. The protest eventually turned into a march, and unlike many events in the region at the time, was covered by the Western media.
The cameras were rolling when the Indonesian military opened fire on the protestors, killing more than 300 innocent people.
To make matters worse for the Indonesian occupation, in 1996 Bishop Ximenes Belo and Jose Ramos Horta, were award the Nobel Peace Price for their work in East Timor. Ramos Horta had spent years lobbying the United Nations to help his embittered countrymen, and would eventually become the second president of independent Timor-Leste.
Beginning in 1997, Indonesia faced an economic crisis, and President Suharto was forced to resign, with his vice president, B.J. Habibie taking over. Strong international pressure forced him to allow the East Timorese to choose their own destiny.
In 1999, with the help of U.N. General Secretary Kofi Annan, the East Timorese people were allowed to choose via referendum their fate. More than 80% of the country voted in favour of an independent Timor-Leste. Unfortunately, this was not the end of the atrocities, as Indonesian armed forces hit back brutally, with may of the East Timorese population being displaced and forced to relocate in West Timor and the surrounding islands, while still others hid in the mountains. Around two thousand people were killed. Over eighty per cent of the buildings in the nation were destroyed. Trucks were stolen or destroyed.
The United Nations authorised Australia with the help of the United States to bring peace and security back to the island, along with humanitarian efforts. By October 1999, the U.N. had established a large-scale peacekeeping operation to oversee the East Timorese independence.
On the 30th of August 2001, the people of Timor-Leste held the first free elections in 24 years. Resistance leader Xanana Gusmao, released from Indonesian prison, was chosen to be the first elected President of an independent Timor-Leste.
On the 20th of May 2002, the United Nations officially relinquished control of the country, making it the first new country of the third millennium, and the world’s newest democracy. The struggle for independence, national and cultural identity and freedom had been long, bloody, and destructive, but finally, the people had grasped the right to govern themselves.
Scenes from East Timor Independence day celebrations 2002
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The Yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) is a species of African origin and can transmit diseases between people or between animals and people, as yellow fever, the dengue virus, the chikungunya virus, and the zika virus. It has adapted to urban areas and breeds in any microenvironment with stagnant water such as water drains, containers, or tires.
It is now found in Africa and tropical or subtropical countries. There aren’t yet any populations of Aedes aegypti in Spain. However, increases in global mean temperature favour the eventual appearance of Aedes aegypti in Spain.
Adult Aedes aegypti are small and dark brown colored with white lines covering the body and legs. Their appearance is similar to the tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) but are in fact a bit different. They are differentiated from other species by 4 lines of white scales in the shape of a lyre on the dorsal side of the thorax.
• 4 lines in a shape of a lyre
J.Luis Ordóñez CC BY NC
• The thorax with four lines in the shape of a lyre
Photo: Mark Yokoyama (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
aedes aegypti_mark yokoyama_(CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
• Brown abdomen with lines and plates
Photo: Mark Yokoyama (CC BY 2.0)
• Brown legs with white lines
Photo: Roger Eritja (Copyright)
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Use of shield by the Ancient Greek Cavalry.
The prevailing view on the ancient Greek Cavalry is that did not carry a shield and were rarely armored. The depictions of mounted warriors of the archaic period on ancient Greek pottery are explained with the stereotype that: they depict hoplites that travel on horseback to the battlefield and will dismount to fight on foot.
Cucladic amphora depicting a Greek "mounted hoplite" from Paros Museum
Cucladic amphora depicting a Greek «mounted hoplite» from Paros Museum. Photo: Author’s archive
To support the argument, a brass statue of the same period from the British Museum that depicts an equestrian armored warrior is also mentioned.
Archaic bronze statue depicting an armored Greek horseman. British Museum
The Greeks were influenced by the Scythians and Thracians in matters of horse riding and horse trappings. The shield appears to have been widespread despite claims to the contrary. The horsemen of the Geometric Era and the classical Greeks, after their contact with the Thracian and Scythian horsemen used it. The crescent-shaped shield seems to have been quite widespread but during the archaic period the «boeotian shield» type was prominent if we trust contemporary depictions. Many times riders carried the shield on their backs attached with a baldric.
Horsemen are depicted carrying round shields in pottery and sculpture of the Geometric Period. The protection provided was valuable to the horsemen as they had to face light troops armed with missile weapons. And this need was not eradicated at later periods but the academics characterize all shield bearing horsemen that appear in the art of the Archaic Era as «soldiers approaching the battlefield on horseback».
Geometric Era Horsemane with round shields. Photo: Author's archive
Geometric Era amphora from Paros Museum depicting horsemen with round shields. Photo: Author’s archive
Though terracotta at the Kanellopoulou Museum portrays a horseman of the 6th century BC, carrying a shield the size of a Macedonian pikeman’s shield of the 4th century BC and therefore contradicts the prevailing theory.
Modern Experimental Archaeology has shown that the hoplite type shield has great difficulty in its use by a mounted fighter but nothing proves that shields of the 7th century BC «mounted hoplites» are the Greek heavy infantry shields, but rather lighter shields suitable for use by the cavalry. An Attic Cup from the Amsterdam Museum and a bas-relief from the Museum of Corinth seem to not agree with the prevailing theory that Ancient Greek Cavalry did not carry shields. The Attic vase shows round shield probably assisted with a baldric and the Corinthian bas-relief depicts «a hoplite» dismounting holding his shield – something that can’t be done with the heavy hoplite shield as the weight will be dragging him down.
Votive shield from Corinth Museum depicting a dismounting "hoplite". Photo: Authors archive
Votive shield from Corinth Museum depicting a dismounting «hoplite». Photo: Courtesy A. Porporis
It is also curious that the armored horsemen appearing on Attic pottery carry semicircular shields of Thracian type and are also without hesitation described as Thracians. The academic viewpoint collides with the logic of combatants who exposed to risk seek maximum protection. The grave stele of unarmored cavalrymen charging opponents are rather idealized and do not give the true picture of the deceased aristocratic fighter on horseback.
Horseshoes in…Antiquity!
According to ancient literary sources there were no horseshoes in Antiquity, as we know them today. Even Xenophon in his work “On Horsemanship” never talks of the horseshoeing procedures.
It is commonly believed that the ancients tried to harden the horse’s heels though natural process as they had observed wild horses to negotiate rough terrain. Ancient sources though talk of “HIPPOSANDALA” (lit. horse sandals). From literary descriptions we know that these were either sole leather or metal plates (museum exhibits) attached with leather throngs on the horse’s foot.
6th century BC bronze horseshoe from Vravrona. Photo: Author's archive
6th century BC bronze horseshoe from Vravrona. Photo: Author’s archive
Yet in the Archaeological Museum of Vravrona exist a bronze horseshoe along with its nails and it is dated in the 6th century BC! Also in an Etruscan grave (*) dated in the 4th century BC four bronze horseshoes have also been found. These two finds raise the question: since Greeks and Etruscans knew of horseshoes why no sources mention them?
One possible explanation was that bronze was expensive and had better use for weapons or tools rather than as an accessory of an expensive luxury as the horse was considered in the Mediterranean cultures. Good steel that facilitated the spread of iron in metallurgy was not easily available before the 12th century AD. This is a possible cause why modern type horseshoeing cannot be dated before the 5th century AD in accordance with archaeological finds. Perhaps that art of horseshoeing had been abandoned for reasons of cost and reappeared once good iron products became widely available.
(*W. N. Bates • Etruscan Horseshoes from Corneto — AJA 6:398‑403
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A region of rich, softly rolling hills, it is drained by several rivers (notably the Main, Danube, Isar, and Inn) and is bounded by mountain ranges (especially the Bavarian Alps and the Bohemian Forest). Bavaria is divided into seven administrative districts: Upper and Lower Bavaria; Upper, Middle, and Lower Franconia; Swabia; and the Upper Palatinate. Until the early 19th cent. Bavaria did not include Swabia and Franconia, which have separate histories. Upper Bavaria, with Munich as its capital, rises to the Bavarian Alps, along the Austrian border, and culminates in the Zugspitze, Germany's highest peak. Between the Alps and the Bohemian Forest, which forms the border with the Czech Republic, lies the Franconian Jura plateau, traversed by the Danube. Lower Bavaria comprises part of this plateau and part of the Bohemian Forest. Franconia, in N Bavaria, includes the Frankenwald, the Fichtelgebirge, and the Main valley. Swabia, in SW Bavaria, is part of the Danubian plateau. The Upper Palatinate, in NE Bavaria, is separated from the Czech Republic by the Bohemian Forest.
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Prosody is the para-verbal area of communication. Prosodic features, like pitch, tempo, loudness, tone, stress and intonation, are directly related to other areas of organization, for example the structuring of information.
TerpTips on prosody
What does prosody mean? How is it pronounced? How can I know if I have it? If I don't have it, how can I get it?
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Earth Shots
Campbell, Robert Wellman, ed. 1998. “Phnom Penh, Cambodia: 1973, 1985.” Earthshots: Satellite Images of Environmental Change. U.S. Geological Survey. This article was released 1 January 1998.
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
1973, 1985
From 1975 to 1978, Cambodia was ruled by the brutal Khmer Rouge regime, which sought among other things to build a vast system of irrigation canals. These images show an area around Cambodia’s capital city of Phnom Penh where such waterworks were built. Many areas east of the Mekong River, appearing tan in the 1973 image, show a half-kilometer gridwork in 1985.
(A note on terms: Phnom Penh is pronounced p-NOM PEN. Phnom means “hill” or “mountain” in Khmer; Penh is a woman’s name.1 More than 90% of Cambodians are ethnic Khmer, and Khmer is the national language.2 Cambodia has also been known as Kampuchea.)
The city at the rivers
Phnom Penh is just west of the four-way river intersection, which is called the Chattomukh (“Four Faces”). From the northwest and northeast, respectively, flow the Tonle Sab and Mekong Rivers. These waters merge and split into the Basak River and the Mekong, which flow southeast to the South China Sea.4
The Mekong River is the 12th longest in the world, flowing 2,600 mi from western China to the Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam.5 Every autumn, monsoon rains are too great for the Mekong to carry, and it floods a large area of Cambodia. This flood even reverses the flow of the Tonle Sab River, northward to the Tonle Sap (“Great Lake”) which can expand to ten times its normal size.6
This area receives 152 to 203 cm of rain annually, most of which falls during the southeast monsoons from mid-May to early October. Landsat images are effective for quantifying changes in surface water. While the images were both acquired after the monsoon season, the 1985 image clearly shows more surface water than the 1973 image.
Phnom Penh is the Mekong River’s largest city. Its population fluctuated wildly during the 1970s and 1980s; from an estimated 1.2 million in 1971 it swelled with war refugees to 2 million or more by 1975, when it was forcibly evacuated to almost nothing by the victorious Khmer Rouge communists.7 From 1978 (the last year of the Khmer Rouge regime) to 1987, Phnom Penh’s population grew from about 50,000 to 700,000. 8Because of the extreme instability in these decades, data on Cambodia are often fragmentary and contradictory.9
Khmer Rouge irrigation
From 1975 to 1978, Cambodia was governed by ideological pro-Chinese communists known as the Khmer Rouge (“Red Khmer”), who gained a reputation for extreme brutality. Even Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge ruler, claimed that 10% of the population died (800,000 of 7-8 million), and other estimates were higher.11 Many of these deaths were from hunger, disease, war, and forced work, but there were also mass executions.
In their desire to radically transform Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge emulated both contemporary Communist China and the Khmer “golden age” of the 11th-13th centuries– both of which utilized irrigation. Canals around China’s Yangtze River delta harnessed rainy-season floodwaters, carrying them out to the surrounding lowlands where in the dry season people lifted the water up into their rice fields.12 Historical and archeological documents also indicate a local irrigation system in the twelfth-century Khmer state, possibly storing and distributing water so that rice could be grown year-round, two or more crops per year.13
The Khmer Rouge set out to build a system of canals, ditches and dikes. Citizens, including the evacuated city-dwellers, were forced to work in the countryside growing rice and building these irrigation works, with rigid work quotas and hard, slavelike conditions.14
There is disagreement whether this sacrifice and coercion even succeeded in irrigating Cambodia.15 Many projects were headed by loyal party leaders with no technical skills.16 Teachers, technicians, and other skilled (usually urban) professionals were hated by the Khmer Rouge as corrupting urban influences, and many were executed.17 There were reports of many ditches collapsing when it rained.18 It is likely that by the end of the Khmer Rouge regime, expertise had improved, but the post-Khmer Rouge government had to devote considerable resources to repairing irrigation works. One official said 80% of the projects had been poorly constructed, though it varied by region.19
These irrigation works are visible in the 1985 image, especially in the northeast quadrant of the zoom-in. Do you notice anything odd about them which could cause problems? (See one answer below.)
Satellite images
LM1135052007300390 (Landsat 1 MSS, 3 January 1973)
LM5126052008534890 (Landsat 5 MSS, 14 January 1985)
Defense Mapping Agency, 1973 (compiled 1968, revised 1973), Operational Navigation Chart K-10: edition 7, scale 1:1,000,000.
Answer to the Question Above
The ditches and canals are in straight lines, regularly spaced, at right angles. One might expect gravity-dependent canals to curve, like the creeks visible in the 1973 image. The Khmer Rouge built irrigation works along the 1-km gridlines of their military maps, ignoring hills, villages, and other topography. It is claimed that some canals actually did more harm than good, disrupting natural water supplies and encouraging erosion.20
It appears that each district had to dig a certain amount of ditches, whether needed or not.21 Workers had rigid daily quotas, so that some finished early and some could never finish.22 There were rigid decisions about which varieties of rice were acceptable, diminishing the diversity of varieties which had adapted to local conditions.23
Finally, the Khmer Rouge have been criticized for applying inappropriate models from the beginning. In emulating the Chinese system, for example, they ignored the amount of human labor needed to lift the water up to the fields. Where one square kilometer of Yangtze River lowlands may support 1500 laborers, the Mekong uplands may support only 300.24
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Daily Lessons for Teaching Funnyhouse of a Negro
Adrienne Kennedy
Buy the Funnyhouse of a Negro Lesson Plans
Objective: Part 1 This play was written by the author and professor, Adrienne Kennedy. Today's objective will be to study the biographical information of Adrienne Kennedy in-depth.
1) Class Discussion: Ask the students the following questions; Do you know anything about the author, Adrienne Kennedy? What from the title of the play do you gather about Kennedy? Do you think there is a difference between a playwright and an author?
2) Group Research Project: Research, via the internet or at the library, Adrienne Kennedy's background and biography. Information should include her early childhood, her career, her important works, and her current life. Ask the students to present information to the class.
3) Individual Creative Writing: Write a few pages on what events in Adrienne Kennedy's life led her to write this play. Why do the students feel Kennedy wrote this play? Why do the students think Adrienne Kennedy felt the reader...
(read more Daily Lessons)
This section contains 7,019 words
(approx. 24 pages at 300 words per page)
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Funnyhouse of a Negro from BookRags. (c)2015 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Schindler’s List
The Impact of Black-and-White Film
Comprehending the Holocaust One Name at a Time
Parallel Editing
In movies set in modern times, a director’s choice to use black and white might seem trite and artistically showy. In Schindler’s List, however, the black-and-white presentation effectively evokes the World War II era and deepens the impact of the story. Black and white also presents the filmmaker with the opportunity to use sparing color to highlight key scenes and signal shifts in time. For example, the opening full-color scene, one of only a handful of color scenes in the movie, fades into the next scene, in black and white. The shift plunges viewers into 1939, bringing them symbolically closer to the events and characters in the story. This artistic and psychological convention of bringing the audience back in time works well partly because it captures the way many people visualize World War II—through black-and-white images and film footage of the 1930s and 1940s. Although contemporary viewers are accustomed to full-color images and tend to consider such images to be more realistic than those in black and white, the black and white in Schindler’s List conveys an alternate but no less realistic version of life. The movie presents an eclectic mix of styles, such as film noir, which is associated with the great detective stories of the 1940s. The style links the film to that time period and serves to deepen viewers’ immersion in the historical setting.
The artistic advantage of black and white is that it heightens the impact of the film’s violence and highlights the duality of good and evil. The lighting and contrast in the film noir style enhance the brutality of each violent scene. For instance, when the one-armed man is shot in the head in the snowy streets of Kraków, his seemingly black blood spreads through the pure white snow, and the stark contrast in colors emphasizes the split between life and death, good and evil. In some terrifying scenes, such as the evacuation of the Kraków ghetto, the lighting is kept dark, conveying a sense of panic and confusion. The white faces of the dead in the streets contrast starkly against the murky background. The same contrast marks the pile of burning bodies in the Plaszów work camp: the white skulls stand out in the pile of ashes. The women’s faces in the shower scene at Auschwitz are bathed in white light as they stare up in terror at the showerheads. The contrast of light and dark also marks Schindler’s face, which is often half in shadow, reflecting his selfish dark side. His face becomes more fully lighted as he makes the transformation from war profiteer to savior. Schindler’s List might not have had the same visual and emotional impact had Spielberg made the film in color.
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Schindler's Jews and gratitude
by Observationist, March 27, 2015
Like many, I was very moved by the story of Oskar Schindler and his incredible actions to save "his" Jews from Auschwitz. It was a story of real humanity portrayed brilliantly by Liam Neeson and the film is a masterpiece of Spielberg's. I had never heard of Oskar Schindler until this film came out.
I am far from anti-semitic, in fact I am greatly moved by what happened to the Jews as well as Homosexuals, Gypsies, Jehovah's Witnesses and others under the Nazis which was certainly an unimaginable horror story.
However, I was sh... Read more
3 out of 3 people found this helpful
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How to make hair ornament
HOW liberated
How to create a formula for the demand function
How to create a formula for the demand function
Demand, as well as any other market mechanism has its own characteristics and functions.
Each of us is faced with demand almost every hour, but no one can describe this concept.
What is the demand? The demand - is the willingness of customers to purchase the product at a specified price and at a certain time. However, this term should not be confused with the "magnitude of demand." This concept refers to the amount of goods and services that consumers are willing to buy at an established price.
As with any system, the market includesZakonova number of principles. In this situation, we are interested in the law of demand. It states that the quantity demanded is inversely proportional to price. In other words, the higher the price of the goods, the less people want to buy it.
It should be noted that there are manyfactors affecting the quantity demanded. This includes the price of the goods, prices of other goods, consumer incomes, tastes and preferences, market information, advertising on goods and so on. Thus, we gradually come to such a concept, as a function of demand. It represents the dependence of demand on various factors Q d & nbsp - = & nbsp-f & nbsp- (P, P & nbsp-s & nbsp-1 & nbsp- ... P & nbsp-s & nbsp-n & nbsp-, Р -c -1 -…Р -c -m -, -I -, -Z -, -N -, -Inf -, -R, T, E & nbsp-), where Qd - the volume of demand. Since the price of goods is one of the most important factors, the demand function can be written as follows: Qd = f (P), where P - price.
When the demand function is linear, that is,is shown as a straight line on the graph, it can be found from the formula: Qd = a-b * p (a - the maximum possible demand for this product, b - dependence of demand on price, p - the price). The minus sign in this equation shows that the demand function has a negative slope. Therefore, it is possible to represent graphically the demand function (Fig. 1)
The demand curve represents the relationship between thethe magnitude of demand for this product and the market price. Action price factors leads to changes in the demand by moving it to the other points on the constant demand curve. The action of non-price factors leads to a change in the demand function and is expressed in shifting the demand curve to the right (if it grows) and the left (if it falls).
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From Wikibooks, open books for an open world
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Lesson 7.2: Gaining Access
By the end of this lesson, the EMT-Basic should be able to:
1. Describe the purpose of extrication.
2. Discuss the role of the EMT-Basic in extrication.
3. Identify what equipment for personal safety is required for the EMT-Basic.
4. Define the fundamental components of extrication.
5. State the steps that should be taken to protect the patient during extrication.
6. Evaluate various methods of gaining access to the patient.
7. Distinguish between simple and complex access.
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2. Hi Guest, welcome to the TES Community!
Don't forget to look at the how to guide.
Dismiss Notice
What are VCOP games?
Discussion in 'Primary' started by geek84, Jan 15, 2011.
1. geek84
geek84 New commenter
My 9 year old lad has been asked by his teacher to improve his vocabulary by using VCOP games.
Could someone please explain what VCOP games are?
Many Thanks
2. Vocabulary, Connectives, Openers, Punctuation. If you look for VCOP games on TES resources there are loads of things. They are simply games or activities involving VCOP that you can drop into your daily routine. I sometimes do mine as English starters or do them in golden time as my Year 5s love them. It can be anything from 'Just a minute' style games to sitting around in a circle with a bag of 'What if...' questions for class discussion.
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The Tempest
Extracts from this document...
The Tempest 'The Tempest' was Shakespeare's last major play and is partly based on a true story about a ship called 'The Seaventure' which set sail for America in 1609. However, the ship was blown off course by a storm and ended up in Bermuda. This was the time when people were just beginning to explore the world and Bermuda was thought to be inhabited by spirits, demons and monsters. Shakespeare used the disaster of 'The Seaventure' as a starting point for his play and incorporated the beliefs of the people in his play. 'The Tempest' explores the 17th Century myths and colonisation. Caliban is a character in the play and resembles both of these ideas, he represents the new ethnic groups, with his mother being a witch and worshipping a Patagonian God, which also resembles new religion. Caliban also represents the way natives were treated; he is treated badly throughout the play. This represents the way natives were treated by the conquering. Westerners. This essay will explore how Shakespeare presents Caliban and whether he is merely just a savage or whether he is a noble savage. One way in which Caliban shows he may be just a savage is through his poor response to education. ...read more.
gave it to him, and this reasoning and arguing his case is what shows nobility in Caliban. Another way in which Caliban shows he may be a noble savage is through his sensitivity to the island, he says "sounds and sweet airs, that give delight and hurt not" this shows that Caliban lives in harmony with the island and this differentiates him from an animal. An animal would live on the island but wouldn't appreciate it, whereas Caliban appreciates the island and this shows that he may be a noble savage. Caliban shows he may be a noble savage through his self-awareness shown when cursing Miranda for teaching him how to swear. He says to Miranda "you taught me language, and my profit on't is I know how to curse. This again differentiates Caliban from an animal because you could teach a parrot to curse and it would just keep repeating what you taught it without really knowing what it means, but Caliban curses Miranda and knows that what he is saying is offensive and it is this self-awareness that shows he may be a noble savage. Another way in which Caliban shows he may be a noble savage is when his behaviour is compared with Trinculo, Stephano and Antonio. ...read more.
The audience might feel sorry for Caliban because he has only seen two women so he does not know what the majority of women are like. His experiences are very limited and he might have trouble interacting with other women. Caliban curses Prospero a lot in the play and Caliban's curses are a powerful example of savagery and this shows that Caliban may be just a savage. However, Caliban's more poetic speeches, such as his "isle is full of noises" speech shows that he has learned to use language properly and that he knows when and how to use it correctly and this shows that Caliban may have aspects of nobility within him. To conclude, there is no easy answer to the question as to whether Caliban is a noble savage or just a savage. Caliban shows aspects of savagery, with his attempt to rape Miranda and the fact that he curses a lot. He also shows that he is noble through his poetic speeches and self-awareness. I don't think Shakespeare makes it simple to chose between the two types of savage because he is trying to say that although foreigners seem like bad people, on the inside they are actually nice people that are noble. In my opinion I think that Caliban is a savage but also shows some aspects of nobility. Sam Chapman 10A Sam Chapman- 10A- The Tempest ...read more.
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Related AS and A Level The Tempest essays
1. Marked by a teacher
What is your response to Shakespeare's presentation of Caliban in The Tempest?
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On the other hand, we should consider that Caliban may not fully understand ?normal? human emotions; he could possibly be lonely. His desire to populate ?This isle with Calibans? implies that he wants to have children and could also suggest that he wants his own family and possibly does understand to an extent the human way of life.
2. Discuss the presentation and significance of Caliban in 'The Tempest'
Prospero conjures up the image that he tried to humanly control Caliban however it didn't work. "On whom my pains, humanely taken, all, all lost, quite lost" (Act 4, Scene 1, L190)
1. Why is Caliban such an interesting an important character in 'The Tempest' and how ...
In this scene Caliban uses quite basic, crude language as he is being introduced as a character. This gives us an impression of his monstrousness and gives us an idea of what to expect from his character. After Caliban's opening soliloquy in act two scene one, you think of him
2. Can the tempest be read as colonial literature? What do you think of Shakespeare's ...
The Tempest is basically a story about a magical island, which during Shakespeare's time would be compared to the Bermudas. For many years there have been a lot of criticisms about the play and its themes whether it is a type of colonial literature or not.
1. The Tempest - By the end of Act 3 Caliban has emerged both positively ...
However, Ariel craves freedom because it is part of his nature to be free; although he serves Prospero grudgingly yet without a doubt, loyally, having a master is alien to his makeup. If Ariel's nature embodies freedom, Caliban is by nature a slave, 'I am all the subjects that you
2. How Does Shakespeare introduce Caliban in The Tempest?
The quote "Thou earth, thou!" suggests Caliban represents the earth. This is an interesting contrast with Prospero's other slave; Ariel as he is associated with the air and fire. The two characters differ in the way they are treated by Prospero too and this strong contrast close to one another
1. &quot;A journey is more than just movement from one place to another. It is ...
In scene one, it is the music which allays the waters' "fury" and Ferdinand's "passion With its sweet air", while the same suggestion recurs in scene 5, where Prospero invokes a "solemn air...the best comforter to an unsettled fancy" to "cure" the "useless" brains of his former enemies.
2. Compare and contrast the ways in which the writers of The Tempest and Translations ...
This has wider implications for social (the marriages), ethical (are Lancey/Prospero justified in their actions at the end of the plays?), political (who is truly Lord over the lands?) and national identities. The writers of The Tempest and Translations also present links between language and power through speeches and rhetoric in the plays.
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Did Harvey contribute the most to medical knowledge in the Renaissance period?
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Did Harvey contribute the most to medical knowledge in the Renaissance period? In my opinion William Harvey did contribute the most to medical knowledge in the Renaissance period. I believe this for many reasons; William Harvey actually put all of the pieces (previous known knowledge about the Circuitry system) together and looked at the whole picture, and discovered correctly how it worked. There four main doctors who contributed most to medical knowledge, these are Vesalius, Columbo, Frabricius and Harvey. All of these men studied at the University in Peadua, Italy, this at the time was the greatest medical centre in the world. Three of who became professor of Anatomy and succeeded each other, and become very successful, Harvey was actually youngest of these men. Vesalius contribute to medical knowledge was the fact about there being no holes in the Septum, which Galen had said there were holes. Galen's work was the most influential material at that time, no doctor disagreed with it usually in fear of the church but Vesalius was the first to disagree with Galen. This did pave the way for other doctors such as Columbo and Harvey to express their views and give them the courage to go against tradition. ...read more.
Harvey dissected humans and cold-blooded animals, cold-blooded animals hearts moves much slower than a humans, which move too fast so Harvey could not see the valves moves or how the heart muscles moved. With the cold blood animals such as frogs he carefully watched numerous times and drew pictures and compared it to the human heart. Now Harvey could see exactly how muscles of the heart moved, with these experiments it gave Harvey more medical knowledge about the heart than any other person at that time. Harvey carried out other tests such as pushing thin rods down the veins, he found that the blood built up behind the rod, and did not go back to where it came from. This proved that the blood flowed in one way, no one had actually discovered much about the movement of blood before; Harvey had now undeniable proof that the blood flowed in one direction. Carrying on from Frabricius's discovery of the valves, Harvey decided to experiment on them, he tried moving liquids past them, but to no avail, the valves were stopping them: "He tried to pump liquids past the veins but he could not do so" (Medicine and Health through time by Ian Dawson and Ian Coulson) ...read more.
Harvey also published a book, which sold many copies; inside it had detailed drawings allowing the reader to understand how he got to that conclusion. Out of the medical knowledge contributors, Harvey found the most evidence to his discoveries, he didn't only discover things such as there were no holes in the septum but he actually found out why they did what they did. Harvey added all of the previous information together and with his own made new discoveries, which are accepted today. He also managed to stop treatments such as bleeding which he proved actually did not help in most cases, Harvey was very open to new suggestions as well, such as Pare'a Ligatures, which he used. Evan if Vesalius had not first went against the church and Galen, because of Harvey's strong character and belief in himself he would still would have spoken out. Though Harvey could never experiment on live humans or normal dead humans (non criminals), they were the same inside as any other person so it didn't actually matter. The sheer mass of what Harvey found is far greater than any other contributor to medical knowledge in the Renaissance period. ...read more.
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Related GCSE Humans as Organisms essays
1. With reference to Vesalius, Harvey, and Pare, who made the biggest impact on medical ...
Both feature engineering features still used today. Harvey's main interest was in the circulation of blood. A lot of his time was spent observing human and animal bodies and building up a detailed knowledge of the anatomy. He had already guessed that food was not made into blood by the liver, just from observation.
2. Who Contributed More to the Progress of Medicine Versalius, Pare, or Harvey?
Because Vesalius challenged the ideas' of Galen he was often ridiculed and disliked by his colleagues at the Padau University Italy, where he became Professor of anatomy at the age of just 23. It was not just his fresh anatomical speculations that contributed to the progression of medicine, but in
1. Should the cloning of humans be allowed?
As well as this, human cloning would also allow homosexual couples to be able to have children who were biologically related to them and they would not have to adopt children. And human cloning would even make it possible for sole parents to have children who had the same DNA as them.
2. Was Vesalius, Par&amp;eacute; or Harvey the most in influential with their discoveries in Renaissance ...
This was because Vesalius had showed in his book how some of Galen's ideas were wrong. Other doctors were trained to believe that Galen was right about everything and had learned this way for twelve hundred years. They were not prepared to give up their beliefs in Galen and the church for another idea.
1. Should people with diabetes 2 receive medical treatment?
protein, fats and carbohydrate and facilitate the release of energy from these foods. Without them, these processes would not be fully completed. As they are water soluble they are lost through urine and are not stored so must be consumed every day.
2. William Harvey
Harvey took it as his responsibility to figure out the riddle and worked long and hard. Of course, his research was generously sponsored by James 1st's successors as well as Charles 1 because Harvey was their personal physician, but was only appointed physician to Charles 1 later on in his life.
1. Was the Medical Renaissance An Important Period In Medical History.
Pare was prepared to use his knowledge and determination to make his findings work. He was forever trying to practice surgery and use hi knowledge to the best of his advantage. All of Pares work however, was not an immediate success.
2. William Harvey.
He was even doctor to king Charles 1st. In Harvey's first steps at studying the circulatory system, he deduced that the heart was in fact a muscle, and that it did pump blood around the body and did not suck blood in like Galen had earlier thought.
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Central Mudminnow
central mudminnow
What's In a Name?
Central mudminnow: the "mudminnow" is a minnow-sized fish named for its habit of escaping into the soft sediments; "central" refers to its occurrence in central North America
Umbra (Um´-bra) means "shade" in Latin, more than likely referring to its dark habitat
limi (lee´-mee) means "mud" in Latin
Where Do They Live?
Central mudminnows occur in all drainages of Minnesota, but they are most common in the northern and central parts of the state. They prefer cool bogs and mashes, weedy ponds and ditches, and small, slow-moving streams. These waters normally have bottoms of soft sediments (but not deep silt). Central mudminnows are commonly found with northern redbelly dace, pearl dace, and brook sticklebacks, among others.
"Cool Fact": Central mudminnows survive periods of low water levels by "burrowing" into soft sediments. They can also breathe air.
How Big Do They Get?
How Long Do They Live?
As the name suggests, the central mudminnow is a small fish. It can reach 125-178 mm (5-7 in) long in Minnesota, but 70-80 mm (2.8-3.2 in) is a more typical range. The central mudminnow generally lives for up to 4 years. The apparent record is 7 years.
What Do They Eat?
The young's diet is made up of newly hatched snails and clams, copepods, and waterfleas. The central mudminnow basically is a bottom feeder. The main foods of the adults are insect larvae, small snails and clams, and sideswimmers. Large mudminnows will occasionally take small fish.
What Eats Them?
In some habitats, central mudminnows are eaten by young northern pike, sunfishes, and bullheads. Fish-eating birds, muskrats, and foxes also consume this species.
How Do They Reproduce?
Central mudminnows spawn in the spring (usually April in Minnesota), when water temperatures are 10-15° C (50-59° F). They gather in the spring-flooded areas of streams and ponds where there is plenty of vegetation. No nest is built. The female lays one egg at a time on the vegetation and the male fertilizes it. The female guards the eggs until they hatch. A female can lay a total of about 425-450 eggs. The embryos hatch in about 7-10 days.
Conservation and Management
The central mudminnow is a very common and widespread species and has no special conservation status in Minnesota. Some anglers use it as a baitfish because it survives so well in a bait bucket.
Natural History of Minnesota Fishes
Photograph by John Lyons WiDNR
Text by Nicole Paulson & Jay T. Hatch in cooperation with
the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources' MinnAqua Aquatic Program
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The Puzzle of Ice Age Americans
NOAA Ocean Explorer
Lesson Plan Overview:
Students describe alternative theories for arrival of first humans to come to America. Students explain evidence for these theories and explain how exploration of a submerged segment of Gulf Of Mexico coast may give insight into origin of native Americans. Students describe role of skepticism in scientific theory.
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Capitalizing on Native American images to sell fruit, Skookum and Yum-Yum labels were developed in competing regions of Washington State.
After large-scale irrigation systems and a railroad network became operational in the Pacific Northwest, there was an exponential growth in the amount of fruit being harvested and marketed. This put an enormous stress on the systems that had been put into place when the annual output was much smaller. By 1910 the movement of apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits to the market was a mess. There were no organizations larger than local districts dedicated to the movement of the crop, and the inefficiencies were creating serious losses to the growers and packing houses.
The situation reached a crisis point, and in 1910, the local fruit districts formed a single exchange organization to oversee the movement of fruit into markets. This new organization, the Northwestern Fruit Exchange, provided growers in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho with an effective and economical means to broaden the market for their products, insure their direct movement to the consumers, and receive returns based upon actual market value, as regulated by supply and demand.
The Northwestern Fruit Exchange was originally composed of local associations, with all its functions being completely under the control of the growers. The Fruit Exchange leaders were themselves fruit growers, but they realized that the welfare of the entire Northwest fruit industry was essential in the protection of their own interests. In the first year, the Fruit Exchange sold 700 carloads of fruit in 125 markets in practically every state in the Union plus some overseas. By 1911, it had grown to include over 30 growers and advertised that it would ship 3,000 cars of fruit.
Growth continued so rapidly that just two years later, the Fruit Exchange directors saw the need for an active national marketing campaign. Advertisements were placed in newspapers seeking suggestions for the best trademark or brand name that all the exchange growers could use to identify their fruit as part of this cooperative effort. The winner was Mrs. M.W. Starks of Peshastin, Washington, who submitted the name Skookum, which some considered to be based upon the Chinook Indian word meaning special or extra nice. Others believed the word meant bully or the best thing in its line. A logo depicting an Indian brave with headdress was developed. At first, the Fruit Exchange used just this original logo, but by 1915, Growers Service Company of Yakima developed the Yum-Yum brand with an Indian eating an apple.
Because of the growth and success of the Skookum brand, the Fruit Exchange created a new nonprofit organization called the Skookum Packers Association in 1916. Headquartered in Wenatchee, Washington, it originally consisted of nine grower groups, and was based on the bylaws of The California Fruit Growers Exchange Sunkist organization. That same year the Fruit Exchange and the new Skookum Packers Association entered into a 20-year agreement, by which the Skookum Packers Association members would exclusively use and promote the Skookum brand, and such branded fruit would be sold exclusively through the exchange. For the next four years, both the Fruit Exchange and the Skookum Packers Association shared the use of the Skookum Indian boy logo, but in 1920, the exchange granted Skookum Packers the exclusive use of this colorful label.
In 1934, some former members of the Fruit Exchange board opened their own sales agency in Wenatchee to handle some of the Skookum Packers Association fruit. By 1954, Northwestern Fruit Exchange agents had all disappeared. Five years later, in 1959, the exchange, which had become a wholly owned subsidiary of American Fruit Growers (who marketed under the Blue Goose brand), was liquidated. The organization, which had appeared on the scene at the opportune time to assist the fledgling Pacific Northwest fruit industry, had lasted almost 50 years.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The "Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States" was a report submitted to the U.S. House of Representatives on July 13, 1790, by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson.
At the First United States Congress, which met in 1789 when the metric system had not yet been developed in France, the system of units to be used in the future USA was one point of discussion. The Congress had (and still has) the constitutional right (article I, section 8) to decide on a standard of weights and measures. On January 2, 1790, George Washington urged Congress to address the need for the uniform system of weights and measures, and on January 15, 1790, the House of Representatives requested Thomas Jefferson to draw up a plan.[1]
The decimal dollar had already been agreed upon in principle in 1785,[2] but would not be implemented until after passage of the Mint Act in 1792. In mid-1790 Jefferson proposed two systems of units, one evolutionary with a mere refinement of definitions and simplification of the existing English system, the other one revolutionary being decimal and only reusing some of the traditional names. Jefferson's proposal was the world's first scientifically based, fully integrated, decimal system of weights and measures.[1]
The seconds pendulum basis[edit]
In coordination with scientists in France, he selected the seconds pendulum at 45° latitude as the basic reference. For technical reasons, Jefferson proposed using a uniform rod as the pendulum rather than a traditional pendulum. The pendulum was estimated to be 39.14912 English inches long (in the inches of that time—it wasn't until much later that the inch was defined to be 25.4 mm), or 1.5 times that for a vibrating rod (58.72368 inches).
More traditional proposal[edit]
In the evolutionary approach, the foot was to be derived from one of these lengths by a simple integer factor, which would be either three (pendulum) or five (rod), i.e. lengthening it from the traditional value by 1.04970¯6 inches to ca. 331.463 mm or shortening it by 0.255264 inches to ca. 298.317 mm. For practical purposes he wanted the rod to be 58¾ (new) inches long, an increase of less than 0.045%.
Jeffersonian traditional proposal
foot = 12 inches
yard = 3 feet
ell = 3¾ feet
fathom = 6 feet
perch, pole = 5½ yards
furlong = 40 poles
mile = 8 furlongs
league = 3 miles
rood = 40 square poles
acre = 4 roods
gill = ¼ pint
pint = ½ quart
quart = ½ pottle
pottle = ½ gallon
gallon = 270 cubic inches
peck = 2 gallons
bushel, firkin = 4 pecks
strike, kilderkin = 2 bushel or firkin
coomb, barrel = 2 strikes or kilderkins
quarter, hogshead = 2 coombs or barrels
tierce = 4/3 hogshead
pipe, butt, puncheon = 2 hogsheads
ton = 2 pipes
grain = 1/24 pennyweight
pennyweight = 1/18 ounce
ounce = 1/1000 weight of 1 cubic foot of rain water at standard temperature
pound = 16 ounces
Decimal system based on the foot[edit]
The revolutionary system was quite similar to the metric system, except the mentioned difference of about 5.5 mm between the second pendulum at 45° and the 10,000th part of the distance from the north pole to the equator, which became the first definition of the metre. Also it didn't have the concept of prefixes. A very similar system was a base of discussion in France after the revolution of July 14, 1789, with Jefferson observing.
In distinguishing this from the less radical changes proposed in the first alternative, the report stated:
But if it be thought that, either now, or at any future time, the citizens of the United States may be induced to undertake a thorough reformation of their whole system of measures, weights and coins, reducing every branch to the same decimal ratio already established in their coins, and thus bringing the calculation of the principal affairs of life within the arithmetic of every man who can multiply and divide plain numbers, greater changes will be necessary.
Jeffersonian decimal proposal
point = 1/10 line
line = 1/10 inch
inch = 1/10 foot
foot (base) (either 1/3 or 3/10 of ca. 994,4 mm)
decad(e) = 10 foot
rood = 10 decade
furlong = 10 rood
mile = 10 furlong (ca. 2 traditional miles)
rood = 1 rood × 1 rood
metre = 1/10 demi-pint = 1 inch³
demi-pint = 1/10 pottle = 2 × 2 × 2½ inch³
pottle = 1/10 bushel = 5 × 5 × 4 inch³
bushel = 1 foot³ (ca ¾ traditional bushel)
quarter = 10 bushels
last, double ton = 10 quarters
mite = 1/10 minim
minim, demi-grain = 1/10 carat
carat = 1/10 double-scruple
double-scruple = 1/10 ounce
ounce = 1/1000 the weight of 1 bushel of water
pound = 10 ounces
stone = 10 pounds
kental = 10 (or 16) stones
hogshead = 10 kentals
The original document gives the value of a kental as 16 stones at one point and 10 stones in another point in the document. 10 was presumably the intended value, given the otherwise consistent decimalization.
Depending on exactly which definition of the foot was to have been used, the actual values of the base units would have been:
Foot - 331.4 mm or 298.3 mm (for comparison, the modern US foot is 304.8mm)
Bushel - 36.43 L or 26.54 L (for comparison, a modern US bushel is 35.239072 L)
Ounce - 36.43 g or 26.54 g (for comparison, a modern US ounce is 28.3495231 g)
Subsequent developments[edit]
Under the United States Constitution, Article 1 Section 8, Congress shall have power "To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures". In his first annual message to Congress (what later came to be called "State of the Union Addresses") on January 8, 1790 (a few months before Jefferson's report to the House of Representatives), George Washington stated, "Uniformity in the currency, weights, and measures of the United States is an object of great importance, and will, I am persuaded, be duly attended to."[3]
Washington repeated similar calls for action in his second[4] and third[5] annual messages (after Jefferson's report). Jefferson's decimal proposal had the support of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, James Monroe, and George Washington. Robert Morris was a powerful opponent of the proposal.[1] In late 1791 the Senate appointed a committee to report on the subject and make recommendations. The committee reported in April 1792, unanimously endorsing Jefferson's decimal system. The Senate was slow to act on the matter and while they delayed events in France complicated the issue. Although French scientists working on a decimal system had originally supported using the seconds pendulum as a scientific basis, and Jefferson had deliberately matched his seconds pendulum proposal to the French one, based on a measurement at the latitude of Paris, the French decided to use the length of a meridian of the Earth instead of a seconds pendulum. This and other developments changed what had promised to be an internationally developed system into a strictly French project. Jefferson wrote, "The element of measure adopted by the National Assembly excludes, ipso facto, every nation on earth from a communion of measurement with them."[1]
The Senate continued to consider Jefferson's two proposals, along with a number of new proposals, for several years. In 1795 a bill titled "An Act directing certain experiments to be made to ascertain uniform standards of weights and measures for the United States" was passed by the House and was approved by committee in the Senate, but on the last day of the session the Senate said it would consider the bill during the next session. The bill was never taken up again. In 1795 the Northwest Indian War, which for years had prevented the surveying and sale of land in the Northwest Territory came to an end. A land rush of settlers, surveyors, squatters, and others rapidly pushed into the region and the federal government had a sudden and intense need to establish a method for surveying and selling land. On May 18, 1796 Congress passed "an Act for the sale of land of the United States in the territory northwest of the River Ohio, and above the mouth of the Kentucky River". This law defined a survey grid system of 6–mile–square townships divided into 1–mile–square sections, with the defining unit being the chain, specifically Gunter's chain. This was the first unit of measurement designated into law by Congress. This law and the way it defined the survey grid ended debate over Jefferson's decimal system.[1]
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b c d e Linklater, Andro (2003). Measuring America: How the United States Was Shaped by the Greatest Land Sale in History. Plume. pp. 103–142. ISBN 978-0-452-28459-3. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
2. ^ Journals of the Continental Congress, Wednesday, July 6, 1785
3. ^ The American Presidency Project, George Washington: First Annual Message, accessed October 13, 2006
4. ^ The American Presidency Project, George Washington: Second Annual Message, accessed October 13, 2006
5. ^ The American Presidency Project, George Washington: Third Annual Message, accessed October 13, 2006
• The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Monticello Edition, Washington, D.C.: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904, Vol. 3 pp. 26–59.
External links[edit]
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Invisible Man
Invisible Man
by Ralph Ellison
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Invisible Man Theme of Lies and Deceit
Invisible Man is about the process of overcoming deceptions and illusions to reach truth. (One of the most important truths in the book is that the narrator is invisible to those around him.) In Invisible Man, then, deception is closely linked with invisibility. Because various people cannot see the narrator for who he is, they use him to suit their own purposes. As often as he is deceived, however, the narrator does some deceiving of his own, ultimately concluding that the ease with which he deceives people points to his invisibility.
Questions About Lies and Deceit
1. Why did Dr. Bledsoe deceive the narrator about the letters? Why did young Emerson decide to uncover the deception?
2. Why does Dr. Bledsoe feel the need to deceive the white trustees and his students?
3. Who does the narrator deceive in the novel? Intentionally or unintentionally? Does it matter which?
4. What exactly is the relationship between deception and invisibility?
Chew on This
In Invisible Man, everyone is invisible because everyone is deceiving one another as to their true identities.
Next Page: Ideology
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Chukchi Sea Shelf
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The Chukchi Sea Shelf or Chukchi Shelf is the easternmost part of the Continental shelf of Russia and the westernmost part of the Continental shelf of the United States. Geologically, it includes parts of the continental shelves adjacent to Russia, so that large sections of the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas of the Chukchi Shelf are under US sovereignty.
The main geological features of the Chukchi Shelf are the Hope Basin and the Herald Thrust, a basement uplift cored by Cretaceous thrust faults. The latter is named after Herald Island. Off the northwestern Alaskan coast there is a Jurassic rift basin, the Hannah Trough. In the north the Chukchi Shelf is limited by the Arctic Ocean geological zone.
The Chukchi Shelf is shared between Russia and the United States according to the 1990 USA-USSR maritime boundary.
• Geology: [1]
• Organic carbon nutrients on the Chukchi Sea Shelf: [2]
• Circulation of the Chukchi shelf bottom water: [3]
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NASA Logo, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
SO2 Emissions from Smelters
peru smelter
Photo Above: Copper smelter in Peru
The Peruvian copper smelters are among the world's largest industrial point sources of sulfur dioxide (SO2).
A processing plant that separates copper from copper ore is called a smelter. Copper smelters emit a lot of SO2 because copper ore is made of copper sulfide. The smelters in Peru are among the most polluting in the world.
Average OMI SO2 vertical column Sep 2004 - June 2005
View High Resolution OMI Data
OMI is sensitive enough to be able to identify the copper being emitted from the La Oroya and Ilo smelters even though these produce less SO2 than the volcanoes (notice that the vertical scales are different). In addition to air quality applications, these data provide insights into the different lifetimes, dispersal etc of volcanic vs. industrial emission plumes.
The SO2 plumefrom the volcanoes extends into the Pacific because the SO2 is released at a higher altitude where it has a longer atmospheric lifetime.
+ Aura's Top 10 Feature
Feature Released 6.28.06
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Smallpox Through Time
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1.Face of a Pharaoh
1045 BC
An exploration of the origins of smallpox from the ancient world into the early modern era. (3.75 mins)
2.Arsenic and Old Lace
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1562-1620 next video 2/13next
iconSecondary Resources
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1. What is smallpox?
Smallpox is a highly contagious and often fatal... Read more
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2. Infection and death
Infection spread from person to person by inhalation... Read more
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3. The origins of smallpox
Most likely it evolved from a virus affecting animals... Read more
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4. Smallpox in the classical world
Classical writers describe epidemics... Read more
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5. Smallpox arrives in Europe
We don't know exactly when smallpox reached Europe, but... Read more
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The module was shot at the British Museum, in London's Bloomsbury, the largest and most comprehensive museum of human history in the world. We were privileged enough to have access early in the morning, before the public arrived, and filmed in the Sculpture Gallery.
The Museum houses seven million objects - from which the curator of the Museum, Neil MacGregor, recently chose a hundred for his magisterial 'History of the World' which is accessible as a podcast from the BBC. And the BBC have a 'History of the World' timeline, accessible here.
iconOur Sponsor: The Wellcome Trust
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The Wellcome Trust is a global charity dedicated to achieving improvements in human and animal health.
Timelines: "Smallpox through Time" was entirely funded with through a Wellcome Trust Public Engagement Award. We are very grateful for the Trust's support in the making of this resource.
find out more
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Conjoined Twins Separated
By Ellen Kuwana
Neuroscience for Kids Staff Writer
August 14, 2002
Updated: October 13, 2003
On Monday, August 5, 2002, Guatemalan twins who were born joined at the head underwent more than 22 hours of surgery at Mattel Children's Hospital at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) to be separated. The girls were joined at the top of the head such that they faced opposite directions and consequently could not sit up.
The twins, Maria de Jesus and Maria Teresa, just turned a year old. The UCLA doctors describe them as "amazingly pleasant" and "sweet, adorable." Maria Teresa is the stronger of the two and is starting to want to crawl. The girls were brought to the United States in May by an international charity named "Healing the Children." In mid-June, surgeons inserted eight-inch silicone balloons under the skin of their scalp in order to expand the skin. This process, which usually takes two to three weeks, was necessary to produce enough extra skin to cover the wound after separation surgery. It is important for the wound to be covered by skin to reduce the risk of infection.
Photo courtesy of Mattel Children's Hospital, UCLA. Copyright 2002, University of California, Los Angeles
Everyone Prepares for the Surgery
Once the skin was expanded, the twins were ready for the surgery. How did the surgeons prepare for the complicated surgery? Using imaging technologies such as MRI and CT, the surgeons found that the twins' brains were separated by a membrane and seemed to function independently. That was good news because it meant that the twins did not share much brain tissue, which would make the surgery more straightforward. Each twin's brain appeared to be normal in size and structure. Each had normal arteries, the vessels that bring oxygenated blood to the brain. The surgery's main obstacle would be dealing with the sagittal sinus, a large vein that runs over the top of the skull from front to back. This major vessel carries blood from the brain back to the heart, where it is reoxygenated. The twins shared this important vessel. The surgeons predicted that they might have to give the vessel to one of the twins and hope that the other twin would be able to compensate using smaller vessels. This would put one twin at risk for a stroke.
Surgeons Practice with Brain Models
As with any intricate procedure, it's best if one can practice first. Replicas of the twins' skulls were made using the information from the imaging studies. These three-dimensional, life-size plastic models helped the surgeons to familiarize themselves with the twins' unique anatomy: veins and arteries, shape of skull, relative placement of structures, etc. From the model, surgeons noted that the twins' heads and face were flattened on the left side and their ears were not aligned. The model could be viewed from various angles, different approaches mapped out and tested, alternative routes discussed and considered.
The Surgery
On the day of surgery, the twins were positioned so that one was facing up and one was facing down, her head cradled in a donut-shaped pillow. At 8:00 a.m., the girls were wheeled into the operating room after getting kisses from their parents. The delicate procedures of preparing for surgery and getting the girls anesthetized began. The actual surgery started around 2 p.m. Bones and blood vessels had to be teased apart, the tissue separated, and then the equally delicate task of putting each girl back together began. Fortunately, the sagittal sinus was not as big of a problem as anticipated. The surgeons were able to check each girl's blood flow in various vessels to insure that each girl had sufficient blood supply. A new sagittal sinus did not have to be created, because the smaller vessels were able to compensate adequately.
After almost an entire day (and night) of surgery, the girls were separated around 1 a.m., and at 5:45 a.m. the surgery ended. Still sedated, but free to move independently of each other for the first time in their young lives, the girls were monitored in the pediatric intensive care unit.
A Complication
Four hours after the surgery, Maria Teresa developed a build up of blood on the surface of her brain, and had to be brought back to surgery to relieve the pressure caused by the pooling blood. This complication is called a hematoma and is caused by bleeding from the veins around the brain. Maria Teresa had a subdural hematoma, meaning the blood was under the dura. The dura is a membrane that covers and protects the brain. The pressure from a large hematoma can damage the brain, so it has to be drained away.
A Team Effort
Neurosurgeons at UCLA had never separated conjoined twins before. More than 50 medical personnel volunteered their time and expertise. Among them were four pediatric anesthesiologists, two teams of plastic surgeons, and two teams of neurosurgeons, led by Jorge Lazareff, MD, and Henry Kawamoto, MD, DDS, who specialize in craniofacial surgery. UCLA has received around $4000 in donations from the public; costs are estimated at more than $1.5 million for the twins' medical care.
Conjoined twins are rare. Conjoined twins joined at the head are the rarest of all -- only 2% of conjoined twins are joined at the head. Worldwide, only six twins joined at the head have been separated in the last 10 years. The most recent was in Singapore in April of 2001. In most cases, the separated twins have some deficits after the surgery and many require special education and rehabilitation. Another set of (Egyptian) twins who are joined at the head wait for their separation surgery, which will take place in Dallas, Texas; the surgery date is still unscheduled.
January 14, 2003
The Maria twins are finally home -- after seven months in the hospital. They were scheduled to leave the hospital in late December 2002, but Guatemalan medical personnel needed additional time to get ready for the twins' arrival and ensuing health care needs. The girls' recovery is proceeding smoothly. They will continue physcial and occupational therapy in Guatemala. The girls are now 17 months old.
Surgery is complete!
September 2, 2003
Maria Teresa has a hearing aid to help with hearing loss that was discovered after the August 5, 2002 surgery. The twins are still living in Guatemala, where UCLA surgeons visit from time to time. In April of 2003, surgeons visited the twins to deal with an infection that Maria Teresa was fighting. She had E. coli meningitis that was treated with antibiotics. (More about meningitis from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.) A month later, the girls returned to UCLA's Mattel Children's Hospital for an evaluation.
While at UCLA, Maria Teresa, as a result of the meningitis, had to have a replacement shunt placed in her brain to drain excess fluid away from her brain. The Mattel Children's Hospital explains:
"As a result of last year's separation surgery, the cerebral spinal fluid in Maria Teresa's brain cannot flow normally through the drainage veins at the base of her head. UCLA doctors installed the shunt to help her veins manage the extra fluid. When Maria Teresa contracted E. Coli meningitis in Guatemala in April, the shunt became infected."
On July 25, 2003, at UCLA, the girls celebrated their second birthday. Now both girls are in stable health and continuing to develop, although Maria Teresa's development trails that of her sister. Both continue physical therapy and occupational therapy. In the future, both will need more plastic surgery to "improve the shape of their skull caps and normalize their hair patterns," according to lead plastic surgeon Terry Kawamoto of UCLA.
Twins leave the hospital.
Photo courtesy of Mattel Children's Hospital, UCLA. Copyright 2003, University of California, Los Angeles
Iranian Conjoined Twins Laleh and Ladan Bijani Die During Separation Surgery
Unfortunately, not all separation surgeries end successfully. On July 8, 2003, the 29-year-old Bijani sisters died from uncontrollable bleeding after the surgery. This surgery marked the first time surgeons have attempted to separate adult conjoined twins. In this case, the surgery was made more difficult because Laleh and Ladan were joined at the head. The sisters, who were law school graduates, wanted to be separated and had sought out doctors around the world. A medical team in Singapore agreed to perform the surgery. The women were aware of the risks involved, and felt that the complicated surgery would be worth undergoing in order to exist as two separate people.
Egyptian Conjoined Twins Separated in Dallas, Texas
Mohamed and Ahmed Ibrahim, born June 2, 2001, in Egypt, arrived in Texas on June 22, 2002. In April of 2003, the boys had tissue expander surgery to create enough skin to accommodate a separation surgery. Separation surgery was completed on October 12, 2003.
Mohamed and Ahmed
Photo credit: World Craniofacial Foundation
Did You Know?
• Twins joined at the head are called "craniopagus" twins. "Craniopagus" comes from the Greek words "cranio" and "pagos" meaning "cranium" and "fixed object," respectively.
1. "After Surgical Separation, Twins' Prognosis Is Good," New York Times, August 7, 2002.
2. "Surgeons Separate Twins Joined at the Head," New York Times, August 6, 2002.
3. "Surgeons Begin Delicate Work of Parting Joined Twins," New York Times, August 6, 2002.
4. "Conjoined Twins Successfully Separated" TheBostonChannel.Com, October 12, 2003.
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Cite This Page
To Go
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Let's say you're working at A & F. You're in charge of shirts, because your manager thinks you have real promise. Don't let her down!
First, you're doing inventory of red polo shirts. There are two kinds, with a logo and without a logo, and you have some of each kind in each of three sizes: small, medium and large. You count them up as follows:
With logo: 3 small, 5 medium, 4 large
Without logo: 2 small, 4 medium, 6 large
You can enter your data into a matrix to keep track of those pesky shirts where with logo is row one, without logo is row two, small is column one, medium is column two, and large is column three:
Since you're so amazing at inventory, you go ahead and count the blue polo shirts too:
With logo: 0 small, 7 medium, 1 large
Without logo: 3 small, 3 medium, 0 large
And the blue shirt matrix looks like this:
Naturally, your manager wonders how many with logo shirts there are in either color for each size. No problem!
Previous Page: Identity and Inverse Matrices
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Makah language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Native to United States
Region Northwestern corner of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state, on the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca
Extinct 2002. Last native speaker was Ruth E. Claplanhoo[1]
• Southern
• Makah
Language codes
ISO 639-3 myh
Glottolog maka1318[2]
The Makah language is the indigenous language spoken by the Makah people. Makah has been extinct as a first language since 2002, when its last fluent native speaker died. However, it survives as a second language, and the Makah tribe is attempting to revive the language, including through preschool classes.[3][4] The endonymous name for Makah is qʷi·qʷi·diččaq.[5]
Makah is spoken by the Makah people who reside in the northwestern corner of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state, on the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. It is closely related to Nuu-chah-nulth and Ditidaht, which are languages of the First Nations of the west coast of Vancouver Island on the north side of the strait, in the Canadian province of British Columbia. Makah is the only member of the Wakashan language family in the United States, with the other members spoken by in British Columbia, from Vancouver Island to the Central Coast region.
Makah, Nuu-chah-nulth and Ditidaht belong to the Southern Nootkan branch of the Wakashan family. The Northern Wakashan languages, which are Kwak'wala, Heiltsuk-Oowekyala and Haisla, are spoken farther north, beyond the territory of the Nuu-chah-nulth people.
The phonemes (distinctive sounds) of Makah are presented below in the Makah alphabet; if the symbol in the native alphabet differs from the IPA symbol, the IPA equivalent will be given in brackets.[6]
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Velar Uvular Glottal
central lateral plain labial plain labial
Stops voiceless p t k q ʔ
ejective [pʼ] [tʼ] [kʼ] k̓ʷ [kʷʼ] [qʼ] q̓ʷ [qʷʼ]
voiced b d
Affricates voiceless c [ts] ƛ [tɬ] č [tʃ]
ejective [tsʼ] ƛ̓ [tɬʼ] č̓ [tʃʼ]
Fricatives s ł [ɬ] š [ʃ] x [χ] x̌ʷ [χʷ]
Approximants l y [j] w
Rare among the world's languages, Makah possesses no nasal phonemes.
There are five "short" vowels (actually lax), written a, e, i, o, and u, and pronounced [ə], [ɛ], [ɪ], [ɔ], and [ʊ]), five "long" vowels (written , , , , and , and pronounced [a], [æ], [i], [o], and [u]), and six "diphthongs" (written ay, oy, ey, iy, aw, and uy, and pronounced [aj], [ɔj], [e], [iː], [aw], and [uːj]).
Like other Wakashan languages, Makah inflects verbs for evidentiality, indicating the level and source of the speaker's knowledge about a statement. Some examples are shown in the following table:[7]
Example Translation Evidential
hi·dawʔaƛwa·d "I hear he found it" -wa·t, hearsay
pu·pu·q̓adʔi "he's blowing a whistle" -q̓adi, auditory
č̓apaccaqil "It looks like a canoe" -caqił, uncertain visual evidence, as trying to make out something at a distance
haʔuk̓aƛpi·dic "I see you ate" -pi·t, inference from physical evidence
dudu·k̓aƛx̌a·š "He's probably singing" -x̌a·-š, inferred probability
Alongside those examples, compare corresponding sentences without the evidentials: hi·dawʔal, "he found it"; č̓apac̓, "it's a canoe"; haʔuk̓alic, "you're eating"; dudu·k̓al, "he's singing".
1. ^ LOWLANDS-L archives - August 2002, week 4 (#10)
2. ^ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Makah". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
3. ^ Makah Language and the Makah Indian Tribe (Kweedishchaaht, Kweneecheeaht, Macaw, Classet, Klasset)
4. ^ Our Language
5. ^ Davidson, Matthew (2002). Studies in Southern Wakashan (Nootkan) Grammar. Ph.D. dissertation, SUNY Buffalo, p. 349
6. ^ The phoneme inventory and Makah alphabet are from pg. 422 of Renker and Gunther (1990) and from Makah Alphabet
7. ^ Jacobsen (1986). "The Heterogeneity of Evidentials in Makah." In Evidentiality: The Linguistic Coding of Epistemology, eds. Wallace Chafe & Johanna Nichols. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Cited in Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 185
• Renker, Ann M. and Gunther, Erna (1990). "Makah". In "Northwest Coast", ed. Wayne Suttles. Vol. 7 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
External links[edit]
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Colour Genetics Of Blue Birds
If blue birds (genetic code Bb) are mated together, they throw a percentage of ‘off' colours in their progeny (youngsters), the probability being 25% blacks (BB), 25% blue splashed whites (bb) as well as 50% blues (Bb). You need to breed a sufficiently large number to achieve this percentage - since this is a probabilty.
Black and blue splashed whites are homozygous and the blues are heterozygous - i.e. they produce equal number of black and blue splashed white gametes. This can be tested by breeding the blacks or the blue splashed whites with themselves and each will breed true to its respective type. This means they will breed true. The blues will not breed true, they carry two colour genes and no amount of breeding selection will ever make them breed true.
Blacks and the blue splashed whites can be useful. If they are bred together, their progeny will be 100% blue therefore producing twice as many as when just mating blues together. There are different shades of blue and some come out darker than others so if you are wanting the birds for showing or breeding, you only get about 50% of the 'blues' that show the desired shade of colouring.
Mendel's law of inheritance, says each chick receives two genes, one from the mother and one from the father. Since blue is made up of 2 colour genes - black (BB) and splash (bb), the laws of probability say we have 4 different possibilities when crossing Blue with Blue. BB, Bb, bB, bb.
The following combinations are achievable:
• Blue X Blue = 50% Blue, 25% Black, 25% Splash
Blue X Black = 50% Blue, 50% Black
• Blue X Splash = 50% Blue, 50% Splash
• Black X Black = 100% Black
• Splash X Splash = 100% Splash
• Splash X Black = 100% Blue
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jump to: navigation, search
Wikipedia has an article on:
Parts of a feather:
1. vane
2. rachis, shaft
3. barbs
4. hyporachis, afterfeather
5. calamus, quill
Feathers on a Clydesdale horse
Alternative forms[edit]
From Middle English fether, from Old English feþer, from Proto-Germanic *feþrō, from Proto-Indo-European *péth₂r̥ ~ pth₂én- (feather, wing), from *peth₂- (to fly). The Indo-European root is also the source of Greek πέτομαι (pétomai), Albanian shpend (bird), Latin penna, Old Armenian թիռ (tʿiṙ).
feather (plural feathers)
1. A branching, hair-like structure that grows on the wings of birds that allows their wings to create lift.
• 1873, W. K. Brooks, "A Feather", Popular Science Monthly, volume IV, page 687
Notice, too, that the shaft is not straight, but bent so that the upper surface of the feather is convex, and the lower concave.
• 1914, Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Beasts of Tarzan, chapter V
• 2000, C. J. Puotinen, The Encyclopedia of Natural Pet Care, page 362
Nesting birds pluck some of their own feathers to line the nest, but feather plucking in pet birds is entirely different.
2. Long hair on the lower legs of a dog or horse, especially a draft horse, notably the Clydesdale breed. Narrowly only the rear hair.
3. One of the fins or wings on the shaft of an arrow.
4. A longitudinal strip projecting from an object to strengthen it, or to enter a channel in another object and thereby prevent displacement sideways but permit motion lengthwise; a spline.
5. Kind; nature; species (from the proverbial phrase "birds of a feather").
• Shakespeare
I am not of that feather to shake off / My friend when he must need me.
6. A thin wedge driven between the two semicylindrical parts of a divided plug in a hole bored in a stone, to rend the stone.
7. The angular adjustment of an oar or paddle-wheel float, with reference to a horizontal axis, as it leaves or enters the water.
• (horse hair at rear of lower legs): spats
Derived terms[edit]
feather (third-person singular simple present feathers, present participle feathering, simple past and past participle feathered)
1. To cover or furnish with feathers.
• L'Estrange
An eagle had the ill hap to be struck with an arrow feathered from her own wing.
2. To arrange in the manner or appearance of feathers.
The stylist feathered my hair.
3. (transitive, intransitive, rowing) To rotate the oars while they are out of the water to reduce wind resistance.
4. (aeronautics) To streamline the blades of an aircraft's propeller by rotating them perpendicular to the axis of the propeller when the engine is shut down so that the propeller doesn't windmill as the aircraft flies.
After striking the bird, the pilot feathered the left, damaged engine's propeller.
5. (carpentry, engineering) To finely shave or bevel an edge.
6. (computer graphics) To intergrade or blend the pixels of an image with those of a background or neighboring image.
7. To adorn, as with feathers; to fringe.
• Sir Walter Scott
A few birches and oaks still feathered the narrow ravines.
8. To render light as a feather; to give wings to.
• Loveday
The Polonian story perhaps may feather some tedious hours.
9. To enrich; to exalt; to benefit.
• Francis Bacon
They stuck not to say that the king cared not to plume his nobility and people to feather himself.
10. To tread, as a cock.
Derived terms[edit]
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Color-changing chameleon snake discovered in jungles of Borneo
Rhett A. Butler,
June 27, 2006
Scientists discovered a species of snake capable of changing colors. The snake, called the Kapuas mud snake, resides in the rainforest on the island of Borneo, an ecosystem that is increasingly threatened by logging and agricultural development.
The "chameleon snake" was discovered by Dr. Mark Auliya, a German researcher who described it with the help of two American scientists. Dr. Auliya collected two specimens of the half-meter (1.6-foot) long poisonous snake in the swampy forests near the Kapuas river in the Betung Kerihun National Park in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo).
"I put the reddish-brown snake in a dark bucket. When I retrieved it a few minutes later, it was almost entirely white," Dr. Auliya said.
Many lizards are known to change color to match their surrounding or express emotion, but the Kapuas mud snake is a rare find -- few snakes are known to have the ability and scientists have yet to study color-changing mechanisms in these legless reptiles.
True chameleons, lizards found in continental Africa and Madagascar, change colors using two layers of specialized cells that lie just beneath the lizard's transparent outer skin. The cells in the upper layer are responsible for yellow and red colors, while the second cell layer reflect blue light. Working in conjunction, these cells can influence the apparent color of the lizard.
The Kapuas mud snake Enhydris gyii, recently discovered in Kalimantan. Image: WWF-Germany/Mark Auliya
Regardless of how the Kapuas mud snake actually changes color, the find is an important one for conservation in Borneo, where some 361 new species of animals were discovered between 1994 and 2004.
"The discovery of the 'chameleon' snake exposes one of nature's best kept secrets deep in the Heart of Borneo," said Stuart Chapman, international coordinator of the Heart of Borneo initiative for WWF, a leading conservation group.
"Its ability to change color has kept it hidden from science until now. I guess it just picked the wrong color that day."
WWF has warned that Borneo's forest cover has declined rapidly since the 1980s, but the organization is working with the three governments -- Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia and Malaysia -- that control Borneo to ensure that its forest ecosystems are protected in the future.
Related articles
In search of Bigfoot, scientists may uncover unknown biodiversity in Malaysia. Malaysian scientists are scouring the rainforests of Johor state in search of the legendary ape-man Bigfoot, supposedly sighted late last year. But they are more likely to encounter some less fantastic but unique creatures that dwell in these still unexplored ecosystems.
Saving Orangutans in Borneo. I'm in Tanjung Puting National Park in southern Kalimantan on the island of Borneo. At 400,000 hectares (988,000 acres) Tanjung Puting is the largest protected expanse of coastal tropical heath and peat swamp forest in southeast Asia. It's also one of the biggest remaining habitats for the critically endangered orangutan, the population of which has been great diminished in recent years due to habitat destruction and poaching. Orangutans have become the focus of a much wider effort to save Borneo's natural environment.
Malaysia to phase out Borneo logging in parts of Sabah state. The Malaysian state of Sabah on the island of Borneo announced it will phase out logging in large parts of its remaining rainforests. Sabah, once home to some of the world's most biodiverse forests, was largely logged out during the 1980s and 1990s but some parts of the state still support wild populations of endangered orangutans. In recent years, the Malaysian government has set aside protected areas and sponsored reforestation projects in the state.
Why is palm oil replacing tropical rainforests? Recently much has been made about the conversion of Asia's biodiverse rainforests for oil-palm cultivation. Environmental organizations have warned that by eating foods that use palm oil as an ingredient, Western consumers are directly fueling the destruction of orangutan habitat and sensitive ecosystems. So, why is it that oil-palm plantations now cover millions of hectares across Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand? Why has oil palm become the world's number one fruit crop, trouncing its nearest competitor, the humble banana?
Borneo rainforest to be protected; massive oil palm plantation canceled. Today Indonesia announced its would end plans to establish a 1.8 million hectare oil plantation in the rainforest of Borneo. The proposed plan, which was backed by Chinese investments, would have destroyed one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), some 361 species of animals have been discovered on the island in the past decade, including a mysterious fox-like creature spotted last year.
13 rare rhinos found in Borneo survey by WWF. World Wildlife Fund today released the results of a field survey from the island of Borneo which found that poaching has significantly reduced Borneo's population of Sumatran rhinos, but a small group continues to survive in the "Heart of Borneo," a region covered with vast tracts of rain forest.
Borneo's disappearing forests. 361 new species discovered in past decade. Borneo, the third largest island in the world, was once covered with dense rainforests. With swampy coastal areas fringed with mangrove forests and a mountainous interior, much of the terrain was virtually impassable and unexplored. Headhunters ruled the remote parts of the island until a century ago.
Pictures of the Borneo rainforest., a leading rainforest information web site, has launched a new section featuring photographs from the island of Borneo. More than 500 photos from Kalimantan—the Indonesian part of the island—have been added to the site.
Anti-HIV drug from rainforest almost lost before its discovery. Rainforest plants have long been recognized for their potential to provide healing compounds. Indigenous peoples of the rainforest have used medicinal plants for treating a wide variety of health conditions while western pharmacologists have derived a number of drugs from such plants. However, as forests around the world continue to fall -- the Amazon alone has lost more than 200,000 miles of forest since the 1970s -- there is a real risk that pharmaceutically-useful plants will disappear before they are examined for their chemical properties. Increasingly, it is becoming a race against time to collect and screen plants before their native habitats are destroyed. One near miss occurred recently with a compound that has shown significant anti-HIV effects, Calanolide A.
Pictures from Gabon
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Rhett A. Butler, (June 27, 2006).
Color-changing chameleon snake discovered in jungles of Borneo.
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Definitions for ruby
Overview of noun ruby
The noun ruby has 3 senses? (first 1 from tagged texts)
1. (1) ruby
(a transparent piece of ruby that has been cut and polished and is valued as a precious gem)
2. ruby
(a transparent deep red variety of corundum; used as a gemstone and in lasers)
3. crimson, ruby, deep red
(a deep and vivid red color)
Overview of adj ruby
The adj ruby has 1 senses? (no senses from tagged texts)
(of a color at the end of the color spectrum (next to orange); resembling the color of blood or cherries or tomatoes or rubies) © 2001-2013, Demand Media, all rights reserved. The database is based on Word Net a lexical database for the English language. see disclaimer
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DANES. Danish immigration to Texas, like most European settlement in the Americas, was a result of stories of favorable conditions, actual or imaginary, put in contrast with real problems in a traditional homeland. In Denmark during the second half of the nineteenth century, population growth, low salaries, unemployment, and the difficulty of acquiring land joined with new legal freedom to bring about a large exodus from the country. The majority of Danish emigrants left between 1820 and 1920. Many discontented Danes saw Texas as a place for business opportunity and settlement.
Although colonial efforts were considered in the early years, the first Danish immigrants to Texas were individuals. The first known by name included sailors like Peter Johnson who, captaining his own ships along the Texas coast as early as 1832, first traded at, then settled near, Indianola. John Edward Henrichson, another seafarer, moved slightly inland and became a rancher near San Patricio. A Dane named Christian Hillebrandt moved his cattle from Louisiana into East Texas just after 1830, and one named Charles Zanco died at the battle of the Alamo in 1836. Some settlers wrote letters back to Denmark saying that Texas was the place to be.
By 1850 a sprinkling of Danes had arrived, some fifty individuals officially in that year's census, probably a low count that quickly grew. Until around 1950 the ratio of native-born Danes to the population of Texas was always fairly constant-about one to 3,000.
The early arrivals were mixed in skills and trades. They included Otto Kass, a soldier at Fort Worth; Thomas Moosewood, a Bexar County wagonmaster; Peter Hansen, a sailor in Galveston; George Henry Trube, former gardener and founder of a mercantile dynasty in Houston and Galveston; Peter Miller, a carpenter in the Rio Grande valley; Christian Dorbrandt, Texas Ranger and cotton-gin owner near Marble Falls; and Charles Grimur Thorkelin Løvenskioldqv, schoolmaster, lawyer, and colonel for the Confederacy from Corpus Christi. The Danes accepted most local spellings of their names and established lasting businesses and families.
But colonial efforts were not too far behind the first families. The first group resulted from a visit, just after the Civil War, of two Texans to Denmark. Travis Shaw and John Hester, whose wife was Danish, were promoting Central Texas as good farmland. The area they were selling was the part of Burleson County that went to make up Lee County in 1874. Initially, twenty families moved in, and others arrived before 1880. The group included Christian Moelbeck, a saddlemaker; Paul Paulsen, cabinetmaker; and Peter Jensen, blacksmith. The majority, the Sorensons, Rasmussens, Vittrups, and Olsens, were farmers. Here in the "Little Denmark" area of Lee County were enough families to preserve Danish customs for a time. They did not quickly lose their original foods, including kartofler (boiled potatoes) and rodgrod (fruit pudding), nor the custom of pastry and coffee every day at 10 A.M. and 3 P.M., nor the holiday observances. But the language and most of the customs of a European homeland thousands of miles away were quick to go. An immigrant is only a person who arrives after someone else, in the words of a later Danish arrival, Lloyd M. Bentsen, Sr.
Another settlement area was in Gillespie County, east of Fredericksburg around the Rocky Hill vicinity. Here, the choice of place seems to have been a matter of recommendation between families and friends. The fact that the county was already tolerably full of Germans, erstwhile Danish enemies, seemed to make no difference in Texas.
These arrivals coincided with the peak years of Danish emigration, 1885–95. But many more individuals came in these years than families, and many Danes moved directly into the young towns of Texas. H. P. N. Gammelqv arrived in Austin around 1878 and became state printer and one of the most notable book collectors, dealers, and bibliophiles of all times. Christian Mathisen moved into Fredericksburg as a blacksmith and subsequently invented an early wind-powered electric generator and innovative agricultural methods. Viggo Kohler was attracted to Beeville and Hebbronville, where he became a hotel owner and rancher.
Danevang, established in 1894, became the largest Danish settlement and still held on with a population of sixty-one in 1990. Land was contracted on the coastal plain south of El Campo by the Dansk Folkesamfund as a place for a church colony where Danish culture and language could be preserved. The society sold the land for nine dollars an acre and contacted potential colonists. The Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church, one of two synods resulting from a church dispute in Denmark, had the colony as a religious charge. Many of the initial colonists came from the north central United States, where thousands of Danes had first settled after their long move; others came directly from Denmark.
Until the turn of the century, the settlers had a rough time. The first crops, northern grains, failed. Carefully transported cattle died. The first homes were primitive, and the low coastal plain was easily flooded. One young wife admitted that she "cried nearly every evening." The initial land payments could not be made, but the president of the Texas Land and Cattle Company, after a visit to the colony, gave an immediate extension on the notes. It was evident that the Danes were there to stay. By 1901 they had survived hurricanes, crop failure, insects, and local depression. They had largely switched to cotton as a cash crop. Shortly thereafter, they established a Farmer's Cooperative Society for bulk purchases of supplies and sale of crops. Community members started schools, reading clubs, an insurance company, a telephone service, a grocery, a cotton gin, and a gasoline station-all on a cooperative basis. The schools taught biblical history, Danish history, and the Danish language-at least in the summers-along with the regular "American" curriculum, until incorporation and state laws took over the community schools.
Danish culture and language did survive for over a generation. The church was the formal sphere of spoken Danish, which was used for regular services until 1954 and by Den danske Kvindeforening, a women's church society, until 1971. Danish was commonly used in business through the 1930s, and today a few people still can speak "native Texas" Danish, a language retaining some nineteenth-century structure and vocabulary and of interest to contemporary linguists. The major holidays celebrated in the colony were joint Danish Constitution Day-United States Independence Day and Christmas. On these occasions the European circle dance around a community tree was maintained. One or two songs were always sung in Danish.
Danevang still attracts visitors from various Texas Scandinavian clubs, but today looks like, and mainly is, a small Texas country community. From a peak of nearly 200 Danish families, about twenty were in Danevang in the late 1980s. They very strongly remember where they are from. But the economics of large farmholdings destroyed the colony.
Danevang continued to attract a few Danish families until around 1920, but fewer came to the United States in the early twentieth century. And many of the arrivals, more often single men than not, headed for the cities rather than the country. Hans Guldmann, John Christensen, and Johan Rasmussen found in Galveston a place of opportunity and a warm climate. Here were opportunities for dealing in cotton products, automobiles, and vegetables. Steamship-company agents in Denmark were still willing to sell tickets after World War I, but soon the United States enacted quotas to limit European immigrants, including Danes. Yet, of those who came, most stayed. Only about 8 percent of the arrivals returned to their homeland. Danish culture was Nordic and similar to the English and other dominant European groups in Texas. Danes were rapidly assimilated in terms of learning English, marrying outside their own groups, and adopting local habits intentionally. Danish cultural groups outside of Danevang lasted but a short time. The Dallas group, nominally active in the early 1980s, was the longest in duration among groups from the Rio Grande valley, Houston, Austin, and other cities.
One of the last areas of Texas to attract a sprinkling of Danish families was the Panhandle. Typical of that area's settlers was the Sorrenson family, which moved to Swisher County to try farming. Not so typical was the fact that Harry Sorrenson was an amateur mathematician and photographer. He took so many glass-plate photographs that he was able to build a greenhouse using the plates as panes.
To the south, the influential Bentsen family started with the arrival of Peter Bentsen from South Dakota. The Bentsens allowed only English to be spoken in their home and attended churches other than the Danish Lutheran. They were not alone in taking definite moves to become American as soon as possible. Economically, in a dominantly English-speaking society, it was the only practical choice.
After the turn of the century, no colonial efforts were tried in Texas. John B. Christensen founded Kristenstad at De Cordova Bend on the Brazos River, but the cooperative effort was never a Danish colony. The group of about forty families, who quickly tired of the social experiment, included only a few Danes. Today, there are thousands of native Texans who are Danish in ancestry, although little remains of their heritage.
John L. Davis
John L. Davis, "DANES," Handbook of Texas Online (, accessed December 06, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
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Japanese History
Pirates in Feudal Japan
Wok'u or Japanese pirates were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the thirteenth century onwards. Originally, the Wokou were mainly soldiers, ronin, merchants and smugglers from Japan, but became predominantly from China two centuries later.
The early phase of Wok'u activity began in the 13th century and extended to the second half of the fourteenth century. Japanese pirates from only Japan concentrated on the Korean peninsula and spread across the Yellow Sea to China. Ming China implemented a policy to forbid civil trade with Japan while maintaining governmental trade (Haijin). The Ming court believed that limiting non-government trade would in turn expel the Wok'u. But haijin wasn't successful as it instead forced many Chinese merchants to protect their own interests by trading with Japan illegally. This led to the second major phase of Wok'u activity which occurred in the early to mid-sixteenth century, where Japanese pirates colluded with their Chinese counterparts and expanded their forces. During this period the composition and leadership of the Wok'u changed significantly to become Chinese. At their height in the 1550s, the Wok'u operated throughout the seas of East Asia, even sailing up large river systems such as the Yangtze. According to the Annals of Joseon Dynasty in 1395,wokou were commanded by a number of small and medium-sized feudal lords of the coastal areas of Japan and consisted of petty farmers and fishermen. Wokou were said to number around 20-400 ships. The lack of political stability in Japan at the time was one of the primary causes of the appearance of wokou. There were fake wokou as well, who disguised themselves as Japanese. According to the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty,Sejong Sillok (Hangul,Hanja), "in the late period of the Goryeo Dynasty (12th-13th centuries), some Korean bandits disguise themselves as Wo (Japanese). So real wokou are only one or two out of ten at that time; the rest are [Korean] nationals, who dressed as the Wo and cause trouble in gangs." Similarly, the Stories of Japan in the History of Ming states, in relation to one particularly extensive raid, "real Japanese comprise about three in every ten, the rest of seven are the followers".
Kamakura period
The first raid by Wokou on record occurred in the summer of 1223, on the south coast of Goryeo. The history book ''Goryeosa'' states that "Japanese (pirates) attacked Gumju". Two more minor attacks are recorded for 1226, and continued intermittently for the next four decades. Most of the Wokou originated from Tsushima Province|Tsushima and Hizen Province|Hizen. Under diplomatic pressure from the Goryeo government, the Kamakura shogunate made an effort to keep seafaring military groups under control. In 1227 Muto Sukeyori, the shogunate's commissioner in Kyushu, had ninety suspected brigands decapitated in front of a Goryeo envoy. In 1263, after Tsushima Wokou raided Ungjin, Japanese negotiators reconfirmed the policies of limiting trade and prohibiting piracy.
The period around the Mongol invasions of Japan was a low point for Wokou activity. This was partly due to the higher degree of military preparedness in Goryeo. They fortified Gumju in 1251 and in 1265. The Kamakura shogunate, for its part, increased its authority in Kyushu and was better able to mobilize and control former Wokou groups against the threat of Mongol invasion.
As the Kamakura shogunate and Goryeo state both declined following the Mongol invasions, the Wokou again became active. In 1323, for example, a large scale raid took place in Jeolla province. Raids such as this developed into full scale pirate attacks by the end of the fourteenth century.
Nanboku cho period
The Wokou resumed their activities in earnest in 1350, driven by chaotic conditions and the lack of a strong authority in Japan. For the next half century, sailing principally from Iki Province|Iki and Tsushima Province|Tsushima, they engulfed the southern half of Goryeo. The worst period was the decade between 1376 and 1385, when no fewer than 174 instances of pirate raids were recorded in Korea. Some involved bands of as many as three thousand penetrating deep into the Korean interior. The raiders repeatedly looted the Korean capital Gaeseong, and on occasion reached as far north as the mouth of the Taedong River and the general area of Pyongyang. They looted grain stores and took people away for slavery and ransom. The conditions caused by the Wokou greatly contributed to the downfall of the Goryeo Dynasty in 1392. General Yi Seonggye, founder of the Joseon Dynasty, rose to prominence due to his successes against the Wokou. Goryeo's King U of Goryeo|King U sought redress in 1375 from the Muromachi shogunate and the cooperation of the shogunal deputy (''tandai'' ) in Kyushu, Imagawa Ryoshun. In 1377 the great statesman Jeong Mong ju was received warmly by Ryoshun. Several hundred prisoners captured by Wokou were returned to Goryeo. Nevertheless Kyushu was under the sway of the Southern Court, and neither the shogunate nor its deputy could suppress the pirates as requested despite promises to the contrary. In 1381, for instance, the Muromachi shogunate issued an order prohibiting the ''akuto'' (loosely translated as "outlaws," literally "bad gangs" or "evil political parties/factions") of the provinces from crossing over to Goryeo and "committing outrages". In 1389 and in 1419, the Koreans attacked the pirate bases on Tsushima themselves and received ineffective assurances from the governor of Tsushima that the pirate raids would be stopped.
The Wokou bands were also active in China, where the earliest record of Japanese pirates is from 1302. In addition, the economic embargo forced upon Japan by Qing and later Ming Dynasty|Ming made pirate trade the only and a lucrative way to secure Chinese goods, as trade through the Ryukyu Kingdom was halted by China, and eventually in 1609 Satsuma domain|Satsuma seized the kingdom. In 1358, and again in 1363, the raids continued along the entire eastern seaboard, but particularly on the coast of what is now Shandong. Toward the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the Wokou threat began to intensify. The first Wokou raid in the Ming Dynasty occurred in 1369, in Zhejiang province. In response, the Hongwu Emperor sent his commanders to construct a number of forts along the coast and dispatched two envoys to Prince Kanenaga, the Emperor Go Daigo|Southern Court's "General of the Western Pacification Command" in Kyushu. The first, in 1369, threatened an invasion of Japan unless the Wokou raids were stopped. Unimpressed, Prince Kaneyoshi had the Ming envoy killed and refused the demands. However, when the second envoy arrived in 1370, he submitted to the Ming as a "subject". He sent an embassy the next year, returning more than seventy men and women who had been captured at Mingzhou (Ningbo) and Taizhou.
Ming Dynasty tribute system
In 1392, Yi Seonggye (who had become famous for defeating these pirates) founded the Joseon Dynasty, supplanting the Goryeo regime on the Korean peninsula. In the same year, the conflict between the Southern and Northern courts in Japan was finally resolved under the auspices of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu. Fang Guozhen and Zhang Shicheng, who held sway in Jiangsu and Zhejiang areas, established bases on the coastal islands. They linked up with the Wokou. There may also have been some Wokou involvement in the rebellion of Hu Weiyong and Liu Xian.
For the Ming, the Wokou were not simply a foreign concern. The Ming reinforced the policy of forbidding Chinese to go overseas and controlled trade with Japan through the tribute system, both policies aimed at monopolising trade and protecting against piracy. Though diplomatic initiatives brought by China and Korea were successful in gaining the cooperation of the Ashikaga Shogunate at its height, it did not put down the Wokou.
They went on raiding China in force until at least 1419. In that year, a large pirate fleet of more than thirty sail assembled in Tsushima and headed north along Korea's Yellow Sea coast. Kept under observation, it was finally ambushed and smashed off Wanghaiguo in Liaodong by a provincial military commander, who was said to have taken between 700 and 1500 heads. After that, the Wokou steered clear of Liaodong, though they hit other areas of China sporadically.
Oei Invasion of Tsushima by Korean Joseon Dynasty
In Korea, the Wokou were stemmed by action from regional notables of western Japan, whom the Koreans influenced with concessions. From the end of the Goryeo Dynasty to the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty, the coastal regions of Korea were often the subject of Wokou raids. The founder of the Joseon Dynasty, Yi Seonggye, or Taejo of Joseon|King Taejo, made his fame by repelling Wokou. The Joseon Dynasty ordered a strengthening of Korean naval defenses, a strategic response to the constant threat posed by the pirates. Joseon also asked the Ashikaga Shogunate and its deputy on Kyushu to suppress the activity of the pirates, favoring legitimate traders. In exchange for certain privileges, it gave authority to So Sadashige over ships sailing from Japan to Korea (So clan was the de facto ruler of Tsushima Province). After his death, the power was seized from Sadashige's infant son So Sadamori|Sadamori (Tsutsukumaru) by Soda Saemontaro, a powerful pirate leader. Suffering from famine, pirates on Tsushima invaded Ming Dynasty|Ming China in 1419. On the way to China, they raided Korea's Chungcheong and Hwanghae provinces after their requests for food were dismissed.
After receiving reports of these incidents, the Korean court proposed an invasion of Tsushima. On June 9, 1419, Taejong of Joseon|King Taejong declared a war against Tsushima, citing that it belong to Joseon (Oei Invasion), though it resulted in failure to capture the Tsushima Island. However, the So clan controlled and stopped any coastal pirate raid in exchange with limited trading privileges and access to three coastal Korean ports after the negotiation between Joseon.
Later Wokou raids
The 1550s and 1560s saw a resurgence of the Wokou tide. The period of greatest Wokou activity was during the Jiajing and Wanli eras, also some of the weakest in Ming history. To illustrate, in the period 1369 to 1466, the wokou raided Zhejiang 34 times, on average once every three years. By comparison, in the period 1523 to 1588, they made 66 raids, on average once a year.
In contrast with previous Wokou, however, the pirate bands of the middle sixteenth century no longer consisted preponderantly of Japanese. Although Wokou remained the common label by which they were identified, most of these bandits were in fact, if not in name, Chinese.
The term often used for Japanese pirates was ''bahan'' (Portuguese transcription: ''bafan''). The term is written as ''bafan'' (Hachiman) or ''pofan'' ("tattered sails"). According to the ''Zhouhai Tubian'', Satsuma Province|Satsuma, Higo, and Nagato province|Nagato were the Japanese provinces that were the most prolific breeding grounds of the pirates; next came Osumi|Osumi, Chikuzen, Chikugo Province|Chikugo, Hakata, Hyuga Province|Hyuga, Settsu, Harima, and the island of Tanegashima. Natives of Buzen, Bungo and Izumi Province|Izumi also took part in raids on occasion, often when the opportunity of joining a Satsuma expedition to China presented itself.
An inequitable taxation and property system, combined with endemic corruption, forced many Chinese farmers in Fujian, Guangdong and Zhejiang to seek livelihoods in the sea. The Ming ban on ocean going, selectively enforced by local authorities, made these people dissidents. Sometimes pirates and sometimes merchants, they used their local knowledge to make successful raiding expeditions. In 1533 the Ming government Ministry of War complained that armed fleets were pillaging at will along the coast. They often also engaged in illegal smuggling operations and raided rival merchant marine. During the 1540s the disparate groups of Chinese pirates and traders became more organized. They gathered on islands off the eastern coastline and colluded with the Japanese. In this way, the acts of piracy and overseas trade were interconnected. In 1523, for example, the Hosokawa trading party in Ningbo attacked its rival mission from the Ouchi family and then proceeded to loot the city. It seized a number of ships, and set sail. The Ming commander sent in pursuit was killed in a sea battle.
Proposals to appoint a governor with jurisdiction over coastal defense first appeared in 1524 after the Ningbo affray. Supporters argued that the Japanese were as much a threat as the Mongols and that administrative arrangements in effect on the northern borders should therefore be applied to the coast as well. In 1529, after a garrison on the coast had rioted and fled to join pirate bands, a censor was sent to inspect coastal defenses, to coordinate the suppression of piracy, and to punish the leaders of the riot. In 1531 this official was transferred and not replaced.
Zhu Wan
From 1539, the tribute trade system broke down altogether. The size of Japanese fleets sailing from Japan to trade with private Chinese merchants grew each year and so did the violence associated with it. The typical wokou attack at this time was for the sea based raiders to make swift attacks from their island strongholds and then retreat to their ships. In many cases violent altercations were the result of conflict over payment of debts by wealthy families to their trading creditors. One of the Xie family's estates in Shaoxing was looted and burned in the summer of 1547 for this reason.
In November 1547 Zhu Wan, was put in charge of Zhejiang and Fujian coastal defense, to eradicate the cause of piracy overseas trade. In February 1548 a large body of pirates raided the coastal counties of Ningbo and Taizhou, killing, burning, and looting without encountering any effective resistance. Zhu arrived in Ningbo in April and shortly thereafter, he led an attack on wokou harbor at Shuangyu Island. In March 1549 he attacked a large merchant fleet anchored off the coast of southern Fujian. Despite Zhu's successes, he was dismissed from office and during impeachment proceedings, he committed suicide in January 1550. His coastal defense fleet was dispersed.
Wang Zhi
By the 1550s the Chinese merchant Wang Zhi had organized a large trading consortium and commanded a well armed fleet with sailors and soldiers to protect it. Between 1539 and 1552 he cooperated with local military intendants on several occasions, expecting relaxation of the ban on overseas trade. When the ban was instead tightened in 1551, Wang began organizing large attacks on official establishments, granaries, county and district treasuries, and incidentally on the surrounding countryside, which was thoroughly pillaged. Brigandage along the coast of Zhejiang became so widespread and common that towns and villages had to erect palisades for security. In the spring of 1552 raiding parties of several hundred people attacked all along the coast of Zhejiang. In the summer of 1553 Wang Zhi assembled a large fleet of hundreds of ships to raid the coast of Zhejiang from Taizhou north. Several garrisons were briefly taken, and several district seats were besieged. Early in 1554 fortified bases were established along the coast of Zhejiang from which larger raiding parties set out on long inland campaigns. By 1555 they were approaching the great cities of the Yangzi Delta, Hangzhou, Suzhou, and Nanjing. Wokou raiders had established fortified bases in various towns and forts on the coast of Zhejiang and garrisoned them with a combined force of 20,000 men.
The two Chinese commanders most famous in resisting the Wokou were Qi Jiguang and Yu Dayou. Both men were from coastal provinces and had good knowledge of naval warfare. Qi organized a force of some 4000, known as the "Qi Family Army", made up mostly of farmers and miners. He won a succession of victories in 1555 in defending Taizhou. Yu Dayou's first significant victory was in 1553, when his marines stormed the island of Putuoshan and expelled the Wokou camp there. Two years later, he killed some two thousand Wokou north of Jiaxing, winning the greatest victory in the Wokou wars.
When Toyotomi Hideyoshi's assumed Regency of Japan in the 1580s, the Ming and the Regent worked together to stop the raids, and were very successful. However, once Hideyoshi ended the bloodline of his last enemy, the Late Hojo clan|Hojo clan in Japan, he demanded from Joseon Dynasty in Korea the right of passage to invade China. Korea refused, and Hideyoshi invaded Korea and Manchuria, the subsequent series of battles being known as the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592 1598). The term "wokou" was used by both Chinese and Korean troops in reference to the invasion force of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Although initially successful in the land invasion, Japan was to suffer great losses at the hand of Admiral Yi Sun sin of Jeolla (Korean province) forcing Hideyoshi's invading army to retreat.
Decline of the Wokou
The presence of the Wokou eventually declined before disappearing completely. There are several theories about the cause of the decline.
As a general rule, most of the Wokou began returning to more traditional seafaring activities as enforcement of the bans on maritime trade subsided. There is anecdotal evidence that the Portuguese were given permission to settle Macao in the 1550s in exchange for cooperation with the Ming authorities against the Wokou. There are two accounts of anti piracy activity by the Portuguese. The first dates from the 1520s and is recounted in a letter to Zhu Wan, one of the leaders of the anti piracy campaigns. The second account is better documented and discusses a 1564 joint Chinese Portuguese action in the Pearl River Delta.
Additionally, the acceptance of the Portuguese resulted in the relaxing of anti trade restrictions, particularly in the region surrounding Canton. The mere presence of the better armed Portuguese ships may have served to decrease pirate activity. Additionally, the accommodation with the Portuguese also contributed to the demise of the tribute trade system, which would have increased opportunities for legitimate Chinese traders as well. More likely, however, is that the Portuguese were able to sell tropical goods from Indonesia and India at a better price than the Wokou, many of whom were smugglers before pirates. The cost of illegal activity made the Wokou unable to compete with the Portuguese and drove the Wokou back into legitimate seafaring activities.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi also served as a great detriment to Wokou activities. Two regulations in particular damaged the Wokou raids, the first of which is the sword hunt put in motion in 1588. The Sword Hunt was a major confiscation of all weaponry in the storage of peasants and turned over to the daimyo. This took away the possibility of making war by people suspect of Hideyoshi. Obscure daimyo whose loyalty was in question or religious establishments that possessed the capabilities to arm a rebellion were all purged in an operation that have parallels with the Dissolution of the Monasteries. In effect, this took away the means by which Wakou could arm and supply themselves. The other, lesser known, ordinance was a move aimed directly at the Wokou. Representatives of the daimyo sought to obtain written oaths that no seafarer partake in piracy. If any daimyo should fail to obey with this order and allow Wokou to continue their craft, his Han (Japan)|fief would be confiscated. Korea's peace and official trade policy made Wokou under control in late 15C 16C. After Oei invasion by Korea to Tsushima in 1491, Wokou activity in Korea was declined. King Sejong changed offensive policy to peaceful policy so opened 3 ports for official trade with Japan(1426). In 1443, Korea and Japan signed on Treaty of Gyehae as a means of controlling Japanese piracy and legitimizing trade between Tsushima island and a Korean port and decide to set up Japanese trading special region called Waegwan but it was not for permanent residents. By the Joseon's policy of good neighbor, Wokou activity is under control and makes peaceful relationship between Korea and Japan. But Japanese try to expand trading scale and to live permanently in Waegwan more so it became a dispute. In 1510, Japanese revel in 3 open ports and suppressed soon by Korean army in 1510. The 3 ports were closed until 1512. Before Japanese invasion at 1592, only one port at Jaepo was opened for official trading.
Activities and Birth of Japan Past
Japan to 794
People have been living on the islands east of the Korean peninsula for a hundred thousand years. Pottery was used there more than ten thousand years ago. Agriculture and the use of bronze and iron arrived on the island of Kyushu with immigrants from China and Korea in the third century BC. This culture soon spread to the central Kanto plain on the largest island Honshu, and rice supplemented fish as the main food. By the third century CE an aristocratic culture similar to that of Korea was interring their leaders in huge tombs. These horse-riding warriors wore armor, helmets, and used iron swords as well as iron plow-tips. Japanese chronicles claim that human sacrifice ended about 3 CE, but Chinese records of 247 CE mention the Japanese custom; animal sacrifices, usually oxen, lasted until the 7th century. Social differences were indicated by tattooing and body markings. The Chinese history of the Wei dynasty recorded in 297 CE that about a hundred Japanese tribes were ruled by hereditary kings and queens. Wars over royal succession were common.
Shinto religion worshipped spirits (kami) in diverse forms; after the country was unified, the emperor or empress was considered a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu. The Japanese were particularly concerned about pollution and dirtiness, emphasizing cleanliness and ritual purity. Their word tsumi for sin or offense derives from covering up or concealing, and shame was more prominent in their consciousness than guilt. According to the Kojiki the divine Izanagi and his wife Izanami produced the first offspring, but the first ones were badly made. The heavenly deities decided that was because the woman spoke first. The ritual was repeated with the man speaking first, and the offspring were all well made. Many deities were created with Amaterasu ruling heaven, Tsukiyomi night, and Susano-o the ocean. The second book of the Kojiki describes how Emperor Jimmu extended his sovereignty over Japan from Yamato to Kyushu. In this source of patriotism an oracle indicates that it is Amaterasu's will that Japan subjugate the land to the west (Korea), and Empress Jingu leads a swift conquest. Korean scholars were sent to Japan in the fourth century by the king of Paekche, but Japanese military assistance requested against the kingdom of Silla in 391 arrived too late to save Paekche. Japanese Wa people formed the colony of Mimana in the kingdom of Kaya in the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula; but their campaign to defend it was held up by Kyushu chief Iwai in 527, because he was in league with the Korean Silla kingdom. Iwai was defeated, as the Japanese allied themselves with Paekche against Silla. In 538 the king of Paekche sent to the Japanese court at Yamato a bronze statue of the Buddha with scriptures and a letter praising the new religion. The Nakatomi, steeped in native Shinto ritual, and the Mononobe clan of warriors opposed Buddhism; but it was supported by their rival Soga clan, who advocated opposing Silla. The Soga were allowed to practice the new religion, but the image was thrown into a canal during an epidemic. The Silla drove the Japanese off the mainland in 562. Soga Umako built a chapel for his Buddhist experiments with Korean monks and nuns in 570. A succession battle in 585 resulted in Buddhist proponent Yomei becoming emperor, but he died two years later. Umako gathered enough forces to annihilate the Mononobe family at the battle of Shigisen, and Buddhism began to flourish under Emperor Sujun (r. 588-92) and the Soga empress Suiko (r. 593-628).
Umako nominated Prince Shotoku (574-622) as heir to the throne. As regent Shotoku attempted to apply Buddhist and Confucian ethics to government. He did not indict the known murderer of the previous emperor but tried to persuade him of his wrong. In 603 this prince devised a system of twelve court ranks distinguished by caps of different colors based on Korean models; the ranks in order were named after six Confucian values, greater and lesser: virtue, humanity, propriety, integrity, justice, and knowledge. The next year it was said Shotoku wrote the "Seventeen Article Constitution," although scholars believe the document was written later. Its ethical policies may be summarized as follows:
1. "Harmony is to be valued and an avoidance of wanton opposition to be honored."2. "Sincerely reverence the three treasures-Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood."3. Scrupulously obey imperial commands.4. Ministers and functionaries should make propriety their leading principle.5. Abandoning gluttony and covetous desires, deal impartially with suits.6. Chastise the evil, and encourage the good. Do not conceal the good qualities of others, nor fail to correct wrongs.7. Find the right man for each job. Unprincipled men in office multiply disasters.8. "Let the ministers and functionaries attend the court early in the morning and retire late."9. "Good faith is the foundation of right."10. "Let us cease from wrath and refrain from angry looks, nor let us be resentful when others differ from us."11. "Give clear appreciation to merit and demerit, and deal out to each its sure reward or punishment."12. Do not let provincial authorities tax the people, for the sovereign is the master of all the people in the country.13. "Let all persons entrusted with office attend equally to their functions."14. "Be not envious."15. Do not let private motives and feelings interfere with the public interest.16. "Let the people be employed at seasonable times," not when they are busy with agriculture for food or mulberry trees for clothing.17. Important decisions should not be made by one person but in consultation with others.
The Chinese calendar was adopted in 604. Shotoku sent three missions to the Sui court, but the Chinese emperor disdained to recognize the "emperor of the east" as equivalent. In 624 Japan had 46 Buddhist temples with 816 monks and 569 nuns. After Prince Shotoku died, the Soga clan's power grew more tyrannical as Umako's son Yemishi and his son Iruka treacherously wiped out Yamashiro Oye and his family. Prince Naka Oye got revenge when assassins murdered Iruka at court in front of the empress he had enthroned; Yemishi and his adherents fled, and many were killed. The next day Empress Kogyoku abdicated; as Kotoku (r. 645-55) became emperor, Naka Oye was named crown prince. The Soga Kurayamada, who had joined the plot, was named great minister, and Naka Oye married Kurayamada's daughter; thus the Soga clan that had dominated ceremonial emperors and empresses for the previous half century was greatly weakened. Nakatomi Kamatari (614-69), who founded the Fujiwara clan, assisted the takeover and devised the great reforms in the reigns of Kotoku, Kogyoku again as Empress Saimei (r. 655-61), and Naka Oye as Tenchi (r. 661-71). The four articles of the Great Reform of 646 increased imperial control by abolishing private ownership of land, appointing provincial and district governors, registering people in order to distribute land to cultivators equally, and replacing old taxes and forced labor with an imperial tax system. Though modified by Japanese customs, these reforms were based on successful Tang dynasty practices of the Chinese. Large landowners were made provincial governors, while landed gentry became district supervisors appointing secretaries, accountants, and tax collectors; but weapons were collected and put in government storehouses.
In 660 Paekche asked for Japan's help against Chinese forces and Silla; but after their army was defeated three years later, Japan withdrew from Korea and exchanged ambassadors with the Tang court. A civil war after Tenchi died was probably stimulated by nobles resenting the reforms; Tenchi's son was killed, but his younger brother became Emperor Temmu (r. 673-86). Temmu promoted Buddhism influenced by ideals from the Golden Light Sutra such as the following:
Know ye, Deva Kings, that the 84,000 rulers of the 84,000 cities, towns and villages of the world shall each enjoy happiness of every sort in his own land; that they shall all possess freedom of action and obtain all manner of precious things in abundance; that they shall never again invade each other's territories; that they shall receive recompense in accordance with their deeds of previous existences; that they shall no longer yield to the evil desire of taking the lands of others; that they shall learn that the smaller their desires the greater the blessing; and they shall emancipate themselves from the suffering of warfare and bondage. The people of their lands shall be joyous, and upper and lower classes will blend as smoothly as milk and water. They shall appreciate each other's feelings, join happily in diversions together, and with all compassion and modesty increase the sources of goodness.
Adjustments to laws that followed the Tang went on for forty years and were promulgated in the Taiho code of 702. The few officials of the third rank or above were not to be punished even if they committed a serious crime. Japan maintained an imperial theocracy by keeping the emperor's department of worship over the council of state; they considered the hereditary emperor more important than the mandate of heaven, and birth still counted more than ability in Japan. The policy that clan status must be considered as well as the service record in promotion was made law in 682. Empress Jito (r. 686-97) selected Fujiwara for the new capital. Japan now had 66 provinces with 592 districts, which were made up of townships of fifty households each. By the year 692 the number of Buddhist monasteries and shrines had increased to 545. The rice land was divided equally to individuals except that females received only two-thirds as much; slaves, who were less than ten percent of the population, also got two-thirds, female slaves thus getting less than half. Produce was taxed at about five percent, and males were obligated to provide labor or military service. How well this land reform was implemented is questionable. In a 711 law those who could afford the expense were allowed to bring new land into cultivation, and twelve years later they could pass it on to the third generation; in 743 title to such lands was granted in perpetuity, and it could be sold. Land allotments gradually faded away by the end of the 9th century. Buddhist institutions also increased their land, as pious believers, including emperors, made donations. Powerful individuals and institutions managed to get tax exemptions. Government authorities, attempting to raise money, were subject to bribery. Military service was a burden on peasants that could ruin a family, because the men also had to supply their own equipment and sustenance, while the upper classes often were able to evade being drafted. Rural settlers for protection often turned to rich nobles, many of whom lived in the capital.
The capital was moved to Heijo (Nara) in 710, and in the 8th century nine official embassies were sent from there to the Tang court. The ancient records of the Kojiki appeared in 712. In the preface O Yasumaro suggested that by contemplating antiquity manners that had fallen into ruin could be corrected, and laws approaching dissolution could be illumined. The Nihongi chronicles were published in 720. The Taiho law code was revised in 718 to account for native customs. Japan used conscripted armies to subjugate the Edo in the north and the Hayato in southern Kyushu. Emperor Shomu (r. 724-49) presided over an impressive building campaign of Buddhist temples, abdicating to become a priest. A smallpox epidemic (735-37) carried away about a third of the population and all four prominent Fujiwara brothers. In 736 the Kegon sect based on Huayen Buddhism from China was introduced, and five years later the imperial government endowed a Kegon temple in every province. In 740 the government used 17,000 troops to quell a rebellion led by Fujiwara Hirotsugu, who had resented being posted to Dazaifu in Kyushu and was executed. The 53-foot high Rushana (Vairocana) Buddha took five years to build, used three million pounds of copper, tin, and lead, was gilded with 500 pounds of gold, and "opened its eyes" in 752. Copper had been discovered in 708 and gold in 749. Many of the nobility became Buddhist priests.
Fujiwara Nakamaro (known as Minister Oshikatsu) headed off a coup attempt by executing former crown prince Funado and exiling his own older brother Toyonari to Dazaifu. To win popular support Oshikatsu reduced taxes and the farmers' work for the government from sixty to thirty days. He also planned a line of forts in the north and an immense campaign of 500 ships and 40,000 men against Korea; but the latter caused resentment and was abandoned with his death. A civil conflict in 764 resulted in the capture and execution of Oshikatsu when Empress Koken (r. 749-58) regained the throne as Empress Shotoku. She made her lover, the Buddhist priest Dokyo, great minister and the real power until she died in 770. Then court officials banished Dokyo after he tried to take the throne himself. After the reign (770-81) of Tenchi's grandson Konin, the council refused to allow a woman on the throne, establishing a precedent. Raids in the north were troublesome until under general Tamuramaro Sakanouye conscripted armies were replaced with local militia in 792.
Heian Era 794-1192
Emperor Kammu (r. 781-806) moved the capital twice, strengthened central administration, and reduced Buddhist building and the size of monasteries while distancing the government from the Buddhist temples at Nara. The second move in 794 to the Kyoto plain began the era called Heian, meaning peace, and Japan was fairly peaceful during much of the Heian era's four centuries. General Tamuramaro led campaigns (800-03) that pushed northern borders to Izawa and Shiba; the title of shogun he was given as supreme general would be greatly prized for centuries. Northern lands exempt from taxes were opened to settlers and attracted pioneers who would produce fierce warriors. In 804 the emperor sent an embassy to China that included Saicho (767-822) and Kukai (774-835).
The next year Saicho (Dengyo Daishi) founded Tendai Buddhism at his monastic center of Enryakuji on Mt. Hiei, where it was considered a protector of the capital. Saicho taught that everyone by practicing moral purity and contemplation can gain enlightenment and become a Buddha. He required Tendai monks to remain in seclusion at his monastery for twelve years. Saicho believed that the wise are obliged when any false doctrines are pointed out even in one's own sect, and he valued truth found in other sects. To maintain a partisan spirit by concealing one's own errors and finding faults in others he considered wrong. Nothing could be more stupid than persisting in one's own false views or trying to destroy the right views of others. However, after some interchange with Kukai, he had to refuse to become one of Kukai's "regular students." Like the Chinese Tiantai, Saicho's Tendai sect emphasized the efficacy of the Lotus Sutra. Kukai's family had opposed the move to the new capital. He studied in a Confucian college, and at 24 he wrote Indications, a dialog between a Confucian, a Daoist, and a Buddhist. The Confucian emphasizes the pleasures of marriage, family, and friendship; the Daoist's goal is to use magic in order to prolong life; and the Buddhist refutes their arguments by showing the impermanence of life, claiming that Mahayana Buddhism is the highest truth. Kukai studied Sanskrit at Chang'an and called his sect the true doctrine after the Sanskrit term Mantrayana, which became Shingon in Japanese. He is credited with using Sanskrit to help invent the Japanese syllabary. In 816 Kukai (Kobo Daishi) founded the Shingon sect of esoteric Buddhism on Mt. Koya. He ranked religions in ten stages as 1) uneducated, 2) Confucian, 3) Hindu and Daoist, 4) direct disciples of Buddha, 5) Hinayana Buddhism, 6) Hosso Buddhism, 7) Sanron Buddhism, 8) Tendai, 9) Kegon, and 10) Shingon. He taught that art is indispensable and reveals perfection. Kukai's emphasis on various arts and esoteric magical methods became quite popular. However, Tendai's third abbot, Ennin, returned from China in 847 and by adding Shingon's magical and esoteric rituals made Tendai the most popular sect in Japan. The Buddhist ethic against killing affected Japanese life by reducing the number of executions and meat eating.
The capital required a police force in 810, and six years later the Kebiishi became official police commissioners. As the Tang dynasty declined, the mission to China in 838 was the last imperial embassy for centuries, though contact continued through trade. The government stopped limiting ordinations in the 9th century, allowing Buddhism unfettered growth. The power of the Fujiwara clan increased by marrying their daughters to emperors and by means of their great wealth and estates in the provinces. Yoshifusa (804-72) was named great minister in 857. The next year when his infant grandson became Emperor Seiwa (r. 858-76), he acted as sessho (regent for a minor) and then became kampaku (regent for an adult or dictator). Fujiwara Mototsune (836-91) served as sessho for Yozei (r. 877-84) and kampaku for Koko (r. 884-87). In this way the Fujiwara clan would dominate the imperial throne for most of the next three centuries, though Emperor Uda (r. 887-97) attempted to break the Fujiwara hold by not appointing a regent when Mototsune died in 891 and by getting Sugawara Michizane appointed minister of the right in 899; but two years later the Fujiwara head Tokihira had Michizane sent into exile as governor of Dazaifu. However, Tokihira made enemies trying to enforce a simpler life at court and to curb the power of the great landowners in the country.
In 914 Confucian scholar and state counselor Miyoshi Kiyotsura criticized the declining public finances, extravagance, and the decaying morals of the ruling class which he blamed on Buddhist and Shinto corruption. He complained that the university had lost the revenues of its rice lands, resulting in starving students and poor education. Tokihira's brother Tadahira revived the regency in 930. That year Taira clan chieftain Masakado began attacking his uncles, and in 935 he defeated Minamoto Mamoru in Hitachi and took control of eight eastern provinces; but after five more years of struggle he claimed to be emperor in a letter to prime minister Tokihira and was defeated at the Shimosa border when his allies failed to support him. At the same time Sumitomo, the former governor of Iyo, raided those shores and others with a thousand small ships. He was defeated in 941 while the Emishi were ravaging the northern province of Dewa. In 954 Sugawara Fumitoki warned the emperor that people were wasting their resources building palaces and monasteries and in acquiring costly clothes and luxuries. He believed that those of high rank should set an example of simplicity, and he criticized the sale of offices and other dishonest conduct. Diaries from this era reveal both indulgence and a very refined and austere social code. Fujiwara Morosuke, who was minister of the right when he died in 960, wrote the Testamentary Admonitions of Kujo-den, recommending a self-disciplined life to his heirs. He urged them to respect others, not allow self-assertion by restraining speech, and not do anything that has no precedent. He enjoined filial piety and believed that paying homage to the Buddha prevented misfortune. He detailed specific ways of taking care of one's person with pride and dignity. At court he advised solemnity, in private humanity and love. If someone committed a wrong, he suggested strictness and forbearance without giving way to anger. Neither should joy be excessive. He recommended giving one-tenth of the income to charity.
The 13th-century history Gukansho considered 898 the end of an era followed by a transition of shaky imperial power until the Fujiwaras took full control in 967 with the appointment of Saneyori as kampaku for Emperor Reizei. The scholar and poet Oye Masahira (952-1012) complained of many disappointments, although he attained the high fourth rank before he died. In 985 his finger was cut off by the sword of the palace guard Fujiwara Nariaki, who was executed because Fujiwara leaders were opposed to violent solutions to problems. Fujiwara Michinaga had immune estates throughout the country and dominated the court from 995 until his death in 1027. Their Kofukuji monastery was so powerful in the Yamato province that the abbot ruled instead of a governor. Michinaga strengthened his position by allying himself with powerful warriors like those of the Minamoto clan. Under the Fujiwaras family connection was of primary importance, and candidates for office had to find a patron by intrigue, flattery, or other compromising behaviors.
Tendai Buddhists had split in 933 when followers of Enchin at odds with the Ennin faction left Mt. Hiei and went to Miidera. Genshin (942-1017) in Essentials of Salvation taught turning away from hell and seeking the pure land of the western paradise by meditating on the name of Amida. Monasteries began recruiting mercenaries, and the first militant demonstration to the court was by Enryakuji monks in 981. By the end of the 11th century all the great Tendai monasteries and several Shinto shrines had standing armies. The Tendai conflict caused Hiei monks to set fire to the Onjoji monastery at Miidera several times starting in 1081. During the last two centuries of the Heian era militant armed monks from Kofukuji in Nara as well as those of Mt. Hiei frequently stormed the capital with their demands, which were usually about land titles or politics. A peaceful government was thus threatened by powerful religious institutions. In 1113 the Kofukuji monastery sent 20,000 armed men against Enryakuji, and in 1165 those Hiei monks burned down the Hosso stronghold at Kiyomizu-dera in Kyoto.
Michinaga was succeeded by Yorimichi, who was kampaku for fifty years. Tadatsune led a Taira revolt in 1028 which attacked Kazusa, provincial capital of Awa; but Minamoto Yorinobu suppressed it three years later when Tadatsune surrendered. Efforts by three emperors in 1032, 1040, and 1056 to restore land laws or to resist Fujiwara claims were generally ignored by local authorities. Abe Yoritoki's unauthorized collection of taxes and confiscation of property in Mutsu province brought about the Nine Years War in 1050 with occasional truces until forces led by Minamoto Yoriyoshi and his son Yoshiiye defeated Yoritoki's son Sadato in 1062. The assisting Kiyowara family took over the Abe estates. A Fujiwara named Kiyohira was adopted into the Kiyowara family, became commander of Mutsu and Dewa, and by his death in 1128 had built up an extensive domain. In the capital Go-Sanjo pursued agrarian reform; but he only reigned four years (1068-72). He revived the Insei system of retired emperors exercising power but died the next year. Yoshiiye was appointed governor of Mutsu in 1083 and put down the Kiyowara family revolt in northern provinces known as the Later Three Years War. After Emperor Shirakawa (r. 1072-86) abdicated, he ruled by Insei (cloister government) as a priest for 43 years until he died in 1129; but he gave up much public land trying to raise money to build monasteries and carve large Buddhist images and for venial extravagance, and the increasing immune estates further weakened the state. Minamoto Yoshiiye's military prestige enabled him to gather so many warriors and so much land that the pious Shirakawa, who opposed violence, issued an edict in 1091 forbidding farmers to give their land to Yoshiiye, and his retainers were not allowed to enter the capital with him. Yoshiiye did return to Kyoto, and with his palace guards he was not afraid of sacrilege when putting down militant monks by force, killing several of their leaders on the streets in 1095. Taira military prestige grew after their general Masamori quelled a revolt in 1108 led by banished Minamoto Yoshichika in Izumo. Masamori governed nine provinces in succession, as did his son Tadamori, who was commissioned to suppress pirates by Emperor Sutoku in 1135.
Shirakawa's cloister rule was continued by his grandson Toba from 1129 until he died in 1156. Then a conflict between retired emperor Sutoku and reigning emperor Go-Shirakawa divided two Fujiwara brothers and members of the powerful Minamoto and Taira clans. Those supporting Go-Shirakawa led by Taira Tadamori's son Kiyomori were victorious over warriors led by Minamoto Tameyoshi. When Minamoto Yoshitomo was ordered to kill his father Tameyoshi, he refused. A Minamoto officer did the deed and then killed himself. About fifty of Sutoku's supporters were executed. Go-Shirakawa abdicated in 1158 in order to rule from a Buddhist cloister. While Kiyomori was on a pilgrimage, Yoshitomo and Nobuyori tried to seize power; but they were defeated by Kiyomori, and Yoshitomo was killed in 1160. Kiyomori married his daughter to Fujiwara Motozane, who served as regent 1158-66. His successor as regent, Motofusa, clashed with Kiyomori's son Shigemori in 1170, while Kiyomori ruled for the cloistered Go-Shirakawa. Kiyomori appointed sixteen of his relatives to high rank at court and thirty to mid-level positions, sending 42 court officials into exile; he also ordered the Inland Sea route repaired and encouraged trade with Song China.
In 1177 Kiyomori persuaded Go-Shirakawa not to attack the Tendai monastery after their monks rescued Miyoun, whom he had arrested. That year a great fire in Kyoto destroyed most of the public buildings and colleges with many books. The next year Kiyomori's daughter, the empress, gave birth to a son who became Emperor Antoku; but Kiyomori's dictatorial ways aroused the Shishigatani conspiracy of Fujiwaras that was revealed by a spy and suppressed. Many believed that executing the monk Saiko brought ghostly vengeance on the Taira house. Kiyomori had moved to Fukuwara; but when Go-Shirakawa confiscated property of Kiyomori's son Shigemori and his daughter Mori-ko when they died in 1179, he marched on the capital with several thousand men. Emperor Takakura abdicated and was succeeded by the infant Antoku. Minamoto Yorimasa appealed for support from the east and north, and for five years the Minamoto and Taira clans fought the Gempei civil war won by the Minamotos. Kiyomori died of disease in 1181 after having attacked and burned the Todaiji and Kofukuji monasteries.
After an initial defeat at Ishibashiyama, Yoritomo rallied Minamoto forces, and Taira Hirotsune supported him with 20,000 men. With these forces from the east Yoritomo won the battle at Fujikawa and pursued the Taira army to the west. The forces of Yoritomo's nephew Yoshinaka entered the capital in 1183, while Yoritomo established his military headquarters (bakufu) at Kamakura in the Kanto plain. Confiscation of estates and plundering soldiers caused cloistered emperor Go-Shirakawa to appeal to Yoritomo, who sent his brothers Yoshitsune and Noriyori to attack Yoshinaka, defeating and killing him. The tactics of Yoshitsune and Noriyori defeated the Taisha at Inchinotani and Yashima; then they completed their triumph in the naval battle at Dannoura in 1185 during which Emperor Antoku was drowned. Yoritomo was irritated by awards that Go-Shirakawa gave to Yoshitsune; hearing rumors of Yoshitsune revolting with Yukiiye, Yoritomo sent a band of assassins, who were defeated at the capital by Yoshitsune. Go-Shirakawa authorized Yoshitsune and Yukiiye to fight against Yoritomo; but the latter with a large force got him to reverse himself completely with an edict for Yoritomo to punish the two who had fled. Then at court Yoritomo was given the important authority to collect taxes on private and public estates and to appoint stewards (jito) and protectors (shugo), which became hereditary. The child emperor Antoku had been replaced by four-year-old Go-Toba (r. 1184-98), who served as cloistered emperor until banished in 1221. Yoshitsune retreated to the north, where the old lord of Mutsu, Hidehira, had built the lavish Chusonji monastery at Hiraizumi. In 1189 Yoritomo ordered Hidehira's successor Yasuhira to arrest Yoshitsune, who when attacked committed suicide instead of surrendering. Then Yoritomo's army of more than 100,000 men overwhelmed Yasuhira's forces in Dewa, completing his conquest of Japan. Only after Go-Shirakawa died in 1192 was Yoritomo appointed shogun. Undisputed ruler, he made Kamakura his capital. The Heian era that had begun so peacefully ended in civil war and with the establishment of a militaristic feudal system.
Murasaki's Tale of Genji
Japanese literature began with the importation of Chinese writing and developed also emphasizing short poems with natural metaphors, historical chronicles and creating folk origins of place names called fudoki. Poems expressing feelings about nature and love were collected beginning in the 8th century. From 905 to 1439 the imperial government published 21 anthologies of poetry. Early in the 10th century the "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" emerged from folklore, and Murasaki Shikibu called it the ancestor of all romances. A bamboo cutter finds a tiny baby he raises as his daughter. The beautiful Kaguya-hime disdains marriage and requires five nearly impossible tasks of her five suitors. The first two are caught cheating, and the other three fail to achieve the mythic challenges. Finally Kaguya-hime even refuses the emperor, and having completed her punishment on earth she ascends back to her heavenly moon world. Sei Shonagon wrote her Pillow Book while serving as a lady-in-waiting for Empress Sadako during the last decade of the 10th century; Murasaki Shikibu soon was serving in the court of a second empress Shoshi. Murasaki was likely influenced by the Pillow Book, and in her diary she called Sei Shonagon self-satisfied and gifted but prone to give free rein to her emotions in inappropriate situations. The Pillow Book is an extraordinarily frank diary of Sei's experiences at court and her feelings about them. She described the manners and attitudes that annoyed her sensitivity and recounted numerous incidents that amused her. For example, she was quite concerned about the manner in which a lover would dress and leave her apartment in the middle of the night. She thought it shameful for a man to seduce a helpless court lady and then abandon her after making her pregnant. As people who seem to suffer she mentioned the nurse looking after a crying baby at night, a man with two mistresses witnessing their jealousy, an exorcist trying to deal with an obstinate spirit, powerful men who never seem to be at ease, and nervous people. She considered sympathy the most splendid quality, especially when it was found in men. She thought it unattractive and absurd of people to get angry when someone gossips about them. She wrote her book in secret for her own amusement and never expected it to become public, which she regretted even though it won praise.
Lady Murasaki Shikibu was born about 973. Her father Tametoki was in the Fujiwara clan and became governor of Echizen about 996 and later of Echigo; in 1016 he retired from government and became a Buddhist priest, outliving his daughter Murasaki. She learned Chinese quickly while helping her brother with his lessons; but finding that scholarship made her unpopular, she hid her writing. In 998 she married a Fujiwara kinsman of the imperial guard named Nobutaka, and she had two daughters, one of whom wrote the novel Tale of Sagoromo. Her husband Nobutaka died in 1001. About four years later she entered the service of Michinaga's daughter, Empress Akiko (Shoshi). Murasaki described her majesty as innocent and impeccable, as she gathered worthy young ladies around her. She asked Murasaki to teach her Chinese secretly because this was considered too strenuous for women. At court Murasaki felt painfully inferior and kept things to herself. She was afraid that by gradually parting with scruples she would eventually come to believe that shamelessness was perfectly natural. Although she was thought to be an ill-natured prig by others, Murasaki herself believed that when someone got to know her, they would realize she is kind and gentle. Murasaki Shikibu also wrote a diary that describes the birth of Empress Shoshi's first child, Prince Atsuhira, discusses life at court in a letter to a friend, and collects anecdotes of court life. In it she wrote that those who do evil deserve to be talked about and laughed at even though sometimes they do it unintentionally. She went on:
We ought to love even those who hate us, but it is very difficult to do. Even the Buddha of profound mercy does not say that the sins against Buddha, the laws of religion, and priests, are slight. Moreover, in this muddy world it is best to let alone the persons who hate us.
Murasaki began writing The Tale of Genji shortly after her husband died and finished it sometime between 1004 and 1022. The novel is set in the early 10th century and comes up to her own lifetime.
Genji is the Minamoto clan name of a commoner who is given to the emperor's son by a concubine because a Korean physiognomist predicted that if he ruled, there would be disaster. As with the author, his mother dies when he is young. Genji falls in love with his step-mother Fujitsubo because she resembles his mother. Of all the women with whom Genji is intimate, he gets along least well with his older wife Aoi; but she bears him the son Yugiri. Being handsome, accomplished, and of the royal family, Genji is able to have just about any woman he cares to love. Among his illicit affairs Genji's long relationship with the jealous Rokujo leads to her spirit causing Yugao to die strangely in a deserted place; only Genji's friends and retainers helped him avoid a scandal. Recovering from an illness he meets the ten-year-old Murasaki, who somehow moves him deeply. He is able to persuade her relatives that his intentions are honorable, and he takes her to live with him in the palace. Fujitsubo also gives birth to his son, but the Emperor accepts the future emperor Reizei as his because of the family resemblance. Rokujo's jealous spirit possesses his wife Aoi, causing her to die in childbirth. In despair Genji turns to the innocent Murasaki for affection, and they are married. Even after she dies, Rokujo's ghost still torments Murasaki. When Emperor Suzaku retires to a monastery, Genji marries his third daughter. Even though he loves Murasaki best, she resents Genji's alliance with the Lady of Akashi during his exile and the status of the third princess. Kashiwagi, the son of Genji's friend To Chujo, falls in love with the third princess, and she bears him Kaoru. Murasaki wants to become a nun, but she becomes ill and dies. Kashiwagi is tormented that Genji knows his secret. In the last part of the novel the idealized Genji has died, and the world of Kashiwagi's son Kaoru and Genji's grandson Niou seems to have degenerated. Niou is handsome but not as sensitive, while Kaoru has the sensitivity but cannot win the two women he loves. They compete for the love of Ukifune, who cannot choose between them and attempts suicide.
Murasaki Shikibu's writing is subtle, sensitive, and very descriptive of the courtly life, manners, and customs of this era. The following passage gives an idea of the self-discipline and her style: But even if a man's fancy should chance indeed to have gone somewhere astray, yet his earlier affection may still be strong and in the end will return to its old haunts. Now by her tantrums she has made a rift that cannot be joined. Whereas she who when some small wrong calls for silent rebuke, shows by a glance that she is not unaware; but when some large offense demands admonishment knows how to hint without severity ,will end by standing in her master's affections better than ever she stood before. For often the sight of our own forbearance will give our neighbor strength to rule his mutinous affections.
Feudal Era 1192-1333
Ill advised by Kagetoki, Shogun Yoritomo had his half-brother Noriyori killed in 1193 for suspected conspiracy, and the next year he ordered the execution of the entire family of Yasuda Yoshisada, even though they had supported the Minamoto in the war. Yoritomo had established a Board of Retainers (Samurai-dokoro) as early as 1180 to assign military duties and decide on rewards and punishments. The Administrative Board (Mandokoro) of the military government (bakufu) at Kamakura was named in 1191 for central policy, and the Board of Inquiry (Monchujo) was made the final court of appeal. Yoritomo contributed to the rebuilding of the Todaiji monastery and other Buddhist projects. While Yoritomo was at Kamakura, Minamoto Michichika at Kyoto replaced the Fujiwara Kanezane and in 1198 appointed Tsuchimikado emperor; before he could react, Yoritomo died the next year.
Yoritomo's son Yoriiye was made shogun in 1202, and the next year the director (shikken) of the Mandokoro was succeeded by Hojo Tokimasa of the Taira clan; thereafter until 1333 that chief political office remained in the Hojo family. Yoriiye became ill and ordered Tokimasa killed; when that failed, Yoriiye abdicated and was murdered the next year, probably by a Hojo assassin. His eleven-year-old brother Sanemoto was made shogun, and Tokimasa became his regent. The next year deputy shogun Hiraga put down an uprising of the Taira clan's Ise family. In 1205 a conspiracy of Tokimasa's wife Makiko was squelched by Yoritomo's widow Masako and her brother Hojo Yoshitoki; Hiraga was killed, and Tokimasa was forced to retire. Yoshitoki became regent for the shogun. More factional strife in 1213 resulted in Wada Yoshimori being killed and replaced as head of the Samurai-dokoro by Yoshitoki. In 1219 after attending a ceremony at the shrine of the Shinto war-god Hachiman, Shogun Sanemoto suddenly had his head cut off by the sword of an assassin.
The famous Tale of the Heike is a long prose epic that concentrates on the political events from 1177 to 1185. According to Yoshida Kenko, it was written by the priest Yukinaga, who probably adapted it from the Gempei Seisuiki. It begins with philosophical reflections on how ambitions and violence do not last. The bell of the Gion Temple tolls into every man's heartto warn him that all is vanity and evanescence. The faded flowers of the sala trees by the Buddha's death-bed bear witness to the truth that all who flourish are destined to decay. Yes, pride must have a fall, for it is as unsubstantial as a dream on a spring night. The brave and violent man-he too must die away in the end, like a whirl of dust in the wind. Kamo Chomei wrote The Ten-Foot Square Hut (Hojoki) in 1212. After his petition to succeed his father as the warden of the Kamo shrine in Kyoto was rejected, Chomei retired in the mountains. His little book begins by suggesting that human life is always changing like a flowing river. He described the great fire that burned down a third of Kyoto in 1177. When the capital was moved, he noted that the prevalence of the military portended civil disturbance. He reported how the famine of 1181 was followed by pestilence, and the great earthquake of 1185 had after-shocks for three months. He observed that people with influence were greedy for power while those without it were despised. After inheriting an estate, Chomei constructed a small building that was like a cart-shed and lived there alone for thirty years. Separated from society, he found it easier to follow the Buddhist commandments. He found that the best servant is one's own body, and not using the labor of others he did not have to worry about causing trouble or bad karma. Having less food gave him a better appetite. He became attached to his thatched hut and wondered if his solitary life might be a hindrance to enlightenment.In 1221 cloistered Emperor Go-Toba tried to take power with the help of disappointed warriors, aggrieved landowners, and bitter Taira survivors in eastern Japan by declaring Hojo Yoshitoki an outlaw; but two large armies and cavalry led by Yoshitoki's son Yasutoki smothered the resistance and occupied the imperial city with about 100,000 men. The Bakufu ordered Yasutoki to banish Go-Toba and execute the four generals and other leaders of the revolt. The extensive properties confiscated were assigned to vassals as stewards. Minor uprisings were put down after Yoshitoki died in 1224 and was succeeded by Yasutoki. Bakufu courts settled claims, as land was surveyed and distributed. Complaints of autocratic rule by stewards led to measures that moderated their excesses. In 1226 Yasutoki established a state council (Hyojoshu) to advise him and make decisions for the new shogun, eight-year-old Mitora. For the next century Hojo regents would rule the Bakufu by repeatedly appointing very young shoguns. When a Korean envoy protested piratical raids in 1227, Yasutoki maintained a good relationship with Korea by ordering the pirates arrested and put to death. Meanwhile drought, famine, disease, earthquakes, floods, and frosts devastated the country. In 1230 a moratorium on debts and obligations was proclaimed, and the next year tax rice was distributed to the poor. Feudal law was established in 1232 with the Joei Formulary that defined land rights and other laws. To prevent vendettas, abusive language and assault were to be severely punished. Women could own land and retain after a divorce what they had before marriage. This law code aimed at "impartial verdicts without discrimination between high and low."5 Armed strife broke out in 1235 between the priests of the Iwashimuzu Hachiman shrine and the Kofukuji monks and between these monks and the mountain Hiyeizan monks, but the Bakufu managed to settle things by the end of 1237. For several decades Japan had a unified state and the rule of law. By the 13th century the old slavery no longer existed except for a few female servants.
Yasutoki died in 1242 and was succeeded by his grandson Tsunetoki, who died four years later and was replaced by his brother Tokiyori. His grandfather Adachi Kagemori, an old warrior turned monk, urged the Hojo forces with Adachi warriors to attack the conspiring Miura clan, resulting in the suicide of 500 Miura warriors in 1247. The ceremonial role of the shogun was reinforced in 1252 when the ten-year-old prince Munetaka was appointed, while his younger brother was serving as emperor. Along with copper coins to improve the money economy, Japan was importing from China luxury goods such as silk, brocades, perfumes, incense, sandalwood, porcelain, and books, while exporting gold, mercury, fans, lacquer ware, screens, swords, and timber. "Family Instructions" were written by Hojo Shigetoki for his son Nagatoki, who at 18 in 1247 was made deputy shogun. Shigetoki believed in the warrior code of ethics; but he noted that to rule, warriors need not only courage but also understanding of their duties and of principles, such as revering gods and buddhas, obeying one's lord and parents, understanding the law of cause and effect (karma, or in Japanese inga), considering the results for future generations, being careful in relationships, generous, firm and not cowardly, practicing military arts, while being just to all and sympathetic to the poor and weak. Shigetoki reminded his son that the key to discipline is fair treatment in rewards and punishments. One should never act in anger but let someone else administer the punishment; hasty decisions can lead to remorse. Any excess is disadvantageous, if not in this life, then in a future one. A good heart and the moral duty of the warrior are like two wheels of a carriage. Hold to the good even at the cost of one's family, not yielding to the strong. He recommended meeting enmity with kindness and returning good for evil. This may help the bad to reform; even if it does not, one will be rewarded in one's next existence. Shigetoki believed that women could become enlightened and would enter paradise.
Buddhist Honen (1133-1212) suggested chanting the nembutsu exclusively as the way to salvation in 1175, founding the Jodo sect (Pure Land) of Buddhism that grew quickly after the Gempei War ended in 1185. Criticized by established sects, Honen tried to control his followers by issuing in 1204 the Seven-Article Injunction in which he warned that those saying the nembutsu should not encourage sexual indulgence, drinking, or eating meat. Three years later he refused to give up his faith in Amida to avoid exile. The year Honen died Kamo Chomei (1153-1216) wrote "An Account of My Hut" in which he contrasted the miseries caused by the fire of 1177, the typhoon of 1181, the famine the next year, and the earthquake of 1185 with joys of the simple life he chose in a ten-foot square hut.
Eisai (1141-1215) founded Rinzai Zen Buddhism after receiving transmission from the eighth Linji Chan patriarch of China. Eisai returned to Japan in 1191, but his teaching of Zen was prohibited by the court three years later. He wrote The Propagation of Zen as a Defense of the Nation and Drink Tea and Prolong Life. Zen schools concentrated on intuitive experience through meditation, koan study, and the arts of everyday living rather than books, beliefs, and repetitive prayers. The Rinzai placed more emphasis on the transrational understanding of paradoxes in koan stories and problems. In China Mumon Ekai (1183-1260) compiled 48 koans in 1229 to guide monks toward awakening (satori). This Gateless Gate (Mumonkan) was brought back to Japan by Muhon Kakushin (1207-98). Dogen (1200-53) studied with Eisai and imported the Soto sect from China in 1227. Dogen taught that enlightenment can be attained by sitting in meditation (zazen). He irritated Mt. Hiei's clerics as he tried to separate Zen from their political intrigues. He wrote The Significance of the Right Dharma for the Protection of the Nation to argue that Zen meditation was the true Buddhism for Japan. Dogen criticized traditional Buddhists for discriminating against women, and he believed that women should be equal to men in regard to practice and attaining enlightenment. Shinran (1173-1262) was married and had seven children. He disdained removing his outer robe when eating fish or fowl. Speaking for the Bodhisattva Kannon he wrote the following poem:
When karmic retribution leads the practitioner to violate the precepts of chastity, I will assume the body of a maiden and be the object of that violation. Having adorned his present life, at the time of his death I will guide him to rebirth in the Pure Land of Utmost Bliss.
Shinran joined Honen's band in 1201 and went even farther than his master by noting that the wicked might be more acceptable to Amida than the good because they throw themselves entirely on the mercy of the Buddha. He felt that one sincere invocation is enough and that additional repetitions were giving thanks to Amida.
Since his father killed life in his work as a fisherman, Nichiren (1222-82) was considered an outcast. While people suffered earthquakes, drought, typhoons, famine, and epidemics, he attacked Pure Land and Zen teachings, expounding the Lotus Sutra as the only truth. His Treatise on the Establishment of the True Dharma and the Peace of the Nation was published in 1260. Nembutsu followers in Kamakura attacked Nichiren's hermitage and got the shogun to banish him to Izu the next year. He noted that the Lotus Sutra predicted persecution during a period of dharma decay. Nichiren emphasized one's own efforts in chanting "Namu myoho renge kyo," the name of the Lotus Sutra. He challenged orthodox ideas by stating that good works were not needed for a fortunate rebirth nor did evil deeds obstruct it. He believed evil could be removed by chanting. Nichiren taught human equality and doing away with all class differences. Prophesying the invasion of the Mongols and demanding the suppression of all other Buddhists sects, especially Amida worshipers, Nichiren was sentenced to death for censuring the Hojo regency in Nakamura; but it was said that he was saved when lightning struck the executioner's blade. His preaching and the validation of his prophecy with the Mongol invasion persuaded many followers.
Mongol ruler Khubilai Khan in 1266 began sending envoys from Beijing asking Japan to submit or face invasion, but they were ignored. In 1274 about 15,000 Mongol and Chinese troops with 8,000 Korean troops and 7,000 Korean sailors slaughtered defenders on the islands of Tsushima and Iki and then invaded Kyushu. After a battle with Japanese warriors, the Koreans urged the Mongols to retreat because of a storm, which caused many losses. Further diplomatic demands resulted in regent Tokimune twice executing Mongol envoys. Kyushu retainers (samurai) spent five years building a wall around Hakata Bay. In 1281 about 100,000 or more Mongols, Chinese, and Koreans invaded again; but a seasonal typhoon helped the samurai defeat them by destroying much of their fleet. Many Japanese believed that the prayers of the nation had been answered by the "divine winds" (kamikaze). The nation under the Bakufu government suffered great economic hardship because of the continuing war preparations. Soldiers expecting compensation for their efforts were usually disappointed.
Tokimune died in 1284, and his son Sadatoki who succeeded him as regent was only 14. The next year many in the Adachi family were destroyed by Taira Yoritsune for plotting to make their head Yasumori shogun, but eight years later Yoritsune and his main followers were killed too. When Khubilai Khan died in 1294, the Bakufu decreed that no more rewards for war service would be given. Between 1272 and 1318 the Kamakura Bakufu attempted to mediate competing imperial lines by appointing alternating emperors in Kyoto. In 1297 another Act of Grace tried to prevent the financial ruin of many by canceling debts; but the economic panic caused them to revoke it the next year. Between 1272 and 1318 the Kamakura Bakufu attempted to mediate competing imperial lines by appointing alternating emperors in Kyoto. Sadatoki retired in 1301 but continued to rule until he died in 1311. His son Takatoki was only eight, and intrigues dominated the regency for five years until he was formally installed; but even then many vassals no longer respected the Hojo regency. In 1318 Go-Daigo was appointed emperor at the mature age of thirty, and three years later he ended the tradition of powerful retired emperors when his father Go-Uda resigned. In 1324 a conspiracy to overthrow the eastern Bakufu regime was discovered; but Go-Daigo stated he had no knowledge of it. The next year the Emperor sent the first official embassy to China in nearly five centuries led by Zen teacher Muso Soseki (1275-1351). In 1331 Go-Daigo's plans to take over the government were treacherously revealed by his advisor Fujiwara Sadafusa. Go-Daigo's son Morinaga, serving as abbot at the Hiyeizan monastery, learned of a Bakufu expedition to the west; but Go-Daigo's flight to two monasteries did not prevent his capture. The warrior Kusunoki escaped and organized raids against Hojo forces, while Morinaga from the Yoshino mountains sent out appeals to warriors. At Kyoto conspirators were punished, and Go-Daigo was banished to the island of Oki. In 1333 Go-Daigo returned from exile; but when Ashikaga Takauji was sent against him with a large army, he defected to the imperial cause and attacked the Hojo's Rokuhara garrison in Kyoto. Disaffected warriors in the east led by Nitta Yoshisada quickly raised an army and attacked Kamakura; Takatoki ordered Bakufu buildings burned and withdrew with several hundred men to the Toshoji monastery, where they all committed suicide. The Kyushu ruler Hojo Hidetoki was taken and killed, completing the end of Bakufu rule. Yoshida Kenko (1283-1350) wrote his Essays in Idleness (Tsurezuregusa) in the early 1330s. He had served the Retired Emperor Go-Uda, and after his death entered a Buddhist order in 1324. Kenko participated in the quarterly poetry meetings that began in Go-Daigo's palace in 1346. Kenko wrote down his thoughts in short essays. He considered the uncertainty of life most precious, and he advised guarding against the delusions of the senses that stimulate desires. His greatest pleasure was to read and make friends with people from the past. He found expert knowledge in any art noble and a guide in even trivial matters useful. He rejected the common superstition of unlucky days, believing that good or bad fortune is determined by humans. He agreed with the saying of a priest that when one is in doubt about doing something, it is better not to act. He believed that the most desirable friends are those who give you things, doctors, and the wise. Wisdom is knowing your own capacity and when to stop. Kenko suggested that crime could be reduced by making sure that no one was hungry or cold. People could be helped if those with luxuries protected people and encouraged agriculture. The real crimes are committed by those who have a normal share of food and clothing. He noted that as much as the young are better looking, the old are wiser. Kenko recommended giving up desires and ambitions in order to follow the Way to lasting peace.
Feudal Era 1333-1465
Emperor Go-Daigo declared a new era in 1333; but in distributing Hojo estates favoritism and bribery caused many deserving applicants to go unrelieved, while the Emperor imposed a five percent income tax in order to build himself a new palace. Disgruntled warriors took matters into their own hands. Afraid that Morinaga and Yoshisada were organizing against him, Takauji fortified his Kyoto mansion and then arrested Morinaga and sent him to Kamakura, where he was executed by Takauji's brother Tadayoshi when Kamakura was attacked by Hojo Tokiyuki. When the Emperor refused to authorize him as shogun, Takauji nonetheless joined Tadayoshi in defeating and killing Tokiyuki. As Takauji was rewarding warriors without imperial consent, Go-Daigo appointed his son Takanaga shogun and sent him and Nitta Yoshisada to suppress the eastern rebels led by Takauji and Tadayoshi. These brothers marched on Kyoto and drove the imperial troops from the capital in February, 1336. That year Takauji issued seventeen articles on good government in the Kemmu Shikimoku. This document held that educated warriors are most able to rule and that they should learn from the early Hojo and emperors of the early 10th century how to rule for the benefit of all. The Bakufu government should redress social evils caused by famine, economic depression, and war devastation. The Kemmu Shikimoku condemned drinking, gambling, and bribery, while enjoining economy, keeping order, basing rewards and punishments on merit, rebuilding with fireproof materials, choosing protectors (shugo) of integrity and discipline, selecting attendants by merit, observing distinctions of rank, rewarding good service, listening to the complaints of the poor, carefully scrutinizing the claims of monasteries, and administering justice firmly and promptly. The Ashikaga Bakufu in Kyoto took over the offices and councils of the Kamakura government, though most decisions were made by the shogun and his officers.
Go-Daigo managed to escape to the mountains of Yoshino where he established the "Southern Court." He died in 1339 but was succeeded as emperor by his son Norinaga (Go-Murakami) while Kitabatake Chikafusa (1293-1354) tried to organize loyalist support for their imperial cause. Worshipping the divine Emperor, Chikafusa sent princes to rule various regions, though he believed that the sovereign had no right to use force against persons who had not committed an offense. Chikafusa wrote the chronicle Jinno Shotoki, giving Japanese history a Shinto perspective from the gods to the continuous line of emperors. In the first sentence he claimed that only Japan is a divine land. He looked back to the Heian period as an ideal state in which an oligarchy governs for a ceremonial emperor. Chikafusa insisted on traditional class distinctions and expected warriors to be subordinate to courtiers. Yoshida Kenko (1283-1350) wrote "Essays in Idleness" after renouncing a court position to become a Buddhist monk. He found the beauty of life in its uncertainty. He applauded the frugal who do not covet the world's goods, and he noted there has rarely been a wealthy sage. He advised those who follow the world to judge moods, because an untimely speech hurts feelings and so fails. Yet both priest and layman should not consider moods in accomplishing what is needed. Yoshida found great pleasure in conversing with unseen generations while quietly reading alone. Japan was changing. Governors were soon replaced with protectors (shugo) or local warlords. For the next six decades the civil war raged between warrior clans throughout Japan, even though Takauji and Tadayoshi planned a stupa at Buddhist chapels in all 66 provinces dedicated to a "country at peace." Zen monk Muso persuaded the Ashikaga government to send a trading expedition to China in 1342 and use the profits to build the Tenryuji monastery, which continued to engage in such trade. Forces led by Ko Moronao and his brother Moroyasu for the Ashikaga Bakufu at Kyoto won a great victory over the loyalists under Masatsura and Chikafusa at Shijo-Nawate in 1348. Yet Moronao's plundering and devastation to force loyalists to submit caused troubles and ill will toward the Bakufu. Chancellor Toin Kinkata described the turbulent warriors in his diary. Many warriors changed sides from selfish interests. Tadayoshi declared allegiance to the Southern Court and proclaimed that Moronao and Moroyasu must be destroyed; the Ko brothers were wounded and were eventually put to death by the son of a man they had murdered.
At Kyoto Tadayoshi was reconciled with his brother Takauji, and he tried to make peace between the courts again in 1351; but renewed sibling conflict resulted in Takauji submitting to the Southern Court, and his brother Tadayoshi eventually surrendered and was poisoned, recompense for his having poisoned young Prince Tsunenaga. The Kyoto capital changed hands several times. Takauji died in 1358 and was replaced by his son Yoshiakira as shogun, that office remaining in the Ashikaga family for the next two centuries. Ten years later the Northern Court's emperor Go-Murakami died, and that year Yoshiakira was replaced by his nine-year-old son Yoshimitsu. Hosokawa Yoriyuki as deputy shogun was guided by the puritanical Kemmu Shikimoku. Prince Kanenaga spent a decade trying to control Kyushu for the loyalists; but in 1370 the Bakufu sent the talented general Imagawa, who took a dozen more years to conquer the island by the time Kanenaga died in 1383. A special tax on arable land imposed in 1371 for the accession ceremony of Go-Enyu was continued and became burdensome to farmers. Many farmers evaded dreaded tax and debt collectors by joining an army.
Shogun Yoshimitsu was occupied putting down warlords; in 1379 he took on a revolt by the Shiba, Toki, and Kyogoku families. In 1390 he destroyed the rebellious shugo of Mino and Owar, and the next year he defeated the Yamana family that controlled eleven provinces in central Japan. In 1392 Yoshimitsu was able to make an agreement with the southern emperor Go-Kameyama, who transferred authority to the northern emperor Go-Komatsu with the understanding the two lines would then alternate. Yoshimitsu retired and built the golden pavilion in Kyoto, where he entertained in splendor. Warlord Ouchi Yoshihiro, who controlled six provinces in the west, was also defeated in 1399. The civil war finally ended, though the agreement to alternate was not kept in 1412 when Go-Komatsu abdicated to his son. While the conflict over emperors was the ostensible reason for the war, hostility between military factions seeking to gain material advantages were probably stronger motives. With warriors off fighting so much of the time, peasant farmers not drafted into an army actually became more independent; as Takauji had decreed that half the income was to go to the military class, this took wealth and power from estate owners and the central government's tax base.
In 1405 Japan promised the Ming government it would suppress piracy in exchange for the Ashikaga Bakufu's monopoly on licensing trade with China. Trade between these countries increased until 1453 when it began to decline. Ashikaga Mochiuji came into conflict with his advisor Uyesugi Ujinori and in 1417 received military aid from the Kyoto Bakufu in putting down the rebellion; but gradually the warriors of the Kanto plain confiscated Ashikaga estates and, as a reward for helping Mochiuji, stopped paying him taxes. Yoshimitsu and his successor Yoshimochi promised Korea they would control Japanese piracy in exchange for a printed copy of the extensive Buddhist scriptures of the Tripitaka, which finally arrived in 1423. A Korean declaration of war four years earlier had stirred alarm; but the situation was resolved, and trade flourished. In 1443 Korea made a trade treaty with the Kyushu deputy to permit fifty Japanese ships each year. Yoshinori was chosen shogun by lot from the sons of Yoshimitsu in 1428. He had been chief abbot of the Tendai Buddhists but took a hard line in suppressing insubordinate warlords and also brutally disciplined courtiers for venial sins, executing sixty persons. In 1439 Yoshinori sided with the Uyesugi against Ashikaga Mochiuji and helped to exterminate the Kanto branch of that house. Yoshinori was murdered in 1441 at a banquet held by General Akamatsu Mitsusuki, who feared loss of land. The Yamana family was charged with punishing him; after killing Mitsusuki and his kin, they took over Akamatsu domains, giving them control of seven provinces.
The Japanese economy was growing, as sole inheritance was abandoned in favor of dividing land among sons. Manufacturing was organized and controlled by guilds (za), providing opportunities for peasants to become traders and artisans. Samurai and farmers formed leagues for mutual defense against oppressive warlords. Several local uprisings occurred in the second half of the 14th century. In 1428 a revolt of teamsters in Omi province soon spread to Kyoto, Nara, and several provinces as mobs attacked moneylenders, pawnshops, and monasteries to destroy records of debt. As wholesale trade expanded, in 1431 dealers withheld rice from the Kyoto market to raise prices, causing distress; they were arrested and convicted but not punished because the deputy governor of the samurai board was in with them. In 1441 farmers in the Kyoto area once again revolted against landlords. The Bakufu capitulated by canceling all debts, not just those of warriors; but markets were disrupted, and trade almost ceased. In 1447 rioters killed four people in the Toji monastery. The seven-year-old Shogun Yoshimasa was appointed in 1443 and allowed the Bakufu government to relax its vigilance. The royal court had become so poor that it could not even maintain the upkeep of its holiest shrine at Ise.
The death of Ashikaga Mochiuji in 1439 ended the governorship of Kanto, and the powerful Uyesugi family controlled Kamakura until Ashikaga Shigeuji was appointed Kanrei in 1449; but when he had his Uyesugi deputy murdered, that family drove Shigeuji out of Kamakura. After a decade of fighting Shogun Yoshimasa sent his younger brother Masatomo to be Kanrei; but the Shigeuji had their own choice so that there were now two deputies of the Shogun in the east. The Uyesugi family split into three factions and fought each other for the next quarter century until the Onin War ended in 1477.
No Plays of Kannami, Zeami, and Zenchiku Japanese No theater grew out of Shinto priestesses dancing and "monkey music" (sangaku) skits introduced from China. The farcical kyogen (wild words) interludes derived from the following passage from the Chinese poet Bo Juyi that was made into a popular song: May the vulgar trade of letters that I have plied in this life, all the folly of wild words and fine phrases, be transformed into a hymn of praise that shall celebrate the Buddha in age on age to come, and cause the great wheel of the law to turn. In the 11th century the peasant songs and dances called dengaku became so disruptive that they were blamed for the riots in 1096. About a century after Chinese theater began flourishing during the Mongol rule in the 13th century, the Japanese No dramas began to be played at court and in the large cities. All roles were usually performed by males. In 1374 Kannami and his Kanza troupe were invited to perform before the young Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in Kyoto. Apparently Yoshimitsu fell in love with Kannami's eleven-year-old son Zeami and brought him up at court while sponsoring the No company of his father. A sequence of five No plays was performed in a day beginning with a religious play followed by a warrior play, a woman play, a "madwoman" piece, and concluding with an auspicious play. The main character (shite) wore a mask and did most of the singing and also danced, while the witness (waki) did much of the explaining. His or her companions (tsure) and children (kokata) also appeared and spoke, but the chorus, remaining anonymous on the sideline, would also sing for the shite or the waki.
An early No play by Komparu Gonnokami in the mid-14th century called The Diver is an example of an auspicious play. The story told is of a dragon spirit who answers the chanting of the Lotus Sutra and dives to find a jewel from the Tang court. The jewel in which the Buddha's image appears is given to her son Fujiwara Fusazaki, who is named after the place. The play celebrates the founding of the powerful Fujiwara line and the bringing of Buddhism from China to Japan. Kannami Kiyotsugu (1333-84) founded the Kanza troupe in Nara and is considered the first No master. His plays, often revised later by his son Zeami, are more realistic and less literary. In Jinen the Priest a girl has sold herself into slavery in order to buy a robe to give to the temple for her dead parents. The priest offers the slave traders the robe in exchange for the girl; but they refuse until he sings and dances for them.
Kannami's Komachi and the Hundred Nights shows the ghosts of Komachi and Shosho telling how she required him to sleep one hundred nights on a bench; but after 99 times he is detained by a death in his family. Then the two lovers refuse the wedding cup of wine, and both enter the Buddhist path. In the more famous play by Kannami, Sotoba Komachi, the old poet Komachi appears herself without Shosho, seeking his spirit for a hundred years. When the monks chide her for sitting on a tree stump sacred to Buddha, she responds with her iconoclastic views. She has little and asks the priests to give her something. Then her voice asks for Komachi, as his spirit takes over her body. Finally she realizes that her unsatisfied love had possessed her, and she prays to enter the Buddhist way, offering her poems as flowers.
In Kannami's Pining Wind, revised by Zeami, a wandering monk comes to learn of two salt-makers, Pining Wind and Autumn Rain, and of Lord Yukihira's poetry, which promised Pining Wind he would return to her if she "pined" for him. Autumn Rain tells Pining Wind that the sin of clinging is keeping her in the world of mad passion. At the end Rain has gone, but Pining Wind lingers on alone. In The Sought-for Grave Kannami portrayed a wintry scene in which Buddhist monks and village girls look for green plants while learning the story of Unai, whose ghost is seeking rest after she rejected two courting men, because they were so equal they both shot the wings of the same bird. The Flower-Basket by Kannami and revised by Zeami shows the Lady Teruhi having received the basket with a letter from her lover, who has become Emperor Keitai (r. 507-31). Going mad, she travels to see him and has her maid present the basket. After she dances the sad story of China's Wu Di, who missed his concubine, the Emperor invites her back to the palace. More plays by Zeami Motokiyo (1363-1443) are in the current No repertory than by any other playwright. For many years he enjoyed the patronage of Shogun Yoshimitsu at the capital. After Yoshimitsu died in 1408, Zeami's talent was not as appreciated at court, and in 1429 he was barred from performances by Shogun Ashikaga Yoshinori. Five years later after one son had became a monk and the other had died, he was banished to the island of Sado, though he returned to the capital a few years before his death. Zeami also wrote about No theater. He found that the underlying spiritual strength of the actor best held the audience and that moments of no action were often the most enjoyable. The inner strength of the actor must not become noticeable to the audience or it is no longer "no action." Actors by clearing their minds may even conceal their own intent from themselves. In linking all artistic powers with the one mind, Zeami sought the elusive quality he called yugen, which means what lies beneath the surface. For Zeami yugen is true beauty and gentleness, tranquility and elegance in personal appearance, grace of language, and music that is smooth and sensitive. By using intelligence the actor makes the presentation beautiful in form and manner.
In the first-category god play Takasago Zeami portrayed the happily married spirits of two pine trees and in doing so implied praise for the reign of the current Shogun Yoshimitsu. The husband's spirit, Sumiyoshi, who is also the god of poetry, dances to celebrate the long lives of pine trees even though many Buddhists do not consider plants sentient. Zeami's Kureha is another god play about the sacred craft of weaving as personified by two weaving maidens. In Saigyo's Cherry Tree by Zeami the spirit of the cherry tree asks the Buddhist poet Saigyo why he blames the tree blossoms for the visitors who come to disturb him, for the eyes that see any part of the world as vexatious depend wholly on the seer's heart. In another play about the gods, Haku Rakuten, the Chinese poet Bo Juyi tries to visit Japan, where his influence is so great; but he is forced to return to China by Japan's own god of poetry, Sumiyoshi. Atsumori by Zeami is a warrior play in which a priest now called Rensei prays for the soul of Atsumori, whom he had killed in the battle of Ichinotani in 1183. He begins the play by saying, "Life is a lying dream; he only wakes who casts the world aside."8 Rensei finds the spirit of Atsumori among some reapers, and they become friends in Buddha's law according to the proverb, "Put away from you a wicked friend; summon to your side a virtuous enemy."9 At the end Atsumori approaches his old enemy with uplifted sword; but he recognizes that Rensei has obtained salvation, and he asks him to pray for him again. Atsumori's brother Tsunemasa was slain in the same battle, and in Zeami's Tsunemasa a priest's prayers once again invoke the spirit of the dead warrior, this time by playing a lute. However, the anguished spirit is still suffering anger, and in trying to wound another he consumes himself in red waves like flames; he is ashamed of these woes and vanishes.
Tadanori by Zeami tells of another warrior killed in the Inchinotani battle. Tadanori's spirit still haunts a cherry tree, because he wants his name immortalized by having his poetry placed in an imperial anthology. Because the Taira lost the war, his poem was listed as anonymous by editor Toshinari. Tadanori appeals for someone to help, and in fact one of his poems was later put in the 1235 anthology with his name by Toshinari's son Fujiwara Teika. Zeami's Yashima is about a battle after Inchinotani in 1185 when Yoshitsune boldly risked his life to retrieve his bow, although Kanefusa reprimanded him for his foolishness. Yoshitsune's ghost replies that it was a question of honor. In Kagekiyo by Zeami the daughter of the warrior Kagekiyo the passionate travels to find her banished father, who at first though blind says he has not seen Kagekiyo. Later she asks her father to tell of his high deeds in the battle. He does so but concludes still in torment and asks her to pray for him as she goes. Thus Zeami's plays endeavored to heal the warrior spirit so prominent in feudal Japan. In the woman play Eguchi by Zeami a villager tells a monk the story of the harlot of Eguchi, who was a poet and in reality the Bodhisattva Fugen. Once she refused to entertain the great monk Saigyo for the night and chided him with her poetry for his clinging. Then the lady of Eguchi appears and sings how all things are a moment's refuge. In Zeami's Komachi at Seki-dera a monk discovers that the old woman is the famous poet Komachi. In Zeami's The Feather Mantle the fisherman Hakuryo steals an angel's robe of feathers and refuses to give it back; she will dance for him if he will give it back; but he must trust her enough to give it to her first. In Izutsu by Zeami the husband, who grew up with his wife, visits a woman in another province; but when he finds out how true his wife is to him, he stops going there.
Lady Han by Zeami is a mad-woman play in which this post-station courtesan is driven to despair by her love for an officer that is symbolized by a fan he gave her. In another example of this genre, Semimaru, the blind prince by that name has been abandoned in the wilderness; he does not blame his father for cruelty but believes that because of his karmic impediments he did so in order to help him work through them to achieve his salvation. There Semimaru meets his mad sister Sakagami, who has topsy-turvy hair; but sadly she has to leave him. In Zeami's The Fulling Block a wife missing her husband pounds silk on the fulling block to express her frustration. When he does not return at the time he promised, she dies. Hearing of her death, he comes back; then her ghost scolds him for not knowing her pain.
In Zeami's The Damask Drum an old gardener is attracted to a princess, who tells him to beat the drum hanging from a tree if he wants to see her, but the drum made of cloth makes no sound. In despair the gardener drowns himself in the pond. Then the princess hears the drum and becomes possessed by his spirit. The gardener's ghost is covered in the darkness of the denied anger of lust and sinks again into the whirlpool of desire. In Uto by Zeami a dead hunter asks a monk to take a message to his living wife and child. Then the guilt-ridden ghost of the hunter appears to them and tells how after killing baby Uto birds he was poisoned by the falling tears of their parents. The play strongly supports the Buddhist prohibition of hunting. The Pool-Sacrifice shows how a traveler's daughter is chosen by lot to be sacrificed by a local cult. Hachi No Ki by Zeami shows Lord Tokiyori in disguise as a priest asking for lodging from a couple that even burns miniature plum, cherry, and pine trees to keep him warm. Six months later he mobilizes forces so that he can grant the tattered couple three fiefs.
Zeami's plays about crones include Higaki, which shows the plight of an old woman, who had been a dancer, and Obasute (The Deserted Crone), whose ghost tells how she was abandoned on a mountain by her nephew at the bidding of his wife, who kept her husband from returning in time to save her life. The Mountain Crone by Zeami shows the influence of Zen and discusses the value of different paths up the mountain. Zeami's oldest son Motomasa, who died in 1432, wrote The Sumida River. A ferryman tells a woman of a trader abandoning a small boy who had become ill on a journey. The woman turns out to be his mother, and the boy's ghost returns from the grave briefly in response to her prayers.
Zeami's son-in-law Komparu Zenchiku (1405-68) wrote Tatsuta for Zeami's troupe probably in 1432. A shrine maiden guides a monk to the Tatsuta shrine so that he can contribute a copy of the Lotus Sutra. Then a lady of the shrine dances in celebration of their famous red leaves of autumn. Zenchiku may also have written The Kasuga Dragon God, which shows how the Buddhist monk Myoe Shonin (1173-1232) is persuaded not to travel to India by the old priest, who argues that if the Buddha were living, it would be noble to go see and hear him; but past events he suggests can be commemorated at various sacred places in Japan. In Aoi No Uye Zenchiku revised an earlier play based on Murasaki's Tale of Genji. A witch determines that the man Princess Rokujo is pining for is no longer alive. The jealous Rokujo is ready to strike her rival with a mallet, but a saint comes in and calms her spirit. Zenchiku's Kumasaka shows the ghost of a robber disguised as a priest telling how he was killed by the young Yoshitsune. In The Hoka Priests by Zenchiku two brothers discuss Zen and then kill the man who had murdered their father. In Zenchiku's The Valley-Hurling the violent side of religion is shown as a teacher follows the ancient law that anyone who falls sick on this particular pilgrimage has to be thrown into the valley. A boy is so hurled, and after prayers he is carried back by a spirit.
These highly stylized No plays are difficult to appreciate without the operatic singing, dancing, and acting. Yet the spiritual messages come through as so many ghosts or spirits are presented, and the audience is able to see the spiritual laws of karmic responsibility and grace through prayer in action. Probably in the 15th century Hiyoshi Sa-ami Yasukiyo wrote the play Benkei on the Bridge about the warrior monk Benkei, who fights the famous Ushiwaka (Minamoto Yoshitsune) on the Gojo bridge in Kyoto. Benkei becomes his loyal retainer, and in The Subscription List he fights for this lord. In the next century Miyamasu wrote The Hat-maker in which the young Ushiwaka gets a hat made by a hat-maker familiar with his Minamoto clan, and he fights against the dominating Heike clan.
under Warlords 1465-1568
Succession struggles reflected the rivalries in most families in every province of Japan. By the middle of the 15th century the powerful Yamana family distrusted the Hosokawa clan, which was favored by the Shogun and held the Kanrei position. At age thirty Shogun Yoshimasa wanted to retire after serving 14 years, and Hosokawa favored Yoshimasa's younger brother Yoshimi; but in 1465 the Shogun's wife Tomi-ko gave birth to a son, Yoshihisa, who was supported by Yamana. That year Tendai monks of Enryakuji on Mount Hiei resented the growing influence of Rennyo (1415-99) and his promotion of the True sect (Shinshu) so much that they burned his temple and drove him from Kyoto. In 1467 Yamana asked permission of Shogun Yashimasa to punish Hosokawa for interfering in a dispute between two Hatakeyama candidates for Kanrei. When Yamana took Yoshimi to the Bakufu headquarters and prepared to defend it, both sides mobilized their forces. Shogun Yashimasa tried to prevent a war by saying the first to attack would be proclaimed a rebel. The Ouchi daimyo (lord) led 20,000 men to support Yamana which would tip the balance of forces. A shipment of tax grain to the capital by Yamana troops was seized by Hosokawa soldiers in the Tamba province.
Fires broke out around the capital of Kyoto, and in May 1467 Hosokawa troops attacked the mansion of a Yamana general; many were killed on both sides. However, Hosokawa persuaded the Shogun to declare Yamana the rebel. Yoshimasa ordered his brother Yoshimi to punish them, and he appointed Hosokawa his commanding general. This proclamation gave Hosokawa an edge, and Yamana and Ouchi had to send troops back to protect their provinces; but by September, Yamana and Ouchi had reinforcements that included 500 boats escorted by pirates. Yamana with 50,000 soldiers attacked the Sambo-In monastery next to the imperial palace and took both buildings. Fighting, burning, and looting devastated the capital for several months. Yoshimi went over to Yamana's side, and in 1469 Shogun Yoshimasa declared four-year-old Yoshihisa his heir; Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado pronounced Yoshimi a rebel. By 1472 generals on both sides were leaving the capital to suppress insurrections in their territories, and the next year both Hosokawa and Yamana died; but Ouchi refused to surrender and in 1475 fought Hatakeyama Masanaga. The decade-long Onin War finally ended two years later when Ouchi submitted to Yoshimasa and went home.
A league of local warriors (kokujin) had been formed in Izume province in 1473 and was able to tax the private estates (shoen), often owned by those in the capital. When the Hosokawa shugo (military governor) demanded back the shoen taken by the kokujin during the Onin War in Settsu province, these warriors resisted in 1479 and appealed to the rebel Hatakeyama Yoshinari; but Hosokawa raised a large army and crushed the uprising in 1482 by destroying their home bases of Suita and Ibaragi. The 1485 revolt in southern Yamashiro province against shugo Hatakeyama was tolerated by Hosokawa Masamoto; but four years later he decided to suppress an uprising in his own province of Tamba because it was more anti-shugo. Revolts spread in Hosokawa's Kinai provinces. Troops from Kyoto were used but were not able to quell the rebellion until 1493, ending this series of uprisings. The Onin War began a century of local conflicts between warlords. The shogun's wife Tomi-ko and her elder brother Hino Katsuakira acquired a fortune by peculation. She extorted taxes at the capital gates, saying they were to repair the imperial palace; but threats by the Yamashiro-Ikki ended this in 1482. Periodic riots induced the shogunate to cancel debts. Soon the Kyoto court not only had little power but little income as well. In 1485 a council of Yamashiro peasants demanded that Hatakeyama armies leave their province and restore estates to their owners, and they were obeyed. The next year 36 Yoshimiro-Ikki leaders set up a provincial government with officers rotating monthly. Rennyo built his True sect into the single-minded (Ikko) sect at Echizen with military organization that defeated the warlord of neighboring Kaga in 1488. Yoshimasa had formally resigned as shogun in 1473, but he patronized and appreciated the arts until he died in 1490. The priest Murata Juko (1422-1502) helped him raise the tea ceremony to a fine art.
Greater self-government by local communities had begun to develop in the 14th century. A decree canceling debts was issued on the Okushima and Kitatsuda private estates in 1441, and this soon led to the historic nationwide Kakitsu debt abrogation decree. In 1494 in Ise province 46 farmers representing self-governing organizations (so) signed a pledge to meet and settle their disputes. Another pledge signed by 350 farmers promised they would neither falsify boundaries nor steal crops. Families with the same name organized self-governing clans and then formed leagues with other clans. They communally managed waterways for regional irrigation and provided security to preserve peace. A decree from a Yamato province so to its shugo requested a debt moratorium after a drought caused damage. By the 16th century these so had united into some powerful leagues in the central provinces. Ota Dokan, a vassal of the Ogigayatsu branch of the Uyesugi family, built a castle at Edo but was mistakenly taken for a rival and killed by Sadamasa in 1485. After many years of fighting the Ogigayatsu branch was defeated by the Yamanouchi forces in 1505 with help from Constable Fusayoshi of Echigo. His upstart warrior Nagao Tamekage turned against Fusayoshi, killing him two years later. Tamekage became the deputy of the new Echigo constable Uyesugi Akisada; but the warrior Hojo Soun helped Tamekage subdue the Uyesugi in Kanto. Soun had chosen his name with the ambition to become shogun, and on a deer hunt his men captured the castle that made him master of Izu; by 1516 Soun also controlled Sagami. War taxes had been taking half of farmers' crops; but Soun reduced them to 40%. He died in 1519; but his son Ujitsuma led an attack on the castle at Edo in 1524, defeating the divided armies of the Uyesugi clan. Ujitsuma defeated and killed Koga Kubo Yoshiaki in 1539 but died two years later. His son Ujiyasu defeated the Uyesugi in a night attack at Kawagoye in 1542, and by 1560 he had destroyed most of the Uyesugi. By the middle of the 16th century so many peasants had left owing taxes that they were allowed to return if they started paying after that. Ujiyasu sent letters offering to help the Ikko Buddhists, who ruled Kaga until they were expelled by a society of warriors in 1576.
The young Shogun Yoshihisa tried to contain the ambitions of local protectors (shugo) but was killed on the battlefield in 1489. After that, the shoguns became puppets just as the emperors had before. Yoshimi's son Yoshitane was made shogun in 1490 but had to flee three years later. Kanrei Hosokawa Katsumoto appointed Yoshizumi and in 1494 was replaced by his son Hosokawa Masamoto. Yoshitane tried to return to the capital in 1499 but was driven out again by Hosokawa troops, fleeing to Ouchi's capital at Yamaguchi. Ouchi Yoshioki marched on Kyoto, assassinating Masamoto in 1507 and restoring Yoshitane after Yoshizumi fled the following year. Next a war was fought between Masamoto's adopted sons over who was to be Kanrei. Ouchi stayed in the capital protecting Shogun Yoshitane until 1518. The Hosokawa family used the shoguns as puppets until their last Kanrei, Hosokawa Harumoto, was defeated in 1558 by their former vassals, Miyoshi and Matsunaga; but Miyoshi was eventually ousted by his retainer Matsunaga. The Ouchi family was also destroyed by its vassals. In 1551 Suye Harukata defeated Yoshioki's son Yoshitaka; but three years later pirates helped the Mori family, which had replaced the Yamana family, overcome Harukata in a battle during a rainstorm. This period of civil wars has been called gekokuo, meaning the low oppressing the high; but in addition to vassals seizing power, other trends were also occurring. Many agricultural workers became independent farmers as improved tools, use of draft animals, better irrigation, and new crops such as soy beans and tea increased prosperity. Growing commerce in food, silk, hemp, linen, paper, dyes, and lacquer created a class of merchants and money-lenders, though the only coins used were Chinese. Japan exported many thousands of steel swords to China for strings of coins, silk, porcelain, paintings, medicine, and books. Skilled artisans formed guilds (za) and were protected by a temple or a noble family. Samurai warriors organized associations to resist constables and rural magnates. Otherwise armored warriors no longer had power unless they were leading large numbers of soldiers with pikes for a warlord (sengoku-daimyo), who built castles to control territories. Buddhists of the Ikko sect and the Nichiren followers fought each other several times between 1532 and 1536. Yet villages organized as mura began to govern themselves locally. After the Onin War about twenty warlords had most of the power, and they proclaimed their strict house laws, collected taxes, and regulated markets and religious institutions, which they protected. To prevent feuds the Takeda family house laws decreed that both parties in a violent quarrel would be punished regardless of who was right. House laws imposed collective responsibility so that an entire village might be punished if anyone did not pay tax or did not apprehend a criminal. After silver was discovered in Iwami, enterprising Hakata merchants sent for skilled workers from China and Korea to improve the smelting process. In 1542 a rich deposit was found in Tajima, and in 1556 the Mori family took over an Iwami silver mine during a military campaign. Japanese piracy and trade with the Chinese had begun in 1306 and was rampant during most of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), which usually prohibited foreign trade. After Chinese officials were attacked and lost property to the Ouchi at Ningpo in 1523, they voided the agreement they had with the Japanese. A few missions occurred until 1548. Then piracy became a major problem as many Chinese on the coasts who had lost their livelihood because of government restrictions became pirates on their own or on Japanese ships. Pirate raids took grain, silk textiles, copper cash, and captives to sell as slaves. In 1555 Koreans reported that a fleet of seventy pirate ships attacked their peninsula. After a campaign against the pirates, the Ming court about 1560 finally lifted the embargo against foreign trade. The Portuguese first landed on the island of Tanegashima in 1543, and the firearms the Japanese got from there at first were called Tanegashima. The Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived at Kagoshima in 1549 and was welcomed by the Satsuma daimyo. Xavier made the difficult journey to Kyoto, hoping to find Japan's king; but finding no powerful ruler there, he returned to Yamaguchi. There he presented himself in a splendid costume as an envoy of the Portuguese, and Ouchi Yoshitaka allowed him to preach. Yoshitaka studied Confucianism with the scholar Kiyohara Yorikata and obtained from Korea a complete edition of the five classics annotated by Zhu Xi. Yoshitaka committed suicide in 1551 because of a rebellion by his vassal Sue Takafusa (known later as Sue Harukata). Xavier converted Otomo Sorin, who protected Christians until his death in 1587. Xavier left Japan in 1551 and died of disease the next year on an island waiting to get into China. Gaspar Vilela gained the protection of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshitero in Kyoto and baptized 1300 people, mostly peasants, on the islands of Ikitsukijima and Takushima and around Hirado. In 1558 Takanobu, objecting to Vilela's burning of books and destruction of Buddhist images, expelled him from the Matsuura territory. By 1559 only six Jesuits were in Japan.
The Shogun and his wife and mother were murdered by the Miyoshi faction in 1565; the Zen priests were so intimidated that they did not attend the funeral. Buddhists then persuaded the Emperor to issue an edict expelling all Christian missionaries. The Jesuit Frois stayed in Sakai and got two armies to stop fighting for one day on Christmas in 1567. Two years later Frois was taken to see Nobunaga. In 1571 Portuguese ships made Nagasaki a base for a Jesuit community. Dom Bartolomeu required all to become Christians or leave Omura, and in 1574 he began burning its Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, thus claiming 60,000 Christian converts. Conversion in the late 1570s of the prominent Amakusa Shigehisa and Arima Harunobu influenced thousands to be baptized. Omura Sumitada and his son Yoshiaki signed over Nagasaki to the Society of Jesus in 1580.
Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu 1568-1615
Oda Nobunaga (1534-82) overcame opposition and became the master of Owari in 1559 as the constable fled, and that year he was received in Kyoto by Ashikaga Shogun Yoshiteru. Nobunaga established a fortress at Kiyosu, and in 1560 he defeated an attack by an Imagawa army of 25,000 with a much smaller force by using clever strategy. He consolidated his power with military force and diplomatic marriages. In 1561 Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) joined Nobunaga and went to Mikawa. The commander Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98) helped Nobunaga defeat the Mino. After Shogun Yoshiteru was killed by rebellious vassals of Hosokawa in 1565, his younger brother Yoshiaki took refuge with Nobunaga. This ambitious warlord then overcame opposition in the province of Ise, and in November 1568 he entered Kyoto and proclaimed Yoshiaki the Ashikaga shogun. Citizens of the capital were pleased to see that Nobunaga kept his troops under discipline. The new Shogun gave Frois permission to preach Christianity. Nobunaga encouraged free markets and open guilds in towns such as Kano and ordered all toll gates in the provinces abolished. He fixed the ratio between gold, silver, and copper, stopping barter transactions with rice, and he forced Sakai to pay 20,000 kan. Sakai was his main supplier of muskets, ammunition, and other military equipment. Ieyasu controlled eastern Japan for Nobunaga by making peace with Takeda Shingen and by occupying territory formerly held by Imagawa. When Asakura Yoshikage of Echizen did not obey Nobunaga's summons to the capital with the other warlords in 1570, Nobunaga attacked him with an army of 30,000. Ieyasu's army made the difference in defeating Asakura and his ally Asai. The military monks at Enryakuji opposed Nobunaga because his generals confiscated their land. So Nobunaga mercilessly attacked them in 1571, allowing his soldiers to behead women and children as well as monks and laymen while destroying 3,000 buildings. That year Ujiyasu died, and the new Hojo leader joined with the Takeda family in a march on the capital. Their army of 30,000 met Nobunaga's forces in January 1573; Ieyasu fled, and Nobunaga had to sue for peace. When Shogun Yoshiaki sided with Takeda, Nobunaga deposed the Shogun and drove him out of Kyoto. Takeda Shingen died after being wounded in an attack on Ieyasu. Finally in August 1573 after Nobunaga defeated their armies and destroyed their castles, Asakura and Asai committed suicide; Nobunaga gave their lands to Hideyoshi. Nobunaga had roads and bridges improved and ordered pine and willow trees planted along the roads. Nobunaga was especially cruel to fighting monks, and in 1574 he burned the two strongholds of the Ikko league even after they asked to surrender, killing about 20,000 people. The next year he used 3,000 soldiers armed with muskets to help Ieyasu defeat a much larger force of Takeda warriors, making the advantage of the new technology obvious. In 1576 Nobunaga began disarming peasants and building the strong Azuchi castle that was completed three years later. In 1577 Nobunaga's forces accepted the surrender of the Ikko league in the Kii province. Nobunaga preferred the less militant Pure Land (Jodo) sect of Buddhists and built them the Jogon-In monastery in his new city of Azuchi. Nobunaga also disliked the militant Hokke sect of Nichiren followers and made sure the Jodo won a debate he sponsored in 1579. The next year Nobunaga forced the Ikko to abandon their Honganji fortress in Osaka, greatly reducing the military power of monks in Japan. Meanwhile the Takeda of Kai were conscripting men of all classes between the ages of 15 and 60 into military service; but in 1581 Nobunaga with Ieyasu and Hojo attacked Takeda Katsuyori's army of 20,000 with an army nearly nine times its size. Katsuyori fled and was captured and killed the next year, ending the power of the Takeda family. When the Koyasan monastery gave refuge to his enemies and ejected his envoys, Nobunaga ordered all their wandering friars executed. Despite the efforts of Hideyoshi, Nobunaga was never able to subjugate the Mori in western Japan. As Nobunaga was going there in 1582, the treachery of Akechi enabled him to ambush and kill Nobunaga before taking the Azuchi castle. Hideyoshi kept the news of his death secret while he made a treaty with Mori. Then Hideyoshi's army attacked and killed Akechi. Four generals took over after Nobunaga's death; but Hideyoshi was the strongest, and with quick movements by the end of 1582 he controlled thirty provinces, ten more than Nobunaga had gained in twenty years. In the east Ieyasu challenged Hideyoshi briefly but made peace with him in 1585. That year Hideyoshi's armies forced the Chosokabe to submit and eliminated the military power of the great monasteries in the central region.
Hideyoshi built his castle at Osaka and destroyed most of the castles in other provinces. He had a land survey begun in 1583, but it was not completed until 1598, the year he died. The actual cultivators were made responsible for paying the taxes on their produce. This made more farmers independent and lessened the influence of the rural gentry, giving Hideyoshi direct control over the 80% of Japan's population who farmed. In 1590 he ordered anyone resisting the inspections to be executed. The state usually took 40% or 50% in the tax, and peasants had to pay their landlords from the rest. In 1587 Hideyoshi mobilized an army of perhaps 200,000 to subdue the Satsuma armies of Kyushu. Shimazu submitted and was allowed to keep Satsuma, Osumi, and half of Hyuga. The remainder of Kyushu was governed by Hideyoshi's commanders Kato, Konishi, and Kuroda. Next Hideyoshi punished Ujimasa for not coming to his palace. Hojo had been conscripting all the men they could; but they had fewer than 50,000 against Hideyoshi's professional army of 200,000. Ujimasa surrendered in August 1590 and was ordered to commit suicide. Hideyoshi gave Ieyasu the eight Kanto provinces in the east in exchange for Ieyasu's more central territories that Hideyoshi distributed to his trusted vassals. Thus Hideyoshi established his feudal control over all sixty provinces of Japan as all the major daimyos swore fealty to him. He monopolized gold and silver mines and some other state enterprises. Copper, silver, and gold coins were issued. In 1588 he began the "sword hunt" that confiscated weapons from those not in his army. Peasants were told that they would be melted down to be used as nails and bolts in a gigantic image of Buddha. At the end of 1590 Hideyoshi announced a census that would expel from villages vagrants who did not work on farms or for the military.
The Emperor had made Hideyoshi kampaku (regent) in 1585 and chancellor the next year. By 1582 only twenty Jesuits estimated that they had baptized 150,000 people in Japan. In 1587 Hideyoshi ordered the Jesuits to leave Japan within twenty days, accusing them of forcing people to give up their religion, selling slaves to China and Korea, killing animals for food, and destroying Buddhist and Shinto buildings. The edict was not strictly enforced; merchants from Christian countries were allowed to trade; and ten priests were licensed in Nagasaki. By 1596 some 140 Jesuits were still in Japan, and the number of converts had risen to 300,000. After hearing a threatening boast from a shipwrecked Spanish pilot, irritated Hideyoshi had six Spanish Franciscans and nineteen Japanese Christians crucified. Hideyoshi appointed the five elders Ieyasu, Ukita, Mori, Maeda, and Uyesugi for counsel and five commissioners to carry out his policies and help his nephew Hidetsuga, who was officially made regent in 1592. Hidetsuga occupied himself with falconry and women and was so vicious that he was called the murdering regent; in 1595 he was replaced by Hideyoshi's infant son Hideyori. Hideyoshi then ordered Hidetsuga to commit suicide and had his three children and thirty women in his service massacred.
In 1595 priests from the ten Buddhist sects were required to attend the dedication of the large statue of the Buddha at Hoko-ji. The Nichiren sect explained the principle of fuju fuse, that they could not receive from nor give to those who do not believe in the Lotus Sutra. Nichio refused to attend and accurately predicted that others who did attend would in the future be required to keep accepting tainted donations. The more traditional Ju faction won the debate, and in 1600 Nichio was exiled to Tsushima until he was pardoned in 1612.
The ambitious Hideyoshi wanted to take over China and perhaps even India. In April 1592 he ordered the invasion of Korea. The striking force had 158,800 men with a naval force of 9,000 and 75,000 reserves at Nagoya sent by Ieyasu and others. Konishi Yukinaga led the first wave of 18,000 men on 700 vessels that took Pusan in May and the capital at Seoul in June. Supported by other contingents, Konishi's vanguard captured P'yongyang in July 1592. Korea's king appealed to China, and their forces drove the Japanese out of P'yongyang and back south; but these first Chinese forces were trapped and defeated by the Japanese army. Disastrous defeats from a superior Korean navy forced the Japanese occupying army to live off the land, and they faced ferocious guerrilla attacks by Koreans. By early 1593 they had lost a third of their men. Konishi was able to withstand another Chinese army of at least 50,000. They negotiated with the Chinese and agreed to leave the Korean capital. Most of the Chinese went back to China; their diplomats promised that the Ming emperor would recognize Hideyoshi as the king of Japan, and trade would resume. Japan also wanted to keep the southern provinces of Korea, which was not consulted. The Christian Konishi favored the negotiated peace; but the Buddhist Kato persuaded Hideyoshi to renew the war in 1597, and another 100,000 men were sent to join the 50,000 still in Korea. China responded by sending another army that arrived in 1598 as Hideyoshi was withdrawing half his forces; but Konishi at Pusan with 60,000 men was able to defeat the Chinese, killing a reported 38,000. News in September 1598 that Hideyoshi had died caused a standstill. Then both the Chinese and the Japanese forces withdrew from a devastated Korea. The Japanese gained technical knowledge of Korean printing and pottery by taking skilled workers as captives.
After Hideyoshi died, Ieyasu was the most wealthy and powerful on the council of five. His Kanto holdings in 1590 had yielded a million koku, but now he was worth 2,557,000 koku. The commissioners led by Ishida Mitsunari (1560-1600) accused him of betraying Hideyoshi by arranging political marriages, but this was resolved. However, General Kato learned that Mitsunari was behind two assassination attempts on Ieyasu and went to kill him. Ieyasu dismissed the commissioners and moved into the late Hideyoshi's castle at Osaka. Mitsunari was joined in a military revolt by Uyesugi Kagekatsu, who had not responded to Ieyasu's summons. Mitsunari captured Fushimi castle and gained Shimazu, Ukita, and Konisha as allies; but in 1600 at Sekigahara about 80,000 fought on each side. Kobayakawa went over to Ieyasu's side, and they defeated Konisha and Utika, causing Mitsunari and Shimazu to flee. Mitsunari and Konishi were both captured and executed. Ieyasu rewarded the daimyos on his side with the 7,572,000 koku confiscated. He distributed fiefs so that his trusted allies (Fudai daimyos) could watch over the more dangerous ones (Tozama), whom he kept busy by ordering their men to help build his castles. Hideyoshi's son Hideyori was allowed to keep 650,000 koku.
The wealth of the Tokugawa family increased to 6,400,000 koku (one-fourth of the nation's total revenue) and now included the cities of Edo, Kyoto, Osaka, Nagasaki, Yamada, and Nara. Ieyasu took over gold and silver mines and established a mint at Fishimi in 1601. He restored the Bakufu power when the Emperor appointed him shogun in 1603. He made his capital at Edo in his eastern domains of Kanto. An edict of 1603 allowed a peasant to leave his land if he had paid his taxes and the landlord's conduct was abusive. Landlords were also prohibited from using violence against the peasants, and they were instructed to take their disputes to the magistrate's court. Ieyasu's adviser Honda Masanobu wrote that the peasants should be governed with care but that they should be taxed so that they have only enough rice to eat and for seeds to plant the next year. A 1604 edict gave the Bakufu a monopoly over imported raw silk. In 1605 Ieyasu let his son Hidetada replace him as shogun so that he could work on governing. When Matsudaira Tadayoshi died in 1607, four of his pages committed junshi suicide to follow him. Then four retainers did the same for Matsudaira Hideyasu. These examples revived the junshi custom for a time.
Japanese soldiers went out to secure trade with Melaka, Macao, and the Philippines. The English refugee William Adams from a Dutch ship stayed with Ieyasu and oversaw the building of ships. Two Dutch ships were allowed to establish a trading post at Hirado in 1609. Also that year Japan made a trade agreement with Korea, but the Japanese were no longer allowed to travel beyond the port of Pusan. The Portuguese trading monopoly was clearly over the next year when most of the crew on the ship Madre de Deus were put to death for having treated Japanese sailors cruelly at Macao. In 1611 the Tokugawa government prohibited the preaching of Christianity. In 1613 after the Spanish missionary Sotelho built a chapel in Edo, 27 Japanese Christians were executed. The next year following the advice of the monk Suden, Ieyasu issued a formal edict expelling foreign missionaries. Churches in Kyoto were destroyed, and Japanese Christians of high rank were arrested and deported. In 1613 an agent of the British East India Company arrived in Japan, but the English ended their efforts to establish trade ten years later.
Ieyasu received oaths of allegiance from central and western daimyos in 1611 and from those in northern Japan the next year. This edict required them to take action against criminals and rebels. Young Hideyori was gaining strength from masterless samurai; but in 1614 Ieyasu's son Hidetada surrounded his Osaka castle with 70,000 men. Ieyasu levied more forces from his vassals so that they far outnumbered Hideyori's garrison of 90,000. Ieyasu made an agreement, but it was broken when Hidetada's men filled in the moat and pulled down the ramparts. Outnumbered two to one, after a pitched battle Hideyori committed suicide, and his wife Yodogimi (Hidetada's daughter) was killed by a retainer to prevent her capture. His sons were executed, and his older sister became a nun. The Tokugawa allies had lost 35,000 people, but the civil war was over. After his victory at Osaka, Ieyasu decreed that each daimyo could have only one castle. Ieyasu believed in virtuous government in the ancient Chinese tradition, and the document Honsa Roku warned against ambitious vanity and greedy corruption. Its author believed peasants should have neither too much nor too little, and luxuries such as elaborate tea ceremonies were condemned as not good government. Ieyasu also studied the lessons of Japanese history from 1180 to 1266 in The Mirror of the East (Azuma Kagami). At an assembly of vassals in Fushimi castle in August 1615 Ieyasu promulgated a code of rules for military houses called Buke Shohatto that was drawn up with the advice of the Zen monk Suden. Its first article said that both literature and the military arts were to be studied. Drunkenness, gambling, and lewd behavior must be avoided. Criminals and rebels were not to be harbored. Building work on castles must be reported and approved. Private marriages were forbidden. Clothing and behavior should reflect one's rank and social class. All samurai were to live frugally, and daimyos were to select capable people in governing. Ieyasu was now undisputed master of Japan; he would die the next year, but his Tokugawa family would rule Japan for the next two and a half centuries. Fujiwara Seika (1561-1619) was a Buddhist monk until he was 37; but after meeting the Korean war captive Kang Hang (1567-1618), he became devoted to the Neo-Confucian philosophy. Seika declined a position in Ieyasu's government but advised him occasionally. He and Kang Hang edited the Confucian classics. He urged samurai to study Neo-Confucian philosophy and argued that Buddhism was impractical and destructive to human relations. As a Kyoto aristocrat he looked down on the warrior class and retired to the mountains in 1615. Influenced by the Neo-Confucians Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming, and Korean thinkers, Seika held that the innate spiritual principle (li in Chinese, ri in Japanese) is innate in everyone's being; but the physical energy (qi in Chinese, ki in Japanese) is what makes moral differences. Most people have impure energy and need moral cultivation; only sages have purified their energy. Seika came to venerate Confucius and Mencius, but he rejected Daoism as well as Buddhism. Yet he still believed that desires cause virtue to decline. He tried to give Shinto a theology with Neo-Confucian concepts. He believed that both intended to rectify the heart and increase human benevolence and compassion. He warned against the hypocrisy of claiming to be virtuous while seeking personal gain. Seika believed that the emperor could govern by spiritual principle as an intermediary between heaven and earth. He argued that if people did not obey the spiritual teachings, the government had a right to make them comply with force and punishment.
Tokugawa Seclusion 1615-1716
Confucianism and Religion
If a wife's disposition is healthy and pious, obedient, sympathetic, and honest, then her parents and children, brothers and sisters, and, in fact, every member of her family,will be at peace and the entire household in perfect order, so that even lowly servants benefit from her gracious kindness. That kind of family is certain to enjoy lasting happiness, and succeeding generations will continue to prosper as a result.
Criticism must begin after one has discerned whether or not the person will accept it, after one has become his friend, shared his interests, and behaved in such a way as to earn his complete trust so that he will put faith in whatever one says.
Saikaku's Stories of Sex and Money
I have revealed my whole life to you,from the day when the lotus of my heart first opened, until its petals withered. I may have lived in this world by selling my body, but is my heart itself polluted?
The short Millionaires' Gospel (Choja Kyo) was published anonymously in 1627. This pamphlet advised on how to be successful and argued that every Buddha had to learn. Becoming rich requires extraordinary effort. One millionaire (choja) explains how he charged thirty percent interest. Nabaya says that to expect to become rich right away is a basis for poverty. Izumiya observes that our credit from former lives is limited while our appetites are endless. A painless life of too much pleasure causes bad results; we must endure some pain with patience. The Choja Kyo lists the following ten principles to cherish: 1. To use common sense.2. To act with honesty.3. To endure with patience.4. To regard every man as a thief, every fire as a conflagration.5. To abandon pride and listen to advice.6. To know that remorse serves no purpose.7. That conceit is anathema.8. That small-talk leads nowhere.9. That moderation is only half a virtue.10. That playing bosom-friend to all is pointless.
It is easy enough, as may be observed, to make money by shady practices.Pawning other people's property,dealing in counterfeit goods,plotting with confidence tricksters to catch a wife with a large dowry, borrowing piecemeal from the funds of innumerable temples, and defaulting wholesale on a plea of bankruptcy, joining gangs of gambling sharks, hawking quack medicines to country bumpkins, terrorizing people into buying paltry ginseng roots, conniving with your wife to extort money from her lovers, trapping pet dogs for skins, charging to adopt unweaned babies and starving them to death, collecting the hair from drowned corpses-all these are ways of supporting life. But if we live by subhuman means we might as well never have had the good fortune to be born human. Evil leaves its mark deep in a man's heart, so that no kind of villainy seems evil to him any longer; and when he has reached that stage he is indeed in a pitiful state of degradation. The only way to be a man is to earn your livelihood by means not unfitted to a man. Life, after all, is a dream of little more than fifty years, and, whatever one does for a living, it is not difficult to stay so brief a course.
Chikamatsu's Plays
If there is love and compassion insid eand we keep a careful guard on the outside, then we have no need to use the sword ,and people will follow the way of virtue and govern themselves.
Takeda-Namiki-Miyoshi Plays
Tokugawa 1716-1837
During the first six years of Ienari's long reign (1787-1837), Yoshimune's grandson Matsudaira Sadanobu (1758-1829) directed policy and tried to go back to his grandfather's era by restricting trade. After the riots of 1787, the Roju approved of Sadanobu's reforms. The next year there were 117 revolts. He suppressed bribery and other corruption that characterized the Tanuma regime. Former finance commissioners and some top councilors were fined and reduced in rank; other guilty officials and merchants were executed or banished. In 1788 the Bakufu government faced a deficit for the first time, and so Sadanobu reduced expenditures. To pay for rebuilding the palaces that had been burned in the fires at Kyoto, in 1789 he revived Yoshimune's method of making the daimyos contribute. He canceled samurai debts and reduced the rate of interest that the brokers (fudasashi) charged for loans to the Shogun's retainers. Yet in 1795 the hatamoto rioted against the brokers in the streets, and the Tokugawa samurai had to punish their own people to restore order. Sadanobu supervised the Osaka rice merchants and ordered all daimyos to set aside rice reserves to prevent famine. He eliminated most of the corvée labor imposed on the peasants. However, his efforts to stop peasants from moving into the towns or inducements offered for them to return to the land from Edo and other cities had little effect, as did his attempts to get farmers to reduce their subsidiary crops such as tobacco and indigo. Village officials and mutual responsibility groups (goningumi) were ordered to take special care of pregnant women in order to increase rural population, and in 1800 the Bakufu government spent 150,000 gold pieces trying to rebuild rural Japan. Instead of helping the poor directly, wealthy farmers and merchants were loaned money, and the interest was used to help orphans and others. In 1790 Matsudaira Sadanobu tried to exclude doctrines that deviated from Zhu Xi's teachings at the Confucian college (Shohei Gakumonjo). Pornography and books ridiculing the government were also banned. In 1791 the comic writer Santo Kyoden was punished, and works by Hayashi Shihei that mentioned the Russians in the north were suppressed. However, the new restrictions on foreign books were reversed by 1811, when the Bakufu established an office for translating western books in the shogunate's astronomical observatory. In 1792 annual examinations for samurai began. Mogami Tokunai (1755-1836) led the exploration of the northern islands, and he emphasized the need to conciliate the indigenous Ainu, who were rebelling. In 1792 a Russian vessel reached Nemuro to return Japanese castaways. Adam Laxman was informed that the Russians must apply for permission to enter Japan at Nagasaki. Sadanobu reacted in 1793 by ordering coastal defenses prepared, and the next year he resigned his office. He wrote a memoir (Uge no hitogoto) of his public service to instruct his descendants. Ienari came of age and began ruling for himself in 1793. He spent money liberally and did not try to control commerce. The shogunate began mapping and colonizing the northern island of Ezo (Hokkaido) in 1798 and took it over in 1802. The Russian warship Nadezhda arrived at Nagasaki in 1804, but several months later ambassador Vasilii Rezanov was told to leave. In 1807 Russian naval officers Khostov and Davydov attacked settlements in Sakhalin and Ezo, leaving a letter threatening to attack again if Japan did not agree to terms. The next year a British vessel asked for food and supplies at Nagasaki, whose governor was so ashamed of their lack of defenses that he committed suicide. This incident led to improvement of the defenses. In 1811 captain Vasilii Golovnin and his men were captured at Kunashiri and were held for two years before the Japanese learned that Khostov and Davydov had acted against their orders. The Russians captured the merchant Takadaya Kahei, who had a Bakufu monopoly, and traded him for Golovnin.
After Nobuaki died in 1812, Mizuno Tadanari by flattery and influence with the women became Shogun Ienari's main advisor. Ienari had one wife and twenty concubines, fathering 55 children. His seraglio also included forty principal ladies and nine hundred female attendants. The weddings of his daughters were celebrated extravagantly, and daimyos had to contribute. Many of the daimyos also lived extravagantly during this era of pleasure as trade flourished in the towns. Theaters were well attended, and prostitution spread to more areas. The Bakufu's reserves of gold and silver fell from one million ryo in 1798 to 650,000 in 1830. Most daimyos and samurai had growing debts. They sold the right to use a surname and carry two swords to prosperous farmers. Peasants were forced to pay heavier taxes, sometimes in advance. Uprisings occurred, but the samurai retained military supremacy. More incidents with English ships led to an expulsion order in 1825. Local authorities were ordered to arrest or kill "without a second thought" anyone who lands.
While Japan experienced economic and cultural development, the shogunate suffered fiscally. The Bakufu government saved nearly half its expenditures temporarily by debasing the currency nineteen times between 1819 and 1837, but this caused price inflation and hardship on the samurai. In 1827 the Bakufu imposed laws that required village officials to crack down on pawn shops, alcohol, gambling, and luxurious life-styles. The sumptuary laws ordered prostitutes arrested, and the government even tried to clamp down on bath-houses, barbers, and hairdressers, using spies to arrest customers. The Mitsui house became the financial agent for the shogunate, the imperial house, and several daimyos. The Konoiki house acquired wealth from shipping and handled financial affairs for about three dozen daimyos. The shipping enabled the urban centers to grow. As the population of Edo approached one million, Osaka and Kyoto neared 400,000 each. Paper currency took the form of han rice or silver certificates. Merchants increased their affluence and became creditors at the expense of the rural and urban poor. The annual rice crops had leveled off at about 30 million koku, while population only increased gradually to about 32 million because of infanticide. In Choshu in 1831 a hundred thousand people demonstrated against the daimyo's cotton monopoly and attacked houses of the rich, stores, granaries, breweries, and pawnshops.
A devastating four-year famine provoked a peasant rebellion in 1837 led by Osaka magistrate Oshio Heihachiro. His father had been a police inspector in Osaka, and Heihachiro inherited his position. In the 1820s he cleaned out corruption in Buddhist temples, secret religious groups, and prostitution rings, thus gaining a reputation as the best police censor in Osaka. After the corrupt Atobe became city magistrate, Oshio resigned and began educating disciples. He studied and taught the ideas of Wang Yangming, which in Japan were called Oyomei studies, and his famous lectures were published in 1834. He was also inspired by the philosophy of Nakae Toju who said, "Do right for the sake of doing right."14 Like his friend, Rai San'yo (1780-1832) who wrote the influential General History of Japan (Nihon gaishi), Oshio admired the defenders of the Kemmu restoration of 1333. The historian feared Oshio's fate and urged him to sheath his sword. Oshio blamed the Tokugawa shogunate for failing to provide just and moral government, and he wanted to save the people from the hell of the past in order to establish a paradise. He accused the bureaucrats of combining with the huge merchant houses of Osaka to hoard the supply of rice in Edo while famine spread. Unafraid of the government over them and wanting to help the people, Oshio and his followers aimed to bring truth and justice under an emperor. He blamed the Bakufu for not sending rice to the Kyoto court. In 1836 more than a hundred thousand people were reported to have starved to death in the Tohoku. That year the number of rural disputes, peasant uprisings, and urban riots reached their peak. As the famine became worse, Oshio sent a memorial to Magistrate Atobe, but his petition was ignored. Oshio distributed and posted on temples and shrines in Osaka the manifesto "Punishment from Heaven," and he urged his followers to kill any official who learned of their revolt. He planned to set fire to the large merchant houses to confiscate their gold, silver, copper, and bales of rice, but Magistrate Atobe learned of the plot the day before it started. Oshio set fire to his own house in order to burn the magistrates in the house opposite. The fire burned the merchant district of Osaka for two days in February 1837 and destroyed 3,300 houses. Hundreds of swords Oshio had distributed were used to sack silk and sake shops, and Bakufu troops hunted down the rebels. Most of them were tortured to death before the trial was completed. Oshio fled, and a month later he was found and committed suicide. The historian Okamoto Ryoichi has argued that Oshio's radicalism did not coordinate his followers into a unified protest. Ikuta Yorozu was a disciple of Hirata Atsutane, and he also led a rebellion at Niigata during the famine of 1837.
Culture 1716-1837
Sato Nobuhiro (1768-1850), like Honda Toshiaki, was also from the north. He studied Dutch books on science and history and then traveled around urging daimyos to apply agricultural improvements. He wrote a brief history of the western powers and found that scientific ideas undermined out-of-date Confucian theories. Sato worked on developing firepower for weapons and ships. He recommended having departments of education, religion, and justice. Under these would be the six bureaus of agriculture, natural resources (forestry and mining), manufacture, finance, army, and navy. He suggested that universities teach philosophy, religion, social institutions, music, law, military defense, medicine, astronomy, geography, and foreign languages. Soto was concerned about infanticide and abortion, and he estimated the number of children killed each year was sixty or seventy thousand in Mutsu and Dewa alone. He found that infanticide was rare in Echigo, where prostitution of girls over the age of seven was widespread. He believed that scientific agriculture could help produce abundant harvests. He warned that if the state did not improve, divine punishment was inevitable. If the wealth of the nations was shared by all, then no harm would come from having a large family. In his Outline of Heaven's Law (Tenkei yoroku), he advocated uniting the whole world in peace. Thus geography needs to be studied in order to save the people. However, in his plan for world unification Soto argued that Japan should subjugate China, Burma, and India and could command all the nations. After retiring, Soto became interested in the ideas of Hirata Atsutane. Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755-1829) adopted the name of his father-in-law in 1811 and wrote more than 120 plays for the kabuki theater that reflected popular tastes and changing cultural values. Whereas the plays of Chikamatsu and others emphasized duty (giri) and its conflicts with feelings (ninjo), in the 19th century the characters and audiences were motivated by the desires for money and sex, which was more overtly depicted. Nanboku's erotic melodrama, The Scarlet Princess of Edo, was produced in 1817. Lady Sakura falls in love and asks to be the wife of the robber Gonsuke who raped her. The priest Seigen believes that she is the reincarnation of his homosexual lover who committed suicide, and he takes care of her abandoned baby. A couple tries to murder ill Seigen for money. Gonsuke returns and sells his wife Sakura to a brothel. Seigen wants to kill Sakura but stabs himself and dies. His ghost prevents her from sleeping with men. Sakura learns that Gonsuke killed her father and in revenge kills their child and him. She cuts off her hair to become a nun, and in the final scene her family scroll is found and restores her as a princess just as she is being caught for murder. Thus the traditional happy ending is ironic because every main character has degenerated morally. Nanboku's most famous play is Ghost Story at Yotsuya, which was produced in 1825 over two days between the two halves of the famous Chushingura. Iemon has been living with pregnant Oiwa and asks her father for permission to marry, but he refuses because Iemon was a retainer of Enya Hangan but did not join the vendetta. Enraged Iemon kills the old man. Naosuke is in love with Oiwa's step-sister Osode and kills a supposed rival. Iemon and Naosuke deny their crimes and promise to get revenge. Oiwa's face is disfigured after she takes medicine. The doctor Ito Kihei tells Iemon that he sent the poison so that his granddaughter Oume could marry Iemon, who agrees to leave Oiwa to marry Oume. Kihei says he will recommend Iemon to his master Moronao. Iemon sends the masseur Takuetsu to seduce Oiwa, who pulls out her hair and accidentally cuts her throat and dies. Iemon kills his servant Kohei for having stolen a family heirloom. Then Iemon marries Oume, but he sees Oiwa's face on her and decapitates her. When he thinks Kihei is Kohei eating his baby, Iemon cuts off his head too. In the third act the ghosts of Oiwa and Kohei haunt Iemon. Osode marries Naosuke to get revenge, but she learns he is a murderer and kills herself. Naosuke discovers that Osode is his sister and also commits suicide. The ghost of Oiwa uses rats to torture Iemon. This horrific melodrama thrilled audiences. Ninomiya Sontoku (1787-1856) was a self-educated peasant who believed that other peasants could also control their destiny by gaining knowledge. Poverty is best alleviated by developing virtue from below. He helped peasants organize mutual trust cooperatives to manage their own affairs more effectively. He advised farmers to keep statistics so that they could budget their expenses. He suggested a planned agrarian economy so that some of the good harvests could be set aside for the bad years. Sontoku believed that human life should be a continuing act of gratitude for the providence of heaven, earth, and humans. He found the root of virtue in work, and its loss in idleness. Labor is what creates civilization and human advancement. Everyone must contribute to the general welfare, and mutual aid is what protects all. In addition to labor, his practical virtue included thrift and sharing with others. Sontoku became known as the peasant sage of Japan.
Aizawa Yashushi (Seishisai) wrote New Proposals (Shinron) in 1825. This manuscript was circulated and discussed by important people and became even more popular when it was published in 1857. He emphasized the divine line of kings going back to the sun goddess Amaterasu, and he found moral values in the Japanese tradition. He argued that the state should be defended by armed preparation. He wrote that the ancients were blessed because they lived as though their enemy was right on the border. His writing greatly stimulated Japanese nationalism (kokutai). His ideas were taken up by samurai intellectuals such as Fujita Yukoku and his son Toko in the Mito domain of Tokugawa Nariaki. Aizawa quoted the advice from Sun'zi's Art of War about the importance of preparations for defense. He argued that the national government needed military strength to defend the people because of the trend in international affairs and that education is the way to develop this strength and prosperity. He combined Confucian ethics with the filial piety of Shinto worship while criticizing shamans, Buddhists, and the sophistries of pseudo-Confucians. He observed that westerners found strength not only in their scientific technology but also in their common Christian God. He warned
The subversion of the people and overthrowing of the stateare taught as being in accord with the God's will.So in the name of all-embracing love the subjugation of the land is accomplished.Though greed is the real motive, it masquerades as a righteous uprising.
The ideas of Hirata Atsutane (1776-1843) were so aggressively nationalistic that he favored making Shinto the only national religion and the emperor Japan's only ruler; the Shogun had him put under house arrest in 1841. Hirata emphasized the divinity of the emperor and recommended worshipping him daily by facing the imperial palace in Kyoto. His valuing of work and family attracted a following of farmers and local officials, and he found the ancient way exemplified in the lives of the common people. He identified everyday work with the original creation by the gods, and work is the offering people make to the gods. He believed that government and religion should be one and the same. He held the kami Takami-musubi to be the creator god. Hirata moved away from Motoori Norinaga's theory of deep emotion, and he replaced Motoori's concept of the underworld with a permanent Heaven, where believers go after they die. Transition 1837-67
Schooling greatly increased in Japan during the middle of the 19th century. Only 57 private academies (shijuku) existed by 1789, and in the next forty years 207 more established; but 796 were founded between 1830 and 1867. The number of parish schools (terakoya) was 241 in 1789, and 1,286 more were established by 1829; another 8,675 began teaching by 1867. New religions began springing up that gained large followings among the peasants. Kurozumi Munetada (1780-1850) had a vision during a severe illness and in 1814 founded a sect based on devotion to the sun goddess Amaterasu. In the early 1840s he wrote about serving the way of the circular deity of light. He promised that the age of the gods (kami) had come and they would be compassionate to all at the end of the world.
In 1838 a farmer's wife with healing powers named Nakayama Miki (1798-1887), who had been oppressed by her family and husband, began relieving the suffering of others and started the Tenri movement. She chanted, fell into trances, and demonstrated shamanic powers. During a three-day trance she was told to abandon her family to become a vehicle and messenger of the divine work. She gave up her possessions and distributed her family land to the poor. She taught that one must fall into poverty to find relief from pain. She believed that people evolved from monkeys and are equal. She warned that failing to work for universal relief in accordance with divine law would bring down the wrath of the kami. Miki taught that pride is the basic human evil that produces the desire, regret, sweetness, greed, arrogance, hatred, resentment, and anger that she associated with the powerful. She envisioned frugal peasants working together in community. The farmer Kawate Bunjiro (1814-83) founded the Konkokyo sect in Bitchu. He made pilgrimages to the Shinto shrine at Ise in 1830 and 1846. He believed he was transformed into a kami of love and took the name Konko Daijin in 1859. He also gave up all his possessions. Konko emphasized August intelligence (oshirase), but he advised rejecting the clever learning of society. He said that by listening and understanding, the body would become a reservoir and agent for the intention of the divine. He disapproved of religious austerities and said that eating and drinking are important for the body. Konko also recommended relieving and helping others in need. Mutual help is what makes humans different from other species. He exalted women and said they are close to the gods. Konko emphasized the importance of farming and doing one's household duties. Tokugawa Nariaki (1800-60) had become Mito daimyo in 1829. He was influenced by Aizawa Seishisai's ideas to revere the emperor and repel the barbarians. After the Oshio rebellion in 1837 and especially after learning of the British Opium Wars against China in 1840, Nariaki and his Confucian adviser Fujita Toko (1806-55) implemented reforms in Mito by conducting a land survey, realigning tax quotas, using new agricultural techniques, and recalling samurai from Edo.
Choshu had a huge debt of 85,000 kan of silver and troubles since the peasant uprising of 1831. Murata Seifu was appointed in 1840 and relieved the peasants with a new land survey and a more equitable tax. The domain's debt was adjusted to allow payments over a longer period of time. The Choshu government sold its monopoly rights on salt, sake, cotton, and other products to merchant guilds. Shipping for the Ryuku trade provided funds to buy western equipment and improve defenses. Zusho Hirosato in Satsuma told creditors that the domain's debt of 70,000 kan or five million ryo would be paid off over 250 years without interest. Satsuma established a sugar monopoly and made enormous profits in Osaka. They also made high profits by trading illegally with the Luchu Islands. Both Choshu and Satsuma used the mercantilist methods of commercial profits and military capability. Many of the 264 domains reformed themselves economically and began to provide their own defenses. The Shogun headed the Bakufu government that was six times larger than the largest daimyo, but their territory was scattered over most of Japan. Uprisings in their areas had occurred in Gunnai in 1836, in Osaka, Edo, and Kashiwazaki in 1837, and in Sado in 1838. The Dutch scholar Takano Nagahide (1804-50) wrote a pamphlet in 1838 opposing the exclusion policy and suggesting the advantages of foreign trade. When Watanabe Noboru (Kwazan), a talented poet and painter, was summoned by a magistrate in 1839, he warned Takano, who refused to hide and was sentenced to life imprisonment. Takano later escaped during a fire in 1844 but committed hara-kiri after killing a police officer in 1850. Kwazan was also imprisoned and committed suicide in 1841 in order to protect his feudal lord. Takashima Shuhan (1798-1866) sent a memorial to the Nagasaki governor urging military reform, but this was criticized by Torii Yozo, who was the son of the official Confucian scholar Hayashi Jussai. Torii was a chief magistrate in Edo; he hated anything foreign and was called the Demon. After Takashima's successful demonstration of guns in 1841, Torii had him arrested, tried, and imprisoned. In 1840 Hirose Tanso wrote Cirumlocutions (Ugen) criticizing the corruption of the daimyos and samurai class. Mizuno Tadakuni (1793-1851) had become senior councilor (roju) in 1834. Even though Shogun Ienari had retired in 1837, his control prevented Bakufu reforms until his death in 1841. Then Shogun Ieyoshi (r. 1837-53) let Mizuno govern. He dismissed a thousand officials and issued new sumptuary laws. Female hairdressers could get one hundred days in jail, and in 1842 restaurants and teahouses were closed for allowing lewd behavior. Erotic and heretical books were banned, and publishers had to submit writing for prior approval. This censorship caused the arrest of the comic writer Tamenaga Shunsui (1790-1843), and he died in prison after his hands were cut off. The celebrated actor Danjuro VII was arrested and was not pardoned until 1849, and actor Nakamura Tomijuro died in exile. Takashima Shuhan urged adopting western military technology, and in 1842 Egawa Hidetatsu was assigned to train one hundred musketeers. Three daimyos were ordered to exchange their domains, but for the first time they were allowed to refuse.
Mizuno Tadakuni tried to have more land reclaimed and make peasants return to farms. Ninomiya Sontoku was consulted on agriculture, and most of the officials in eastern Japan were dismissed. The monopolies that the Bakufu had licensed were abolished, but the commercial associations were eventually reinstated in 1851. Mizuno decreed a 20% decrease in prices, wages, and rents; but in the confusion prices went even higher. After another recoinage he compelled seven hundred merchants in Edo, Osaka, Kyoto, and other cities to loan the Bakufu two million ryo to the Bakufu treasury. To refurbish Tokugawa prestige he made a costly procession to Nikko in 1843. Money changers were ordered not to handle copper coins minted in the domains nor local paper currency, and daimyos were required to surrender farmland around Edo. After officials learned about the Opium Wars and the Treaty of Nanjing, Sato Nobuhiro, who had been banished from Edo in 1832, was allowed to return. In 1843 the restrictions on using western artillery were removed. Nariaki believed that Mizuno was more corrupt than Tanuma Okitsugu, but Nariaki was confined in 1844. That year angry crowds attacked the residence of Mizuno, and he resigned. He was investigated and reinstated for a few months, and then most of his property was confiscated while he remained under house arrest. In 1845 Torii Yozo was accused of corruption and sent into exile. Abe Mashiro replaced Mizuno, and he held conferences to discuss the high prices, financial problems, and the concerns of defense and foreign policy. In 1845 Fujita Toko wrote a book to apply the lessons of the Chinese Opium Wars and recommended first repelling the barbarian and then opening the country. He advised national unity by cultivating loyalty to the Emperor. In 1848 the French warship Samarang negotiated with the Luchu Islands, and Satsuma purchased weapons from the French, a violation of the 1639 exclusion laws.
In 1850 Japan established its first modern blast furnaces in Saga and four years later in Satsuma. By 1853 a hundred cannons were in place around Edo Bay, but the next year the Americans noted that their small caliber was not formidable. After Torii's exile, in 1846 Takashima was released to a mild house arrest. After Perry's first visit in 1853 Takashima was pardoned and appointed the Bakufu's maker of ordinance. That year 15,000 peasants rebelled in the Nambu domain demanding equality.
The American merchant ship Morrison had entered Edo Bay in 1837 to deliver Japanese castaways and had been driven off by Uraga batteries. In 1842 Mizuno canceled the order to fire on all foreign ships. In 1844 the Dutch envoy at Nagasaki brought a letter for the Shogun warning that modern technology and international trends were making it impossible for Japan to resist foreign trade. American whaling ships needed ports for supplies. In 1846 Commodore Biddle with two American vessels was also turned away. In 1852 United States President Millard Fillmore sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry to open up Japan. In July 1853 Perry anchored off Uraga and insisted on delivering a letter from President Fillmore before leaving and promising to return the following year with more ships.
Sakuma Shozan (1811-64) studied the Confucian classics under Sato Issai in the Hayashi school, but he was influenced by the intuitive philosophy of Wang Yangming that united knowledge and action. Sakuma served Sanada Yukitsura, who in 1841 was put in charge of Japan's coastal defenses. A few months after Wei Yuan had recommended western learning for China in 1842, Sakuma wrote a similar proposal for Japanese maritime defense. Sakuma studied gunnery with Takashima Shuhan and Egawa Tan'an, and he submitted an eight-point program to Sanada that included equipping strategic fortifications with artillery, suspending the export of copper so that it could be used in guns, building large merchant ships, supervising maritime trade, building modern warships and training naval officers, establishing widespread schools for men and women, making governmental rewards and punishments clear, and employing men based on ability. Sakuma studied Dutch, and with an encyclopedia he learned how to use chemicals to cast cannon and small arms in 1848. His friend Yoshida Shoin stowed away on one of Perry's ships in 1854. Both were arrested, and after a year in jail they were kept in domiciliary confinement. Sakuma became a proponent of opening the country and called for the union of the civil and military government. He was released in 1862 and was on a mission to the Kyoto court in 1864 when he was assassinated by an enemy of the reconciliation. Sakuma made famous the slogan, "Eastern ethics and western science." He wrote about his thoughts in prison, but because of his criticism of the current regime it was not published until after 1867. He noted how mathematics is the basis of science and advanced military tactics. He recommended combining the objective scientific techniques on the material side of life with the spiritual ethics. Yoshida Shoin wrote on leadership, emphasizing the importance of will and determination. He advised openly expressing one's resentments and anger straightforwardly to clear the air. In addition to studying history he learned about conditions in the world in order to see the trends so that they could be rectified first in one's own domain, then in others. Yoshida observed that most people are selfish and indulge their desires, but he called on grass-roots heroes to rise up.
Yokoi Shonan (1809-68) led the Practical Party and favored western science, but he was resented by traditional physicians. He urged Japan to prosper by using mercantilist methods, and he advocated a strong navy. In his 1860 book Kokuze sanron he criticized Tokugawa despotism. He defined leadership as what helps the public interest. He believed that agriculture is the basis of prosperity but argued that a market system was needed to regulate exchange and the distribution of products. He admired the political model of the United States and proposed that a federal system could provide unity while allowing for domain interests.
During the crisis of 1853 Abe Masahiro sent out letters to all the daimyos asking their advice. Most wanted to reject Perry's request; some advised conciliation; Nariaki and seven others recommended military action; and only Ii Naosuke and one other were for opening up to foreign trade. In March 1854 at Kanagawa both Abe and Perry compromised on a treaty that opened up the ports at Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships. In the next twenty months Japan made similar agreements with the British, Russians, and Dutch. Abe appointed Nariaki commissioner of national defense, and he removed the limits on han military defenses. While improving national defense, this put the Bakufu in greater internal danger. For the first time in the Tokugawa era the imperial court at Kyoto issued a major order to melt down temple bells for guns. In 1855 a naval training school with Dutch instructors opened at Nagasaki while modern military training began at Edo. The next year a new translation bureau for western books was established. New village schools (terakoya) were opening in large numbers at this time. The United States envoy Townsend Harris was allowed to meet the Shogun in person in December 1857, and the new roju chairman Hotta Masayoshi negotiated a trade treaty with Harris in 1858. Its fourteen provisions called for diplomatic relations and trade with a conventional tariff at Kanagawa (Yokohama), Nagasaki, Niigata, and Hyogo as well as at Shimoda and Hakodate. Foreigners could reside in Osaka and Edo, and extraterritorial jurisdiction was granted. In 1860 a mission of eighty samurai officials went to the United States to ratify the treaty, and others went to Europe in 1862 and 1863.
In 1858 Shogun Iesada died without an heir. Powerful Ii Naosuke favored Tokugawa Yoshitomi of Kii, but others supported Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu (Keiki), son of Nariaki who appealed to the imperial court. The roju named Ii Naosuke tairo. He signed the American treaty without consulting the Emperor and made Yoshitomi shogun. The new treaty took effect in July 1859, and foreigners began arriving. The Bakufu purged many of its enemies, beheading Yoshida Shoin in October 1859. In 1860 those wanting to "expel the barbarians" began making terrorist attacks on foreigners. Nariaki was blamed and punished, but in revenge Mito and Satsuma clansmen assassinated Ii Naosuke at an Edo castle gate in March 1860. The imperial court approved continued threats against the Bakufu, and samurai attacked the American and British legations. In 1862 the roju chief Ando Nobumasa was critically wounded. A bodyguard of the Satsuma daimyo killed an Englishman named Richardson, and in retaliation the British shelled Kagoshima and burned the city. As a concession in 1862 Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu was made regent of the Shogun, and the next year the Shogun went to the court of Kyoto for the first time since Iemitsu went there with 300,000 troops in 1634.
In 1863 Choshu samurai attacked foreigners in Yokohama and burned the British legation. Later that year Choshu batteries bombarded American, French, and Dutch ships in the Shimonoseki Straits, but in 1864 these allies and the British destroyed Choshu's coastal batteries to reopen the straits. The Choshu forces tried to protect the Emperor from the Bakufu by taking over Kyoto, but Satsuma and other clans helped the Bakufu defeat them. However, when the Bakufu tried to destroy the Choshu clan, Satsuma gave them military aid. In November 1865 nine allied ships entered Hyogo Bay and forced the Bakufu officials at Osaka to make the Emperor sign the treaties. In March 1866 daimyo agents Saigo Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi of Satsuma made a secret alliance with Kido Koin and Takasugi Shinsaku of Choshu. The Shogun found the vassals were not supporting the attack on Choshu, and the Bakufu suffered a significant defeat in July 1866. Shogun Iemochi died in August at Osaka. Yoshinobu Keiki succeeded him and appealed for unity. Emperor Komei died in February 1867 and was succeeded by his 14-year-old son Mutsuhito. The French minister Leon Roches had been trying to prop up the Bakufu in Edo since 1864 by using French administrative methods, but these were too little and too late. In 1866 a government edict banned plays about thieves and prostitutes. The actor Kodanji was ill, got worse, and died; but the playwright Mokuami (1816-93), whose popular plays had portrayed robbers, blackmailers, and swindlers as heroes, decided to turn to historical plays.
In November 1867 Shogun Keiki agreed to resign and be prime minister under the Emperor and a daimyo council, and the Tokugawa house was to retain its lands. Satsuma and Choshu leaders did not accept this, and on January 3, 1868 their forces joined by Echizen, Owari, Tosa, and Aki seized the palace and proclaimed the restoration of the Emperor and the Meiji era. A council that excluded the Tokugawa abolished the shogunate and confiscated their lands. Keiki accepted this and withdrew his troops to Osaka. Some of his commanders tried to retake Kyoto on January 27, but they were defeated by the Satsuma, Choshu, and Tosa forces. Prince Arisugawa was put in command of a new imperial army, made up of mostly Satsuma and Choshu forces, that marched on Edo, where Keiki peacefully surrendered. Some Tokugawa forces held out north of Edo until they capitulated in November. Yokoi Shonan was murdered in February 1869. The shogunate navy retreated to Hokkaido but surrendered in May 1869.
Meiji Restoration 1868-75
After the restoration of the Emperor and proclamation of the Meiji era in January 1868, the city of Edo changed its name to Tokyo, meaning eastern capital, and became the seat of the new government. Faced with foreign threats and the need to reform the Bakufu government, the Japanese nation rallied around the Emperor with the slogan "to prosper the state and strengthen the armed forces" (fukoku-kyohei). About two dozen young intellectuals with good Confucian educations, mostly from Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa, Hizen, and the imperial court provided the leadership that made this revolutionary transition with little violence. The Meiji leaders wanted to apply western science and technology while keeping to their ethical traditions. In 1868 the territories of the Tokugawa house were reorganized as prefectures and municipalities with new governors. The Choshu samurai Kido Koin persuaded the daimyos of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa, and Hizen to return their domain titles to the Emperor. The two princes Iwakura Tomomi and Sanjo Sanetomi provided civilian authority under the 15-year-old Emperor.
In March 1868 delegates from all the domains formed an assembly, and the next month they agreed to the following charter oath that was drafted by Yuri Kimimasa, Fukuoka Kotei, and Kido Koin: 1. An assembly widely convoked shall be established, and all matters of state shall be decided by public discussion.2. All classes high and low shall unite in vigorously promoting the economy and welfare of the nation.3. All civil and military officials and the common people as well shall be allowed to fulfill their aspirations so that there may be no discontent among them.4. Base customs of former times shall be abandoned, and all actions shall conform to the principles of international justice.5. Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world, and thus shall be strengthened the foundation of the imperial polity. Fukuoka and Soejima Taneomi began working on a constitution that was hastily completed by June. The central organ of government was called the Dajokan, and it had legislative, executive, and judicial branches. A Justice Department was established for the separation of powers, and the Legislative Department was bicameral with an upper Council and an ineffective lower Assembly made up of han representatives. The other departments were Executive, Shinto, Finance, War, Foreign Affairs, Civil Affairs, Public Works, and Education. All officials were to be changed after serving four years, and they had to pay one-thirtieth of their salaries as tax.
In early 1869 the Emperor moved to the capital Tokyo. Income from the Tokugawa lands was already financing half of the government's expenditures. Omura Masujiro was put in charge of the War Department. He founded military schools and arsenals, but his request for conscription was denied. Omura was assassinated in 1869, and he was replaced by Yamagata Aritomo from Choshu. By 1871 the old han guards had been nationalized, and the Imperial Guard had 10,000 men drawn from the armies of Satsuma, Choshu, and Tosa. The Conscription Act in January 1873 required all twenty-year-old males to register for military service. Men were liable for three years active service plus four years in the reserves. Exceptions included family heads, heirs, and some professions, or one could pay 270 yen to be exempt. An army of 46,000 was planned, but at first men were drafted in Tokyo. This system effectively erased the social distinction between samurai and commoners. In promulgating the ordinance Yamagata noted that the occidentals called this obligation a "blood tax." Some farmers resisted, and there were nearly thirty rural uprisings a year during this period.
After a secret meeting of the leaders in August 1871 the old domains (han) were reorganized as 72 prefectures and three municipalities with new governors. Most of the daimyos of the 273 han domains were retired on pensions along with their armies and guards. The daimyos were ordered to move with their families to the capital. The central government confiscated the castle headquarters of the daimyos, and the old han debts and paper currencies were taken over by the new government. The collection of taxes continued, and to make a more accurate census the entire country was divided into uniform squares called ku. However, local administration based on these units failed and was abolished in 1877. The Tokyo government hired many of the former samurai and capable village headmen. Assemblies were also formed by the prefectures, districts, and villages; but they were primarily for debate while the central government had the power. In 1871 Kido started a weekly newspaper to explain why feudalism was being abolished. That year the sale of girls as prostitutes or geishas was banned. Ito Hirobumi and Okuma Shigenobu changed the currency to a decimal system with the yen as the standard coin and equivalent of the United States dollar. The han debts amounted to 78,130,000 yen, and the pension obligations for the daimyos and samurai were 190 million yen in bonds and 200 million in currency. A new banking system was modeled after the United States Federal Reserve, and England loaned Japan 2.4 million pounds. By 1873 the land tax gave the new government financial stability. Taxes were now paid directly to the central government by individuals based on the value of the land instead of the crop. Certificates of ownership were issued to those who had paid the taxes before, but common lands were taken over by the government. Wealthy landlords owned much of the land; in 1873 a quarter of the land was worked by tenant farmers, and this increased in the years ahead. In 1874 the land tax provided 83% of the government's revenue. An effort to get samurai voluntarily to accept smaller pensions failed and provoked rebellions. In 1869 the system of four social classes was simplified into kwazoku (daimyos and courtiers), shizoku (samurai and soldiers), and heimin or commoners (everyone else); but soon the distinction between soldiers and commoners disappeared as commoners were allowed to use surnames and change their occupations and residences. After 1871 samurai and commoners were allowed to intermarry. In 1872 some peasants rioted against abolishing the classification of pariahs (eta and hinin). The next year some objected to the new Gregorian calendar and changes in dress. In Tottori peasants destroyed official buildings and schools because they feared higher taxes. Ex-samurai were allowed to marry nobles, and they retained less than half their previous stipends as pensions. Samurai were no longer required to wear swords, and the topknot was abandoned for short hair. In 1872 Iwakura Tomomi led a mission of forty officials to the United States and Europe in order to revise what they considered the "unequal treaties" of 1858 so that they could raise import and export duties; but this effort failed because all the "most favored nations" would not agree. They hired foreign experts, and by 1875 the Japanese government had five hundred foreign advisers. David Murray of Rutgers helped Japan develop an elementary school system, and in 1872 the Education Ordinance mandated modern elementary education, proclaiming, "Learning is the key to success in life."17 Erasmus P. Smith advised Japan's foreign minister Soejima Taneomi on diplomatic technology. The British provided technical expertise on railways, telegraphy, and public works. The Japanese navy was based on British models, while its army used French instructors. Gustave Boissonade recommended French legal codes, and Italian painters and sculptors taught art. Western communities were established in Yokohama, Kobe, and other ports with their own churches, schools, and hospitals. Many Japanese took quickly to western technology and styles. Even Christian missionary activity was permitted in 1873. That year Mori Arinori founded the Meirokusha to promote education. One of the proponents of this "civilization and enlightenment" was Fukuzawa Yukichi (1834-1901), who had spent several years in America and Europe since 1860. He published Conditions in the Western World (Seiyo-jijo) in 1866, Encouragement of Learning (Gakumon no susume) in 1872, and Outline of Civilization (Bunmeiron no gairyaku) in 1875. He argued that heaven created no person above another, and he called for liberation through courage and intellect. In 1871 Nakamura Masanao translated Self-Help by Samuel Smiles and John Stuart Mill's On Liberty. Smiles taught that heaven helps those who help themselves. In 1872 the Mainichi in Yokohama became Japan's first daily newspaper, and by 1875 Japan had more than a hundred periodicals. Nakamura argued that western technology and art were hollow without Christianity, and Nishima Jo, after studying in the United States, founded the Doshisha as a Christian college.
In 1871 Japan made a commercial treaty on equal terms with China, and the next year the Japanese asserted their control over the Ryukyu Islands. While Okubo Toshimichi, Iwakura Tomomi, and other leaders were traveling abroad in 1873, a decision was made to threaten Korea with war. Saigo Takamori volunteered to go to Korea as an envoy, knowing he would probably be put to death, in order to provoke a war. After returning from abroad, Iwakura argued that confronting the Russian threat was more pressing, and Okubo persuaded them that internal reform and economic growth were more important. They did send a naval expedition with 3,000 samurai to Taiwan in 1874 in retaliation for its aborigines killing Ryukyuan sailors. Nonetheless Saigo, Itagaki Taisuke, Eto Shimpei, Goto Shojiro, and Soejima left the government in protest. They formed the Public Party of Patriots (Aikokukoto) and petitioned for an elective assembly in January 1874. Itagaki argued that the people who pay taxes have a right to share in the government's decisions by electing a council. Princes Sanjo and Iwakura remained in the highest offices, and Okubo, Ito, and Okuma held important positions. Kido Koin opposed radical changes and the attack on Taiwan and so also withdrew from the government. Enomoto Takeaki was imprisoned for proclaiming a republic in Hokkaido, but in 1872 he was released to go to St. Petersburg for negotiations. The Japanese evacuated Sakhalin, and in the 1875 treaty Russia ceded the Kurile Islands to Japan.
Shima Yoshitake was the head of the Party of Patriots (Yukokuto). The Attack Korea Party (Seikanto) enrolled a thousand members in December 1874, and two months later Shima and Eto Shimpei, who had chaired the translation committee that coined the term minken for civil rights, agreed to lead them in a hopeless cause. Eto led 2,500 Hizen samurai in the revolt that was easily suppressed by an expeditionary force and garrison troops led by Okubo; Eto and other leaders were executed, and about a hundred were sentenced to three or more years in prison. Saigo had declined to join them. He and Shimazu Hisamitsu had been refusing to cooperate with the modernizing program in Satsuma since 1870. Saigo established a system of private military academies in Satsuma. After the government prohibited the wearing of swords in public, in 1877 Saigo led a major rebellion in Satsuma with 22,000 samurai; 65,000 troops and six months were needed to quell the revolt. About 18,000 rebels were killed, and the imperial forces lost about 6,000 killed and 10,000 wounded; Saigo committed suicide. The historian Sansom considered this event the final demise of feudalism in Japan after six centuries. The Satsuma rebellion cost the new government 42 million yen, which was eighty percent of its budget for that year. In 1875 at a meeting in Osaka a group led by Itagaki formed an opposition party called the Association of Patriots (Aikokusha). When Okubo promised gradual progress, Itagaki, Goto, and Kido rejoined the government. Enforcement of the Press Law of 1875 curtailed free expression and resulted in the jailing of editors. Kido persuaded Okubo to accept the idea of representative government, and a Senate (Genroin) was appointed to draft a constitution. A Supreme Court (Daishin-in) was also established in 1875.
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1. Education
Discuss in my forum
The Coase Theorem
The Coase Theorem, developed by economist Ronald Coase, states that, when conflicting property rights occur, bargaining between the parties involved will lead to an efficient outcome regardless of which party is ultimately awarded the property rights, as long as the transaction costs associated with bargaining are negligible. Specifically, the Coase Theorem states that "if trade in an externality is possible and there are no transaction costs, bargaining will lead to an efficient outcome regardless of the initial allocation of property rights.”
The Coase Theorem is most easily explained via an example. It's pretty clear that noise pollution fits the typical definition of an externality, since noise pollution from a factory, a loud garage band, or, say, a wind turbine potentially imposes a cost on people who are neither consumers nor producers of these items. (Technically, this externality comes about because it's not well defined who owns the noise spectrum.) In the case of the wind turbine, for example, it's efficient to let the turbine make noise if the value of operating the turbine is greater than the noise cost imposed on those who live near the turbine. On the other hand, it's efficient to shut the turbine down if the value of operating the turbine is less than the noise cost imposed on nearby residents.
Since the potential rights and desires of the turbine company and the hoseholds are clearly in conflict, it is entirely possible that the two parties will end up in court to figure out whose rights take precedence. In this instance, the court could either decide that the turbine company has the right to operate at the expense of the nearby households, or it could decide that the households have the right to quiet at the expense of the turbine company's operations. Coase's main thesis is that the decision that is reached regarding the assignment of property rights has no bearing on whether the turbines continue to operate in the area as long as the parties can bargain without cost.
Why is this? Let's say for the sake of argument that it's efficient to have the turbines operating in the area, i.e. that the value to the company of operating the turbines is greater than the cost imposed on the households. Put another way, this means that the turbine company would be willing to pay the households more to stay in business than the households would be willing to pay the turbine company to shut down. If the court decides that the households have a right to quiet, the turbine company will probably turn around and compensate the households in exchange for letting the turbines operate. Because the turbines are worth more to the company than quiet is worth to the households, there is some offer that will be acceptable to both parties, and the turbines will keep running. On the other hand, if the court decides that the company has the right to operate the turbines, the turbines will stay in business and no money will change hands. This is simply because the households aren't willing to pay enough to convince the turbine company to cease operation.
In summary, the assignment of rights in our example above didn't affect the ultimate outcome once the opportunity to bargain was introduced, but the property rights did affect the transfers of money between the two parties. This scenario is actually pretty realistic- for example, in 2010, Caithness Energy offered households near its turbines in Eastern Oregon $5,000 each to not complain about the noise that the turbines generated. It's most likely the case that, in this scenario, the value of operating the turbines was in fact greater to the company than the value of quiet was to the households, and it was probably easier for the company to proactively offer compensation to the households than it would have been to get the courts involved.
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Answer the following questions according to the passage "THE ORIGIN OF DADAISM".
In several places at nearly the same time--in Zurich, Barcelona, and New York in 1916 and 1917--a number of artists stated their disgust with the World War and life in general by making works of nonart. These artists inspired a movement that spread quickly through Europe, especially France and Germany, where it appealed to the respective national moods of disillusion in the Pyrrhic victory and despair in defeat. This movement continued even after 1918 then the war had ended. Christened Dada, a nonsense or baby talk term, it indicated the conviction that European culture had lost any real meaning. Those who professed to respect the art of the past had been unable, after all, to prevent the holocaust of World War I and were now eagerly destroying one another.
Dada has often been called nihilistic, for its declared purposewas indeed to make clear to the public that all established values, moral or aesthetic, had been rendered (made) meaningless by the catastrophe of the great war. The artists, refugees from the war set out in their bitterness to mock all the values of what they believed to be a culture gone mad. "Dada," said one of its historians "was born from what it hated." Since the artists' intentions were fundamentally nihilistic, Dada works are best approached with their creators avowed (admitted) spirit of non-art or even anti-art in mind: "Dada is against everything, even Dada"--that is, against all that had become organized, formalized.
One of the central figures of the Dadaist movement was the French painter Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968). After basing his early style on the French painter Cezanne, he had initiated a dynamic version of facet Cubism, similar to Futurism, by superimposing successive phases of movement on each other, as in multiple-exposure photography (Fig. 1). The mechanized mass killing of the First World War, however, drove him to despair, so that all his creativity took up Dada themes. Probably Duchamp's best known work that reflects his critical attitude is L.H.O.O.Q.(Fig. 2) , a print of the Mona Lisa upon which he drew a moustache as if defacing a billboard.
The public was shocked--as Duchamp intended it to be--and interpreted the defacement as an outrage upon the Mona Lisa itself; we can now see that Duchamp's intention was rather an indirect and witty attack upon those he felt had betrayed the humanistic ideals of the Renaissance, of which the Mona Lisa remains one of the noblest expressions. Yet not even modern art was safe from the Dadaists' "assaults": one Dadaist exhibited a stuffed toy monkey nailed to a door and called it Portrait of Cêzanne....
Playfulness and spontaneity were also the impulses behind Duchamp's Ready-Mades, common everyday objects, like a snow shovel or a bicycle wheel (Fig. 3), which normally have only utilitarian value. When they appeared in the context of an exhibition, they were elevated to the status of "art." They were certainly extreme demonstrations of a principle, but the principle itself--that artistic creation depends neither on established rules nor on manual craftsmanship--was an important discovery.
Hans (Jean) Arp (1887-1966), another early member of the movement, invented a new kind of collage whose elements--colored pieces of paper that had been shaped by tearing rather than by cutting--were arranged "according to the laws of chance." (Fig.4) Arp started these compositions by dropping the bits of paper on a large sheet, and then cautiously adjusting these "natural" configurations. The artist's task, he believed, was to "court the Muse of Chance," eliciting from her what he called "organic concretions" (he disliked the term abstraction, which to him implied discipline and conscious purpose, rather than reliance on the happy accident).
Since the Dadaists claimed that they were not creating art, itis perhaps unfair to examine their works in a critical spirit. True, the only law respected by the Dadaists was, as they claimed, that of chance, and the only reality, that of their own imaginations. Yet, it may be argued that Dada was not a completely negative movement. In its calculated irrationality there was also liberation, a voyage into unknown provinces of the creative mind.
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Honor Special People
Citizenship, Art
Students design a postage stamp to honor a special person. Students identify people who have made a difference, analyze why people commemorate others, and describe ways individuals can help others.
1. Look at stamps that honor special people.
2. Make a list of people who are special to you.
3. Pick one person to honor.
4. Design a postage stamp that shows why that person is special.
Share Your Postage Stamp with Others!
Activity Search | Reading Center | Math Center | Social Studies Center
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Copyright © 1998 Houghton Mifflin Company. All Rights Reserved.
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The Little Engine That Could
The Little Engine that Could, also known as The Pony Engine, is a moralistic children's story that appeared in the United States of America. The book is used to teach children the value of optimism and hard work. Some critics would contend that the book is a metaphor for the American dream.
The tale with its easy-to-grasp moral has become a classic children's story and was adapted in 1991 as a 30-minute animated film produced in Wales and co-financed in Wales and the USA. The film named the famous little engine 'Tillie' and expanded the narrative into a larger story of self-discovery.
The little engine is a famous Anthropomorphic locomotive like Thomas the Tank Engine and Ivor the Engine, though she predates both the other characters. The best known incarnation of the story The Little Engine That Could is attributed to "Watty Piper", a pseudonym used by publishing house Platt & Munk. With illustrations by the esteemed Lois Lenski, this retelling of the tale The Pony Engine appeared in 1930. The first edition attributes Mabel C. Bragg as the originating author. However, Mabel C. Bragg, a school teacher in Boston, Massachusetts, never claimed to have originated the story. Indeed, The Pony Engine, which first appeared in the Kindergarten Review in 1910, was written by Mary C. Jacobs (1877-1970).
But a much briefer, prior version of the tale appeared under the title Thinking One Can in 1906, in Wellsprings for Young People, a Sunday school publication. This version reappeared in a 1910 publication by the Daughters of the American Revolution. Its text reads:
In 1954, Platt & Munk published a now familiar version of The Little Engine That Could (pictured), with slightly revised language and new, more colorful illustrations by George and Doris Hauman.
An early edition of this story appeared in the six-volume Bookhouse Books, which were copyrighted in the UK in 1920 and sold in the U.S. via door-to-door salespersons. Although this version contained no author attribution, it was edited by Olive B. Miller and published in Chicago. The Bookhouse version began, "Once there was a Train-of-Cars, and she was flying merrily across the country with a load of Christmas toys for the children who lived way over on the other side of the mountain."
The story of the little engine has been told and retold many times. The underlying theme however is the same - a stranded train is unable to find an engine willing to take it on over difficult terrain to its destination. Only the little blue engine is willing to try, and while repeating the mantra "I think I can, I think I can" overcomes a seemingly impossible task.
Later versions would revamp the story to have a more specific appeal for children - the stranded train is recast as a train of good food and anthropomorphic toys for the children across the mountain, thus in saving the train the little engine seems to be working for the benefit of the child reader, making the successful deed all the more triumphant.
In these versions another character appeared and remained a key part of the story hereafter - the clown ringleader of the toys who attempts to find help with several locomotives but is rebuffed. The number of engines in the story also eventually became standard across the various tellings; the happy locomotive on the toy train who breaks down and cannot go on, the pompous passenger engine who considers himself too grand for the task, the powerful freight engine who views himself as too important, and the elderly engine who lacks either the strength or determination to help the toys. The little blue engine always appears last and although perhaps reluctant (some editions have the engine clarify her role as a switcher not suited for road-work), always rises to the occasion and saves the day for the children over the mountain.
Curiously each engine is defined by its appearance or function, and is not given a name or personality beyond its role on the railroad. It is only in the 1991 film adaption that the engines' personalities are expanded on, including the granting of names; Farnsworth (the express engine), Pete (the freight engine), Georgia (the friendly engine of the toy-train), Jebediah (the elderly engine) and Tillie, the titular 'little engine that could'. The clown was also named 'Rollo' and a sixth engine character, 'Doc', appeared briefly to recover the broken-down Georgia and thus tie up the hanging story-thread of what happened to the failed engine of the toy-train, which all other versions leave unaddressed.
"Little Engine" toys and Rail Tours
A full-size replica of the Little Engine That Could makes an annual circuit around the United States. Arranged through Rail Events, Inc., a number of tourist and museum railroad operations host the 'I Think I Can' Rail Tour. The replica was constructed in 2005 by the Strasburg Railroad. Strasburg also constructed the Thomas The Tank Engine replicas that tour throughout the United States.
American toy company Whittle Shortline produces wooden toy trains of The Little Engine That Could as a domestic alternative to Thomas the Tank Engine. Maxim Enterprise held the license prior to 2006. The toys have proven to be popular, with the recent (as of June 2007) announcement of Thomas the Tank Engine toys containing lead. Many parents have expressed outrage at the news of the lead-tainted toys and have bought "Little Engine" toys as an alternative.
The engine's chant of "I-think-I-can-I-think-I-can" was included in part of the train scene in Dumbo.
This book was chosen by "Jumpstart Read for the Record" to be read worldwide to tens of thousands of children on August 24th, 2006.
In the Watty Piper retelling, the engine that breaks down and Little Engine That Could are female, while all of the engines that refuse to help are male.
The Little Engine is based on the C. P. Huntington locomotive with a 4-2-4 wheel arrangement.
The Little Engine is referenced by DC hardcore band Dag Nasty in their song 'The Godfather' from the groundbreaking album Wig Out At Denko's.
Shel Silverstein wrote a poem called "The Little Blue Engine" that referenced this story, except in the end the engine crashed, and the poem ended with the memorable line "If the track is tough and the hill is rough, THINKING you can just ain't enough!"
Mickey's Young Readers Library had an adaptation titled Goofy Goes to the Fair, in which Goofy's friends have to ride with him in his car Old Faithful, in the role of the engine, to the fair.
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The Hippocratic Oath
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The return of the Hippocratic oath
The link between doctors and the Holocaust shocked the medical profession. Strict rules were written to avoid future abuses. The Hippocratic oath, underlining the sanctity of human life, was rediscovered by medical schools worldwide. It became an ethics guideline for new practitioners.
Contemporary dilemmas
The reintroduction of the oath has been problematic. Medical ethics are complex. They must balance patient expectations, social demands and taboos, economic and political realities, and evolving medical and scientific knowledge.For instance, the original oath required patients to be cured regardless of circumstances. However, using placebos in double-blind trials, considered essential for drug development, means doctors do not attempt a cure. The original oath would also forbid triage. This is used during war or disasters when treatment is prioritised based on patients’ survival chances. Different medical care for patients with or without health insurance would be impossible. Some dangerous types of chemotherapy using toxic drugs in high doses would be disallowed. Finally, the original oath prohibits assisted euthanasia to relieve the suffering of patients with incurable conditions.
The Hippocratic oath today bears little resemblance to the original. Some medical schools, particularly in the United States, combine other oaths with modern rules to create a workable ethical model. Unlike the original, the new oath does not require that doctors swear it before they can practise. Instead, it is a code of practice, and a symbol for young doctors entering the profession and their commitment to healing.
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jump to: navigation, search
Etymology 1[edit]
From Middle English stoor, stour (large, powerful), from Old English stōr (large, great, strong, violent), from Proto-Germanic *stōraz, *stōrijaz (great, big, strong), from Proto-Indo-European *stār-, *stōr- (big, thick, old). Akin to Scots stour (tall, large, great, stout), Eastern Frisian stor (great, many), Low German stur (large), Danish and Swedish stor (large, great), Icelandic stórr (large, tall), Polish stary (old, ancient) and probably Albanian shtoj (I add, increase). Compare also stoor, steer.
Alternative forms[edit]
stour (comparative more stour, superlative most stour)
1. (Now chiefly dialectal) Tall; large; stout.
2. (Now chiefly dialectal) Strong; powerful; hardy; robust; sturdy.
O stronge lady stoor, what doest thou?--Chaucer.
3. (Now chiefly dialectal) Bold; audacious.
4. (Now chiefly dialectal) Rough in manner; stern; austere; ill-tempered.
5. (Now chiefly dialectal) (of a voice) Rough; hoarse; deep-toned; harsh.
6. (Now chiefly dialectal) (of land or cloth) Stiff; inflexible.
Derived terms[edit]
stour (comparative more stour, superlative most stour)
1. (Now chiefly dialectal) Severely; strongly.
Etymology 2[edit]
From Middle English stoure, stourre, from Old Norse staurr (a stake, pale), from Proto-Germanic *stauraz (pole, support), from Proto-Indo-European *stā- (to stand, place). Cognate with Icelandic staur (a stake, pole), Ancient Greek σταυρός (stauros, a stake, cross).
stour (plural stours)
1. A stake.
2. A round of a ladder.
3. A stave in the side of a wagon.
4. A large pole by which barges are propelled against the stream; a poy.
Etymology 3[edit]
From Middle English stour, stor (conflict) from Anglo-Norman estur (conflict, struggle), from Old French estour, estor, estorme, estourmie, estormie (battle, assault, conflict, tumult), from Frankish *sturm (storm, commotion, battle), from Proto-Germanic *sturmaz (storm). Akin to Old High German sturm (battle, storm). More at storm.
stour (plural stours)
1. (obsolete) An armed battle or conflict.
Then there began a passyng harde stoure, for the Romaynes ever wexed ever bygger.
• 1600, Edward Fairfax, The Jerusalem Delivered of Tasso, XII, xv:
This pair, who past have many a dreadful stour,
And proffer now to prove this venture stout,
Alone to this attempt let them go forth,
Alone than thousands of more price and worth.
2. (obsolete) A time of struggle or stress.
• 1590, Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene, I.ii:
3. (now dialectal) Tumult, commotion; confusion.
4. (dialect) A blowing or deposit of dust.
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Avoiding Common Mistakes with Adjectives and Adverbs
Some English adjectives and adverbs, for example, even, almost, only, just, nearly are very flexible and can be placed almost anywhere in a sentences. But it is very easy to make mistakes with these adverbs and adjectives. Where you place them can impact the meaning of your sentence.
Standardized tests often include sentences misusing these adjectives and adverbs. Keep your eyes open and double-check every sentence with even, almost, only, just, and nearly.
Placing even in a sentence
Even is one of the sneaky modifiers that can land any place in a sentence and change the meaning of what you’re saying. Take a look at this example:
It’s two hours before the grand opening of the school show. Lulu and George have been rehearsing for weeks. They know all the dances, and Lulu has only one faint bruise left from George’s tricky elbow maneuver. Suddenly, George’s evil twin Lester, mad with jealousy, “accidentally” places his foot in George’s path. George is down! His ankle is sprained! What will happen to the show?
• Possibility 1: Lulu shouts, “We can still go on! Even Lester knows the dances.”
• Possibility 2: Lulu shouts, “We can still go on! Lester even knows the dances.”
• Possibility 3: Lulu shouts, “We can still go on! Lester knows even the dances.”
What’s going on here? These three statements look almost the same, but they aren’t. Here’s what each one means:
• Possibility 1: Lulu surveys the fifteen boys gathered around George. She knows that any one of them could step in at a moment’s notice. After all, the dances are very easy. Even Lester, the clumsiest boy in the class, knows the dances. If even Lester can perform the role, it will be a piece of cake for everyone else.
• Possibility 2: Lulu surveys the fifteen boys gathered around George. It doesn’t look good. Most of them would be willing, but they’ve been busy learning other parts. There’s no time to teach them George’s role. Then she spies Lester. With a gasp, she realizes that Lester has been watching George every minute of rehearsal. Although the curtain will go up very soon, the show can still be saved. Lester doesn’t have to practice; he doesn’t have to learn something new. Lester even knows the dances.
• Possibility 3: The whole group looks at Lester almost as soon as George hits the floor. Yes, Lester knows the words. He’s been reciting George’s lines for weeks now, helping George learn the part. Yes, Lester can sing; everyone’s heard him. But what about the dances? There’s no time to teach him. Just then, Lester begins to twirl around the stage. Lulu sighs with relief. Lester knows even the dances. The show will go on!
So here’s the rule. Put even at the beginning of the comparison implied in the sentence.
Placing almost and nearly in a sentence
Almost and nearly are tricky descriptions. Here’s an example:
Last night Lulu wrote for almost (or nearly) an hour and then went rollerblading.
Last night Lulu almost (or nearly) wrote for an hour and then went rollerblading.
In the first sentence, Lulu wrote for 55 minutes and then stopped. In the second sentence, Lulu intended to write, but every time she sat down at the computer, she remembered that she hadn’t watered the plants, called her best friend Lola, made a sandwich, and so forth. After an hour of wasted time and without one word on the screen, she grabbed her rollerblades and left.
Almost and nearly begin the comparison. Lulu almost wrote (or nearly wrote), but she didn’t. Or Lulu wrote for almost an hour (or nearly an hour), but not for a whole hour.
Placing only and just in a sentence
If only the word only were simpler to understand! If everyone thought about the word just for just a minute. Like the other tricky words in this section, only and just change the meaning of the sentence every time their positions are altered. Here are examples of only and just in action:
Only (or just) Lex went to Iceland. (No one else went.)
Lex only went to Iceland. (He didn’t do anything else.)
Lex just went to Iceland. (The ink on his passport is still wet. Just may mean recently.)
Lex went only (or just) to Iceland. (He skipped Antarctica.)
Many people place only in front of a verb and assume that it applies to another idea in the sentence. A popular t-shirts slogans says, “My dad went to NYC and only bought me a lousy t-shirt.” The only should be in front of a lousy t-shirt because the sentence implies that Dad should have bought more — the Empire State Building, perhaps. The original wording describes a terrible trip: zoom in from the airport, buy a t-shirt, and zoom back home.
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CAIN Web Service
Symbols Used in Northern Ireland - Symbols Used by Both Traditions
[Key_Events] [Key_Issues] [CONFLICT_BACKGROUND]
BACKGROUND: [Acronyms] [Glossary] [NI Society] [Articles] [Chronologies] [Organisations] [CAIN_Bibliography] [Other_Bibliographies] [Research] [Photographs] [SYMBOLS] [Murals] [Maps] [Internet]
SYMBOLS: [Menu] [Essay] [Joint_Symbols] [Unionist_Loyalist] [Nationalist_Republican] [Flags] [Loyalist_Murals] [Republican_Murals] [Murals_Menu]
Text and Research: Dara Mulhern ... Page Design: Martin Melaugh
Symbols Used by Both Main Traditions in Northern Ireland
'Click' on images for full size and further information
Title: Red Hand of Ulster
Description: The Red Hand of Ulster is the official seal of the O'Neill family. It is believed to originate from a mythical tale wherein two chieftains were racing across a stretch of water in a bid to be the first to reach the land and claim it as his own. Realising his foe would touch the land first, one chieftain cut off his hand and threw it onto the shore, thereby claiming the land before his adversary reached it. The Red Hand is one of the only emblems in Northern Ireland used by both communities in Northern Ireland although it is more associated with the Protestant community. Catholics see it as representing the nine counties of Ulster while Protestants see it as representing the six counties of Northern Ireland. The Red Hand of Ulster appears on many murals and flags.
Title: Harp
Description: This ancient instrument has long symbolised the island of Ireland. It's Nationalist origins come from when Owen Roe O'Neill, a Gaelic Chieftain, adopted a green flag incorporating the harp. Being seen as a threat to the English invaders, playing the harp was banned, despite remaining on the royal insignia as representing Ireland in the growing British Empire. It was revived in Belfast in 1792, and was the prime symbol of the United Irishmen. The symbol of the harp also represents Loyalist Irishmen when it is surmounted by a crown and it is used in this form on, for example, the cap badges of the Royal Ulster Constabulary.
Title: Shamrock
Description: Legend has it that the shamrock was used by St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, to illustrate the Holy Trinity, hence its widespread use on St. Patrick's day on 17 March. It is one of Ireland's national emblems, and is used by mainly by the Nationalist tradition, but is also evident within the Unionist tradition, with bodies such as the Royal Irish Rangers wearing the Shamrock every St. Patrick's day.
Title: White Ribbon
Description: A number of symbols of peace have been used over the past thirty years by various organisations. Most recently those campaigning for peace have worn a white ribbon in their lapels. In the past white paper doves have been held aloft at peace demonstrations.
Title: Cú Chulainn
Description: Also known as the 'Hound of Ulster', or Setanta, this Celtic mythical figure can be found on both Republican and (more recently) Loyalist murals. Opposite he is shown dying against a pillar after he fought Queen Maeve's armies of Connaught, who were only sure he was dead after a raven landed on his shoulder. He embodies resilience against invaders, thus proving to be an apt figure for both Protestant and Catholic communities. This statue can be found in Dublin's General Post Office.
CAIN is based within the University of Ulster.
Last modified :
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A Fishy Memory
based on 12 ratings
Author: Randall Frost, Ph.D.
Grade Level: 6th - 12th; Type: Life Science
This project evaluates the abilities of goldfish to succeed at a task that requires the retention of learned behavior.
The goal is to have the student develop a hypothesis about the ability of goldfish to exhibit long-term memory.
Research Questions:
• Can goldfish be trained to show a preference for colors?
• Can goldfish use their experience with color training to successfully navigate a maze?
• How long do goldfish retain their memories from color training?
Attention span is the length of time that someone can concentrate on an idea or task.
Despite their reputations for being instinct-driven, fish appear to be highly intelligent. Studies have found, for example, that they have well developed social intelligences. For example, they cooperate to find food. They have the abilities to manipulate, punish, and reconcile. There have also been reports of fish using tools.
There are hundreds of varieties of goldfish, with the fish exhibiting a wide range of colorations and physical characteristics.
• Aquarium,
• Colored paper cups
• Several goldfish
• Fish food
• Plexiglas sheets
• Cutting tool
Materials can be found at a Wal-Mart type store, pet store, plastics store.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Cut the bottoms off two small red paper or plastic cups and one yellow one. The tops of the cups should have diameters of about 2.5 inches.
2. Float one red cup and one yellow cup on the top of the water in the aquarium.
3. Place food in the middle of the red cup. Do not put any food in the yellow one.
4. Continue doing this until the fish have learned to associate food with the red cup or have shown that they do not make a distinction between the cups.
5. Formulate a hypothesis about the ability of goldfish to display long term memory based on your experience training the fish.
6. Cut two Plexiglass sheets so that they fit tightly between the front and back panes of the aquarium.
7. Cut a hole in each of the sheets. The hole should be just large enough to hold a cup snugly.
8. Insert a red cup into the holes of each of Plexiglas sheets, with the colored sides of the cups facing in the same direction.
9. Place the two Plexiglas sheets in the tank so that they divide the aquarium into three equal parts.
10. Place the fish at one end of the maze so that they will swim toward the colored portions of the cups.
11. Measure the times required for the fish to traverse the partitions.
Reward the fish with food when they succeed in navigating the maze.
1. Evaluate your hypothesis in light of your findings. If necessary revise it and perform additional tests.
Days in color training
Number of fish completing maze
Time to pass through first partion
Time to pass through second partition
Terms/Concepts: Goldfish; Attention; Instinct; Memory
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Court Art of Benin
This fact sheet looks at court art from the city of Benin in southern Nigeria. In 1897, a British military force embarked on a mission to capture the city of Benin. The reason given by the British for the expedition was the murder of members of a British trade delegation. The British brought back thousands of objects, some of which are on loan to the Pitt Rivers Museum.
Benin’s art is royal art. It was made to glorify the divine king, or Oba, and to honour great kings of the past. It is primarily made of cast brass and ivory.
Leopard's head, Benin
Pendant mask representing a leopard’s
head, Benin; 1965.9.1 B
In Benin animals are symbols of deities or cults. Some represent the power of the Oba (King). The objects from Benin in the Museum feature images of fish, snakes, leopards, and crocodiles. They are not just on plaques but on bracelets and other objects too.
In Benin cosmology the leopard is a symbol of royal power. At one time leopards were sacrificed to ensure the well-being of the kingdom. In the seventeenth century the Oba kept tame leopards that he led about in chains when he paraded through the city. This showed his power and domination over the ‘King of the Bush’.
Ivory armelt, Benin
Ivory armlet inlaid with brass and carved with mudfish and heads
of Europeans, Benin; 1991.13.26
Crocodiles are called the ‘policemen of the waters’. They are associated with Olokun, the god of waters. The crocodile is feared for its ferocity. It represents the Oba because it has the power to take human life. In earlier times the Oba had the power to sentence his subjects to death.
Snakes symbolize the power of Osun, the god of nature. The python is also a symbol of Olokun, the god of water. It is said that pythons are sent by Olokun to punish wrongdoing.
There are many types of fish in Benin art. The mudfish is a symbol of peace, prosperity, and fertility. Because the mudfish lives close to the riverbank it symbolizes the Oba’s position between mortal men (on the land) and the spirit world of Olokun, god of the water.
Materials and Kingship
Carved elephant tusk, Benin
Carved elephant tusk, Benin; 1991.13.2
Ivory is associated with the Oba. Only he had the most elaborately carved ivory. Because the material is so hard and durable, ivory represents the longevity of the Oba’s reign. Because the elephant is strong, it represents the Oba’s physical power. Because it is an expensive and luxurious material, it represents the Oba’s wealth.
Because ivory is white it is also a symbol of purity. Tusks would have been bleached with citrus juice and rubbed with chalk to keep them white.
Ceremonial sword, Benin
Ada, ceremonial sword, sheathed in coral beadwork.
Aside from a sword like this one, the Oba would also
have owned ceremonial garments – a headdress,
fly whisk, and jewellery, all of coral beadwork.
Benin; 1991.13.17
Most ‘Benin bronzes’ are actually made of brass. At one time brass was rare and expensive. It was a material favoured by the Oba and he adorned his palace with it. Because it never corrodes or rusts brass represents the permanence and continuity of kingship. The brass from Benin on display in the Museum has dulled over time. When it was new it would have been a very shiny reddish colour. These qualities are considered both threatening and beautiful and are symbolic of the Oba.
Coral is another important royal material. It was made into beads like those covering this sword. Possession of the royal coral beads determines who sits on the throne. They are the emblems of kingship. The royal coral beads also possess a mystical power. It is said that any proclamations or curses the Oba makes when holding them will come to pass.
Palace Plaques and the Oba
Cast brass plaque of three men
Cast brass plaque of three men. The figure in the
middle is carrying a leather or bark box called an
ekpokin used for ceremonial presentations. The
warriors on either side of him are wearing collars
of leopards’ teeth around their necks. Leopards’
teeth were believed to give the warriors spiritual
protection in battle. Benin; 1991.13.8
Brass plaques once adorned the Oba’s palace. The Oba is considered to be the descendant of a god, and therefore divine. It is said that unlike mortal men he does not eat or sleep. He has great mystical power, and is an object of reverence, awe, and fear.
The Oba is often depicted wearing a crown, necklaces, and garments made of coral beads. Similar coral regalia is still worn by the Oba today. The royal coral beads are spiritually powerful and are the emblems of kingship.
Until the end of the nineteenth century the Oba was the primary patron of the arts. He commissioned work for the palace, for altars, rituals, and ceremonies. The brass-casters guild made the plaques. The ivory-carvers guild made ivory objects. There were other guilds including those for iron-workers, weavers, and wood-carvers. They were rewarded with gifts of food, slaves, and wives. They also enjoyed high social status. Today, the craft guilds of Benin still make objects for the Oba, and for use in rituals and ceremonies. They also make objects for sale.
Ancestral Heads and Altars
Altarpiece dedicated to the Queen Mother
Altarpiece dedicated to the Queen Mother.
The figure of the queen mother – she is dressed
in coral regalia befitting only the most
high-ranking chiefs. Benin; 1991.13.25
In Benin, families maintain altars dedicated to their male ancestors. The only woman to have an altar erected after her death is the Oba’s mother. This square brass altarpiece was dedicated to the Oba’s mother and would have been placed in the middle of her altar. She is the largest figure at the back surrounded by attendants. The hole in the middle is for offerings of kola nuts.
The Museum also holds several ancestral, commemorative heads, which were placed on altars as a way of honouring the deceased and contacting their spirit. The head and representations of the head are an important part of ritual and belief in Benin. The head is the seat of thought, judgement, and character. Ancestral heads are made of different materials depending on the political and occupational status of the owner. Brass heads would only be placed on a royal altar, wooden heads on a chief’s altar, and terracotta heads on a brass-caster’s altar.
Wooden commemorative head
Wooden commemorative head,
Benin; 1970.16.1
A wooden commemorative head is pictured on the right. Such heads are one of the main features of a chief’s altar. They differ from royal examples by being made of wood, rather than brass, and by the feather carved on one side of the headdress. Feathers were worn by chiefs as a mark of status. The heads have a hole in the top that was intended to hold a large carved ivory tusk. When positioned in this way, the tusk represents ede, a protrusion from the head that links the human and spiritual worlds.
Further Reading
BEN-AMOS, PAULA, The Art of Benin, London: British Museum Press (1995).
EZRA, KATE, Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992).
DUCHÂTEAU, ARNAUD, Benin: Royal Art of Africa, New York/London: Prestel (1994).
The objects featured in this introductory guide can be found at the following location:
Lower Gallery (first floor) - Case 26A - Court Art of Benin
Introductory guide compiled by:
Jennifer Peck, Project Assistant, DCF Redisplay Project, 2002
revised by: Bryony Reid, Senior Project Assistant (Interpretation)
DCF What’s Upstairs?, 2005Benin introductory guide
Download pdf of the Benin introductory guide
(to view pdf files Acrobat Reader is required)
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Haga clic para acercar la cubierta de Turbine Technology libro de fotografías
Native Americans gather knowledge from their observations of nature. This project was filled with wonder and curiosity from our natural world while engaging authentic scientific inquiry through the physics of wind. Our community constructed their first wind turbine positioned at the local high school. Elementary students learned along with their mentor high school students the need to harvest renewable energy from the wind. Multiage groups explored weather patterns that create wind, took data from their classroom weather station, and measured wind speed with anemometers. Students used their engineering skills as they designed a tower and built a wind turbine with their own blade design. This process cultivated an understanding of the scientific process as it transmitted awareness of the new technology located in our community. Using teamwork and collaboration, the students experienced how energy is generated through their designer windmills.
Acerca del autor
Fecha de publicación 08 de mayo de 2009
Dimensiones Vertical estándar 34 páginas Papel estándar
Categoría Educación
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Sitios de Blurb
© 2014 Blurb
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Sciency websites
From Abracadabra to Zombies
In a nutshell: Ghosts are spirits of dead people. Scientists have tried for centuries to prove ghosts exist. The evidence for ghosts includes photos, eyewitness accounts, and performers who say they are getting messages from ghosts to pass on to people. Scientists don't think much of this evidence.
Ghosts are spirits of dead people. Most people who believe in spirits think they are not physical but yet are able to do things that people can do, like see, hear, move around, and make sounds. Can something that isn't a body do the same kinds of things that bodies can do? It doesn't seem possible, yet many people say they've seen ghosts and talked to them. Others say that ghosts exist only in the imagination. Some say that ghosts exist and they are physical, but we don't know what they're made of. One thing is certain: there are lots of ghost stories.
ghost stories
One favorite kind of ghost story has ghosts haunting houses, graveyards, or old buildings. Some people say they can "feel" the presence of ghosts, but it is hard to tell whether such people just feel weird because they expect a ghost to be there. Others say they feel it getting colder in spots where ghosts hang out. Many say they hear strange creaking noises or other sounds they think are signs of ghosts.
ghost photopgraphyThese people are not imagining things. Most hauntings happen in old buildings, which tend to be drafty. Scientists who have gone to haunted places to study them say that the temperature changes and the sounds are probably caused by such things as empty spaces behind walls or wind currents set in motion by low frequency sound waves (infrasound) produced by fans. (Elephants communicate over distances of several miles by infrasound, which can be felt but not heard by humans, and which can be measured by sound recorders. Infrasound waves can be felt and cause things to vibrate, which might make some people think there are ghosts present. They see something moving but don't see anything making it move.)
Scientists investigating haunted houses have also found that many ghost noises are made by animals such as squirrels, birds, and rats. Other sounds are made by the wind blowing through cracks or holes.
why do ghosts show up only at night or in dark places?
Why should ghosts care whether it is day or night? They don't have to work or go to bed early so they'll be fresh for school the next day. Maybe it's easier for people to find the source of a weird sound or sight in broad daylight. People see more ghosts at night because people can't see what might really be going on.
It's usually cooler and breezier at night. Many things make creaking noises as they cool down. The breezes can make scary sounds and move things. The imagination is more likely to run wild in the dark than in the sunlight. Things always seem more mysterious at night. Many people are afraid of the dark because they can't see what's really going on around them. Fear is fuel for the imagination.
talking to ghosts
Some people try to talk to ghosts by getting together around a table in a dark room. They call such a meeting a séance. The leader of the séance is called a medium. A medium is someone who says he can get ghosts to come to the room to give signs to living people that the ghost is real. These meetings never take place in broad daylight. Scientists who have looked into séances say that they are held in the dark because it is easier to trick people that way. The medium or his assistant can produce objects, move things, or make noises and speak in a mysterious voice, while the others can't see what anyone is doing. Many mediums have been caught cheating.
Séances were popular for a long time, but today many people who say they are mediums don't use any props and they work on a stage. They don't have their ghosts ring bells or float things across the room, as was done in many séances. Today's mediums just say things, claim they are getting messages from the dead, and wait for others to make sense out of what they say. A medium might say to an audience "somebody's grandmother is here." It is up to people in the audience to figure out what the medium means. One person might be young and think the medium means that his grandmother's ghost is in the room. Another might be old and think he means her granddaughter's ghost is in the room. If one of the people in the room speaks up, the medium will say something else and wait for the person to make sense out of it. Scientists call this process of making sense out of questions or statements raised by a total stranger subjective validation. Many people come away from such meetings believing they have been in contact with the ghost of a loved one. Many others think the medium is just playing with people's emotions and isn't getting any messages from the dead.
What does science have to say about today's mediums? Some have been studied and caught cheating, but it is impossible to prove that dead people aren't making noises that some mediums hear. We have the mediums' word for it, but if they are cheating their word is worthless.
Poltergeists are ghosts that cause all kinds of trouble around the house. The word poltergeist means literally "noisy spirit." These ghosts break things, throw things around, make all kinds of noises, and sometimes even start fires. Investigators of poltergeists have found that some of the most famous cases have been due not to ghosts, but to unhappy or bored teenagers. One famous case was found to be due to the wind blowing down through a chimney.
Investigators of poltergeists have found that some items that people think move on their own are actually thrown. People often think they see what they did not actually see. Also, the shape of our outer ear makes it hard for us to locate the precise source of a sound.
In one famous poltergeist case, if the investigators weren't looking for it and didn't have a camera on her, they might never have found out that a teenage girl was knocking things over and claiming that they just jumped to the floor.
photographs of ghosts
Many people have photographs that look like ghosts are in them. Some of these "ghosts" are reflections of light off the camera lens. Some are not. When you take a picture using film that has already been used to take a picture, you get both pictures combined into one. If you know how to develop photographs you can print one picture on top of another and make the two pictures look like one. These days it is easy to make ghost photos. You just buy a program for your computer like Photoshop and have some fun.
Houdini, wife, and uninvited guest
people who see ghosts
If you think you've seen a ghost, you are not alone. Many people think they've seen ghosts. Seeing a ghost can be quite scary. Most likely what happens when a person sees a ghost is that the brain takes whatever fuzzy information it gets from the eyes, ears, and other senses and thinks there is some sort of being out there that is intentionally moving the way it is or making the sounds it is making. We call beings that can direct their own movements intentional agents. It is common for humans to think that objects that are not agents, such as branches of trees moving in the wind, are intentional agents when they're not. Once you know that what you saw and heard was the wind blowing some branches, you stop thinking of ghosts. But if you never get a chance to see clearly what it was that your brain turned into a ghost, you can't be sure that what you saw wasn't a ghost. What you saw, though, was probably created by your imagination. You might say that when you are scared by seeing a ghost, you are scaring yourself. Why? Because your brain is probably fooling you and you are not seeing a real ghost out there in real space. Anyway, that is what the science tells us.
Last updated 18-Aug-2011
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Bag - BIHO 27
Basket - NEPE 2333 Projectile Points - NEPE 2405 - 2471
Nimiipuu oral history records their presence in Nez Perce country since time immemorial. Archeological evidence indicates that peoples have occupied the Plateau culture area of the Northwest for at least the last 11,000 years.
According to legend, the world before humans was inhabited by animals that possessed human traits. The primary animal was It’se-ye-ye [Coyote], who at times had superhuman powers. The Nimiipuu creation story reveals that when a monster began to consume the animals, Coyote tricked the monster into swallowing him. While in the monster’s stomach, he killed the monster and set the animals free. Coyote carved the monster into pieces, and scattered the parts throughout the land, where they became the various tribes. It’se-ye-ye left the heart of the monster near Kamiah, Idaho and sprinkled blood around the surrounding countryside, and created the Nimiipuu, the Nez Perce people. These stories provided instruction in Nimiipuu culture, and often conveyed moral teachings and practical information.
The Nimiipuu have been part of this land for countless generations. Their traditional homeland occupied nearly 13 million acres in what is today Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The earliest peoples lived in small groups and family units. They were mostly reliant on big game hunting as a primary means of subsistence. Starting around 6,000 years ago, many aspects of the historic Nez Perce way of life began to appear in the region. This included the use of much broader base of locally abundant plant, fish, and game resources.
Bag - NEPE 1029 Basket - NEPE 143 Thumb Scraper - NEPE 3000 Necklace - NEPE 3062 Mortar - NEPE 55 Pipe - NEPE 90 Stone Tools - NEPE 6386, 6387, 6390 Slide Show
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MIA: Encyclopedia of Marxism: Glossary of People
Plato (428-347 BCE)
Disciple of Socrates, objective idealist, fought against the materialist teachings of his time. Plato developed the theory of existence of immaterial forms of objects which he called "forms" (or "ideas"). To Plato, the sensible world is the product of these "forms", which are eternal, while sensible objects are transient and changeable.
See Hegel on Plato.
Plekhanov, Georgi Valentinovich (1856-1918)
Born November 29, 1856; died May 17, 1918. One of the founders of the first Marxist organisation in Russia: the Emancipation of Labour group, Plekhanov had at one time been a member of the Peoples Will party. After the dissolution of the Emancipation of Labour group, Plekhanov later joined the Russian Social-Democratic party, becomming a Menshevik after the split in the party.
Plekhanov studied in the St. Petersburg Konstantinovskoe Military school, but later transfered to the Mining Institute. While attending university Plekhanov became involved with Narodnaia Volia, the People's Will revolutionary party. After his second year in school, Plekhanov dropped out to devote himself entirely to revolutionary work. Despite the Narodnaia Volia's aim towards the emancipation of the peasantry, Plekhanov focused on organising the emerging Russian proletariat; Plekhanov understood, with the help of the writings of Marx and Engels, that only through the proletariat could Socialism be achieved.
The political differences between Plekhanov and the People's Will group, in addition to its adoptation of terrorism after several failed attempts to rally the peasantry to revolution, caused Plekhanov to split off from the group and form a smaller group continuing the old methodolgy of going to the people and agitating. By 1880, hounded by the Tsarist Okhanara, Plekhanov fled Russia, not returning until the General Amnesty granted by the Provisional Government, in 1917.
In 1882, while in exile, Plekhanov rendered a Russian translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party, with a preface written by Marx and Engels, replacing the first translation that had been made in 1869 by the anarchist Bakunin, which had translation flaws. In 1883 Plekhanov helped form the first Russian Marxist organisation: the Emancipation of Labour group. Plekhanov renewed his struggle against Narodism, pointing out flaws in revolutionary appeals to the Russian peasantry alone, and flaws in the tactics of terrorism, being the opposite of mass action; a requirment for Socialist revolution.
Throughout the 1890s the influence of the Emancipation of Labour group on Russia's proletariat, through smuggling pamphlets into the country, built up a revolutionary following within Russia, enabling the party to be engaged in labour and union struggles in Russia. This upsurge of labour union activity, guided by the principles of Marxism which had been translated and distributed into Russia by the Emancipation of Labour group, gave rise to the Russian Social-Democratic Party, in 1898. The unity of this party Plekhanov would spend the rest of his life defending, save for when the Soviet Government was established, when he disavowed the left half of the party: the Bolsheviks.
In the late 1800s, one of Plekhanov's most passionate supporters was Vladimir Lenin. Lenin admired Plekhanov as the founder of Russian Marxism and strove to master the revolutionary activity and party building Plekhanov had begun. In 1900, when Lenin founded Iskra, Plekhanov wrote for the paper, and together, they supported proletarian revolution backed by Marxist theory while attacking revisionists such as Eduard Bernstein.
By the time of the split in the R.S.D.L.P., Lenin and Plekhanov came head to head, never to theoretically meet again. Plekhanov wrote a book entitled, What is not to be Done, explaining that the party should not split, that, "rather than having a split, it is better to put a bullet in one's brain". Lenin, on the other hand, emphasised the importance of a split, in order to develop the different trends and opinions in the revolutionary movement. The party did split during the Second Congress, forming the Bolshevik and Menshevik parties; of which Plekhanov ultimately sided with the Mensheviks.
Plekhanov theoretical position was that Russia's proletariat should be sent to the battlefields against the Russian autocracy, and after having overthrown it, they should work to establish a bourgeois government. This would allow the proletariat to grow to a great size, while so too did the bourgeoisie, allowing a bigger proletariat class to overthrow the now more powerful bourgeoisie, believing that the proletariat would eventually overpower the bourgeois government. Plekhanov stressed that Russia must pass through genuine capitalistic development, in order for the conditions and tools to be built to enable a Socialist revolution to occur.
During the Russian Revolution of 1905, Plekhanov's theories were shown to be incorrect in many respects, most prominently in his negligence towards the revolutionary strength of Russia's peasantry. Instead of revising his theories in accord with the new developments of history, Plekhanov stuck to them and defended them admist a now much larger chorus of attackers: his theories were rapidly being discarded into the dustbin of history.
During the first World War, Plekhanov took what Lenin dubbed a social-chauvinist stance: that German victory would be disasterous for the world's proletariat, but an entente victory would be much better for the world's proletariat. Plekhanov supported the World War, while millions of Russian's were dying and refusing to fight, up until the Soviet government signed the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which horrified Plekhanov.
By the 1917 February Revolution, Plekhanov returned to Russia and gave his support to the Provisional government, claiming it to have established a truly bourgeois government. By the time of the October Revolution, Plekhanov was outraged, and fought to usurp the Soviet government, believing it premature.
See Plekhanov Archive.
Planson, A. A.
Popular Socialist, and member of the Central Executive Committee (First Convocation). A leader of Vikzhel–the All-Russia Executive Committee of the Railwaymen's Trade Union, an organisation run by the compromisers.
Pletnev, Valerian F. (1886-1942)
Old Bolshevik and president of the Central Committee of Proletcult, 1920 until 1932.
Plunkitt, George Washington (1842-1924)
Long-time Senator for New York, representing the Fifteenth Assembly District, he was renowned as a representative of “Tammany Hall,” the corrupt Democratic Party machine which ran New York throughout the late 19th century, based on the support of poor Irish workers.
Plunkitt was known for becoming wealthy based on what he frankly called “honest graft” in politics. He was considered a cynically honest practitioner of what today is generally known as “machine politics,” and an archetype accumulator of “social capital.” He was especially well known for making money by speculating in land he knew would later be bought by the State.
His views are somewhat comically set out in reports by journalist William. Riordon, of a series of interview evidently given from his shoe-shine stand outside the New York County Court-House.
See George Washington Plunkett Archive.
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www.canteach.ca Elementary Resources | Links | Submit | About
Home > Elementary Resources > Social Studies > Society and Culture
African Songs, Chants, and Games
Songs and dances are hard to transmit via the internet. Probably a good thing to do is to get a tape/CD of African folk songs for the music (Ladysmith Black Mambazo's "The Gift of the Tortoise" is great for REAL traditional songs). And there must be video tapes available through the libraries that have some folk dances from Africa? Trying to describe these things in typed medium is SO difficult, but, here goes:
Songs & Chants
Vusi Drives the Kombi
Vusi drives the kombi that takes us all to school.
We open all the windows so the air blows nice and cool.
He hoots when he fetches us, he hoots when he goes,
He hoots at the cows that are standing in the road.
Vusi drives the kombi that we all love to ride.
If you want to travel with us, there's lots of room inside!
note: a "kombi" [pronounced like "calm-bee"] is a small passenger van. These vehicles are used as taxis in South Africa. Most school children travel to school on these taxis. Vusi is a common Zulu name. Pronounced /voo-see/, it means "to lift up."
Walking Through Africa
Walking through Africa, what do I see?
I can see inyoka looking at me.
Walking through Africa, what do I see?
I can see ufudu looking at me.
Walking through Africa, what do I see?
I can see indlovu looking at me.
Walking through Africa, what do I see?
I can see ikhozi looking at me.
note: This is a Zulu chant the children "sing" while they stalk about. The translation would probably be closer to "walking through the bush...," but my children love to say Africa. I've translated all the words but the animals. These are as follows:
inyoka (een-yoh'-gkah) a snake
ufudu (oo-foo'-doo) a tortoise, /oo/ as in fool
indlovu (een-dloh'-voo) an elephant
ikhozi (ee-koh'zee) an eagle
Where Is the Rain
The giraffe and the elephant went for a walk.
They stopped in some shade and started to talk;
"I wish it would rain," said the giraffe with a sigh.
"I'm tired of watching the clouds pass us by!"
"Yes," said the elephant, "Where is the rain?
I wish I could eat fresh green leaves again.
The sun is so hot and the land is so dry;
When will the rain fall from the sky?"
Later in the day the sky turned grey,
The flying ants flew out to say,
"The rain is coming! We smell it in the air!
And in the distance, thunder we hear!"
The giraffe and the elephant looked up at the sky
And heard the black eagle give forth his cry,
"The rain has come, The rivers will flow;
The dry season is over; now the green grass will grow!"
note: Most rivers in Africa are dependent upon the rains. During the dry season they literally dry up and leave a brown, twisting snake-like path. The rainy season in KwaZulu is Summer time, when we get the most fantastic thunder storms imaginable. And these horrible flying ants always appear right before the first big storms!
Impuka nekati
Impuka nekati ziyawaleqana (repeat)
Zithi nyawu, nyawu, zithi nyawu, nyawu, nyawu (repeat)
note: This is an action chant. Children stand in a circle holding hands. One child is ikati (the cat) and another is impuku (the mouse). The cat starts outside the circle, the mouse starts inside. The cat chases the mouse in and out of the circle, weaving around each child. When the chant ends the cat and mouse choose a new cat and mouse. translation: The mouse and the cat are chasing around (repeat) They say, "meow, meow." They say, "meow, meow, meow!" (repeat) The direct translation into English seems a bit silly...we know the mouse doesn't say "meow," but in Zulu the sound of the language is more important than the accuracy of the meaning.
Lions Roar
Lions roar, eagles soar,
Leopards growl, cheetahs prowl,
Snakes slide, eagles glide,
Lizards crawl, jackals call,
Monkeys leap, snails creep,
Ants heap, fledgelings cheep,
Birds sing, wasps sting,
Pathers stalk, people talk.
Rain Song
Imvula, Imvula (eem-voo'-lah)
Chapha, chapha, chapha (c=click sound with tongue in back of Chapha,
chapha, chapha front teeth,like the sound of exasperation) (cah'-pah)
Imanz'impahla yam'
Imanz'impahla yam' (ee-mahn'zeem pah'hla yahm)
Gqum, Gqum, Liyaduduma (q=click made when pulling tongue down Gqum, gqum, liyaduduma from roof of mouth) (gqoom lee-yah doo'-mah)
Imanz'impahla yam'
Imanz'impahla yam'
note: this is a very old and traditional rain song. The translation goes like this:
"It's raining, it's raining
Chapha, chapha, chapha
Chapha, chapha, chapha (sound of the rain falling)
My clothes are getting wet,
My clothes are getting wet.
Gqum, Gqum (sound of the thunder)
There's the thunder!
Gqum, gqum,
There's the thunder!
My clothes are getting wet,
My clothes are getting wet!
Mbube, Mbube
Imbube is one of the Zulu words for "lion." "Mbube" is addressing the lion, calling to him. Sort of pronounced like: mboo'-bay. In this game the lion is stalking the impala (a southern African buck).
• All players form a circle.
• Two players start the game. One is the lion, one is the impala.
• Blindfold them both and spin them around. (Children used to just close their eyes, but the temptation to peek is so great!)
• Players in the circle start by calling the lion, "mbube, mbube!"
• The closer to the impala the lion gets the faster the chanting becomes. Likewise if the lion is far away the calling decreases, in volume as well as repetition.
• If the lion has not caught the impala within a minute a new lion is chosen. If the lion catches the impala, a new impala is chosen.
Ubuthi is poison (usually made from the berries of an indigenous bush). Umuthi, on the other hand, is medicine made from plants (usually tree bark). This game, so I am told, used to be "umuthi" and the players were meant to capture the muthi and bring it home to their family. It has been corrupted to ubuthi, steal the buthi and take it home.
• Players form a circle. One person is chose to be "sebi" (the thief).
• The sebi stands in the middle of the circle with the buthi. The sebi must shout another persons name.
• Both the sebi and the "muntu" (person) try to grab the buthi.
• The player who gets the buthi first then tries to reach the spot in the circle that the muntu vacated. The player who did not get the buthi tries to tag the runner.
• The sebi for the next round is the person who either successfully makes it back to the place in the circle without having been tagged and with the buthi, or the one who successfully tagged the other palyer.
A mamba is a big indigenous South African snake. There are green mambas and black mambas. Both are poisonous.
• One person is chosen as the mamba.
• An area on the playground is marked off (we usually make it 10x10 metres for 20 children).
• Everyone must stay within the marked off area. The object is to stay away from the mamba.
• At a signal the game begins.
• The snake tries to catch the players. When a player is caught that player joins the snake by placing his/her hands on the snakes shoulders or around the waist.
• Each new "catch" becomes another part of the snake's body, always adding to the snake's tail. (As the snake eats, it becomes bigger and bigger.)
• If a player leaves the designated area the player must sit down on the boundary and misses out the rest of the game.
• Only the "head" of the snake can catch new people. The snake can use its "body" to capture other players, as players may not pass between the snake's body parts.
• Game ends when all but one of the players have been caught. The last person caught becomes the next mamba!
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purge trials
Soviet trials of critics of Joseph Stalin. After the assassination of Sergey Kirov, prominent Bolsheviks were accused of conspiracy to remove Stalin from power. In three widely publicized show trials (1936–38), which presented confessions obtained under torture or fabricated by the secret police, the accused were found guilty and executed or sent to prison. Numerous closed, unpublicized trials of Soviet military leaders were also held and resulted in a massive purge throughout the armed forces. The trials eliminated such potential rivals and critics of Stalin as Nikolay Bukharin, Lev Kamenev, Aleksey Rykov, Mikhayl Tukhachevsky, Genrikh Yagoda, and Grigory Zinovyev but earned worldwide condemnation.
Learn more about purge trials with a free trial on Britannica.com.
In history and political science, to purge is to remove people considered by the group in power to be "undesirable" from a government, political party, a profession, or from community or society as a whole, often by violent means. Restoration of people from a purge is known as rehabilitation.
Historical use of the term
The earliest use of the term itself was the English Civil War's Pride's Purge. In 1648, the moderate members of the English Long Parliament were purged by the army. Parliament would suffer subsequent purges under the Commonwealth including the purge of the entire House of Lords. Counter-revolutionaries such as royalists were purged as well as more radical revolutionaries such as the Levellers. After the Restoration, obstinate republicans were purged while some fled to New England.
The term "purge" is often associated with the Stalinist and Maoist regimes. Those who were purged (among them artists, scientists, teachers, people in the military, but also many long-time communists who dared to disagree with the party leadership) were sent to labor camps or executed. The most notorious of CPSU purges was the Great Purge initiated by Joseph Stalin during the 1930s. Deng Xiaoping was known for the distinction of returning to power multiple times after surviving multiple purges.
After France's liberation by the Allies in 1944, purges were processed by the Free French and mostly the French Resistance against former collaborationnists, the so called vichystes. The legal term was known as épuration légale ("legal purge"). Similar processes in other countries and on other occasions were denazification and decommunization.
Purge in fiction
• In the Star Wars films, an event called Great Jedi Purge happened, when Sith Lord turned ruler of the galaxy Palpatine ordered his troops to chase and kill his enemy, the Jedi, under Order 66. Few survived the purge.
• In the TV series Lost, most DHARMA Initiative members were killed by a group they called "Hostiles" on an event called "The Purge" by Mikhail Bakunin.
• PURgE is the nickname for a guild of MMO players spread across the world. Purgatory, or PURgE was originally formed in the currently all but defunct MMO Star Wars Galaxies (SWG) in the summer of 2002. PURgE players can be found in Warhammer: Age of Reckoning, World of Warcraft, Lord of the Rings Online, Pirates of the Burning Sea, and Vanguard, just to name a few of the games with currently active PURgE guilds.
See also
Search another word or see purgeon Dictionary | Thesaurus |Spanish
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Raphides in Epipremnum Devil's ivy (600x magnification)
Raphides are needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate as the monohydrate or calcium carbonate as aragonite, found in more than 200 families of plants. Both ends are needle-like, but raphides tend to be blunt at one end and sharp at the other.
Calcium oxalate in plants[edit]
Raphides in Hypoestes phyllostachya, the polka dot plant
Many plants accumulate calcium oxalate crystals in response to surplus calcium, which is found throughout the natural environment. The crystals are produced in an intriguing variety of shapes. The crystal morphology depends on the taxonomic group of the plant. In one study of over 100 species, it was found that calcium oxalate accounted for 6.3% of plant dry weight. [1] Crystal morphology and the distribution of raphides (in roots or leaves or tubers etc.) is similar in same taxa but different in others leaving possible opportunities for plant key characteristics and systematic identification; mucilage in raphide containing cells makes light microscopy difficult, though. Little is known about the mechanisms of sequestration or indeed the reason for accumulation of raphides but it is most likely as a defense mechanism against herbivory. It has also been suggested that in some cases raphides may help form plant skeletal structure. Raphides typically occur in parenchyma cells in aerial organs especially the leaves, and are generally confined to the mesophyl. As the leaf area increases, so does the number of raphides, the process starting in even young leaves. The first indications that the cell will contain crystals is shown when the cells enlarge with a larger nucleus. [2]
Raphides are found in specialized plant cells or crystal chambers called idioblasts.[3] Electron micrographs have shown that raphide needle cystals are normally four sided or H-shaped (with a groove down both sides) or with a hexagonal cross section and some are barbed. Wattendorf (1976) suggested that all circular sectioned raphides, as visible in a light microscope, are probably hexagonal in cross section[4] Microscopy using polarized light shows bright opalescence with raphides.
Harmful effects[edit]
Raphides can produce severe toxic reactions by facilitating the passage of toxin through the herbivore's skin when the tissue containing the raphides also contains toxins. The lethal dose to mice is around 15 mg/kg.[5] Raphides seem to be a defense mechanism against plant predators,[6] as they are likely to tear and harm the soft tissues of the throat or esophagus of a plant predator chewing on the plant's leaves.[7][8] The venomous process is in two stages: mechanical pricking and injection of harmful protease. Typically ingestion of plants containing raphides, like those common in certain houseplants, can cause painful edema, vesicle formation and dysphagia accompanied by painful stinging and burning to the mouth and throat with symptoms occurring for up to two weeks.[9] Airway assessment and management are of the highest priority, as are extensive irrigation and analgesics in eye exposure.
Raphides cannot normally be destroyed by boiling; that requires an acidic environment or chemical solvents like ether, but heating raphide containing plant materials (like tubers) can fix the raphides into a dried starchy matrix so they are no longer mobile and thus less harmful. Some other plants store raphides in mucilaginous environments and also do not taste acrid.[10]
Plants containing raphides[edit]
Common names vary. The following list is incomplete. Raphides are found in many species in the families Araceae and Commelinaceae, but are found in a few species in a number of other families.
1. ^ Plant Cell 1999, Vol 11, 751–761, April 1999, http://www.plantcell.org
2. ^ Horner, H. T. Raphide Crystal Cell Development in leaves of 'Psychotria Punctata' 1972. 'Cell Science II 339-355 1972'
3. ^ Weber, R. A. (2007). Raphides, the cause of the acridity of certain plants. Scientific American Supplement. Retrieved online on 9 December 2009 from: http://chestofbooks.com/crafts/scientific-american/sup7/Raphides-The-Cause-Of-The-Acridity-Of-Certain-Plants.html
4. ^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/u34563mt055n767g/
5. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/pubmed/18533491
6. ^ Arnott, H. J., M. A, Webb (2000). Twinned Raphides of Calcium Oxalate in Grape (Vitis): Implications for Crystal Stability and Function. International Journal of Plant Sciences 161(1):133–142.
7. ^ ASPCA (2009). Taro. ASPCA official website: Animal Poison Control Center. Retrieved on 7 December 2009 from: http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/poison-control/plants/taro-1.html
8. ^ Wrongdiagnosis.com (2009). Plant poisoning – Calcium oxalate crystals. Wrongdiagnosis.com retrieved on 7 December 2009 from: http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/p/plant_poisoning_calcium_oxalate_crystals/intro.htm
See also[edit]
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Navigation path
The Euromosaic study
1. General description on the language group
.1.1. Geographical and language background
The Friulian-speaking area lies in north-eastern Italy on the Austrian and Slovenian border. It covers the Provinces of Udine, Pordenone and Gorizia in the Region of Friuli Venezia Giulia. Friulian is also spoken in the Province of Trieste.
Friulian is popularly referred to as eastern Ladin and is a member of the Romance subgroup of the Indo-European family of languages. The major dialects of Friulian are central Friulian, eastern Friulian, Carnian, Gortan, Asino and western Friulian. Slovenian, Italian and German are also spoken in the area.
Geographically, Friuli can be divided into three areas: in the south, a large plain extending to the sea, the mountainous region along the Slovenian border, and the northern area of the Carnian and Julian alps. This area, measuring only 7km2 displays widely differing land formations including high mountain peaks, lagoons, karst rocks and balkan rock in the Gulf of Trieste.
The area covering the three Provinces and the Region has a total population of 1 219 (1991: 1 192 456), which is distributed between the various Provinces and cities as follows:
The population, which can be classified as urban only in the cities of Udine and Pordenone, has declined by between 1% and 5% in recent decades.
According to the latest figures, 526 of the 1,219 inhabitants use Friulian on a daily basis, i.e. some 43% of the population (however, figures of 75% and 10% for those using Friulian occasionally are also quoted). In general, Friulian is spoken more frequently in rural areas, while its use in the major cities is on the decline, as shown by the following figures:
Total Pop.1,216,655635,277526,64949,9784,751
By age group, 67% of 18- to 30-year-olds, 82% of 31- to 40-year-olds, 86.5% of 41- to 60-year- olds and 93% of the over 60s have learnt Friulian as their first language.
Apart from the Friulians resident in the area, there are another 700 to 800 abroad, of whom some 400 still actively use Friulian. Industrial development in Friuli is fragmented and has taken place at a much slower pace than in the rest of Italy. The economy is generally based on small and medium-sized enterprises in the agricultural sector. People who are employed often work on their own farms or estates (maize, wine) as well. Despite this low-level industrial development, there has been a slight migration of workers from other areas of Italy, particularly in the centre and south of the Friulian-speaking area (in the electrical engineering, metalworking, chemical production, furniture production, foodstuffs, microelectronics, computing and tourism sectors). The cultural rediscovery of Friulian in the late 1960s (Movimento Friuli), which helped to revive a sense of separate identity as a result of political and cultural initiatives to preserve the language, was also accompanied by an improvement in the region's socio-economic status. 5.1% of the active population of 42.5% work in agriculture, 29.5% in industry, 59.6% in the service sector and 5.8% in other sectors.
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.1.2 General history of the region and the language group
Friulian originates from the Latin Aquileia, which was founded as a military colony in 181 BC. The Celtic population, which outnumbered the Romans, consequently used a bastardized form of Latin. The transformation from rural Latin to Friulian took place in the 6th century AD during a period of isolation from Italian cultural life as result of the creation of a separate duchy of Alboin and the Lombards. The first documents in Friulian began to appear in the 13th century. The vast majority of the population spoke Friulian until the 15th century, while the nobility and educated classes spoke Latin or German. After 1420, when Friuli came back under Italian rule, the Venetian dialect developed as the dominant language. The spread of the Venetian dialect and the increasing involvement of the region in Italian national cultural life have continued to have a negative effect on the characteristics of Friulian.
Friulian experienced a high point in its sense of linguistic identity in the 1950s, when two new grammar books, a description of the dialects and a history of the Friulian language were published. In the 1980s the ASLEF language atlas was completed. On the other hand, there is now talk of a crisis in the Friulian language, mainly due to the high level of tourism and the levelling tendencies of the media. Surveys by the Commission and ISIG (Language and Literature Association) show that Friulian is being replaced not only by the national language (Italian) but also by Venetian. The Friulian community was united rather tragically following the 1976 earthquake, when the media attributed common social qualities to the various Friulian groups which were seen as forming a bond between these groups. The administrative unification of the Friulian-speaking areas in 1961 led, however, to the emergence of organisations such as Moviment Autonomist Furlan, Int Furlan and Scuele libare furlane, dedicated to the preservation of Friulian language and culture. Other private organisations devoted to the defence of the Friulian language are Società Filologia Friulana, Pre Checo Placerean, Clape Cultural Aquilee, Institût di Studis Furlans, Union Scritôrs Furlans, La Patrie dal Friûl, Glesie Furlane and Radio Onde Furlane.
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.1.3 Legal status and official policies
Friulian is not officially recognised as a language but enjoys considerable unofficial support from the Friulian-speaking community. Over the last ten years in particular, the population has used all the means at its disposal to achieve administrative autonomy or at least to obtain unofficial recognition of Friulian. The only recognition given to the language is set out in Article of the regional Special Statutes for the Autonomous Regions of Italy:
"In the Region, all citizens shall receive equal treatment, irrespective of the language group to which they belong, and therefore their ethnic and cultural characteristics shall be preserved."
From the point of view of current support for Friulian, the regional authorities seem to be aware of their limited jurisdiction in this area, but have nevertheless issued a number of regulations on the protection and use of Friulian language and culture (Regional Law 68/1981). These cover the education system, studies and research, publishing, theatre, placenames and folklore. They provide, in particular, for protection and use of Friulian that is in keeping with the size of the Friulian-speaking population and the cultural potential inherent in this language.
According to the EUROMOSAIC Group's sources, the Italian government does not support the use of Friulian and in some cases discourages people from using the language.
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.2. Presence and use of the language in various fields
.2.1 Education
Friulian is not officially integrated into the education system and is recognised only under Regional Law 68 dating from 1981. Until 1876 most teachers spoke only Italian. From that time onwards, bilingual exercises and dictionaries were introduced for teachers since they had problems with children whose mother tongue was Friulian. In 1923, regional languages and culture were incorporated into the education system (Ministerial Decree of 111923). Under fascism, Friulian literature and music were supported and Friulians, as a Latin civilisation, were defended against Slav and German "barbarism". The 1934 primary education reforms encouraged all forms of tradition, folk music and traditional dress.
In the 1950s rules on primary education were modified again, and since then there have been no major changes. Since the 1950s, therefore, Friulian has been taught as an optional subject (onea week) in a few primary schools, while in secondary schools one hour a week has been taught since 1975, but only on an experimental basis.
Although the teaching of Friulian is essential if it is to be preserved, this generally poses rather difficult problems. While a descriptive grammar and teaching materials are available, there is no normative grammar. Standardised teaching would also make it necessary to choose one form of Friulian as a kind of lingua franca, which is difficult because of the various dialects.
Some 20% to 50% of teachers in the area speak Friulian, and Friulian is an optional subject in a few nursery schools and at the primary level of a very few schools (in some 10% of State schools but 80% of independent schools). At secondary level, Friulian is also taught in a few schools but never as a compulsory subject (in 8% of secondary schools there is about one hour a week of Friulian; this has been at an "official experimental stage" since the 1970s).
In higher education, the presence of Friulian is rapidly declining. "Friulian Language and Literature" is taught at the Universities of Udine and Trieste. Since 1975 there has been a Friulian course (not free of charge) for non-resident adults. There is no training for Friulian teachers, but a few cultural institutions offer courses for teachers in cooperation with the University of Udine.
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.2.2 Judicial authorities
Throughout the Friulian-speaking area, there are hardly any judges who can speak Friulian. Parties to the proceedings may, however, ask to be questioned in Friulian if they are monolingual. Legislative texts in Friulian are not always available either.
Hearings are conducted only in Italian, but witnesses can ask to be questioned in Friulian, in which case interpreters are available.
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.2.3 Public authorities and services
According to our sources, Friulian is not generally used by central or regional government agencies. Within regional government, there is no support for its possible use, but nor is it actually banned. The status of Friulian is somewhat better in local authorities. According to our sources, the existence of Friulian is acknowledged and its use is accepted and supported. In verbal communication, Friulian is frequently used in local authorities as well as in power stations, telephone shops, etc.
The use of Friulian in public and semi-public institutions is not usual although, if the officials themselves speak Friulian, the language is used in many institutions, particularly the post office. The utilities keep all forms, however, only in Friulian.
According to our sources, public signs are in Italian. Only in more remote regions and mountainous areas may signs be in both Italian and Friulian.
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.2.4 Mass media and information technology
As in public administration, Friulian has little status in the mass media.
There are no daily papers entirely in Friulian, for example, although the Messaggero Veneto and Gazzettino are published partly in Friulian.
The following periodicals are also published partly in Friulian: La Vita Cattolica, Voce Isontina, Friuli nel Mondo (journal of the Language and Literature Association), Patrie dal Friûl, Ce fastu (scientific journal), Sot la Nape (quarterly) and Strolic Furlan (yearbook).
The radio station RAIbroadcasts an arts programme entitled La specule in Friulian once a week. The private station Onde Furlane, which was set up in the late 1970s and has continued ever since without public funding, broadcasts 70 to 80 hours a week in Friulian to some 35 000 listeners. Leaving aside the establishment of the Onde Furlane station, which is heavily committed to the preservation of the Friulian language, there has been little change in the radio situation in the Friulian-speaking area over the last ten years.
The television station Tele Friuli broadcasts in Friulian once a week in the evenings. Otherwise there are no local stations, although there are bilingual programmes on the third channel of the public RAI-TV station.
In terms of the comprehensibility of Friulian in the mass media, slight problems arise as a result of the different versions of the language in the various mountain areas. There is no computer software in Friulian.
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.2.5 The Arts
In the last three years (1991-1993) 36 books have been published in Friulian in the following areas: children's books, poetry, stories, short novels and religious books. In general, literature has a special part to play in the preservation of Friulian as a minority language. Not only do unusually old texts exist (lyric poetry from the 13th century) but literary output has continued to the present day and is considered to be one of the finest and richest in Italy. Since the 19th century there have been publications of an academic nature (e.g. Dialettologia Friulana, G. Francescato, 1966, Studi linguistici sul friulano, G. Francescato, 1970, Saggi sul Ladino dolomitico e sul friulano, G.B. Pellegrini, 1972), a monolingual dictionary by Pirona-Carletti has been in existence since 1935, there are bilingual dictionaries by Pirona, Maria Tore Barbina, Nazzi and others, a language atlas has been in existence since 1972, a dictionary of placenames dates from 1979, and there is major literary output from the 17th century (Ermes di Coloredo) to the present day (Pier Paolo Pasolini).
There is very little pop music (the groups Fur Clap, Fale Curte and Mitili FLK) in the Friulian- speaking area, whereas folk music is very much alive in Friulian at the traditional festivals. The following groups perform traditional music: La Sedon Salvadie, Carantan, Libars Sunadors di Ruvigne, Liso e Gusto and Bande Zingare.
Since Friulian theatre was relaunched in the early 1980s, some 40 amateur groups have sprung up in the Friulian-speaking area. They are supervised by the umbrella association Associazione teatrale friulana di Udine.
Current official film output in Friulian by the RAI broadcasting company is the film Maria Zeff. Other films produced in the area are Prime di sere, Telefrico, El Poete des Pantianes and Mandi Tiere me. To celebrate the bicentenary of the birth of the Friulian poet Pietro Zorutt, a television film was produced by the Udine-based director Deganutti and a short film entitled Un Monumento a P. Zorutt - Poete dal Friûl was produced by the Gorizia-based Claudio Gasparutti and Eraldo Sgubin.
Apart from the cultural events Mostre dal Cine Furlan (CEC), Premi Friul (Onde Furlane) and Premio per Testi Teatrali, Gorizia holds an international folklore festival and an international choral singing competition at which Friulian culture occupies a major platform. In July 1994, Gorizia held an international folklore parade of local dance groups. These activities are generally regarded as very important for the preservation of the Friulian language and culture.
For a few years now, a literary prize has been awarded for works in Friulian. The Friulian Language and Literature Association has set up an exhibition entitled Friulian Culture: Past and Present, which was sponsored by the regional government. It was visited by 100 000 people in Passariano and is now touring the world. In 1980 the Association was awarded the Ossian prize for its contribution to the express rebuilding of Friulian culture. Its active support of the publishing industry led to over 10 000 works being published.
The Province of Udine, in collaboration with the Language and Literature Association, sponsored the Friulian Theatre Show, for which the Cultural Office of the Friuli Venezia Giulia Region made the necessary funds available to the Language and Literature Association.
It is said that the Italian government hardly supports any activities associated with the Friulian language and culture.
As yet there is no library solely for Friulian in the Friulian-speaking area, but there are plans to set one up. In this sense, central government does not pursue a cultural policy likely to support Friulian. Most language and cultural activities emanate from local authorities and not from cultural institutions. They are supported as far as possible by the provincial governments.
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.2.6 The Business World
When looking for work, it is an advantage to know Friulian. In most small and medium-sized enterprises in the Friulian-speaking area, only Friulian is spoken, particularly among manual workers. Friulian also enjoys a strong position in the agricultural sector.
In principle there is Friulian advertising in all areas of the mass media but, owing to the limited diffusion of the language in the media, it does not have the same influence as in other areas. There is, for example, advertising in Friulian on the private Onde Furlane station, where commercials for typical, traditional enterprises in particular are in Friulian.
Consumer information in the language is not banned but is hardly ever produced.
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.2.7 Family and social use of the language
Within the family, Friulian has been handed down less and less since the 1960s. The reasons for this are the strong presence of other languages, particularly Italian, in upper schools and the mass media (especially television). In rural areas, Friulian is used even more frequently as the family language; if children in these areas attend upper secondary schools, however, they gradually start to use Italian in everyday speech as well.
There seems to be a general downward trend in the use of Friulian as a family language. There is a slight increase in its use at work, in the street and in restaurants. Young couples normally speak to each other in Italian, particularly in urban areas. Only if Friulian is the everyday language in both families do couples also speak Friulian to each other. Some 80% of marriages take place between partners speaking the same language.
There is and has been no gender-based difference in passing on the language to children.
Outsiders unfamiliar with Friulian culture frequently regard Friulian speakers as inferior. In this context, Friulian is associated with rural life and isolation by the Italian-speaking community.
According to our sources, some 50% of Friulian-speakers regularly attend church. Some 70% of the clergy speak Friulian. Services are hardly ever held in Friulian, however, although this varies from one region to another. Ceremonies such as weddings or funerals are almost always held in Italian. Almost all liturgical texts have been translated into Friulian. The church has played an important role in endeavours to preserve the language in general. In 1966, the Moviment Friul was started with the help of local clergy. Since 1971, Friulian has been used in the liturgy. Local church initiatives can also be seen in the many public declarations in defence of the mother tongue which have been published and signed by priests and church members.
Speakers of Friulian are not very optimistic about the future of their language at present. For example, the use of Friulian amongst the younger generation has diminished considerably. This is mainly due to the language situation in schools, but also to the influence of the mass media and contact with other areas of Italy.
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.2.8 Transnational exchanges
There are still Friulian emigrant associations in various continents which try to remain in contact with the arts in the Friulian-speaking area. Since 1980, the touring exhibition entitled Friulian Culture: Past and Present, mentioned above, has been taken to the major emigrant associations in Switzerland, Canada, the United States, Venezuela, Argentina and Australia. The aim is to strengthen ties with the homeland and also to convey a cultural message to the host countries.
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.3. Conclusion
Although Friulian, with its 526,000 or so speakers, is the second largest minority language in Italy and has its own literature, the community is not very active. The continuing decline in the language is undoubtedly due to the inadequate use of Friulian in institutions despite the provisions of the Autonomous Statute of the Friuli Venezia Giulia Region and the inadequate use of the language in key social areas to which this leads.
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Grapevine beetle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Grapevine beetle
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scarabaeidae
Genus: Pelidnota
Species: P. punctata
Binomial name
Pelidnota punctata
(Linnaeus, 1758)
The grapevine beetle, Pelidnota punctata, also known as the spotted June beetle or the spotted pelidnota, is a species of beetle, a member of the subfamily Rutelinae of the Scarab beetle family. Grapevine beetles are common in the north and central United States and Eastern Canada, but do relatively little damage to their host plants. The beetles fly at a fast speed, usually in a curving flight.
The adult beetle is approximately 2.5 centimetres (1 inch) long, but can reach 3 cm (1.2 in) occasionally. Its pattern is off-yellow or auburn red, with three black spots running down each side. Fine black lines divide the edges of its elytra. At other times, the beetle may have been known as Pelidnota lutea. There are two different variations of Pelidnota punctata, the southern variation lacks the darker legs, while the northern variation has darker legs. As Philip Harpootlian points out, the grapevine beetle is a variable species — so much so that T.L. Casey named ten species and subspecies in 1915, names that were later merged back into Pelidnota punctata.[1]
Its color, shape, spots, and behavior sometimes lead it to be misidentified as a giant ladybug. While both are beetles, they are from different families.
Habitat and diet[edit]
The beetle lives in the eastern coast of North America, as well as Florida, Nebraska and north western Missouri, and has been found in central Indiana, South Dakota, Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, southeast Michigan, and southwestern Ontario. Also just found in northwestern Kentucky, Illinois, Maryland, New York, South Western Connecticut, western and eastern Pennsylvania, Northern Michigan, and eastern West Virginia. It lives, like many beetles, in forests, thickets, and woods, and is mostly seen during the summer. Active flyers, these beetles are commonly attracted to lights at night. It is also seen in vineyards and gardens.
The adult beetle eats the leaves and fruit of grapevines, both wild and cultivated, although it is not normally a major pest of vineyards.
Beetle eggs are laid in rotten wood, tree stumps, or on soil near the host plant, where they hatch into larvae. Larvae then dig their way into the soil, where they feed on rotted wood. Pupal chambers are built shallowly underground. The adults emerge in July.[2]
1. ^
2. ^ Milne, Lorus, and Margery Milne. 2000. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects and Spiders. New York: Knopf. 989 pp. ISBN 0-394-50763-0.
External links[edit]
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Ross seal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ross seal
Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii)
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Superfamily: Pinnipedia
Family: Phocidae
Subfamily: Monachinae
Tribe: Lobodontini
Genus: Ommatophoca
Species: O. rossii
Binomial name
Ommatophoca rossii
(Gray, 1844)
Ross Seal range
The Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii) is a true seal (family Phocidae) with a range confined entirely to the pack ice of Antarctica. It is the only species of the genus Ommatophoca. First described during James Clark Ross' British Antarctic Expedition in 1841, it is the smallest, least abundant and least well known of the Antarctic pinnipeds. Its distinctive features include disproportionately large eyes, whence its scientific name (Ommato- meaning "eye", and phoca meaning "seal"), and complex, trilling and siren-like vocalizations.
Taxonomy and evolution[edit]
The Ross seal shares a recent common ancestor with the other Antarctic seals, which are together known as the lobodontine seals. These include the crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga), leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) and Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli).[2] These species, collectively belonging to the Lobodontini tribe of seals, share teeth adaptations, including lobes and cusps useful for straining smaller prey items out of the water column. The ancestral Lobodontini likely diverged from its sister clade, Mirounga (elephant seals) in the late Miocene to early Pliocene, when they migrated southward and diversified rapidly in relative isolation around Antarctica.[2] However, the only fossil Ross seals so far known date from much later, during the early Pleistocene of New Zealand.[3]
Ross seals reach a length of about 1.68–2.09 m (5.5–6.9 ft) and weight of 129–216 kg (284–476 lb); females are slightly larger at 1.96–2.5 m (6.4–8.2 ft).[1] Pups are about 1 m and 16 kg at birth. The coat is colored dark-brown in the dorsal area and silvery-white beneath. At the onset of the Antarctic winter, the coat fades gradually to become light brown. At close range, the Ross seal can be easily identified by its large eyes, which are up to 7 cm in diameter.
Range and population status[edit]
Although Weddell seals, crabeater seals and leopard seals are ubiquitous in Antarctic waters, the Ross seal is an uncommon and relatively unknown animal, considered to be the least common pack ice seal. It almost never leaves the Antarctic Ocean, with the very rare exception of stray animals found around sub-Antarctic islands, and uniquely, off the south coast of Australia. Nonetheless, its distribution is circumpolar, with individuals found in low densities - usually singly - in very thick pack ice in all regions of the continent.
The total Ross seal population is estimated at around 130,000 individuals, but there is great uncertainty in this estimate (reported 95% confidence intervals range from 20,000 to 227,000).[5] Thus, very little is known about trends in the population.
Interactions with humans have been limited. They have been collected historically by Antarctic expeditions and for scientific collections. Their range does not generally overlap with commercial fishing.
Feeding and reproductive behavior[edit]
The Ross seal feeds primarily on squid and fish, primarily Antarctic silverfish, in the pelagic zone.[6] Ross seals are presumed to be preyed upon by killer whales (Orcinus orca) and leopard seals, large predators that share their Antarctic habitat, though there are no documented observations of predation.
Females give birth to their young on the ice in November. Pups are nursed for only four weeks before weaning. Mating is thought to occur underwater shortly after the pup is weaned, but has never been observed. Ross seals mature sexually at approximately three years of age, and are thought to live around 20 years in the wild.[6]
1. ^ a b Southwell, C. (2008). Ommatophoca rossii. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
2. ^ a b Fyler, C.A.; Reeder, T.W.; Berta, A.; Antonelis, G.; Aguilar, A.; Androukaki (2005), "Historical biogeography and phylogeny of monachine seals (Pinnipedia: Phocidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA data", Journal of Biogeography 32: 1267–1279, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01281.x
4. ^ a b Watkins, William A.; Carleton Ray, G. (1985), "In-air and underwater sounds of the Ross seal, Ommatophoca rossi", The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 77 (4): 1598–1600, doi:10.1121/1.392003, retrieved 2010-06-06
5. ^ Southwell, C.J.; Paxton, C.G.M.; Borchers, D.L.; Boveng, P.L.; Nordøy, E.S.; Blix, A.S.; De La Mare, W.K. (2008), "Estimating population status under conditions of uncertainty: the Ross seal in East Antarctica", Antarctic Science 20 (2): 123–133
6. ^ a b Skinner, J.D.; Klages, NTW (1994), "On some aspects of the biology of the Ross seal Ommatophoca rossii from King Haakon VII Sea, Antarctica", Polar Biology 7 (467): 472
External links[edit]
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History of Mexican Tourism: A Historiography
Mexico, love other enucleateing nations, continues to contempdelayed to tourism as a instrument of generating economic profits and outlandish produce. Much of the province’s tourism is collected in coastal areas. Indeed, coastal tourism has befit one the fastest amplifying areas in Mexico. However, resisting the concern of tourism to Mexico, the literary-works on its literal harvest recrement underdeveloped. Generally, scholars assert the failure of a extensive matter of literary-works on the fact of Mexican tourism, and its extrication. Yet, resisting acknowledging the failure of literary-works, scholars own manufactured paltry to enucleate the scene. However, there are a few outliers inchoate them, Michael Clancy, and Dina Berger. In this tract, the writer gets a historiography of some of the forcible scholars of Mexican tourism. One of the most forcible works on the harvest of Mexican tourism is by Dina Berger. In her bulk “The Harvest of Mexico’s Tourism Industry: Pyramids by Day, Martinis by Night ,” Berger argues that the Mexican tourism toil emerged during the tendencyary era of narrate edifice and acted as a instrument through which the council could fashion facts encircling nationalism and individuality of the Mexican mob. She buttresss her reasoning by noting that in the delayed 1920s, the tourism toil was amply cheered through special leadership. Special groups such as the Mexican American Automobile Association and the Mexican Tourism Association cooperated delay Bank of Mexico to advance tourism and tour. Narrate involvement in the toil was sluggish. However, narrate involvement was slow, delay the council collaborating delay special organizations among 1930 and 1935 to chart a conduct on how to enucleate tourism. Berger advance argues that United States played a key role in the harvest of tourism in the province. Berger argues that United States tourlers led to the emergence of a vioperative tourism toil in Mexico. The reasonings of the role of American tourlers in the harvest of Mexican tourism are advance cheered by the conclusions of John Britton in “Rextrication and Ideology: images of the Mexican Rextrication in the United States .” Britton argues that tourism in Mexico appears plainly as a note and letter of American inexact imperialism that characterized the harmony among United States and other countries, specially Latin American countries. According to Britton, the United States considered Mexico as a clumsy province characterized by ethnic mediocrity specially previous to the 1930s.However, delay changing attitudes towards the province commencement in 1930’s there was a large concern in Mexican wayfarer sites and their cuisine. It was during this conclusion that tourism in Mexico began to amplify. Michael Clancy’s bulk “Exporting Paradise: Tourism and Harvest in Mexico ” gets a glance on the literal harvest of Mexico commencement in the mid-60s to 2000. According to Clancy, the council in the 60’s had befit conscious of the concern of tourism in the administration of Mexico. The council sought to exemplification delay purport adherence as a instrument of promoting tourism. The Mexican council participated through infrastructure harvest, interpolitical dispenseing, wayfarer policies, laws and loans to industries to advance Mexican sites and cuisine to outlandishers. However, the council advanced seashore tourism, as compared to other aspects of wayfarer such as species tourism and literal monuments. This susceptibility illustrate why seashore tourism is aggravate happy in the province as compared to other aspects of Mexican tourism. Rebecca Schreiber in her bulk “Cold War Exiles in Mexico: U.S Dissidents and the Refinement of Discriminating Hindrance ” gets an in-depth dissection of how bfailure and communist exiles from the United States transitional the fact encircling Mexican refinement. Commencement in the 19th era, Mexican emerged as a covert for political dissidents, including bfailure slaves. African Americans who moved to Mexico were conversant delay Mexican refinement, and this population was undivided in the advancement of Mexican refinement. On the other workman, political dissidents who were exiled to Mexico behind the Avoid World War effected film, discriminating works and instrument that refuted the U.S council fact of Mexico as a clumsy situate. Delay the Mexican narrate sanctioning tourism commencement in the delayed 1930’s, tourism grew. The facts and works of the dissidents and bfailure exiles was accidental in changing the fact and sight of American citizens on Mexican cuisine and wayfarer destinations. Michael Clancy “Tourist and Development: Evidence from Mexico” gets a glance into the Mexican tourism behind the 60s . Clancy argues that previous to the 1960, the wayfarer toil was amply dispense driven. However, in the delayed 60’s the council slipd constituting the National Tourism Harvest Trust Fund and other agencies to advance the harvest of the Mexican wayfarer toil and to-boot regudelayed the toil. Prior to the age, the toil had amply been happy ascriboperative to its neighborhood to the United States. Outlandish tourism was scant to verge regions and Mexico City. However, this would vary delay council agency. Together delay special investors, the council spearheaded the planning of new resorts including Huatulco, Loreto, Los Cabos, Ixtapa, and Cancun. Unlove other enucleateing nations, narrate agency was purportant to the harvest of the Mexican wayfarer toil. Public agencies pristine embarked on autonomous projects, but would delayedr slip in the dispense to secure that instrument were utilized in the correct carriage. Narrate enjoyment, according to Clancy can best be implicit in the larger perspective of the Mexican council on how to admittance economic harvest. Three decades previous to its locomotive agency in the tourism toil, the Mexican council had exemplificationed delay purport adherence. While the admittance effected the “Mexican Miracle” the council continued to labor to advance vioperative economic amplifyth. Narrate agency was accidental not singly in promoting tourism amplifyth, but to-boot comely profits, and arrivals. There are two strategies that the council filled to buttress the toil. First, it sought to establish new chains of hotels and get those that were bankrupt. The avoid management was to get incentives by providing loans to special investors. According to Clancy, council agency had its benefits. Mexico was operative to add aggravate than 300,000 rooms among 1974and 1992. Thus, according to Clancy, the Mexican wayfarer toil and its achievement can be attributed to narrate agency in the 60’s and resultant enjoyments aggravate the contiguous three decades. Conclusion An dissection of the literary-works on the Mexican wayfarer industries shows how tourism in the province evolved aggravate age. Previous to the 1930s, there was minimal narrate input or agency in the toil. While the council did slip in the toil in the contiguous 30 years, agencys were minimal. Narrate agency in the 60s was aggravate indicative and fashiond the toil and the prevalent standing of the toil can be attributed to narrate agency. A literal dissection of the wayfarer toil shows how incongruous players, and the neighborhood to a greater administration fashiond the Mexican wayfarer sector. Bibliography Britton, John. Rextrication and ideology: Images of the Mexican rextrication in the United States. University Press of Kenturky, 1995. Clancy, Michael. Exporting Paradise: Tourism and harvest in Mexico. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science LTD, 2001. Clancy, Michael. \"Tourism and harvest: Evidence from Mexico.\" Annals of Tourism Research 26, no. 1 (1999): 1-20. Schreiber, Rebecca. Cold war exiles in Mexico: U.S. dissidents and the refinement of discriminating hindrance. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Prress, 2008.
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More info on Ambitus (music)
Ambitus (music): Wikis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article discusses the use of ambitus in the Middle Ages, for other uses, see Vocal range
Ambitus is a Latin term literally meaning "the going round", and in Medieval Latin means the "course" of a melodic line, most usually referring to the range of scale degrees attributed to a given mode, particularly in Gregorian chant. It may also refer to the range of a voice, instrument, or piece generally (Powers 2001). In Gregorian chant specifically, the ambitus is the range, or the distance between the highest and lowest note. Different chants vary widely in their ambitus. Even relatively florid chants like Alleluias may have a narrow ambitus. Earlier writers termed the modal ambitus "perfect" when it was a 9th or 10th (that is, an octave plus one or two notes, either at the top or bottom), but from the late fifteenth century onward "perfect ambitus" usually meant one octave, and the ambitus was called "imperfect" when it was less, and "pluperfect" when it was more than an octave (Powers 2001).
Some church modes are distinguished by their ambitus. The plagal modes have the final in the middle of the ambitus, while the authentic modes generally go no more than one note below the final.
Ambitus can also be used without reference to how notes are used in a piece (as opposed to register or tessitura).
• Powers, Harold S., Richard Sherr, and Frans Wiering. 2001. "Ambitus". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. New York: Grove's Dictionaries.
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ORBIC participates in an international system for ranking rare, threatened and endangered species throughout the world. The system was developed by The Nature Conservancy and is now maintained by NatureServe in cooperation with Heritage Programs or Conservation Data Centers (CDCs) in all 50 states, 9 Canadian provinces, and in 13 Latin American countries. The ranking is a 1-5 scale with 1 being critically imperilied and 5 being secure. When determining species rank many factors are taken into account, including the number of known occurrences, threats, inherent sensitivity, area occupied, and other biological and anthropogenic factors. Documentation for several species ranking decisions are available on our Ranking Documentation page.
Global Ranks
Ranks are developed for different portions of a species range. The first and most critical rank describes the species status globally, and best describes the risk of extinction. This is called the Global Rank and begins with a "G". If the taxon has a trinomial (a subspecies, variety or recognized race), this is followed by a "T" rank indicator. A "Q" at the end of this line indicates the taxon has taxonomic questions. National Ranks beginning with the letter "N" describe a species' status in specific nations such as the United States, Mexico, or Canada, but are not often used in the US.
State Ranks
The most widely used NatureServe rank in the United States are the State Ranks, which describe the rarity of a species within each state's boundary. These State Ranks begin with the letter "S". Global, National, and State ranks all use a 1-5 ranking system, summarized below:
1 = Critically imperiled because of extreme rarity or because it is somehow especially vulnerable to extinction or extirpation, typically with 5 or fewer occurrences.
2 = Imperiled because of rarity or because other factors demonstrably make it very vulnerable to extinction (extirpation), typically with 6-20 occurrences.
3 = Rare, uncommon or threatened, but not immediately imperiled, typically with 21-100 occurrences.
4 = Not rare and apparently secure, but with cause for long-term concern, usually with more than 100 occurrences.
5 = Demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure.
H = Historical Occurrence, formerly part of the native biota with the implied expectation that it may be rediscovered.
X = Presumed extirpated or extinct.
U = Unknown rank.
? = Not yet ranked or assigned rank is uncertain.
More details on the Heritage Ranking system and more definitions can be found at the NatureServe Web site and on their Conservation Status page. A complete description of the ranking process is available from Natureserve's Methodology for Assigning Ranks.
Heritage Lists
ORBIC evaluates the NatureServe ranks and further refines the data for state application through placing species on their Lists 1 through 4. The fact that Oregon and California have such high rates of species endemism was the reason for the implementation of the 1-4 Heritage Listings in Oregon and California. In particular, most heritage programs consider all G1, G2 or G3 taxa as needing protection. Based on a snapshot search of NatureServe explorer, 1138 taxa in Oregon are ranked G1-G3 (or T1-T3). Of these, 615 taxa ranked as a G3 (or T3, excluding taxa with G3 in range ranks). Many of these are rare endemics which have few documented threats. Because of this, ORBIC evaluates G3 taxa individually based the significance of the species Oregon distribution, and overall threats to the taxa. This evaluation is the primary analysis used to determine which ORBIC list they are placed on.
Brief Summary of ORBIC Lists:
List 1 contains taxa that are threatened with extinction or presumed to be extinct throughout their entire range. These are the taxa most at risk, and should be the highest priority for conservation action.
Any taxa with heritage Global ranks of G1 or G2 (or T1 or T2) would be included on List 1, as well as any G3 (or T3) taxa which are showing significant or dramatic declines rangewide.
List 2 contains taxa that are threatened with extirpation or presumed to be extirpated from the state of Oregon. These are often peripheral or disjunct species which are of concern when considering species diversity within Oregon's borders. They can be very significant when protecting the genetic diversity of a taxon. ORNHP regards extreme rarity as a significant threat and has included species which are very rare in Oregon on this list.
All taxa with Heritage State Ranks of S1 and most taxa with Heritage State Ranks of S2 are included on this list.
List 3 contains species for which more information is needed before status can be determined, but which may be threatened or endangered in Oregon or throughout their range. Many taxa on this list may eventually be determined to belong on List 1 or List 2, so it is important that they be looked for, and the few known occurrences be protected.
Taxa on this list often include those with range ranks (such as G2G4 or G2G3), indicating uncertainty about their status. In addition, these species can have a question mark in their status, or have an unknown status. Typical ranks might be G3?S3?, indicating that the species is probably at risk, but with significant status questions.
List 4 contains taxa which are of conservation concern but currently do not meet the criteria for begin considered threatened or endangered. This includes taxa which are very rare but are currently secure, as well as taxa which are declining in numbers or habitat but are still too abundant to be proposed as threatened or endangered. While these taxa currently may not need the same active management attention as threatened or endangered taxa, they do require continued monitoring.
Formerly considered a watch list, List 4 includes species that may be of conservation concern from a global or state perspective. The more abundant or less threatened S2 ranked taxa, along with taxa with state ranks of S3 which are showing significant or dramatic declines statewide would also be included on this list. Similarly, G3 taxa that are not significantly declining, or with less imminent threats would be included on this list.
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Students use creative tools in the Seesaw app or website to complete classroom activities like "Earth vs Moon vs Sun…"
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Mr. Wagner Guy Pierre
Student Instructions
Earth vs Moon vs Sun (Contrast)
1. Using the DRAWING tool, draw the Earth, Sun, and Moon 2. Using the LABELLING tool, complete the Venn diagram to compare and contrast the size and color of each of these bodies (Earth, moon, and Sun) 3. Using the RECORDING tool, verbally explain the difference between these 3 bodies
8th Grade, 7th Grade, 6th Grade, Science
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The Psychology of it All
Logotherapy as Viktor Frankl’s Guiding Principle of Life
Kelly Nelson
North Park University
Psychology and its many branches strive towards improving the quality of life for the individual. Logotherapy is one of the practices that primarily focuses on the human condition—that is, the search for understanding of one’s life, purpose, and meaning. Viktor Frankl, a holocaust survivor, claims that when the meaning of life is lost, there no hope in living. He relates a purpose to living, to there being a purpose to suffering (Frankl, 1984, p.9). Frankl calls this idea of finding meaning as it applies to psychology and therapy: logotherapy. Frankl’s life experiences led him to believe that a person can gain unconditional meaning through transcendence of any given life situation (Frankl, 2000, p.122).
Before the Nazis deported him to his first concentration camp, Viktor Frankl, a small Austrian man, had already written most of his first book, The Doctor and the Soul. During his two years in that camp, Frankl continued to secretly work on his manuscript. Just before his transfer to Auschwitz, he attempted to keep the papers by sewing them into the lining of his jacket. However, his coat was confiscated for a lesser cloth, and all of the pages were lost (Klingberg, 2001). It was this very collection of writings that indirectly became the basis for logotherapy.
Frankl was a major voice in humanistic psychology. He moved away from psychoanalysis and behaviorism and moved towards a less deterministic and more optimistic view of human nature. The “human potentials movement” asserted that humans have the right to personal happiness. To Frankl however, this was a way to brush past the death and guilt that come with being human—to ignore one’s responsibilities to others and the world, by looking past the fact that all human beings are capable of being extraordinarily good and extraordinarily evil (Klingberg, 2001).
When Viktor Frankl was born in Vienna, Austria in 1905, the city was still one of the majestic capitals of Europe. It was this same year that Sigmund Freud had published his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, and Alfred Adler was in close association with psychoanalysis. Adler was living in Leopolstadt, with Frankl directly across the street. Another resident of Leopolstadt at the time, was twenty-two year old Adolf Hitler. When he left for Munich to begin his political rise to power, Frankl was only eight (Klingberg, 2001).
By the time Frankl was fifteen, he was already formulating his own philosophies. He began corresponding with Freud, and when he was seventeen, sent him a paper he had written for school. It contained a great deal of psychoanalytic content. Freud sent his paper onward to the International Journal of Psychoanalysis and it was published two years later in 1924. Frankl was drawn to Freud’s psychoanalytic approaches, but when he met Alfred Adler as a senior in high school, his writing shifted schools (Klingberg, 2001). Frankl though, eventually moved away from reductionism.
In 1930 Viktor Frankl received his MD degree and continued with his practices in neurology and psychiatry. He took a job at the University Psychiatry Clinic and was allowed to practice psychotherapy on his own. He tried to forget what he had learned from Freud and Adler, and ended up just listening to everything that his patients would tell him. Frankl would then point out self-curing mechanisms that the patients unknowingly told him, and ask them how they were able to overcome such adverse situations? He would then encourage his patients to go and attack their fears and expect to suffer from it, and by taking this rather courageous and somewhat humorous step, Frankl developed the idea of logotherapy—that instead of fighting a fear, welcoming it and thus deflating the anxiety (Klingberg, 2001). Frankl’s unique use of humor allowed his patients to transcend through their predicaments.
“By 1938, Viktor Frankl’s promising career was sidetracked by Nazi policy” (Klingberg, 2001). Vienna’s tranquility was long gone, and the Nazi regime dominated the Austrian capital. The horror of persecution of the Jews and other “enemies” of the Third Reich were without limits. By 1941 there was virtually no way for the Frankl family to leave Austria. On September 22nd or 23rd, 1942 Viktor and his family were notified to pack for “processing” and then for transportation to the East. They were first sent to Theresienstadt in northwest Czechoslovakia. Less than six months after their arrival, Viktor’s father Gabriel passed away. While in the camp, Frankl worked and applied his own logotherapeutic technique when he could. In October of 1944, Viktor was listed for transport. His wife Tilly volunteered to be with him on this next journey—a 250 mile journey to Auschwitz-Birkenau.
It was at this first unloading and selection process that Frankl’s manuscript of The Doctor and the Soul was stripped from him. When he put on his “new” coat, in the pocket he found a small scrap of paper from the previous owner. It was a single torn page from a Hebrew prayer book , containing the main Jewish prayer the Shema Yisrael, or the commandment to “Love thy God with all they heart, and with all thy soul and with all thy might,” (Klingberg, 2001, p. 133). Frankl took this as a commandment to say “yes” to life, despite the pain and suffering that one may endure. “Thus in that single page which re-placed the many pages of my manuscript I saw a symbolic call henceforth to live my thoughts instead of merely putting them on paper,” (Klingberg, 2001, p. 133).
Frankl struck out his former life and let fate, or providence take control (Frankl, 1984). He knew that he had no control over his life situations, but instead could only change his response to life. “The last of the human freedoms—to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way, (Frankl, 1984). Through the nights Frankl spent in Birkenau, Dachau, Kaufering and finally in Turkheim he used his life’s work and philosophies to stay alive—to find a reason to stay alive. Despite the death surrounding him, Frankl would think of his wife and of his book. He endured the horror of the holocaust only because he found meaning in his suffering. Little speeches he gave to himself, parts of his book that he was able to recall, new philosophies that needed to survive kept him strong until the day of his liberation Friday, April 27th 1945 (Frankl, 1984). These philosophies that gave him life were then composed into Man’s Search for Meaning.
The first concept of logotherapy, is finding meaning in one’s life. Each person must find this purpose for themselves and it will be different for everyone. Frankl uses his experiences in the concentration camps to illustrate his extreme discovery of this reason for existence. Everyone needs a motivation or a reason to do anything. Without this reason we wouldn’t see a point to suffer through the pains of life. He labels the concept logotherapy “from two Greek words therapeuo—to heal or to make whole—and logos. Logos has many meanings in Greek, including word and statement, but Frankl chose it because it also means reason, meaning. So logotherapy is ‘healing through meaning’ or ‘becoming whole through meaning’,” (Klingberg, 2001, pp. 2–3). This therapeutic approach focuses on the future and on the idea that the primary motivation in life is to find personal purpose (Frankl, 1984). It simply tries to make the person find their responsibility to living. Once a person realizes that there is meaning and a purpose for their suffering, they can begin to heal. They have a responsibility to heal and achieve their potential. In The Will to Meaning, Frankl illustrates the choice a person makes about whether to pursue meaning, or to live in despair.
While many other therapies seek to find a balance or equilibrium, logotherapy believes that mental health is based on a certain amount of tension between what one has accomplished and what one could potentially accomplish (Frankl, 1984). The tension gives a person a meaning to keep trying and keeping reaching toward a goal that isn’t impossible but is in fact achievable with work. It is this will to meaning that enables humans to choose how they respond to adversity. Frankl sets humans apart by touching on the characteristics that make us distinctly human—humor and one’s ability to transcend above oneself (Frankl, 1988).
Frankl believes that man is in a constant battle to find inner peace—to alleviate the stress that life brings (Frankl, 1988). During this battle, a person is trying to find the meaning to their life, and a meaning to the suffering that comes. In this pursuit of meaning, Frankl feels that happiness and contentment with life will be a side effect (Frankl, 1988). Some believe that the search for meaning would be an easy one, but more often than not it brings hardships, disappointment and strain. This loss of meaning is what Frankl refers to as the existential vacuum, or the frustration of the will to meaning (Frankl, 1988). The goal of logotherapy is to help the client deal with this existential vacuum and to find purpose in their life rather than giving up their will, by living on apathy (Frankl, 1988).
In the text by Murphy and Dillon (2003) Interviewing in Action: Relationship, Process, and Change, the idea of helping people to relieve the tension in their life is broken down into multiple steps. In this counseling process, the clinician uses multiple skills to establish a good and empathetic rapport, so that they can help the client problem solve (Murphy & Dillon p. 52). This clinical relationship is more facilitation and guidance rather than a question and answer time. The clinician helps to support the client as they are telling their story, and seeking meaning in the trials they are dealing with (Murphy & Dillon p. 87). Empathy plays a large role in helping support the client, and also helps the exploration and elaboration of the problem (Murphy & Dillon p. 88). Frankl (1988) feels that when it comes to psychotherapy, it’s not necessarily the technique used that is most important, but rather the general feeling behind it. Counseling recognizes that when people are in the world, they are sometimes entangled in the world, and need help finding their way through. Logotherapy hopes to aid people in reconstructing their view of the world through transcendence, humor, or even tangible help (Frankl, 1988).
When a person strives to reach their fullest potential, they look for their ultimate meaning. Viktor Frankl’s Man’s search for the ultimate meaning reveals ideas in regards to attaining the ultimate meaning for one’s life, and the possibility of tapping into and taking responsibility for the desires of our unconscious that bring significance to our everyday existence. There is a fine line between conscious and the unconscious and when a force brings a desire across that line to our conscious, we can choose to become responsible for that drive as a means to fulfill our existence (Frankl, 2000).
Humankind has drives and instincts that come from our unconscious, but it is when we take responsibility that our existence becomes authentic. It is when we are in control rather than when we are being controlled that we become fully human (Frankl, 2000). Our meaning is centered around our core, which is in the depths of our unconscious. This “depth” is the spirit that lies hidden in the unconscious. Because this means of existence, our spiritual basis, lies so far inside of us, it cannot be fully reflected on (Frankl, 2000). Frankl explains that the depth of the human spirit, which is the raison d’être of our lives cannot be in the conscious just as the origin of sight that is the blind spot cannot be seen (Frankl, 2000)
Since our essence cannot be fully reflected upon because it is in the unconscious, Frankl views it as our responsibility to recognize when it, the depths of our spirit, moves into our conscious. To look at things such as love and artistic drive that Frankl mentions (and also used to stay alive in the camps), leads one to believe that these are from the irrational depths of the unconscious, and when we focus on them, we realize that they come from a place in us that can’t ever be fully focused on. One can, however, grasp their presence and appreciate the artist’s creation or the love aimed at the hidden qualities in another person (Frankl, 2000). Meaning always subsists—it just needs to be found and noticed.
Our conscious can be the method to which we discover our meanings. It can help us to arrive at things that have been present yet asleep in ourselves (Frankl, 1997, p.114). Logotherapy focuses on the will to meaning, a meaning in suffering and a freedom of this will. These make up the human existence and greatly impact the potential meaning that we have in the living situations that we can both control and cannot (Frankl, 2000).
Tolerance is not the goal of any person’s life—we want to be happy. “What is my purpose?” is a question that undoubtedly crossed everyone’s mind at one point. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs after all of our basic needs are taken care of, we strive towards self-actualization (Weiten, 2002). He argues that that we have an innate need to reach our potential to find our meaning. People would rather search for ultimate meaning than believe that there is no purpose to existence. It’s not that we seek happiness as our purpose—it becomes the side effect of living out our purpose. Frankl believes that the effect of serving a cause or loving another person can bring happiness out by itself (Frankl, 2000). This happiness is produced through fulfillment of potential.
A doctor cannot give his or her patients meaning, but they can however, be an example of a personal commitment to search for truth in life. If we believe that truth will give us meaning, won’t this search help to give us the opportunity to be responsible for fulfilling this drive for existence? Thus logotherapy does not attempt to give meaning to the patient, but to rather facilitate the discovery and support the choice for responsibility (Frankl, 2000).
Each man’s life is unique and will in turn have a unique meaning and purpose to it. Viktor Frankl feels that even though each life will eventually be over forever, there are opportunities given to reach fulfillment (Frankl, 1988). The human condition—the striving to find these meanings, is shared between humans across society. Through the loss of everything he loved and knew—his family, home, work and life before the war, Viktor Frankl was able to find a reason to continue on. He was able to transcend his situation, and find meaning in his existence. Logotherapy is based on three concepts that make up an individual. These are the freedom of will, the will to meaning, and the meaning of life. We will not find peace when we strive for happiness—it is when we strive for purpose, and transcend our adversities that happiness and meaning come as a side-effect.
Dillon, C. & Murphy, B. C. (2003). Interviewing in action: Relationship, process, and change (2nd ed.), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group.
Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy (3rd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc..
Frankl, V. E. (1988). The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotherapy. New York: Meridian Published by the Penguin Group.
Frankl, V. E. (2000). Man’s search for ultimate meaning. New York: Perseus Publishing.
Klingberg, H., Jr. (2001). When life calls out to us: The love and lifework of Viktor and Elly Frankl. New York: Random House, Inc..
Weiten, W., (2002). Psychology themes and variations(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group.
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(Redirected from Kamaiurá)
The Kamayurá are an indigenous tribe in the Amazonian Basin of Brazil. Their name is also spelled Kamayura and Kamaiurá; it means "a raised platform to keep meat, pots and pans." The Kamayurá language belongs to the Tupi–Guarani family
Ministério da Cultura - Encontro de Saberes - Seminário Internacional (17).jpg
Maniwa Kamayurá, traditional Kamayurá architect
Total population
467 (2011)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Brazil (Mato Grosso)
traditional tribal religion
The Kamayurá live in the Upper Xingu region along with Kiabi, Yudja and Suya tribes. The ways of life of these four tribes are quite similar despite having different languages. Their villages are situated around Lake Ipavu, which is six kilometres from the Kuluene River. Much like other small indigenous cultures around the globe, the Kamayurá are struggling to adapt to the effects of deforestation and climate change.[2]
In 2002 there were an estimated 355 people. Now there are about 544 (2010).[citation needed] Their numbers had made a good recovery from an all-time low of 94 people recorded in 1954, the previous reduction in numbers due to the measles epidemic. The total population was 264 when adventurer Karl von den Steinen originally visited the area.
Description of villagesEdit
The Kamayurá village comprises a round roof that is decorated with sape grass (Imperata brasiliensis) and the ‘house of the flutes’ contain important flute (jakui) instruments that can only be played by the men. In front of that house there is a meeting area where the men discuss fishing trips or plan festivals and so on.
The house is generally dark and is where the women and children dwell. The rainforest surround the entire village and private gardens can also be found.
The region was declared a national park by the Brazilian authorities in 1961, intended to prevent further intrusions and spread of deadly epidemics to locals. The Kamayurá people currently live near other indigenous peoples, namely the Kuikuro and Kalapalo, for example, in Upper Xingu. In regards to contact with non-indigenous people, this was first seen in 1884 with the exploration of Karl Von den Stein. At this time the Kamayurá were situated on the banks of the Lake Ipavu. Karl Von den Stein was a German explorer, and with his exploration opened up opportunities for other explorers to pass through the region of which the Kamayurá were situated.[3] In 1942 the Federal Agency was created as well as the Central Brazil Foundation, this opened roads and established camps in the area which the Kamayurá were living. These open roads and camps directly affected the Kamayurá as contact with non-indigenous people continued. In 1961 Funai turned the territory the Kamayurá inhabited, into what is today known as the National Park.[3]
Social organisationEdit
The Kamayurá society comprises several villages, a group of brothers being the owner of each household. They decide what tasks and productive activities should be conducted each day by its members.
After marriage the husband moves and lives in the wife’s parents’ house. Strong alliances can be established through marriages.
The genders are separated shortly after puberty. The boys are taught how to hunt for food with an arrow, do hard labour, and create a basket. Wrestling is done daily which strengthens their muscles. They are also trained in combat and taught leadership skills so they are able to look after their own families later on. This segregation lasts for up to five years before returning.
The teenage girls during seclusion must learn how to weave mats, and perform many basic everyday household duties. After a few years they become ready for marriage, they are given a new name and their ears are pierced. The girls also learn how to dance and look after the family.
Ceremonies and RitualsEdit
There are many ceremonies and rituals of the Kamayurá people. Some of these rituals are: the feast of the dead, and the celebration feast of the warriors. The aim of these rituals is to bring together the various ethnic groups of the Upper Xingu area to celebrate the life of the deceased.[4]
Bows and arrows (made with high quality materials), snail-shell belts and ceramic pots are traded with other tribes. Fish nets, canoes, flutes and hammocks are made as specialised goods.
The traditional Kamayura diet generally consists of fish, beiju, porridge, pepper and bananas.[1] Fish is the main source of protein. Birds are hunted in the rain forest while wild berries are gathered as the main food supplement. Most fur-bearing animals are considered taboo. Eagles can be a supplement for fish. Honey is also collected. Manioc is harvested and processed in beiju and a sweet soup called mohete.[5]
1. ^ a b "Kamaiurá: Introduction." Povos Indígenas no Brasil. 2011. Retrieved 11 Jan 2012.
2. ^ Elizabeth Rosenthal (2009), An Amazon Culture Withers as Food Dries Up. New York Times, July 24th 2009.
3. ^ a b "Histórico da ocupação no Alto Xingu > Kamaiurá". pib.socioambiental.org. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
4. ^ "Os Kamaiurá no sistema ritual do Alto Xingu > Kamaiurá". pib.socioambiental.org. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
5. ^ "Kamaiura: Productive Activities." Povos Indígenas no Brasil. (retrieved 2 March 2011)
External linksEdit
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Ders Tanımı
Ders Kodu Yarıyıl T+U Saat Kredi AKTS
Ön Koşul Dersleri
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Dersin Dili Türkçe
Dersin Seviyesi Lisans
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Dersin Koordinatörü Prof.Dr. MAHMUT BİLEN
Dersi Verenler Prof.Dr. MAHMUT BİLEN
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Dersin İçeriği
Dersin Öğrenme Çıktıları Öğretim Yöntemleri Ölçme Yöntemleri
1 - Define the basic concepts and principles, which are required for economic analysis. 1 - 2 - A - B - C -
2 - Define and interpret the demand and supply functions and the determinants of them. 15 - 1 - C - B - A -
3 - Demonstrate the main effects of the changes in the demand and supply curves in order to analyse the market equilibrium. 1 - 3 - A - C -
4 - Analyse the concept of elasticity, its measurement and economic effects. 10 - 1 - C - A - B -
5 - Make analyses by using the approaches of marginal utility approach and indifference curves in order to demonstrate how the consumer equilibrium is achieved. 1 - 4 - C - B - A -
6 - Analyse the concepts of marginal, average and total cost and the relations among them for achieving the firm equilibrium. 4 - 3 - 1 - A - C - B -
7 - Interpret the differences between perfect competition and monopoly for classifying the markets. 1 - 10 - B - A - C -
8 - Explain and measures national income, unemployment, inflation and growth. 4 - 1 - B - C - A -
9 - Analyse the emergence and change of the natinal income equilibrium by the help of diagrams. 1 - 2 - 3 - A - B - C -
10 - Explain the concept of multiplier, its measurement, features and limits while the expense items change. 15 - 1 - C - A - B -
11 - Debate the concept of money, its functions, types and systems. 1 - 4 - A - B - C -
12 - Analyse the money demand and supply by way of the equlilibrium of the money market. 4 - 1 - C - A - B -
13 - 1 - 4 - A - B - C -
14 - 4 - 1 - C - A -
15 - 1 - A - C - B -
Öğretim Yöntemleri: 1:Lecture 2:Question-Answer 15:Problem Solving 3:Discussion 10:Brain Storming 4:Drilland Practice
Ölçme Yöntemleri: A:Testing B:Oral Exam C:Homework
Ders Akışı
Hafta Konular ÖnHazırlık
7 Markets: Perfect Competition and Imperfect Competition.
8 Mid-Term Exams
10 Keynesian Macroeconomics: GDP Multiplier
11 Fiscal Policy in Open and Closed Economies
12 Maney , Banking System, Monetary Theory and Policy
13 AS-AD Analysis
14 International Economics: Trade Theory and Policy
Ders Notu
Ders Kaynakları
Döküman Paylaşımı
Dersin Program Çıktılarına Katkısı
No Program Öğrenme Çıktıları KatkıDüzeyi
1 2 3 4 5
2 Thinking critically and analytically X
3 Having knowledge of communication and information technologies X
10 Enriching result oriented working approach with continous learning approach X
14 Being conscious on social, academic and professional ethical values X
Değerlendirme Sistemi
AraSinav 1 70
KisaSinav 1 10
Odev 1 10
KisaSinav 2 10
Toplam 100
Yıliçinin Başarıya Oranı 50
Finalin Başarıya Oranı 50
Toplam 100
AKTS - İş Yükü
Etkinlik Sayısı Süresi(Saat) Toplam İş yükü(Saat)
Mid-terms 1 5 5
Quiz 2 6 12
Assignment 1 5 5
Final examination 1 8 8
Toplam İş Yükü 126
Toplam İş Yükü /25(s) 5.04
Dersin AKTS Kredisi 5.04
; ;
|
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Chimanimani’s prehistoric plant
Chimanimani Cycad
CYCADS are a pre-historic plant species that endured and survived weather extremes that wiped dinosaurs out of existence.
Like a special place that it is, Chimanimani has its own species that is exclusive to these mountains—Chimanimani cycad or Encephalartos chimanimaniensis.
Its a species of cycad that is endemic to these mountains.
The beautiful rock outcrops of the enchanting mountains
This species thrives in the montane grassland which enjoys rainfall of over 1,800 mm per annum, and at an altitude of about 1,000 metres above sea level.
It is associated with schist and quartzite sediments in granitic mountains.
Sadly, cycad collectors are threatening to completely destroy its occurrence in the wild and it is now a specially protected threatened species.
This proves over and over again how humanity is driving many species into extinction both directly and indirectly.
According to a 2003 assessment only between 500 and 1,000 plants remained in the wild. However, another researcher – Capela (2006) provided an estimate of 1,200 mature plants at Makurupini and an additional 300 at Morambo, besides smaller isolated colonies.
Interestingly, the plant is relied on as a food source by locals in times of drought. Albeit an unsustainable food source considering how slowly they grow.
The sturdy plant is peeled, cut up into cubes and soaked in water for days before it is pounded and cooked, locals said.
Disappointingly, very few locals appreciate just how special and rare cycads are in general let alone that there is a species unique to Chimanimani.
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Sloan Digital Sky Survey
SkyServer DR14
Not logged in Login Help
SQL Tutorial
Back to Help
1. Introduction
2. A Simple Query
3. Common Searches
4. More Samples
5. Multiple Tables
6. Aggregate Fcns.
7. Group By
8. Order By
10. Functions
11. Conclusion
SQL Tutorial
The Order By Command
Sometimes, you might want to ask questions containing the words "the most" and "the least." For example, you might want to know on which dates specific SDSS spectroscopic plates were observed. One easy way to answer this question would be to retrieve those plates ordered by the Modified Julian date (MJD) (new window) on which they were observed, in order from the first date to the last date. SQL's ORDER BY command will sort records in ascending order according to a specified column.
The "plateX" table contains data on SDSS plates (spectroscopic observations of one area of sky). Plates are organized by two numbers: the plate number (plate) and the observation date (mjd). Sometimes multiple plates are observed in one night, and sometimes a single plate is spread out over several nights, so both numbers are necessary.
To look at a few plates - in this case, just the ones numbered 275 or less - in order of observation date - use the ORDER BY command. The syntax of ORDER BY is simple: just type "order by" followed by the name of the data column by which you want to sort. If you want the data sorted in descending order, from most to least, add "desc" to the end of the command.
To sort plates by observation date, then, use the query below:
select mjd,plate
from plateX
where plate <= 275
order by mjd
The order by command also works with the group by command. Use them both together when you want to sort groups of records by a trait you chose to return. Put the group by command after the where block, followed by the order by command. Make sure that the column you list in the order by command is also in the group by command OR contains an aggregate function.
Try It!
Modify the query in the textbox below to order by plate number instead of MJD. Which of the plates was observed over more than one night?
Show Sample Solution
See the Plate Browser for a list of the plates available in Data Release 14.
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Moringa as an alternative to aluminium sulphate
2018-02-12T15:09:16Z (GMT) by Davy Nkhata
About 67% of the Zambian population have no access to clean drinking water. As a result, many people are prone to water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea, which have claimed many lives in both rural and urban areas. The techniques used to treat water involve the use of chemicals and synthetic coagulants such as aluminium sulphate that are added to raw water. The coagulants are important, although very few water treatment agencies manage to import them, due to limited financial resources. The use of Moringa oleifera can offer an alternative option to these coagulants. Moringa oleifera is environmentally friendly and is important for the production of edible vegetable oils, improvement of soil fertility, used for wood fuel and the management of watershed and catchment areas. The promotion of Moringa oleifera among the poor rural population will contribute to improving the living standards of vulnerable groups through the provision of employment and clean drinking water. This paper discusses Moringa oleifera as a potential alternative to aluminum sulphate for water treatment in rural and urban areas.
|
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"url": "https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/Moringa_as_an_alternative_to_aluminium_sulphate/9591971/1"
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CuffeeICON1759 – 1817
Cuffe was a Black philanthropist, merchant, sea captain and abolitionist. The son of a former African slave father and American Indian mother, Cuffe was born on the island of Cuttyhunk, Massachusetts, near the commercial port of New Bedford. Later persuaded “that commerce furnished to industry more ample rewards than agriculture,” he prepared himself for that field by becoming proficient in mathematics and navigation. Keenly opposed to discrimination against his people, Cuffe championed their cause with an intensity that might be expected of a less successful man. But his wealth was no shield against racism, and his problems reveal as much about its long arm as about the difficulties encountered by a black person in America.
A nationalist and Quaker, he was shaped by the major currents of his era. The concerns of his people did not alone define his interest, but they were at the center of his life and accounted for much of his influence. It was through his efforts that Blacks were granted the right to vote in Massachusetts in 1783. Most of Cuffe’s life was spent in Westport, a Quaker enclave in southwestern Massachusetts where in 1797 he bought a farm for $3500. He had earned his fortune from whaling and trade in the Americas and Europe. He owned shares, over a period of time, in up to ten ships, and the financial support of the Friends and their doctrine figured in his success as a businessman. They captained some of his ships and like him, believed that the virtues of the counting house, such as industry and frugality, were pleasing in the sight of God.
Cuffe’s faith was a factor in his using a substantial portion of his wealth to help others, building an integrated school when the community failed to do so and contributing to the raising of a new Friends meetinghouse in Westport. Cuffe’s interest in Africa stemmed in part, from his father having been born there. Cuffe promoted colonization in Sierra Leone, and took a group of thirty-eight black settlers there in 1811. The success he achieved, as a Black captain with Black crews was evidence of the black expertise thought essential to the redemption of Africa. His voyage there in his own ship in 1815 with emigrants from America and his financial success anticipated ideals later associated with black nationalists from Henry Highland Garnet to Marcus Garvey. This complex man, like Bishop Henry M. Turner later in the century, was certain enough of his own vision to risk association with the American Colonization Society, whose motives regarding the return of blacks to Africa were highly suspect in black leadership circles.
Cuffe, though working to uplift of his people, accepted support from white allies, and though struggling for Black rights in America assisted in the regeneration of Africa. He made an impact on his time sufficient to begin a tradition, and that, perhaps, is his greatest legacy.
In September 1818 large numbers of people were present at his funeral in Westport. Paul Cuffe was buried in the Friends cemetery there.
Reference: The African American Atlas Black History & Culture an Illustrated Reference
by Molefi K. Asanta and Mark T. Mattson
Here is an updated resource of Paul Cuffe as of 2019:
Paul Cuffe Day Proclamation
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• Dansk
• English
• Deutsch
Northern pintail
- The pointed-tailed duck
Northern pintail, © Biopix N Sloth
The northern pintail got its name from its tail, which, particularly in the male, is very long and pointed. The pintail is a rare breeding bird in Denmark, but especially along the west coast, it is numerous in migration and also as a winter visitor. At the Wadden Sea, you can experience large flocks of pintails on the headland and at the sluices at Sneum, Kongeå, Kammerslusen, Rejsby, Ballum, Emmerlev and The Forward Dike.
”Bird-Mortensen” ringed the northern pintail on Fanø
The famous bird researcher H. Chr. C. Mortensen, was the first in the world to put the ringing of birds in a system. In the early 1900s, he conducted a large ringing in the bird decoys on Fanø. In the bird decoy, he lured wild ducks to land on a small lake from which he excavated long ”tentacles”. From there, he lured the ducks into fishing nets, where they could be caught. The method was used to capture the ducks that were sold to game dealers. The men working the nets could earn a good fortune this way. In the years 1908-1910, ”Bird-Mortensen” bought 320 pintails, which were ringed and later released. Reports came back on 67 pintails, where the majority had flown south to the Netherlands, Belgium, France and countries around the Mediterranean. A few were reported from breeding areas in Sweden, Finland and North Russia. The knowledge that ringing has provided about the migratory birds' migration routes, roosting areas and winter areas are crucial to ensure the species can be protected in their main places of stay.
The northern pintail is a fairly large dabbling duck, with the male species having a length of 66 cm, which is slightly larger than the female at 56 cm. The wingspan is 80-95 cm. The male’s breeding plumage has quite a distinguished colour, with a long white neck that sends a white stripe up in the brown head. The female, like the mallard is predominantly brownish, but it also has a slightly longer tail than other duck species. The pintail feeds on aquatic plants and small aquatic animals like freshwater snails and worms. They can also eat corn waste on harvested stubble. In Europe, the prevalence is mostly north-easterly, but a scattering can also be found in Central and Western Europe.
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Groups can be very complicated. One way to understand complicated objects is to break them into simpler pieces. For example, to understand large numbers, we often factorize them into their prime constituents.
How do we ‘factorize’ groups?
Instead of looking at the group, we try to examine how it ‘acts’ on some space. Imagine the group elements as ‘strikers’ and points in the space as ‘balls’. When the group elements (strikers) acts on (hits) the points in the space (balls), the balls may move a bit. We examine the movement of the balls to factorize the group!
Let’s work with a specific type of space: two dots connected with a segment.
Groups Explanation
Suppose a group G is acting on this space T.
(We are speaking very loosely here. We have not defined what is meant by group action. For the moment, the striker-ball analogy should suffice).
A chunk of the group G may ‘fix’ portion of this interval. Let us call this chunk H. H will be treated as a factor of the group G.
Next we will look at the endpoints of this interval. Some chunks larger than H (and containing H) could fix the endpoints. These will give further factorization of the group.
Notice that we are using the words ‘could’ and ‘may’. This is deliberate. Whether or not this will happen, will depend on the group under examination.
This is in nutshell what group action on trees is all about. It involves beautiful ideas from graph theory, topology and geometric group theory.
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Glossary I
Isometric exercise refers to exercise performed by contracting muscles against an immovable object.
Isotonic is a contraction in which a muscle shortens against a constant load or tension, resulting in movement; contraction occurring in which there is either shortening or lengthening in the muscle under tension Isotonic also known as a Dynamic contraction, and classified as being either concentric or eccentric.
Isotonic exercise is defined as an exercise that requires the contraction of muscles and the movement of joints, as in weight lifting.
Item refers to a specific stimulus to which a person responds overtly and that can be scored or evaluated.
Item analysis refers to an assessment of whether each of the items included in a composite measure makes an independent contribution or merely duplicates the contribution of other items in the measure. Moreover, Item analysis is a set of methods used to evaluate test items. The most common techniques involve assessment of item difficulty and item discriminability .
Item characteristic curve refers to a graph prepared as part of the process of Item analysis . One graph is prepared for each test item and shows the total test score on the X axis and the proportion of test takers passing the item on the Y axis.
Item homogeneity refers to the extent to which test items measure the same construct .
Related Articles
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2019-03-05 12:08:43 · 青少儿英语指南
英音 [draɪv] 美音 [draɪv]
v. 驾驶;开车;驱动;迫使;
n. 驱车旅行;驱动力;车道;驱动器;
1. the act of applying force to propel something;
"after reaching the desired velocity the drive is cut off"
2. a mechanism by which force or power is transmitted in a machine;
"a variable speed drive permitted operation through a range of speeds"
3. a series of actions advancing a principle or tending toward a particular end;
"he supported populist campaigns"
"they worked in the cause of world peace"
"the team was ready for a drive toward the pennant"
"the movement to end slavery"
"contributed to the war effort"
4. a road leading up to a private house;
"they parked in the driveway"
5. the trait of being highly motivated;
"his drive and energy exhausted his co-workers"
6. hitting a golf ball off of a tee with a driver;
"he sliced his drive out of bounds"
7. the act of driving a herd of animals overland
8. a journey in a vehicle (usually an automobile);
"he took the family for a drive in his new car"
9. a physiological state corresponding to a strong need or desire
10. (computer science) a device that writes data onto or reads data from a storage medium
11. a wide scenic road planted with trees;
"the riverside drive offers many exciting scenic views"
12. (sports) a hard straight return (as in tennis or squash)
1. operate or control a vehicle;
"drive a car or bus"
"Can you drive this four-wheel truck?"
2. travel or be transported in a vehicle;
"We drove to the university every morning"
"They motored to London for the theater"
3. cause someone or something to move by driving;
"She drove me to school every day"
"We drove the car to the garage"
4. force into or from an action or state, either physically or metaphorically;
"She rammed her mind into focus"
"He drives me mad"
5. to compel or force or urge relentlessly or exert coercive pressure on, or motivate strongly;
"She is driven by her passion"
6. cause to move back by force or influence;
"repel the enemy"
"push back the urge to smoke"
"beat back the invaders"
7. compel somebody to do something, often against his own will or judgment;
"She finally drove him to change jobs"
8. push, propel, or press with force;
"Drive a nail into the wall"
9. cause to move rapidly by striking or throwing with force;
"drive the ball far out into the field"
10. strive and make an effort to reach a goal;
"She tugged for years to make a decent living"
"We have to push a little to make the deadline!"
"She is driving away at her doctoral thesis"
11. move into a desired direction of discourse;
"What are you driving at?"
12. have certain properties when driven;
"This car rides smoothly"
"My new truck drives well"
13. work as a driver;
"He drives a bread truck"
"She drives for the taxi company in Newark"
14. move by being propelled by a force;
"The car drove around the corner"
15. urge forward;
"drive the cows into the barn"
16. proceed along in a vehicle;
"We drive the turnpike to work"
17. strike with a driver, as in teeing off;
"drive a golf ball"
18. hit very hard, as by swinging a bat horizontally;
"drive a ball"
19. excavate horizontally;
"drive a tunnel"
20. cause to function by supplying the force or power for or by controlling;
"The amplifier drives the tube"
"steam drives the engines"
"this device drives the disks for the computer"
21. hunting: search for game;
"drive the forest"
22. hunting: chase from cover into more open ground;
"drive the game"
drivel v. 淌口水，说傻话，胡说; n. 流口水，胡言乱语，糊涂话;
driveline n. 动力传动系统;
driven adj. 奋发努力的;发愤图强的;受…影响的;由…造成的; v. 驾驶（drive的过去分词）;
driver n. 驾驶员，司机;驱动器，驱动程序;驱逐者，驱赶者;（高尔夫球）球棒;
driveway n. 马路，汽车道;马车道;
overdrive vt. 驱使过度，虐待，超速传动;
underdrive n. 传动迟缓，低速传动，（液力机的）下传动;
compressed drive n. 压缩驱动器;
drive set 驱动装置;
drive coil 激励线圈;
active drive n. 活动驱动器;
self-drive adj. 租车自己驾驶的;
drive leg 蹬冰腿;
drive back 驾车返回，驱车返回;迫使后退;逐退;却;
drive pulley 驱动皮带轮;主动轮;
drive to 开车去;
carriage drive n. （可通往门口的）车道;
drive master 自动传动装置，液压力传动;
fan drive 风机传动装置;
synchro drive 同步传动;
unit drive 单独传动，单位传动;
over drive 增速传动;
knuckle drive 铰节传动;
antiskid drive 防滑传动;
drive level 驱动电平;
enhancement drive 自我提高的内驱力;
hunger drive 饥饿冲动，饥驱力;
centre drive 中心传动;
|
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Children’s and Young Adult Literature for Teaching Different Perspectives on the American Revolution
Dr. Ava L. McCall
Children’s and Young Adult Books
Children’s Periodicals
Adult Resources: Books
Children’s and Young Adult Books
Adler, J. W. (Ed.). (1998). In the path of war: Children of the American Revolution tell their stories. Peterborough, NH: Cobblestone.
Middle school level/adult resource. The sources for the text originated from Dr. Asa Fitch, a country doctor from northeastern New York, who recorded people’s memories of the American Revolution. Beginning in 1847, Dr. Fitch carefully recorded each person’s story as it was told to him, which provides children’s perspectives of the American Revolution. The editor of the text organized the stories chronologically and thematically, commencing with immigrants leaving their homeland and settling in the New York area, the beginning of the Revolutionary War, the conflicts between the Tories (who were loyal to the British) and Whigs (patriots or advocates of independence) after the war, and everyday life and relationships with Native people, especially the Stockbridge, following the war. Chapters also describe major battles and how they affected ordinary people in the area, how Whig and Tory families tried to protect their homes and possessions and coped with murders, theft of their animals, and destruction of their homes.
Amstel, M. (2000). Sybil Ludington’s midnight ride. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.
Picture book, elementary level. In the “author’s note” and “afterword,” the author compares the differences between Paul Revere’s and Sybil Ludington’s ride during the American Revolution. Sybil’s ride took place later in the war (1777), but was just as important in readying colonial troops to resist a British attack. Sybil’s father was a commander of troops, but he and his soldiers were all at their homes when the British attacked nearby Danbury, Connecticut. Sybil was the only person who could ride her horse and call all the soldiers to gather at Colonel Ludington’s home to prepare for battle. The text contains a map of Sybil’s journey and a sketch of a statue dedicated to her in Carmel, New York.
Benchley, N. (1969). Sam the minuteman. New York: Scholastic.
Picture book, lower elementary level. The simple text portrays a patriot view of the American Revolution as narrated by a young boy named Sam Brown who lived with his parents on a farm in Lexington, Massachusetts. According to Sam and his parents, everyone was against the presence of British soldiers in Boston. When Sam’s father, a Minuteman, was called to help stop the British soldiers from marching from Boston to Concord, Sam also went. The Minutemen were greatly outnumbered by the British soldiers and tried to retreat, but someone began shooting and eight Minutemen were killed. Sam’s young friend John was shot. When the British soldiers returned, the Minutemen fired at the soldiers from behind trees and rocks, which was more effective than shooting openly. Following the battle, the British troops returned to Boston.
Brown, D. P. (1985). Sybil rides for independence. Niles, IL: Albert Whitman.
Picture book, elementary level. The author portrays Sybil as a young woman who was more interested in riding her horse and serving as a soldier for the colonies than doing traditional women’s chores. However, this motivation is speculation. The text provides a description of the known facts of Sybil Ludington’s ride to gather her father’s troops to defend the area and prevent the British from doing more damage and taking territory. The author describes General Washington’s visit with Sybil to thank her for her assistance with defending the colonies. The additional information at the end of the text clarifies which aspects of the text are fiction and which are factual.
Davis, B. (1976). Black heroes of the American Revolution. San Diego: Odyssey.
Upper elementary/middle school level. The author calls attention to male African Americans who served on the patriot side during the seven-year American Revolution. Their contributions are often unknown because they left no records of their experiences since most were slaves and could neither read nor write. The text provides brief portrayals of African American men who fought as soldiers and sailors or served as spies. It also describes three Black regiments, one from Rhode Island, another from Boston, and a third from Haiti. More indepth portrayals are given of James Forten, a war prisoner who later became an abolitionist and one of Philadelphia’s wealthiest men and Crispus Attucks, the first martyr of the American Revolution who died during the Boston Massacre. Most African American slaves volunteered to serve without the promise of gaining freedom; however, thousands became free because of their military service.
Gleiter, J. & Thompson, K. (1985). Molly Pitcher. Nashville, TN: Ideals Publishing.
Picture book, elementary. The text introduces the contributions of Molly Hays who accompanied her husband from camp to camp as he fought in the American Revolution. Molly used a pitcher to carry water to fighting men during hot weather, which led to the name Molly Pitcher. When her husband was overcome by the heat during battle, Molly took his place at a cannon. The book celebrates the courage of the young woman who became known as Molly Pitcher and her contributions to the American Revolution.
Hoose, P. (2001). We were there, too! Young people in U.S. history. New York: Melanie Kroupa Books.
Upper elementary, middle school level, and adult resource. Nearly half the stories portray young female contributions to U.S. history. The first section deals with the encounter of Europeans and Native Americans and includes the activities of Taino girls and boys. In the second section, “Strangers in Paradise: The British Colonies” readers consider the stories of Pocahontas, Salem girls considered “witches,” a young girl captured by the Mohawks, a female indigo planter, and Phillis Wheatley, poet. Within the section on the American Revolution are stories about girls who spun their own cloth rather than use English imports, young female spies, and the contributions of Sybil Ludington and Deborah Sampson during the war.
Lasky, K. (2003). A voice of her own: The story of Phillis Wheatley, slave poet. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.
Upper elementary level. The text is a biography of Phillis Wheatley and details Phillis’s memories of her mother in west Africa and her sale to a wealthy couple living in Boston, Susannah and John Wheatley. When Susannah Wheatley noticed Phillis’s intelligence, she decided to teach her to read and write even though northern slaves were not usually literate. Phillis learned quickly and mastered many subjects. At the age of 14, her first poem was published and Susannah took Phillis to people’s homes to read her poems. Phillis wrote poems about freedom and events leading up to the American Revolution, including the Boston Massacre. Phillis’s first book of poetry was published in 1774, the first book every written by an African American woman. After writing a poem and sending it to George Washington, they met in 1776. Her last poem celebrated the end of the American Revolution.
McGovern, A. (1975). The secret soldier: The story of Deborah Sampson. New York: Scholastic.
Upper elementary/middle school level. The text clarifies the limited options for women during the revolutionary era. Women usually had little or no education in the academic subjects, were expected to marry young and raise a large family, and could not own property or make decisions about what happened to their children. Deborah Sampson came from a poor family whose mother could not afford to raise all her children. Deborah was sent from her home and worked for 10 years for a family in exchange for a place to live. Once she was free, she decided to become a soldier rather than accept women’s traditional role. Deborah disguised herself as a male and became a continental soldier, Robert Shurtliff. She discovered war was not the adventure she expected. Deborah saw the injuries and death from battle and was wounded herself. After nearly dying from a fever, her female identity was discovered and Deborah received an honorable discharge from the army. She served for one and one-half years. Later, she married a farmer and raised a family, but also traveled to different cities and gave talks about her experiences as a soldier. Deborah Sampson was one of the first women to travel alone and earn money from public speaking.
Myers, W. D. (1991). Now is your time! The African-American struggle for freedom. New York: HarperTrophy.
Middle school level and adult resource. The author intersperses general descriptions of historical eras with stories of individuals. He begins with a brief review of the beginning of the slave trade as European Americans recognized the need for cheap labor in the Americas. The author includes a story of one African brought to the U.S. as a slave, kept in slavery for 40 years, then was able to return to Africa. The development of the plantation society is described which necessitated a large labor force to raise one main crop for income and complete other work needed for life on a large estate. One chapter describes the inhumane strategies slave owners used to exercise complete control over slaves and make them dependent on their “masters,” as well as slave resistance to slavery. The author also explores the contradictions in the ideals of the American Revolution and slavery, provides a profile of one free Black (James Forten) living during the Revolutionary era, the place of slavery in the Constitution, different slave rebellions, and the struggle of one couple to escape from slavery. As a way to understand the Civil War, the author describes laws regarding slavery, the growing abolitionist movement, the secession of southern states from the Union, and significant activities of the Civil War itself. Following the Civil War, African Americans still had to struggle for survival and move toward greater equality. Court cases and the accomplishments of African American individuals bring readers up to the final chapter, which focuses on Martin Luther King, Jr. and the modern Civil Rights Movement.
O’Dell, S. (1980). Sarah Bishop. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Upper elementary/middle school level. This historical fiction takes place in New York during the time of the American Revolution. The main character, 15-year-old Sarah Bishop, experiences two disparate points of view on the American Revolution through her father who is a Loyalist and her brother who joins the patriot militia. Unfortunately, both Sarah’s father and her brother die for their views. Sarah’s father is tarred and feathered for his unpopular position and her brother dies on a British prison ship. Because Sarah is accused by the British of starting a fire and the British control much of New York, she must hide from British soldiers and eventually decides to live in the wilderness. The majority of the text describes Sarah’s efforts to survive in a cave, protect herself with a musket, and fish, gather, and store food with some assistance from a Native couple, Helen and John Longknife. Sarah’s unusual lifestyle and friendship with a white bat and an injured muskrat seem to lead to accusations that she is a witch. The text can be used to discuss lifestyles and women’s roles during the Revolutionary War as well as different perspectives on the war.
Rappaport, D. (1988). The Boston coffee party. New York: Harper & Row.
Picture book, lower elementary. This simple text is historical fiction. The story is fictional, but it is based on an incident in which colonial women forcefully took a Boston merchant’s coffee supply hidden in his warehouse. They spoiled his plan to hoard coffee, one of the British products in short supply, until no other merchant had it, then sell his own stock at exorbitant prices. It illustrates an action women took to protest the merchant’s focus on self-gain rather than support for the colonists’ boycott of British products, including coffee. The text also portrays women sewing shirts for the colonial soldiers as one of their contributions to the patriot cause.
Redmond, S. R. (2004). Patriots in petticoats: Heroines of the American Revolution. New York: Random House.
Upper elementary and middle school level. The author briefly profiles 24 women who fought in different ways for freedom during the American Revolution. She includes women writers, such as Phillis Wheatley, Mercy Otis Warren, and Mary Katharine Goddard, who wrote letters or poems or published a newspaper publishing the Declaration of Independence. Redmond describes women who supported the patriot cause through sewing, nursing, defending their homes, serving as spies and messengers, and warning soldiers of dangers, such as Dicey Langston and Sybil Ludington. Women who served in the American Revolution are also portrayed, including Deborah Sampson, Margaret Cochran Corbin, and Mary Hays. The text lists the states where each woman lived and a timeline for the women’s activities.
Rockwell, A. (2002). They called her Molly Pitcher. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Picture book, elementary level. In the author’s note, readers discover the integration of facts about Mary Hays McCauly (also known as Molly Pitcher) and the legend of Molly Pitcher at the Battle of Monmouth. The text and detailed illustrations portray how Molly Pitcher, like many women who followed male relatives to Valley Forge, continued to trail her husband William Hays to the Battle of Monmouth in 1778. During the battle she carried water in a pitcher for soldiers to drink. When her husband became wounded, Molly Pitcher continued to fire his cannon. General Washington designed Molly Pitcher as a sergeant in the Continental Army for her bravery. No evidence exists that Molly Pitcher fought in any subsequent Revolutionary War battles.
Silcox-Jarrett, D. (1998). Heroines of the American Revolution: America’s founding mothers. Chapel Hill, NC: Green Angel.
Picture book, upper elementary level. The author focuses on 24 women who participated in different ways in the American Revolution. She includes women who spoke out about freedom with their husbands, those who boycotted English tea and cloth, women who made warm clothing for Patriot soldiers, those who spied or carried messages to Patriot soldiers, women who directly attacked British soldiers, and women who participated in battle. Most women are European American except for Nancy Ward, a Cherokee, and Phillis Wheatley, an African American.
Stevens, B. (1984). Deborah Sampson goes to war. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda Books.
Picture book, lower elementary level. The simple text portrays the life of Deborah Sampson, who grew up in a poor family, but was able to attend school because she lived with and worked for another family. Deborah supported the patriot cause and challenged traditional gender roles by active participation in the American Revolution at age 21. Since only men could fight, she disguised herself as a man and joined the army as Robert Shurtleff. After being wounded in battle, she tried to remove the musket ball from her own leg rather than risk a doctor discovering her female identity. Deborah continued to serve in the army, but a doctor treating her for another illness learned of her true identity, a surprise to her commanding officer! The author’s note clarifies that Deborah Sampson was honorably discharged from the army in 1783, and later became the first woman lecturer in the U.S. Deborah Sampson traveled to different cities telling about her experiences in the Revolutionary War.
Wallner, A. (1994). Betsy Ross. New York: Holiday House.
Picture book, elementary level. The author also illustrated the text briefly describing Betsy Ross’ life. In the author’s note, Wallner explains the lack of historical evidence that Ross sewed the first American flag. However, Ross’ family and friends passed down the story of George Washington commissioning Ross to sew the flag and Ross’ suggestions to modify Washington’s design. It was possible that Ross met with Washington regarding the flag design because Washington was in Philadelphia where Ross ran her upholstery shop at the time she claimed they met. The text could be used to discuss conflicting evidence and interpretations of historical events and people.
Winnick, K. (2000). Sybil’s night ride. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.
Picture book, elementary level. The author portrays the historical figure Sybil Ludington, daughter of a colonel in the Revolutionary War. When Sybil’s family learns that the British were coming, Sybil volunteers to ride her horse 40 miles through the rainy night to call the militia to prepare for battle. Because of Sybil’s efforts, Colonel Ludington’s regiment joined with other regiments to resist the British advances and pushed them back to New York City. The author’s note provides additional background information on Sybil Ludington’s contributions to history.
Wroble, L. A. (1997). Kids in colonial times. New York: PowerKids Press.
Picture book, elementary level. The text provides a brief overview of who the colonists were, why they came to North America, and their lifestyles during this period (1607-1790). The author describes the simple homes; the chores performed by women, girls, men, and boys; the clothing they wore; how they fished, hunted, or grew their own food; the different ways the men, women, and children entertained themselves; and the importance of religion and education to the colonists.
Children’s Periodicals
Chorlian, M. (Ed.). (2013, October). Valley Forge: The real story. Cobblestone, 34.
Elementary level. The opening article refutes some of the prevalent ideas about Valley Forge during the American Revolution. The winter during 1777-78 was relatively mild rather than harsh, the soldiers lived in log buildings rather than out in the open, Washington exaggerated the soldiers’ conditions to prompt quick action on getting the food they needed rather than soldiers starved, most soldiers had the shoes they needed rather than went without shoes, and the soldiers did not feel defeated despite recent battle losses. Other articles explain how the colonial army gained confidence in fighting the professional British soldiers, how the natural landscape around Valley Forge protected it, and the racial diversity of soldiers, including African Americans and Native Americans. “Remembering the Ladies” explains how women and children followed soldiers during the war and helped the soldiers by preparing food, washing clothes, and completing nursing duties. “A Great Leader” focuses on how George Washington’s leadership skills developed from the French and Indian War in 1754-1763 through commanding the Continental Army during the American Revolution.
Chorlian, M. (Ed.). (2000, November). Spain and the American Revolution. Cobblestone, 21.
Elementary level. The issue clarifies reasons for Spain’s involvement in supporting the Colonists during the Revolutionary War and how they assisted the patriots. Spain wanted the return of the Floridas in North America, the Mediterranean island of Minorca, and the Spanish coastal land of Gibraltar; control of the Bahamas and Jamaica in the Caribbean; and the end of British presence along the Mississippi River and in Central America. They achieved their goals except for the return of Gibraltar and control of Jamaica. Spain became involved in the war because of its antagonistic relationship with England rather than because they agreed with the Colonists. They secretly aided the Colonists by providing money, weapons, and clothing for the Continental Army until they officially declared war on England in 1779 and gained control of the Gulf of Mexico and the lower Mississippi River from the British.
Corsey, M. (Ed.). (1983, September). Patriot tales of the American Revolution. Cobblestone, 4.
Elementary level. The issue focuses on patriot perspectives of the American Revolution through portrayals of less known people. Examples include Caesar Rodney, one of the three representatives from Delaware who rode his horse 80 miles to the Continental Congress meeting to vote for independence from Great Britain; Luther Blanchard, a fifer and the first wounded as the Massachusetts minutemen encountered British troops at the Battle of Concord; and Johann Hess, a young Dutch farmer who warned the Continental Army of the presence of the British forces in the Pennsylvania countryside. Articles also include brief descriptions of individual spies and a spy ring and how they helped the patriots, Sybil Ludington’s night ride to gather her father’s sodiers to stop the advancement of British troops, and the money-raising talents of Haym Salomon to support the patriot cause.
Yoder, C. P. (Ed.). (1987, August). British Loyalists in the revolutionary era. Cobblestone, 8.
Elementary level. The issue clarifies that those Americans who were loyal to Britain during the Revolutionary War were called Tories or Loyalists. Generally, Loyalists believed Britain had the right to rule the Colonies even though they did not approve Britain’s treatment of the Colonies. Sometimes colonists became Loyalists to preserve their standing in the community, sometimes it was due to having their property taken by the rebels or patriots. It was estimated that 15-36% of the European American population during the Revolutionary era were Loyalists. Some Loyalists fled to England or Canada at the beginning of the American Revolution while some hid their views to avoid harassment by the patriots. Some formed Loyalist forces who fought against the Continental Army. Loyalists were sent to prison or fled to British-held cities, although they had to decide if they would remain in the city once the British left. One of the articles includes a timeline showing the rise of Loyalists in the Colonies at the beginning of the conflict with Britain and their escape to Canada, Europe, or the Bahamas after the war.
Adult Resources: Books
De Pauw, L. G. (1975). Founding mothers: Women in America in the Revolutionary era. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
The author focuses on women, half of the population living during the period of the American Revolution, but are often omitted from textbooks. She highlights the greater freedom women of the 17th century had than women in the 18th century which allowed them to participate in social, economic, political, and military activities. The author focuses on the work women did both in their homes and for money; the lives of Native American and African American women; women who identified themselves as “loyalists” and those who claimed to be “Daughters of Liberty;” women’s activities during the war; and women’s roles and rights of this era.
Annotated bibliography list
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Difference between Positive and Negative Rights
What are the differences between Positive and Negative Rights?
Positive Right
1. A positive right correspondent to a positive duty.
2. Positive-Attitude.jpg
Image Source:
A positive right presupposes a positive act to be performed a holder such right by a person on whom the duty lies.
3. Example: Creditor-Debtor. The creditor has a positive right to collect his debt. At the same time, the debtor has the positive duty to pay it back.
4. The object of positive right is to provide “positive benefit” to the plaintiff. It increases the benefit which already has.
5. Salmond says: “Most personal rights are positive……
Negative Right
1. A negative right corresponds to a negative duty.
2. In this, a person bound shall refrain from doing some act which is prejudicial to the person entitled.
3. Example; Wife and husband. Each of the spouses to the marriage has a right of “restitution of conjugal rights” (sec. 9 of Hindu marriage act.).
4. The object of a negative right is not to be harmed, and to maintain status quo.
5. But all real rights are negative”.
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Massive Western Canadian Protest Movement .
In the dark days of the 1930s, during The Great Depression, the western provinces experienced great hardship. A drought, combined with terrible wheat prices, had resulted in a crisis situation. Unemployed men began to wander across the continent, riding the rails. The Canadian Government organized hard labour make-work camps for these men. The treatment was greatly resented. It was perceived that Central Canada did not appreciate how the West was suffering.
Communist Union leaders organized a giant cross-Canada protest in 1935. Desperate and unemployed men from all over the alienated west would travel to Ottawa to present their case at Parliament. Prime Minister Richard Bedford Bennett, a wealthy industrialist by trade, was completely unsympathetic to the hungry mens' plight. He ordered the RCMP to ambush the trek in Regina and force the men to return to the work camps.
The deeply unpopular Bennett would soon lose the next election; he eventually abandoned Canada for England.
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Livonian War
(Suodīkšiz Pleskava-Līvõmōjas)
(Ливонская война)
(Livlander Krieg)
Siege of Narva
Siege of Narva by Vīsvaldis Šimoneit
February 27, 1610 - March 1, 1612
Eastern Baltic Coast
• Flag of Duchy of Livonia Duke Jaagup I Vaalgamaast
• Flag of Duchy of Livonia Count Maunas Vaalgamaast Cēsist
• Flag of ducal Hamburg PM3 V2 Duke Karl I Von Hamburg
• Flag of Pskov (Pskov oblast) TBD
• Flag of Ducal Prussia TBD
• Flag of Duchy of Livonia 72,000
• Flag of ducal Hamburg PM3 V2 95,000
• Flag of Pskov (Pskov oblast) 30,000
• Flag of Ducal Prussia 54,000
Casualties and Losses
Total Dead: 15 400
Total Dead: 2 200
The Livonian War, also known as the Livonian-Pskovian War, was a conflict that took place along the Baltic Sea from 1610 to 1612, between the Duchy of Livonia and the Principality of Pskov.
The build-up to the Livonian War was the issue caused by the death of Queen Sophia of Prussia, which led to the succession crisis in Prussia nad Livonian independence in 1594. This changed the geopolitics of the eastern Baltic, and Pskov and the new Prussian government had to determine how to go about handling the creation of a unique and determined nation.
To further complicate matters, the Prussian colonial empire was greatly shifted by a series of raids by Spanish and Roman privateers. This allowed for Pskov, Prussia, and Livonia all to set up colonies in the Bahamas. Meanwhile, Livonia had created colonies in the Windward Islands that made it the largest colonizer of the three.
The final factor that caused the Livonian war was also economic, but had more to do with Baltic trade. The nation of Pskov had dominated eastern Baltic trade for many years without any real competition, but the desire of Duke Jaagup to advance Livonia as far as possible created economic tensions in the region, which would spill over into the war.
The war began as a small and localized conflict between Livonia and Pskov along their common border. Pskov's army marched and laid siege to the city of Narva, which is located at the Border of Pskov and Livonia. The army of Count Maunas Vaalgamaast then managed to defeat the Pskovian army and push them back to the border.
Lengthy decision-making ensued on the part of the Livonian government as to how to proceed. Many argued for a counter-offensive, and Hamburg almost withdrew, seeing their mission as complete. In 1611, however, as Pskov was negotiating peace, the Kingdom of Prussia decided to engage in combat along the southern border with Kuramo.
The army of Kuramo was raised quite promptly, and at the Battle of Skuodas (in 1611) the Livonian and Kuronian forces defeated the invading Prussian army. This prompted Duke Jaagup to allow his son, Count Maunas, to finish off the Republic of Pskov, while his forces waged war against Prussia. This, however, ended in failre, as it prompted the Pskovian armies, who were preparing to get into defensive positions during negotiations, to spring into action, and forced the Surrender of Narva as well as sent the Prussian army into retreat after the Second Siege of Narva (1612). Count Maunas Miscalculated, and after being pursued from Narva to Dorpat, was ready for a surprise ambush of the Pskovian army that sneaked across the border, and fled to Riga in shame as the Bishophric of Dorpat was captured.
After the Capture of Dorpat and Narva, the Main advances of the Pskovian armies went in two, one to pursue Wenden, and the other, to Pursue Reval.
A large naval battle fought between the Pskovian navy and the joint Livonian-Hamburger navies saw the surrender of most of the Livonian navy at the mouth of the Gulf of Finland. This Effectively ended any type of retaliation or direct invasion, with Pskov now having dominance of the seas. This allowed for the brutal bombardment and blockade of Riga, which saw the Arsenal of Riga burned to the ground.
The war in the colonies, however, was far swifter than anticipated. The Pskov Imperial Company began with small raids on the Livonian colonies, and even captured an island or two, afraid of what Livonia might do if they captured all the islands(i.e. send their entire fleet). However, when the Livonian relief fleet finally arrived in 1612, and after the Battle of the Gulf of Finland, everything changed. The Navy was decimated in the Battle of Novopskovsk, and this allowed the Pskov Imperial company to go ahead with their full invasion, with the capture or surrender of most Livonian Islands peacefully, who lowered their flags in promise that their customs would be respected. The Governor-General of the Livonian colonies was, in fact, appointed the Lieutenant-Governor of many of the Islands shortly afterwards, and retired comfortably under the PIC banner not long afterward.
The Livonian War almost became an extremely large invasion of Livonia on the parts of Scandinavia and Bavaria, but both nations were convinced to avoid war by the ongoing negotiations between Pskov and Livonia. These negotiations didn't prevent Prussia from joining, however, so there was need for two eventual peaces to be concluded.
The Livonians, thinking that they had won the war after a few years, proposed a couple of peace treaties that were eventually withdrawn due to the defeat of Livonia. These peace treaties were:
• Treaty of Räpina - This treaty would have made Pskov a vassal of Livonia and also changed the system of Pskovian government from a pure republic to a hereditary republic, bordering on monarchy. Pskov was also to be renamed Pleskava, and would be forced to give up land to new Livonian vassal, Lādogas, and Livonia proper.
• Treaty of Königsberg - This treaty would have placed the Kingdom of Prussia and the Duchy of Livonia into a Personal Union. Prussia would be renamed Prūsija, and would have made Livonian the official language. Additionally, two vassals were to be formed out of land previously held by Prussia - the counties of Kašubu and Galindi.
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Not Your Average Rain Forest Diorama!
2nd Graders were reading about the Rain Forest, so in STEAM they made a model of a Rain Forest. Each group made a different layer of the Rain Forest and then we taped our boxes together. We also had students make pipe cleaner animals. We connected our animals to a Makey Makey, and learned how to program them in Scratch! When our Makey Makey is attached to our animals, we can touch them and they make their animal noise! We learned a lot about the Rain Forest and circuitry in this unit!
Making a Home for a Monster!
Me On the Map
Constructing Native American Dwellings
In 5th Grade students were learning about different Native American cultures, so in STEAM they researched different dwellings used by Native Americans. They watched videos to learn how the Native Americans constructed each dwelling. They followed the Engineering & Design process (Ask, Imagine, Plan, Create, Improve) to design and build a model of a Native American Dwelling. Check out their final products below:
Spaghetti Skyscraper Earthquake Challenge
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Is It Possible to Decolonize Mestizaje? Part II
Tiokasin Ghosthorse started First Voices Indigenous Radio (FVIR) on a symbolic day: October 12, 1992—Columbus day.
As a teenager, he spoke at the United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland. He remembers that after traveling to Europe he and his colleagues did not want to go back to the United States. They felt a connection to people who held deep cultural traditions. So they did not want to go back to the United States, a country whose early culture was represented by Mickey Mouse and McDonald’s. Ever since his UN work, he has been actively educating people about the importance of living with each other and with Mother Earth.
At the Colloquium “Is It Possible to Decolonize Mestizaje?” organized in April by Professor Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, Ghosthorse talked about decolonizing language and decolonizing thought. Language, in fact, is at the heart of colonization.
Tiokasin Ghosthorse drew many parallels between Indigenous and Western thought and ways of life, and between the Lakota language and the English language. He explained that Lakota means “making friends, allies.” But paradoxically, Americans call Lakota people Sioux, that means “enemies.”
He explained that English language is composed 20% by verbs, hence it imposes life to things: “You water plants, plate food, pen the pen, floor the floor!” It is a language of humiliation, time, and domination.
Lakota language is composed 80% by verbs; it is a language of life. Lakota language has no word for skin color. People of non-indigenous descent are called Wašíču, that means “one who takes too much.” And Lakota people don’t have the concept to be free, because free is what you naturally are.
Tiokasin Ghosthorse then took a white board and drew a circle: “This is how Lakota people see the earth and life,” he said.
After that the drew a rectangle: “This is how Western thought works, and what Indigenous students were taught in boarding schools.” Compulsory boarding schools were established between the 19th and 20th centuries in the United States to educate Native American children according to Euro-American standards. Children were forbidden to speak their Native language and forced to abandon their Native American cultures and identities in order to assimilate into the American way of life.
According to the “squared” representation of life, you have to follow step-by-step a certain path to reach the final goal. But these goals imply an ending to the journey after they have been reached.
He explained how Indigenous people have always been put at the bottom of society, at the bottom of the rectangle. But he reversed the meaning of this representation by turning something negative into something positive when he said that Indigenous people, from the bottom, are sustaining the whole world. If Indigenous people decided to rock ‘n roll, everything would collapse.
circleHe then drew the rectangle inside the circle and commented: “If you think within the rectangle, or within the box, as they say today, see how much you are losing.”
Then he concluded saying, “I don’t want to run out of time, because I don’t have a conception of what it is! But I will leave you with a Lakota saying: ‘If you stop counting the stars, you will stop to exist.’ “
Another presenter at the conference was Mario Murillo Aliaga (Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz) who spoke about the practice of identity and the identity of practice.
He showed a video about the ethnographic collective research project The Ch’ixi Nation: a View from the Isla del Sol, which documented the experiences of a group of researchers that went to the Isla del Sol and tried to interact with the local community to trace the notions of nationhood as embodied social practices.
isla del solThey engaged in a process of problematization of their own position as subjects and researchers. The context of this reflection is both political and personal. He said: “On the one hand, we are facing a ‘Plurinational State’ that is based on an emblematic and essentialist view of indigeneity. On the other hand, we want to become persons, jaqi, in the Aymara sense of the word, by returning to the land and the practice of communal rituals.” This desire is problematic because people in the Aymara communities of Isla del Sol have associated the group with the q’ara, or the gringo, who brings about images of predation and reification of culture. Their personal relation with the sacred landscape has been a way to face this challenge from the standpoint of their own potential and limitations as mestizo/a researchers. They see this as a first step in a dialogic process of becoming persons.
Mario explained that for him research is a human work that has social consequences. To summarize his experience, he told the anecdote: when he was studying in a public university in La Paz, he was seen as white. He then went to a private university and he was seen as black. In the Isla do Sol he is a gringo. In New York he can be taken as indigenous.
Amalia Córdova (NYU) explained how Indigenous-produced video is positioning itself as a distinct field of cultural production—a signifying practice distinct from national cinemas, community video, and “alternative” media practices. She discussed the uses and risks inherent in the terms indigenous media and indigenous video (“video indígena”) for diverse agencies, actors, and stakeholders in the field. Córdova reflected on the hybrid and collective media production processes of indigenous video and examined the traditional spaces of national and regional (‘Latin American’) cinema, as related to indigenous cinemas, drawing on notions of “imperfect” and Fourth Cinema. She talked about the right of communication also through visual images of Indigenous communities, and she explained how the “indigenous communication” community is weaving a wider network of solidarity and activism, adopting indigenous methodologies and circulating socially-committed media. Through this media, the speaker seeks the simultaneous development of a global indigenous movement and its push towards self-representation and de-colonization through media practices.
Amalia Córdova then drew a parallel between indigenous film festivals and the Colloquium organized by Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui. She praised the event and its Indigenous characteristics, such as the fact that speakers were all sitting together in a semicircle; that everyone had the right to speak and express themselves without being interrupted and with the attention of all the participants. She described a very respectful and democratic process that is very distant from the political talk-shows which we are used to, in which the invited speakers talk one over the other and where the strongest voice prevails on the others.
Alejandro Jaramillo, a performance and audiovisual artist based in Bogotá, Colombia, did a perfomative statement by Skype. As he was speaking, he was painting his face darker. He told the audience that he had only recently realized that part of his family had the skin darker that his. He had never noticed this difference and he only found out looking at his family album with another person who had pointed it out. He was shocked by this revelation because he had always considered his family to be white. Everybody wants to be white!
Alejandro 1Alejandro 2 Alejandro 3
As he was making up in a mixture of Indigenous traits and transvestism, he declared: “Contemporary life and world are ruled by the logic of capitalism. Every person has to produce something, and put that something in the market.
Everyone must have his/her own brand: either you make up your brand or somebody else will do it for you. Whatever you produce, your time, your appearance, are commodities for exchange. Nowadays, this caricature reflects itself in every dimension of citizenship: human branding is used to classify human beings in the academy, in the media, in society and culture. A few examples: de-colonial thinking is certified by people seriously involved in centers and dynamics of dominant colonial power. Border identities are recognized central powers and institutions. Queers are incorporated as normal and ordinary. Artistic knowledge and creation are integrated to the rules of circulation and validation of scientific knowledge. In those circumstances: How/what to become? At what cost can we live in the margins?”
Posted by Camilla Querin – MA Candidate at CLACS/Museum Studies
Read>> Is it Possible to Decolonize Mestizaje? Part I
One response to “Is It Possible to Decolonize Mestizaje? Part II
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Kitchen sponges have long been thought to harbor loads of germs. But new findings published in the journal Scientific Reports suggest that they carry much more bacteria than previously imagined, even more than are found in toilets, reports CBS News.
For the study, German researchers examined 28 samples from 14 different used sponges collected from various places in the home to determine how much bacteria they contained. In particular, scientists checked for the following: which types of germs the sponges harbored, where in the home the bacteria originated, where on the surfaces of the kitchen sponges the pathogens were distributed and which factors influenced the composition of their bacterial environment.
Researchers tested individual sponges for variables called intrinsic factors, such as the germs contained on their top and bottom parts and on branded versus non-branded products. In addition, scientists checked variables termed extrinsic factors, such as the number of sponge users in the household, frequency with which the sponges were used and replaced and any special procedures that were used to clean them, including heating sponges in a microwave and rinsing them with hot, soapy water.
Findings showed that the sponges contained 362 different types of bacteria. What’s more, researchers found that five of the 10 most abundant kinds of germs were closely related to ones that could possibly cause disease in humans. Scientists also noted that methods commonly used to sanitize sponges weren’t as effective as once believed. (Although microwaving and boiling sponges reduce bacteria by 60 percent, these germ-killing techniques worked best in laboratory settings.)
Despite the results of the study, some experts stressed that there’s no cause for alarm, since “bacteria are everywhere.” In addition, scientists noticed that newly purchased sponges were practically bacteria-free, so they advised simply replacing sponges each week.
Click here to read about how washing your hands with cold water can kill bacteria.
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The Sixes River estuary, south coastal Oregon, sits above the locked portion of the Cascadia subduction zone, which intermittently releases in subduction-zone earthquakes. One such Cascadia earthquake ∼300 years ago caused subsidence and a tsunami at the Sixes estuary. The subsidence raised the river's base level, resulting in an ∼3 km upstream shift of the head of tide of the estuary. At the upper end of the expanded estuary, more than 4 m of overbank sediment was deposited in the first decades or century after subsidence. Subsequent incision through the overbank deposits accompanied the gradual emergence of the estuary, and attendant downstream shift of the head of tide, as relative sea level fell in response to interseismic uplift.
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Archaeologists Don’t Always Need to Dig
(Top): A drone photograph of the ancestral Hopi village of Homol'ovi IV, a pueblo dating to the latter half of the 13th century, located in Winslow, Arizona. (Bottom): A screen cap of a 3D virtual model of Homol'ovi IV built using drone photographs. DOUG GANN/ARCHAEOLOGY SOUTHWEST
On the morning of August 21—the day of the solar eclipse—five archaeologists and I piled into two SUVs and drove an hour northwest of Tucson, into the thick of the Sonoran Desert. Turning off-road, we reached a yellow expanse inside Ironwood Forest National Monument through a series of latched gates. We brought eclipse glasses, but the quarter-sliver of the sun was just a sideshow. Doug Gann, the archaeologist leading the trip, had brought us to the location of an ancient village—and he was going to fly a GoPro mounted on a drone over it.
The desert sun still seemed as blinding as ever, but not to his drone. Gann, who works at nonprofit Archaeology Southwest in Tucson, wanted to take advantage of the partial eclipse’s dimmer light to take better photographs: “You can see a little more detail in areas of shadow,” he explained later, after maneuvering the craft to take hundreds of overlapping aerial photographs.
But he wasn’t just trying to get pretty pictures. Later, in his office, Gann would process nearly 700 photos with software to produce a three-dimensional virtual model of the village where people known as the Hohokam once lived. The software calculates precisely the distance between every point in the picture using basic geometry and physics principles. “If you literally photograph the hell out of it, you can get incredibly accurate results,” says Gann. This technique of using photographs to create 3-D maps, known as photogrammetry, is about as old as photography itself. But archaeologists have only realized how they can use it in the last few years.
The landscape did not immediately brim with cultural significance. We hiked along a path of loose yellow dirt winding between nets of squat creosote bushes and prickly pear cactus. “Clear signs of overgrazing,” Gann commented, referring to industrial ranchers who used to raise cattle on the land. Several hundred years ago, when the Hohokam lived in the area, the place looked starkly different. “It was more of a grassland,” says archaeologist Aaron Wright of Archaeology Southwest. The Hohokam planted corn, beans, and squash using irrigation canals, and during the summer, they picked cactus fruit, such as the purple prickly pear. We picked them too, brushing the spines off on our shirts. They tasted mildly sweet of watermelon and were full of seeds.
As we hiked further, there it was: On the slope of a short hill, dark boulders piled up, etched with faded white shapes known as petroglyphs. Archaeologists squabble over the details, but they think the Hohokam carved the rock art between 600 and 1400 AD. Gann is mapping the hill so that he can eventually make a virtual reality exhibit for use in a museum or a classroom.
(Top): A drone photograph of the ancestral Hopi village of Homol’ovi IV, a pueblo dating to the latter half of the 13th century, located in Winslow, Arizona. (Bottom): A screen cap of a 3D virtual model of Homol’ovi IV built using drone photographs.
Gann is also building his interpretation, based on archaeological data, of a virtual Hohokam village using similar methods. He and his team built a life-sized wooden-framed Hohokam-style house just outside of Tucson, photographed the model with their drone, and created a virtual model of it. They’ll overlay the virtual house on a virtual village landscape like an archaeologist’s SimCity, which he might use in an exhibit at the Arizona State Museum. “It’s going to be a really exciting way to teach the topics and visualize data,” Gann says.
He shares some of his models with members of the O’odham community, a group of several Native American tribes in the area who call the Hohokam their ancestors. (“Hohokam” means “those who have gone” in the O’odham language.) Bernard Siquieros, the curator of education at the Tohono O’odham Nation Cultural Center and Museum and a member of the Tohono O’odham Nation, thinks the 3-D models can help kids in his community feel more connected to their history. “It’s difficult to explain, especially to young people, the types of housing that our ancestors built,” he says. “It brings to life things that are no longer there.”
But to archaeologists, these models aren’t just an educational tool. For one thing, it makes documenting an excavation much easier. “When we excavate something, we have to destroy it,” says archaeologist Jason Ur of Harvard University. “It can never be done a second time, so it’s really a huge ethical obligation to record things very well.” Now, you can get an accurate log by simply flying a drone overhead.
They’ll also use the 3-D models to ask new types of questions. For example, Ur has unearthed remnants of ancient houses—“a melted pile of mud,” he says—under fields of grain chaff in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. He plans to measure the volume of these mud piles using drones. “When a mud brick house collapses, how much contributes to these giant piles? Can we start to pull things apart about how many people lived in them and for how long?” says Ur. Wright wants take close-ups of the Hohokam rock art to calculate how much rock they removed. He’s noticed that some carvings are deep and carefully etched, while other images are shallow and faint. From these measurements, he could potentially figure out whether certain symbols were more important to the Hohokam.
It may sound like a glorified measuring tape. But the only cold, hard data that archaeologists have are their artifacts, and they have to eke as much information out of them as possible. It’s incredibly challenging to infer human behavior from shards of pottery or piles of mud. The O’odham tell stories about rock art—Siquieros remembers one about a man who uses the glyphs to find water near a canyon—that Wright sometimes uses to drive his research questions. The stories are also a reminder that the Hohokam were real people, not an abstract archaeological idea. “Archaeologists are concerned with data and information,” says Wright. “We try to be scientists. But in that process we can lose sight of the real human quality of the past.”
Most of the time, though, archaeologists can’t draw definitive conclusions about people at all, only objects. “We’re not actually studying people; we’re looking at what people left behind,” says Wright. Archaeologists have to interpret the data to some extent to draw meaningful insights about people. They may never fully understand why the Hohokam carved those shapes onto boulders on the side of that hill—but to get anywhere, they need all the tools they can get.
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Josep Lluís Sert, Spanish
Pavilion,Paris International Exhibition
The Mediterranean
Structural innovation and imaginative forms, which dealt with the climate and
topographical concerns of the region, best characterized the architecture of the
region in the 1930’s. One of the major figures was
Pier Luigi Nervi who devised a
number of intriguing structural solutions to industrial facilities evoking Gothic
forms, such as the
Aircraft Hanger (1936) at Orvieto, Italy. There was also
Eduardo Torroja who devised a corrugated concrete roof that could be cantilevered
over the spectator seats of the
Zarzuela Racecourse (1935) in Madrid, Spain. Both
were engineers with well-developed historical senses, able to transform the
principles of antiquity into modern technology.
Architects attempted to adapt the International Style to differing regions.
had addressed the subject of “Regionalism,” evoking what he called the
“female principle” or the middle ground between industrial usage and the
abstraction of rural and antique sources, Curtis noted. He chose barrel vaults that
recalled Tunisian vaulted vernacular architecture in an unbuilt project for an
Agricultural Estate in North Africa. He also devised
brise-soleil façade for a high
rise in Algiers, which provided a shading device from the intense sun of the
The Spanish wing of
CIAM was formed in Barcelona, led by Josep Lluís Sert,
which brought modern architecture to the Iberian Peninsula. Sert and other
leading Spanish architects formed a Master Plan for Barcelona in 1933, which
incorporated many of the ideas of Le Corbusier’s “Contemporary City.” Their Casa
Bloc was a variant of the immuebles villas, adjusted to the warm climate of the
Spanish coastline. One of the few projects to be realized during this time was the
Spanish Pavilion at the Paris International Exhibition in1937. The pavilion took on
an overt political tone. It was at the height of the Spanish Civil War. Sert used a
steel frame to essentially serve as a relief structure for huge photomontages,
sculptures, diagrams and objects proclaiming the progressive nature of Socialist
Spain. Picasso’s
Guernica was first displayed in this pavilion. Sert spoke of the
ideal of a ‘meridonial architecture’ in which local principles and traditional devices
would be transformed in modern terms, but the victory of Franco squashed these
socialist visions.
Dictators tended to identify with traditional cultural symbols that evoked a
nationalist spirit. However, Mussolini gave freer rein to modern architects in Italy
than did dictators in other countries. In large part this was because Italian
modernism was more evocative of classical precedents than was the International
Gruppo 7 made no attempt to break from tradition, but rather transform it
along modern lines.
Guiseppe Terragni was the most recognizable member of
this group. He enjoyed transforming classical forms into abstract compositions
noted for their stern simplicity. One such example was the
Casa del Fascio (1932-
6) in Como, reworking the proportions of a classical façade into modern spatial
terms. The main entrance opens onto a courtyard, with the offices of the Fascist
party to either side of it. He makes a translucent divider between the people space
and that of the state, suggesting a much more open relationship between the two
than actually existed. He sheathed the building in a polished white marble that
served as a gleaming reminder of the power of the state. He seemed to combine
Le Corbusier’s idea of “a house, a palace.”
He carried these ideas even further in an unrealized proposal for the
(1934) in Rome, creating a monumental screen of polished black porphyry,
with a projecting balcony jutting out of a vertical slit in the curved wall, on which
Mussolini would deliver his speeches. It was like a huge theatre set against the
classic monuments of Rome. In plan, the curve corresponded with the entasis of
the Parthenon and the porphyry alluded to Mussolini’s desire for Egypt, where the
black stone was found. For Terragni the poetic and the political were inseparable,
Curtis noted. He seemed to want to monumentalize Mussolini, who imagined
himself as the reincarnation of the Emperor Augustus.
Casa del Fascio (1936)
One of Hitler’s first acts when gaining the chancellorship of Germany was closing
down the
Bauhaus. He had no interest in modern architecture. Instead, he
favored a stripped down classicism that was monumental in scale. Hitler was
himself a frustrated architect, Curtis noted, who perhaps saw statecraft itself as a
kind of monumental design. He wanted to create an imperial Berlin. He was
drawn to the early work of
Schinkel, which he felt best combined Greek
monumentality with Teutonic culture. In 1934,
Albert Speer became Hitler’s
architect, designing many of the pompous buildings of the Third Reich, and the two
worked together on a master plan for
Berlin (1937-40), shortly before the break out
of WWII.
Zeppelinfield arena in Nuremburg, built in 1934, was one of the more overt
examples of this form of monumentality. It was a colossal stadium designed for
enormous Nazi rallies. Speer combined numerous elements from the past,
paring them down to a regimental discipline that suited Hitler’s temperment.
Speer saw these buildings in the same way Terragni did, as stage sets for the
totalitarian regime. He used slender shafts of light rising high into the night sky to
create what he called “the Cathedral of Light,” using such spectacle to awe the
masses. Speer pandered to Hitler’s megalomania, using highly polished
materials, pompous axial regimentation and interweaving Nazi insignia into
furniture and wall coverings which stressed the supremacy of the state, whereas
Terragni had established a more subtle relationship between the state and the
people in his buildings.
Stalin’s selection of
Boris Iofan’s design for the Palace of the Soviets, in 1934,
signaled the end of the modern movement in the Soviet Union. Stalin also turned
toward a monumentality in architecture that expressed his imperial ambitions. He
likewise instituted massive urban renewal projects. There was also a parallel
drawn between Marxist ideology and Greek democratic ideals, which
tried to embody in the overt classical forms which would later become
known as “Stalinist architecture.”
Most modernists rebelled against these totalitarian states, seeking out new
countries in which they could practice their ideas.
Mies van der Rohe, who had
stayed on in Germany, continued to submit designs for national competitions,
before leaving for America in 1937. He finally saw that there was no work for those
who felt that their “idealist” visions could somehow remain untainted by political
realities, Curtis noted.
Page 1 2 3 4 return to reading room
Modern Architecture Expands its Boundaries
The Diversity of a New Tradition
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Monday, 6 October 2014
What worked well last week #11
One of our focuses in KS2 this half term is school life; so far, we have been discussing differences and similarities and had a handwriting lesson to practice our French cursive handwriting.
Last week, we were having a maths lesson… in French. We practiced our numbers to 20 and learnt the names for the symbols:
add = plus
take away = moins
times = fois
divided by = divisé par
equal = égal
We did some mental maths and some simple sums on the mini-whiteboard. We made it into a challenge by playing the countdown music and had to get our answers ready in 20 sec or so.
Then we had a go at some ‘physical maths’. We showed the numbers using our fingers and used our arms to make up the symbols: cross shape for add, etc. It’s pretty easy to work out the actions for each symbol.
We did a couple of examples at the front with 5 volunteers, one person per ‘item’ in the sum:
i.e. 5 + 5 = 10
As well as showing their number or symbol they had to say what it was:
i.e cinq plus cinq égal dix
Finally, the children got in groups of 5 or 6 and prepared their own physical maths sum to test the rest of the class.
Another focus in Y6 is ‘all the about me’ including introducing a friend or classmate. We are trying to gently move the children (not beginners) from the ‘je’ form to the ‘il/elle’ form.
As a warm up/starter we had a game of ‘don’t break the chain’ with je m’appelle, il or elle s’appelle, etc.
First, I introduced the idea of the difference between je m’appelle and il/elle s’appelle by asking children ‘comment t’appelles-tu’ and then saying (and exaggerating) ‘il/elle s’appelle’ + pointing to the child.
Pretty quickly they worked out I was taking about the 1st pers. vs. 3rd pers.
I set them the challenge on their table (4 or 6 children per table) to say what their name was, adding the previous person’s name and so on .i.e. je m’appelle… / il s’appelle / elle s’appelle… / etc.
We added an element of competition and tried to be the fastest table to say everybody’s name without breaking the chain (without getting it mixed up with je and il/elle).
I didn't think it would be THAT much fun, but it was, and all the tables had a go at being the fastest
If you’ve been reading my blog you know I like simple ideas, well there you have...2 new – tried and tested- activities!
1. Love the 'Don't break the chain' activity! I'm working on different parts of the verb, too, with Year 6 so maybe we can share ideas!
2. Thank you Julie! It worked really well with 's'appeller'. Looking forward hearing about your ideas too!
3. Nice blog..thanks for sharing..
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History of Julius Caesar eBook
[Sidenote: Caesar arrives at Brundusium.]
When, at length, Caesar arrived at Brundusium, he found that Pompey had sent a part of his army across the Adriatic into Greece, and was waiting for the transports to return that he might go over himself with the remainder. In the mean time, he had fortified himself strongly in the city. Caesar immediately laid siege to the place, and he commenced some works to block up the mouth of the harbor. He built piers on each side, extending out as far into the sea as the depth of the water would allow them to be built. He then constructed a series of rafts, which he anchored on the deep water, in a line extending from one pier to the other. He built towers upon these rafts, and garrisoned them with soldiers, in hopes by this means to prevent all egress from the fort. He thought that, when this work was completed, Pompey would be entirely shut in, beyond all possibility of escape.
[Sidenote: He besieges Pompey.] [Sidenote: Pompey’s plan of escape.]
The transports, however, returned before the work was completed. Its progress was, of course, slow, as the constructions were the scene of a continued conflict; for Pompey sent out rafts and galleys against them every day, and the workmen had thus to build in the midst of continual interruptions, sometimes from showers of darts, arrows, and javelins, sometimes from the conflagrations of fireships, and sometimes from the terrible concussions of great vessels of war, impelled with prodigious force against them. The transports returned, therefore, before the defenses were complete, and contrived to get into the harbor. Pompey immediately formed his plan for embarking the remainder of his army.
[Sidenote: It is made known to Caesar.] [Sidenote: Success of Pompey’s plan.]
He filled the streets of the city with barricades and pitfalls, excepting two streets which led to the place of embarkation. The object of these obstructions was to embarrass Caesar’s progress through the city in case he should force an entrance while his men were getting on board the ships. He then, in order to divert Caesar’s attention from his design, doubled the guards stationed upon the walls on the evening of his intended embarkation, and ordered them to make vigorous attacks upon all Caesar’s forces outside. He then, when the darkness came on, marched his troops through the two streets which had been left open, to the landing place, and got them as fast as possible on board the transports. Some of the people of the town contrived to make known to Caesar’s army what was going on, by means of signals from the walls; the army immediately brought scaling ladders in great numbers, and, mounting the walls with great ardor and impetuosity, they drove all before them, and soon broke open the gates and got possession of the city. But the barricades and pitfalls, together with the darkness, so embarrassed their movements, that Pompey succeeded in completing his embarkation and sailing away.
Project Gutenberg
History of Julius Caesar from Project Gutenberg. Public domain.
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Saturday, October 16, 2010
Essay on Indians of Long Island
Essay on Indians of Long Island
Paumanok if what the Indians called Long Island, it means “land of tribute”. Before 1609, the only habitants on Long Island were the Indians. Henry Hudson, who docked his ship the Half Moon off the shores of what is now Coney Island, was the first white visitor. Hudson along with his crew took small boats to shore to catch fish and see what the land and the people were like.
The Canarsie Indians, who heard of white people but never saw them, were very curious to meet their counterparts at the shore. Along with them, they brought green tobacco. It was their gesture of friendship. Robert Juet, a crewmember of the Half Moon, who kept a written journal, documented this.
Hudson did not stay on Long island. Within a few days, he set sail again. If he had remained on land, he would have found out that there was more than one tribe that lived on Long island. He would have found out there were thirteen or more tribes extending from one end of the Island to the other.
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There were thirteen principal tribes: Canarsies, Rockaways, Merricks, Matinecocks, Massapeagues, Nisequogues, Secatogues, Setaukets, Unkechaugs, Cartages, Shinnecocks, Manhassets, and the Montauks. They all belonged to the great tribe known as the Delaware Indians, belonging specifically to the Algonquin family. A tribe was an independent nation with its own territory (Long Island) leaders, and the language.
The Canarsies, which meant, “at the fenced placed” lived in what is now Brooklyn. They were the tribe that made the majority of the wampum. Wampum was very valuable and had many uses. There were many kinds of wampum but the white and black wampum were used most often.
The white wampum was made from shells of fish and made into beads by the women. The beads were strung together by sinew. “Sinew is animal fiber used by Indians mainly as thread for sewing or stitching articles together”. (Grant, 288) The black wampum was the most valuable and made from clams. It was used as money. Wampum was used for trade with the white man. The Indians exchanged wampum for a steel tool, known as a muck suck. This tool helped the Indians make wampum much faster. Since the Indians could only trade wampum, the English and Dutch set a price for the beads. In 1673, the price was set at one penny for three black beads and one penny for six white beads.
The Rockaway tribe lived in what are now Hempstead, part of Jamaica, and all of Newton, Queens. Rockaway meant “sandy place”. The Merrick Indians lived in what are now the town of Oyster Bay, parts of Mineola, Westbury, Merrick, and the South Shore east of the Rockaways. Merrick means “plain country”.
Flushing, Glen Cove, Cold Spring Harbor, and Huntington were where the Matinecock tribe settled. The Matinecocks were great fishermen. They also made wampum but not as much as the Canarsie tribe. Matinecock means “hilly country”.
Massapeague means “the great water land” and this tribe lived in the largest area. They settled on the South Shore, all the way east to what is now Islip and north to the middle of the Island. The Nissequogue Indians lived east of the Nissequogue River to Stony Brook and from the sound, to the middle of the Island. Their name means “the clay country”. The land around the river was rich in clay and this is what the Indians made their cooking utensils and pots out of.
“Black and colored land” is what Secatogue means. These Indians lived on the South side of Long Island east of the Massapeague tribe. They settled as far east as Patchogue. The Setaukets were a strong tribe and their name meant, “ land at he mouth of the creek or river”. They lived in what is now Stony Brook east to the Wading River and south to the middle of the Island.
Several small tribes made up the Unkechaug Indians. These small tribes lived in different sections of Long Island. Whatever area they settled in they gave their name to that land. One small tribe from the Unkechaug Indians called the Patchogues settled at the eastern end of Long Island. Unkechaug meant, “land beyond the hill”.
On the north shore from the Wading River east to what is now Orient Point, the Corchaugues lived. Their name meant “principal place”. On the hills of Great Peconic Bay and Shinnecock Bay lived the Shinnecock Indians. Their name had the meaning “at level land”. The Manhasset Indians lived on Shelter Island, Ram Island, and Hog Island, for their name meant, “Island sheltered by islands”.
The most powerful tribe of all the Long Island Indians was the Montauks. They lived in East Hampton to the end of Montauk Point. Montauk means “the fort country”.
All thirteen tribes were alike in many ways. They all spoke the Algonquin language. They all had their own chief or sachem. A sachem was the head of the tribe; it could either be a male or a female. It was a role that was inherited. The sachem spoke for their tribes. They had to be brave, a skilled trader, a good expert shooters and a hunter. Sachems had the power to declare war, make peace, sign treaties and receive foreign visitors.
What do Long Island Indians look like? A crewmember from the Half Moon ship wrote: “They go in deer skin, loose well dressed. They grease their bodies and hair very often and paint their faces with several colours, as black, white, red, yellow, etc. Which they take great pride in everyone being painted in a different manner.” (Overton, 27)
Indians painted their faces with different colors, each color representing something significant. Red stood for life, which meant power, success or war, yellow stood for the sun, which meant joy, travel, or bravery, black stood for death and eternal rest, white stood for the spirit world, which meant peace, brown stood for the Earth Mother, green stood for plants, vegetables, purple stood for royalty and blue stood for defeat or trouble.
The colors of the paint were made from the juices of plants. Certain berry bushes made red. Boiling leaves would make green and the bark of certain trees, such as cedar, maple, ash, pine, or hemlock would make brown. They also used clay, stone, charcoal, and soot to make other colors.
The Long Island Indians dressed very lightly and simply. In the summer the men wore, deer skin loincloths and moccasins on their feet. The women wore what looked like an apron, or what might be a longer loincloth, covering the back and front of her body. In the winter, they covered their bodies with a robe of deerskin, bear skin or wildcat, leggings and heavier moccasins, or snow shoes. There were no pockets in their clothes. They would hang things from their necks. Pouches made of snakeskin or deerskin held their knives, tobacco, tools, and other items.
Wigwam is the Algonquian word for house. The Long Island Indian set up their wigwams near streams, beaches, or bays. An Indian village was a cluster of wigwams built close to each other. They were built out of young trees of saplings. The man built the frame of the house. He would set the saplings into the ground in a circle about ten to twenty feet in diameter. Then the branches were tied together in the shape of a dome with strips of bark or hemp twine. The women finished the rest of the wigwam. She covered the framework with plant stalks and grass with strips of bark and filled the cracks with plastered mud.
Wigwams were one large room, where the Indians ate, slept, cooked, and worked. There were two doors, each about three feet high covered with deerskin and a mat. A hole was left in the roof for the smoke to escape from the indoor fire. The edges of the hole were covered with clay to prevent the roof from burning.
The fire was taken care of by the women. It was their job to make sure the fire never went out. It had to stay on all day and night. Since the Indians had no matches, they lit their fire by striking stones or rubbing two sticks together until the friction was hot enough to smolder. This process was slow and hard and for that reason the fire had to remain constant.
The Long Island Indian and all Indians in general had a great respect for fire. Fire was used for many things, cooking, smoking fish and certain foods, keeping warm, and as a tool. It was also used to cure stiff joints and other ailments. The Indians would place stones on the fire until they were red-hot. Then they would put them in a very small wigwam built near the water. The sick Indian would lay inside the wigwam until they were dripping with sweat. Then run outside and jump in the cold water. They believed it purified their bodies of all poisons when following this ritual.
Fire was the greatest tool when it came to building their canoes. They made their canoes out of pine, oak, or chestnut trees. They would first choose a good straight thick tree. Then they would make a fire around the base of the trunk, making sure the flames would not burn too high or too much of the length of the tree. They watched and waited until it burnt all the way through and was ready to fall.
After it was down the Indians would remove all the bark and branches. Fire was again used to hollow out the inside of the tree. They burned it out by starting the fire down the flat center. With large sharp shells or stones, they would scrap away or dig out the entire charred log over and over again until it had sufficient depth.
Long Island Indians ate by farming, fishing, and hunting. Nature had provided Long Island with ample food sources. They planted vegetables and fruits. The men hunted for deer, bear, beaver, and moose. They also ate small game: raccoon, rabbit, squirrel, muskrat, and woodchuck. Whenever possible the Indian would shoot down pigeons, sea gulls, geese, and wild turkey. The boys would fish for lobsters, clams, and oysters. The women would plant pumpkin, corn, beans, squash, and melons. She also was in charge of the cooking. Meals were eaten at anytime. There was no set time for breakfast, lunch, or dinner. Indians ate when they were hungry.
The men hunted with bows and arrows. The bow was made of a single piece of wood, usually ash or hickory. They heated the wood over a slow fire. Then they oiled it, polished it, and did this process over and over again until the bow bent into shape. The arrowheads that were found on Long Island were made in the shape of a triangle with a stem. After killing an animal, the arrowhead was taken out of it and used again.
One of the last really great Sachem was Wyandanch. He was from the Montauk tribe. He was considered the strongest and wisest ruler the Long Island Indians ever had. He became friends with an English settler. Lion Gardiner rescued Wyandanch only daughter, Quashawam also called Momone or Heather Flower from the Narragansett tribe when the Narragansetts took her on her wedding day. They killed her husband and kidnapped her. Gardiner arranged a ransom for Quashawam safe return. To show his appreciation, Wyandanch gave Gardiner all the land that is now known as Smithtown.
Gardiner became the first white settler to start a plantation in East Hampton. In 1639, he purchased the island we now know as Gardiner Island from the Indians. He bought it for “one large black dog, one gun, some gun powder and shot, some rum and a pair of blankets”. (Bookbinder, 33) In addition, Gardiner’s daughter Elizabeth was born becoming the first white child born in Suffolk in 1639.
In 1653, the battle between the Indians and the English took place at Fort Neck, near Massapequa. Captain John Underhill attacked the fort and defeated the Indians.
Some of the words we use today were taken from the Indian language. Words such as moccasin, poncho, raccoon, squash, and tobacco were implemented into the English language. There are as many as one thousand Indian words still used in the English language today.
Each tribe throughout the country spoke their own dialect. There was no written language. Having no written language, stories were told by means of pictures scratched into stone. The Long Island Indians spoke Algonquin. This language was spoken through most of the Northeast New England area.
In 1631, Reverend John Eliot wanted to learn the Indian language. Remember, there was no written language. He had to learn from another Indian. He came across a young Indian boy named Cockenoe. Cockenoe de Long Island as he was known belonged to the Montauk tribe of Indians. As a young boy, he was captured in the Pequot War and taken prisoner. He was given to a Massachusetts farmer to be a servant. The farmer taught him to speak English. He became one of the first Long Island Indians to become fluent in English.
Cockenoe was very good in understanding English, speaking the language, and learning the customs of the Englishmen. He became a great help to the white man, a liaison, between the two cultures. In fact, his name Cockenoe means instructor or interpreter. Cockenoe taught Eliot to speak Algonquin and Eliot taught Cockenoe to write in English. Eliot then translated the Lords Prayer and the Ten Commandments into the Algonquin language. Cockenoe was also good at establishing boundaries for pieces of land that the Indians sold to the English settlers. He wrote out deeds and was paid for all services he provided. His pay could consist of one coat, four pounds of powder, six pounds of lead, one hatchet, and seventeen schillings worth of wampum.
There are not many things left on Long Island from the Indian days except for local town names. William Wallace Tooker wrote a book called “Indians Place-Names on Long Island”. In it, Mr. Tooker explains the meanings of many of the Algonquin language, “so that we have a proper remembrance of those who tenanted the woods and sailed the seas before us.” (Tooker, 51)
Did the Indians have a religion? The Long Island Indians prayed or worshipped to spirits. They had four spirits of the Earth that they prayed to. Those were the spirit of the sea, and the sky, the rain, and the sun. They also had many other spirits to pray too but over all, there were two great spirits, one good, and one evil.
Every Indian village had a medicine man or witch doctor. The medicine man was trained from childhood to perform rituals. He would dress in the skin of an animal, paint his face and sing and dance around a fire. The witch doctor would mix herbs and some potions. These potions were believed to cure the Indians of all the evil spirits.
Before colonization started there were approximately 6,500 Indians living on Long Island. In 1658, an epidemic of small pox broke out and killed almost two-thirds of the Indians on Long Island. When the Dutch and the English introduced the Indians to alcohol, especially rum, the Indians became addicted and turned against each other resulting in violent fights and sometimes death. By 1741, there were only a few hundred Indians left on Long Island. The white settlers, who claimed they purchased the land from the Indians, forced them to move. After the American Revolution in 1775, Indians were rarely seen on Long Island. Traces of purebred Indians on Long Island are completely gone. Today, the only traces of Indian that remain on Long Island are the colorful names of the villages, towns, bays, hills, roads, and two Indian Reservations. The Poosepatuck Indian reservation in Mastic has about 136 residents (but no full bred Indians) on 53 acres of land and the Shinnecock Indian Reservation near South Hampton, which has about 600 acres. The Shinnecock Reservation still holds an annual pow-wow, which invites all Indians from other parts of the United States. Colorful Indian costumes, ceremonial dances, and handicrafts made by Indians are displayed.
Indian stories have delighted many generations. One of the Long Island Indians most famous legends was the story about “The Devil and the Stones”. Indians use to say that Long Island was covered with rocks and stones and it was so very difficult to plant corn on the land. Across the sound in Connecticut, the land was smooth and fertile, free from rocks. One day the Devil decided he liked Connecticut so much, he would drive all the Indians away so he could have the land all to himself. The Connecticut Indians did not want to leave their land and chased away the Devil to Long Island. The Devil ran away so fast jumping over rock after rock. He became so angry he started planning his revenge. He gathered up rocks and threw them across the sound into the green fertile fields of Connecticut. The Indians believe this story to be true because after that there were many stone walls around Connecticut and the land became very rocky. They also believe the footprint of the devil is on the stone where he threw the rocks.
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The defects in the lattice may be concentrated about a point (point defect) or along a line in the lattice when it is called a line defect. If the defect spreads over a plane or surface then it is called a plane defect. Surface or plane defects form when line defects are clustered on a surface. Grain boundaries, sub-grain boundaries and mechanical twins are examples of surface defects.
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Quick Reference
The name given to that part of the older sailing ships forward of the forecastle and around the beak which was used by the crew as their lavatory. In the US Navy it was simply known as the head, but in the Royal Navy the word was always used in the plural to indicate the weather and lee sides, seamen being expected to use the lee side so that all effluent fell clear into the sea. They were floored with gratings so that the sea could assist in washing them clean. The name is still used today for the modern flush toilets fitted aboard every ship and yacht.
Subjects: Maritime History.
Reference entries
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Okunev Culture
Okunev Culture
an archaeological culture of the first half of the second millennium B.C. (Bronze Age) in southern Siberia. Named after the Okunev ulus (settlement) in southern Kha-kassia, where the first burial ground of this culture was excavated by S. A. Teploukhov in 1928, the Okunev culture replaced the Afanasievo culture and preceded the Andronovo culture. It is represented by burial structures—small, rectangular surface enclosures made of stone slabs placed vertically into the ground. Within the enclosures were graves, also lined with stone slabs. The skeletons, of the Mongoloid anthropological type, were on their backs with legs bent at the knees.
Among the finds were lavishly decorated juglike and conical vessels; copper and bronze articles, including leaf-shaped knives, fishhooks, and temporal rings; and works of art—stone statues with human faces and images of birds and beasts engraved on bone plaques or hammered out on stone slabs. The chief occupation of the population was stock raising (cattle, sheep, and goats), supplemented by hunting and fishing. There were no significant indications of property and social stratification. The similarity between some of the objects from the Okunev burial grounds and objects found in sites in the vicinity of the middle Ob’ River and the Lake Baikal region suggests that the bearers of the Okunev culture came to southern Siberia from the northern taiga regions.
Istoriia Sibiri s drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei, vol. 1. Leningrad, 1968.
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Jochen Bihn
The Namib desert beetle is one of those marvels of nature that has figured out a method of survival that defies imagination. To keep from drying out in its incredibly arid habitat, the beetle gathers moisture from ocean breezes on its wings. It’s a beautiful concept, as Wired explains:
The beetle extends and aims the wings at incoming sea breezes to catch humid air; tiny droplets 15 to 20 microns in diameter eventually accumulate on its back and run straight down towards its mouth.
This is such an elegant idea that human scientists are trying to replicate it. A company called NBD Nano has managed to replicate the beetle’s water-catching system. One idea for how we could steal the beetle’s natural talents for our own selfish benefit: create water bottles that refill themselves.
At scale, these bottles could collect a substantial amount of water — about four-fifths of a gallon each hour. The company imagines it could be used on green roofs, in the military, and eventually in low-income communities living in places like Sub-Saharan Africa, producing emergency water supplies literally out of thin air.
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