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Home Page
Geography - Under our feet
To help us understand what is under our feet, we used play-doh.
To do it yourself all you need to do is;
1. Make a small ball of orange play-doh. This represents the inner core.
2. Roll out a thick layer of yellow play-doh and wrap it around the inner core. This is the outer core.
3. Repeat with a thick layer of orange play-dog. This is the mantle.
4. Roll out a thin layer of brown play-doh. This is the earth's crust.
5. Add a very thin layer od blue and green play-doh. Use a globe to help you place the land.
6. Finally, cut your earth in half to see the layers inside.
I think we followed the instructions well, look at how halved globes!
Picture 1
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7977572679519653,
"url": "http://www.northern.lancs.sch.uk/geography-under-our-feet/"
}
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Bone Pickers
Tenement life in New York - Ra... Digital ID: 809685. New York Public Library
This chaotic scene portrays an active community life. Note the rags hanging from the lines and the pile of bones in the lower right corner. Rag Pickers’ Tenement, New York City, 1879. (New York Public Library)
Before the 1870s, the bone supply for domestic toothbrush manufacturers came largely from urban centers in the United States. Bone pickers, mostly immigrants of German descent lived in tenement buildings or communal apartments in cities like New York, Philadelphia, and Newark. Typically, bone pickers–including wives and children–left home before dawn to pick through the urban trash of the previous day. Items of value, like rags for paper making, or bones, were taken back to the home to be washed and stored until they were sold. An 1879 print shows a rag pickers’ tenement in New York: rags can be seen hanging from strung lines and a pile of bones is seen in the right foreground. As benevolent societies rose in the United States, bone picker tenements were viewed as centers of filth–both physically and morally–and were slated for cleanup by city officials.
Though commonly referred to as ‘Rag and Bone Pickers,’ these urban scavengers sought anything that could be used or sold to provide for their families. (Henry Mayhew, The Bone-Grubber, daguerreotype by Beard, 1851.)
In Newark, New Jersey, bone pickers organized an exchange to regulate the gathering, cleaning, and sale of bones in order to protect the interests of pickers. After gathering bones and rags, pickers met to discuss the day’s products, and set prices. The exchange was well regarded by both buyers and sellers, as well as city sanitation officials, who left waste on the streets until pickers made their rounds. Though picking was considered a filthy living, writers thought pickers better than beggars within the social hierarchy. Some immigrants were able to use bone picking as a way to save enough to travel west and settle farms, forever leaving urban tenement life behind.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9384524822235107,
"url": "https://disposableamerica.org/course-projects/jodi-fredericksen/bone-pickers/"
}
|
prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from.[1] It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semanticsdesignelectronics, and software programming. A prototype is generally used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and users.[2] Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one.[3] In some design workflow models, creating a prototype (a process sometimes called materialization) is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea.[4]
The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, “primitive form”, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, “original, primitive”, from πρῶτος protos, “first” and τύπος typos, “impression”.[1][5
In this section we will look at various techniques for prototyping your idea to make sure it works as you want. With recent rapid prototyping tools available including 3D printers, CNC machines, middleware platforms like Unity, etc. it is easier than ever to test out your ideas before you start full production.
DEN Stage 2 - Prototypingv2
Here are some additional tools and links if you are interested in learning more about this topic
What is prototyping?
Prototyping is an Attitude
Best practice and 8 common methods
The Prototype Model
Collaborative Prototyping
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"url": "https://studioden.uk/process/prototyping/"
}
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MRI Introduction for Elementary School Students
For young students from lower grade classrooms, MRI could be introduced through this simple story by B. M. Damon.
A story about Cheerio T. Chicken and MRI
Once upon a time, in a barnyard in Illinois, there lived a young bird named Cheerio T. Chicken. She lived there with her parents. One day, Cheerio went to go and see her doctor, Dr. Poulet. Mr. and Mrs. Chicken came along, too. Dr. Poulet was a chickiatrician.
Cheerio liked Dr. Poulet very much, because he was very funny. He was always telling jokes. Cheerio's favorite jokes were the ones about chickens crossing the road. Cheerio and Mr. and Mrs. Chicken walked across the barnyard to his office. It was over in the Southwest corner, near where the pigs lived. They walked into his office. "Well, Cheerio, why did the chicken cross the road?" asked Dr. Poulet.
"I don't know, Dr. Poulet," replied Cheerio, already laughing.
"To get away from those smelly old pigs!!!!"
After they all had a good laugh, Dr. Poulet began to examine Cheerio. He tapped on her knees with a small rubber hammer, scratched her feet with the other end of the hammer (which also made her laugh, but this time because it tickled), looked in her ears and eyes, and asked her if she was feeling well.
"Well, Dr. Poulet," said Cheerio, "Now that I'm all over my People Pox, I feel great!"
"That's great, Cheerio. Say, how would you like to take a picture of your insides?" asked Dr. Poulet.
"You mean my brain and my heart and my liver and my guts and stuff?"
"Yes, your brain and heart and liver and guts and stuff," replied Dr. Poulet, laughing.
"How can you do that? Do you use a special camera?" asked Cheerio.
"Yes, we use a very special camera called an MRI. An MRI camera is a great big magnet. Do you know what a magnet is?"
"Yes, I do, Dr. Poulet. We learned about them in school. A magnet is a piece of metal that can attract other pieces of metal."
"That's right. And do you know what else? Inside of you there is a lot of water. There is water in your brain, and in your heart, and in your liver and guts and everywhere else. And this special MRI camera can make pictures of this water."
Cheerio could not believe her ears. A camera that can look inside of things and make pictures of water? Wow, she thought, this is cool. I have to try this out. "OK, Dr. Poulet. I think I want to try it. What will it be like?" she asked.
"Well, Cheerio, you will lie down inside of a tube. The tube is part of the MRI camera. You will lie there while we get the MRI camera ready and then we will start to take a picture of you. You will need to lie very still so that the pictures aren't too blurry."
"What will the picture look like? Will it be in color?" asked Cheerio.
"No, it won't be in color," replied Dr. Poulet. "It will be black and white. It will be a square about 60 mm by 60 mm (about two and a half inches by two and a half inches). We call this the field of view. We can change the field of view to make a big picture or a little picture. We can take pictures from the front, from the side, or from the top. We can make the picture very thick or very thin."
"Well, this sounds very exciting, Dr. Poulet," said Cheerio. When can I come in?"
"How about tomorrow?" suggested the doctor.
The next day, Cheerio and her parents went back over to Dr. Poulet's office. Though she was a little nervous, Cheerio was a very brave young bird and was very calm the entire time. Afterwards, Cheerio was very curious to see what her insides looked like. She studied the pictures very hard, and Dr. Poulet taught her all about brains and hearts and livers and guts. Cheerio thought that it may have been her most exciting day ever.
Eventually, Cheerio and her parents had to leave. As they were getting ready to go, Dr. Poulet asked, "Cheerio, do you know why basketball players are such messy eaters?"
"No, Dr. Poulet," she replied.
"Because they're always dribbling!!"
Cheerio laughed and laughed all the way home, stopping only to think, I wonder what the inside of an egg looks like?
Figure 6. MRI of an egg (Image courtesy of Dr. Andrew Webb.)
- Page 11 of 24 -
EGG ABOUT CHICKSCOPE CREDITS GLOSSARY RESOURCES HOME Copyright (C) 1998 University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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"url": "http://chickscope.beckman.uiuc.edu/about/overview/mries.html"
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View of bush encroached land at the Waterberg in Otjozondjupa Region, Namibia: in a study recently published in the journal Sustainability, researchers have looked at the combined social and ecological factors that cause woody encroachment in African savannahs. Photo: Vision 2030/Wikimedia commons
regime shifts
Increase in woody plants are increasingly affecting the African savannahs, reducing grazing for cattle and affecting mobility
Story highlights
• African savannahs have been particularly hard hit by woody encroachment, or the increase in density of woody plants
• Researchers have looked at the combined social and ecological factors that cause the encroachment. Most previous work focused on the direct, ecological drivers of the process
• The analysis highlights that the increasing shift from grassy to woody savannahs are ultimately linked to changing land use, and increased carbon dioxide and global warming associated with growing human populations
Woody encroachment, or the increase in density of woody plants, has been a global problem for over a century, but African savannahs have been particularly hard hit.
Savannahs are home to 505 million people in Africa, most of whom rely directly on the livelihoods developed from the mixed environment of trees and grass. The increase in woody plants not only threatens the provision of food and clean water, but also grazing for livestock and habitats for some of the world’s last remaining mega-herbivores, such as white rhinos and elephants.
In a study recently published in the journal Sustainability, centre researcher Oonsie Biggs together with PhD student Linda Luvuno and colleagues from Stellenbosch University have looked at the combined social and ecological factors that cause woody encroachment in African savannahs.
Most previous work on woody encroachment has focused on the direct, ecological drivers of the process, such as the role of fire or grazing and whether this has either halted or increased the encroachment. Little work has been done looking into the larger scale human and social drivers underlying woody encroachment.
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Humans have both local and global influence on savannahs, and that the increasing shift from grassy to woody savannahs are ultimately down to growing human populations.
Linda Luvuno, lead author
The role of fires and population growth
Woody encroachment is basically a shift from a grassy savannah to a persistently closed canopy, woody savannah. One way to conceptualise the process is to view it as a regime shift. These are large, persistent changes in the structure and function of ecological or social-ecological systems. The reason behind a regime shift is usually the combination of internal and external changes that push a system towards change. A shock to the system, for instance a period of intense drought, can eventually tip the system (such as the savannah) into a new state which is difficult and expensive to reverse.
For example, the collapse of Canada´s Newfoundland cod fishery in the early 1990s directly affected the livelihoods of some 35,000 fisherman and fish processing plant workers, and led to a decline of over $200 million dollars per annum in cod landing revenues.
The release of trees from browsing pressure in a study in Mozambique resulted in tree cover increases ranging from 57% to 134% over a 35 year time period –with no directional trend changes in fire and rainfall.
In African savannahs, the direct causes of woody encroachment are a reduced fire frequency and intensity. Fire reduces the number of seedlings and tree density in savannas, and prevents canopy closure which ensures there is sufficient light to maintain a high grass biomass. A high grass biomass, which in turn is based on soil moisture and nutrients, light and the extent of grazing is necessary for more frequent and intense fires. But there are other, indirect drivers too, closely related to human actions. Population growth, urbanisation, land use and even world views are driving gradual changes in African savannahs.
Says lead author Linda Luvuno from Conservation Ecology and Entomology at Stellenbosch University:
"Our analysis highlights that humans have both local and global influence on savannahs, and that the increasing shift from grassy to woody savannahs are ultimately down to growing human populations."
As human population grows, food demand increases incentives to increase cattle numbers. This in turn reduces the abundance of grasses which gives trees a competitive edge and facilitates encroachment. At a bigger scale, a rapidly urbanising planet means more people move to live in cities, leaving rural and agricultural areas depopulated, which also facilitates encroachment through lower demand for firewood, timber and reduced fire frequency.
"Rapid urbanization is also linked to the anthropogenically-driven global warming and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations which have been found to accelerate root growth, enhance tree resprouting after a fire, and enhance tree water use efficiency," Luvuno explains.
Then there are mental models and world views. South Africa’s changing social and political situation provides a great example of how interlinked social and ecological systems are and how that can lead to regime shifts. The Apartheid government forced the majority of black people into smaller portions of land, which led to overgrazing in communally managed areas. A democratic government then gave people the freedom to live wherever they wanted, which increased the migration to urban areas.
Number of documents reporting significant impacts of different drivers of woody encroachment. Click on illustration to access journal article
How to halt the encroachment
When discussing ways to better manage (and ultimately halt) woody encroachment, Oonsie Biggs and her colleagues believe strategic use of high-intensity fires are important, as long as they do not come at the expense of losing tall trees.
"Increasing fire frequency in a system promotes grass regeneration, which has a negative impact on tree seedling establishment,”"Biggs explains.
Furthermore, reintroducing browsers, ranging from goats to elephants, can suppress woody growth. The widespread reduction of browsers is considered a major driver of tree cover increases in Africa. Clearing trees and maintaining tree cover below 40 % is critical for preventing a continued shift from a grassy to a woody system. It is however, a costly effort. Namibia estimates that the total cost for the control of woody encroachment through clearing is US$2.1 billion.
Finally, efforts must be made to reduce grazing pressure and carbon dioxide emissions.
"Encroachment in moist savannahs is largely associated with anthropogenic climate change and increased carbon dioxide emissions which gives trees a competitive edge over grasses. Similarly, increased rainfall frequency are shocks that can overwhelm arid savannahs, pushing them towards a woody regime," Biggs and her colleagues conclude.
To identify relevant literature on woody encroachment, the researchers performed a bibliographic search using Scopus. They searched for the key terms “woody encroachment and savannah” and “bush encroachment and savannah” published between 1 January 1984 and 31 December 2015. For each paper, they recorded the proposed driver of woody encroachment and classified these into fire, grazing, browsing, moisture, tree-thinning/harvesting, temperature, tree density, CO2, and nutrients. They used the Regime Shift Database framework to synthesize existing literature on woody encroachment in savannahs from a Social-Ecological Systems perspective. A key aspect of the RSDB approach is the development of a causal loop diagram (CLD) which synthesizes the key drivers and internal feedbacks in a system based on the literature. To develop the CLD, the researchers complemented the literature from the bibliographic search with understanding from additional relevant literature on the dynamics of savannah ecosystems.
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Related info
Luvuno, L.; Biggs, R.; Stevens, N.; Esler, K. 2018. Woody Encroachment as a Social-Ecological Regime Shift. Sustainability. 2018; 10(7):2221.
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Stockholm Resilience Centre
Stockholm University, Kräftriket 2B
Phone: +46 8 674 70 70
Organisation number: 202100-3062
VAT No: SE202100306201
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"url": "https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2018-09-02-encroachment.html"
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Czasopisma Naukowe w Sieci (CNS)
Ewolucja filozoficznego rozumienia pojęcia kultury
1. Anna Koropczuk
Evolution of philosophical thinkingon the theory of culture
Nothing is vaguer than the word culture and nothing more misleading when culture is used to describe nations and eras.
J.G. Herder
This article is an attempt to present the basic and most significant conceptions of understanding culture. It focuses around the evolution of different ways to interpret culture and what basic elements it consists of. Although we use the word “culture” rather often, each of us understands this notion differently. In this paper we can find the basic view on culture “as is” and how the concept of culture is assimilated by the theory of law. The perspective of culture is used to build such expressions as culture of rights, cultural defense.
In attempts to resolve multicultural problems or different moral cultures we have to able to discuss culture. We must better understand its perception and reflect on how it can be interpreted.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7047854065895081,
"url": "http://prawo.wuwr.pl/product/-4091"
}
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Let's Look at the Results
Session 2
1. When all students have brought their dust catchers back to school, open a general discussion about the appearance of the dust catchers. (Some will have a visible sprinkling or layer of particles; others will have few or no visible particles.)
2. Have the Materials Managers collect enough hand lenses for their groups. Each student should examine the overall appearance of the dust on his or her dust catcher and, if time permits, on the dust catchers of other members of the group.
3. Have each student use a magnifier to count the number of particles in 10 squares chosen randomly on the grid. (You may need to vary the number of squares counted, depending on the type of graph paper used. Paper with a grid size of approximately 1 cm works well.)
4. Have each student record the number of particles he or she counted in the appropriate place on the “Make a Dust Catcher” sheet (if you have made a copy for each student), or have students write the number in their journals or notebooks.
5. If you have one or more microscopes available, help students to examine their grids under higher magnification. You may want to trim the construction paper around the graph paper square to help it fit under the microscope.
6. Ask, What kinds of particles did you capture? Students are likely to find small hairs, tiny pieces of ash, crumbs and bits of thread or lint. With the aid of microscopes, students also may see pollen grains, pieces of molds and very small insect parts. Have them draw some of the particles they have observed.
7. For further discussion, refer students to the various sources of household dust pictured on the front cover of the Air unit’s Explorations magazine.
Session 3
1. Conduct a brief survey of the values that students obtained for their dust counts. Create a chart on the board similar to the one on the right, taking into consideration the range of counts reported by the students.
2. Help each student place a dot or “sticky note,” labeled with the type of room tested, on the appropriate place on the graph.
3. Discuss the survey results with the class. Ask students to identify areas in their homes that have more or less dust. Also ask, Did different kinds of dust collect on dust catchers in different rooms? Talk about ways in which dust can be reduced or eliminated.
Funded by the following grant(s)
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH
My Health My World: National Dissemination
Grant Number: 5R25ES009259
The Environment as a Context for Opportunities in Schools
Grant Number: 5R25ES010698, R25ES06932
Houston Endowment Inc.
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"url": "http://bioedonline.org/slides/classroom-slides1/ecology/air/?pageaction=displaySlideDetails&tk=171&dpg=22"
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Seals Carving
2013-7-1 14:50:00 From:
The role of seals in the Chinese culture can hardly be overestimated. For the last 3,000 years they have been used in official, private, even magic spheres. The earliest examples of seals come from the Shang dynasty (BCE 16-11 c.) from the archeological sites at Anyang. However very little is known about their usage at this early stage, it is only starting from the Spring and Autumn period (BCE 722-481) that we begin to see an increased quantity of seals paired with textual references to them.
According to a Han dynasty story, the first seal was given to the Yellow Emperor by a yellow dragon with a chart on its back. Another story says that it was given to Emperor Yao by a phoenix as the emperor was sitting in a boat. In any case, the receipt of the seal signifies the conferral of the Mandate of Heaven. He who has the seal possesses the Mandate of Heaven, in other words, he has been given the right to rule the empire. So when Tang, the first ruler of the Shang dynasty overthrows the last tyrant of the previous Xia dynasty, he seizes the royal seal and thus establishes his power.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8844617605209351,
"url": "http://www.admissions.cn/merchandises/378054.shtml"
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Selection from Pyramids of Thrush Creek
As Roger unpacked his things he noticed a spider in the planter of Venus flytraps. He wondered if it had been there while Kathy was carrying it and imagined her reaction if she had seen it. He watched as the spider crawled across an open pair of leaves and came in contact with the small hair-like sensors. The leaves quickly snapped together, trapping the spider inside. What an amazing plant, he thought. Within the next few days the plant would secrete enzymes which would digest the spider and the nutrients would be absorbed by the plant. He thought about the three unique features of the plant: the ability to sense the movement of a living organism on its leaves, the ability to move its leaves, and the ability to digest its prey.
All three of these features had to work together to produce one benefit, supplying the plant with added nutrition. In his mind he compared it to the little pyramid of four stones along Thrush Creek. The three unique features of the plant were the base stones which together supported the top stone, the beneficial nutrients. Take away any one of the base stones and the top would tumble down. He wondered how these three unique features evolved. Which one came first? No single feature by itself would provide any benefit to the plant. What are the odds of the three features evolving simultaneously? How could the process on natural selection produce such a plant? He knew what Rick’s answer would be, but there had to be a more scientific explanation. However, if the three features had developed toward a future benefit, that certainly would lend credence to Rick’s view of things. He made a mental note to do some research on the question as soon as he had time.
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"fasttext_score": 0.600993275642395,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9758417010307312,
"url": "http://henryyoundt.com/evidence-of-creation/"
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In Brief
7 September 2016
Laser made from human blood could help hunt down tumours
BLOOD lasers could help doctors hunt down tumours.
Lasers need an initial light source, a reflective cavity, and a light-amplifying material. Xudong Fan at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and his colleagues found that blood mixed with a fluorescent dye did the trick.
The dye is normally used for medical imaging, but the team turned the mixture into a laser medium by putting it in a cavity in the lab, and shining a regular laser at it (Optica,
Tissues with plenty of blood vessels, such as tumours, should glow more brightly because the dye builds up there. Doctors looking for tumours could inject the dye, shine an ordinary laser at the skin and check for a glow.
This article appeared in print under the headline “Fluorescent dye makes blood a laser”
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"fasttext_score": 0.20202147960662842,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.936377227306366,
"url": "https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23130902-000-laser-made-from-human-blood-could-help-hunt-down-tumours/"
}
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By the 17th century, Anabaptists were scattering across Europe. Some remained in the Swiss cantons, the Netherlands and the Danzig area. But Anabaptists/Mennonites were immigrating to Alsace, to Prussia, to Polish area, and even to Pennsylvania by the end of the century.
Swiss Anabaptism in the 17th Century
By 1648, Swiss Anabaptists, or Brethren, as they called themselves, were living only in rural areas in the cantons of Zürich and Bern. Severe persecution continued into the 17th century. Some Anabaptists were sent to the sea as galley slaves - and few came back alive. Others were imprisoned or branded on the forehead. Because Anabaptists were married in their own congregations and not by state-church pastors, their marriages were considered invalid and children were prohibited from inheriting from their parents. In some areas, the Swiss Brethren were required to live above certain elevations.
Swiss Brethren began emigrating - to the German Palatinate, to Alsace, to Prussia and to Pennsylvania, beginning in 1683 when the first Mennonites came to Germantown, settling near Quakers. Dutch Mennonites gave significant financial help to Swiss Mennonites immigrating down the Rhine and across the Atlantic to North America. By the end of the 17th century, Mennonites remained only in the canton Bern, concentrated in the Emmental, or Emme valley.
Alsatian Mennonites
The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 transferred Alsace from German to French government. Mennonites in Alsace used the Schleitheim Confession of 1527 and later adopted the 1632 Dordrecht Confession, originally written by Flemish Mennonites. As did the Swiss Brethren, Mennonites in Alsace continued to use the Ausbund as their hymnal and German as their primary language. Documents in the Municipal Archives in Strasbourg suggest that rural Mennonites in the area were known for their success in folk medicine.
The Amish Division
Jacob Ammann was a minister in the Mennonite congregation in Markirch and was troubled by what he perceived as a lack of church discipline in Swiss and Alsatian congregations. According to the Dordrecht Confession, church members were to practice strict avoidance of those who had been banned. Between 1694 and 1697, the lines became sharply drawn between the Amish, as Ammann's followers were called, and the other Swiss and Alsatian Mennonites.
Mennonites in the Palatinate (South Germany)
Earlier Anabaptist congregations in South Germany had been wiped out by persecution, but by the 17th century, the Palatinate was a relatively safe place for Mennonite to live. An edict of toleration issued in 1664 allowed them to worship in homes (not dedicated church buildings) but they were not allowed to baptize. In addition, Mennonites were required to pay an annual tax for the privilege of toleration. Immigrants to this area include Swiss Mennonites, Hutterites from Moravia and Dutch Mennonites, as well as other refugees.
Hutterites in Eastern Europe
Location of former Hutterite colonies in what is now the Czech Republic. Photo by Lois Barrett.Location of former Hutterite colonies in what is now the Czech Republic. Photo by Lois Barrett.
Hutterites had come to Moravia already in the 16th century, and their "Golden Period" lasted from about 1555 to 1595. At their peak, there were about 100 colonies, or Brüderhofe, in Moravia and Slovakia, with 20,000 to 30,000 members. Persecution began in the 1590s and continued through the Turkish war of 1593-1606 and the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. By the end of this period, the Hutterite colonies were virtually decimated. In the 18th century, Slovakian Hutterites were forcibly converted to Catholicism. Hutterites in Transylvania were able to emigrate to the Ukraine, from which they later emigrated to North America.
Mennonites (Doopsgezinde) in Northern Europe
In the Low Countries (now Belgium, the Netherlands and northern Germany), Anabaptism spread through merchants and craftspeople, especially weavers. Western Europe had a long tradition of radical groups practicing cloth-related trades. Emden (now in Germany) was a tolerant city, as was the Schleswig-Holstein area in the north. In Altona, near Hamburg, Mennonites were legally tolerated after 1601 if they paid a special tax.
In Dutch, Mennonites are known as Doopsgezinde, "the baptism-minded." By the 17th century, there were already divisions among them: the Flemish (the strictest), the Frisians and the Waterlanders (who opposed the strict use of the ban). These divisions continued for centuries, although the names no longer had any geographic connection; that is, the Flemish congregations were not necessarily made up of people from Flanders (Belgium).
After Dutch independence from Spain, William of Orange established a policy of toleration of Mennonites. However, they did not have full freedom of worship until the 19th century. Mennonites gained status and wealth and some were active in shipbuilding and the Baltic Sea trade. Hans de Ries, a Dutch Mennonite leader, lamented, "The goods are enriched, but the soul is impoverished. Clothing has become precious, but internal decorations have perished. Love has diminished and quarreling has increased."
Mennonites in the Vistula Delta and Poland
The first Mennonites immigrated to the Vistula Delta, now northern Poland, beginning in 1526 through the 1530s, mostly from the Netherlands. Menno Simons visited the area in 1549 and Dirk Philips founded the first Mennonite church in the Danzig area, now Gdansk, in 1569. In the 16th and 17th centuries, worship services and church records were in the Dutch language. Mennonites were tolerated in the area, but were often not allowed to have special church buildings. The first such building in the area was in the city of Elbing in 1590.
Mennonites here were not subjected to the death penalty for their religion but there were still many restrictions. In the early years, they could not live within the walls of Danzig or do business there, because of pressure from the guilds, who feared economic competition. Where Mennonites lived under Polish rule, there was protection from the king, who guaranteed their rights to make lace and weave cloth. But sometimes local lords and city councils adopted more stringent and discriminatory policies. Mennonites were often subjected to extra taxes and were sometimes prohibited from shipping goods by canal or river, which was by far the easiest and quickest way to market.
Present-day Gdansk with the Dutch-style buildings as restored after World War II. Photo by Lois Barrett.Present-day Gdansk with the Dutch-style buildings as restored after World War II. Photo by Lois Barrett.
In rural areas, Mennonites generally did not own land, but leased it for 30 to 40 years. They improved canals through the Vistula-Nogat delta, generally kept it from flooding with seawater and built Dutch-style windmills to pump water and grind grain.
The remnants of a windmill in the Dutch style. Right, a large farmhouse in the old style. Photo by Lois Barrett.The remnants of a windmill in the Dutch style. Right, a large farmhouse in the old style. Photo by Lois Barrett.
Wagons could be pulled under the open area at right. Photo by Lois Barrett.Wagons could be pulled under the open area at right. Photo by Lois Barrett.
Mixed marriages (Mennonites and Lutherans or Catholics) were forbidden but sometimes happened anyway. Mennonites were also forbidden to gain converts from the state churches but that also happened anyway. One way of getting around the law was to have the potential convert take a ship to Amsterdam, be baptized there and come back to Poland/Prussia already a Mennonite.
Since all Mennonites were expelled from this area after World War II and Slavic populations brought in by the Soviets, there are no Mennonite congregations left in this area. Some abandoned church buildings can be found. On the site of the former Heubuden Mennonite Church, a Roman Catholic parish is meeting. A group of German and North American Mennonites has placed a plaque on the building reading, in Polish and German:
We have here no abiding city, but we are looking for that of the future. ... Do not neglect doing good and the care of the congregation! For such sacrifices please God. - Hebrews 13:14, 16
The Nogat River near Marlbork (Marienburg). Photo by Lois Barrett.The Nogat River near Marlbork (Marienburg). Photo by Lois Barrett.
We remember with thankfulness our mothers and fathers, who found their last resting place in this land that was our homeland. We greet our sisters and brothers who live and worship here now. Faith in our common Lord, Jesus Christ, leads us to community. God help us never again to forget this.
An abandoned Mennonite church building in the Vistula Delta area. Photo by Lois Barrett.An abandoned Mennonite church building in the Vistula Delta area. Photo by Lois Barrett.
Heubuden Mennonite cemetery, now maintained by a joint Polish-German-North American organization. Photo by Lois Barrett.Heubuden Mennonite cemetery, now maintained by a joint Polish-German-North American organization. Photo by Lois Barrett.
The Grace Hill Mennonite congregation began in an area along the Vistula River, south of the delta area. This is near the modern city of Chelmno (Kulm). Like Danzig, Chelmno was a member of the Hanseatic mercantile league. In the 17th century, the city was under Polish rule. Mennonites began settling in the Montau-Gruppe-Schönsee area in 1553. Some came from the Danzig environs while others were new immigrants from the Netherlands. Most identified with the Frisian group, but there were some Flemish. The first church building was frame with a thatched roof.
At Schönsee, most Mennonites were farmers. The only crafts allowed were weaving, tailoring and shoemaking for private use only. Mennonites were allowed to fish in the Vistula River. But life was not easy. Local governments imposed heavy taxes on Mennonites. The land was subject to frequent flooding. In times of need, they received financial help from Mennonites in the Netherlands.
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1.10 (b) Gesture, Articulation, and Thought
In the same manner by which a conductor's movements are reflected in the performance of the orchestra, gesture is intricately tied to the formation and articulation of thought. Gesture and Thought mutually inform one another with physical and mental patterns that seek consistency in expression. Linear movements pair with clipped sentence structure and encourage the emphasis of consonants. Rounded movements pair with lengthy narratives and stretch the articulation of vowels. Combining this knowledge with the practice of Deliberate Gesture allows for self direction of performance, providing significant agency in circumstances of shifting context and improvisation.
Read the transcript: English/Español/日本語
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Document Type
Although international treaties recognize a right to food, few nations have established a domestic, legally enforceable right to food. A justiciable national right to food can provide a basis for legal redress, national food policies, and state aid programs. India, South Africa, and Brazil pro-vide insight and lessons that can be applied to other nations, like Mexico, to identify effective means for creating a national right to food. This Note compares effective national right to food efforts and identifies essential elements underlying a justiciable national right to food. By evaluating the development of a right to food within in the international and national systems it is clear that the right to food is most effective when national constitutions provide justiciable means for legal redress and enforcement of that right.
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The Atakapa-Ishak: Centuries of Survival
The Atakapa-Ishak people are a Native American tribe settled in the Grand Bayou region of Louisiana. The tribe’s core values are tradition and family, which helped them avoid the terrible toll of Hurricane Katrina that devastated the Gulf Coast in 2005. Living in the isolated Plaquemines Parish, tribe member Rosina Phillippe believes her people have been able to survive in a hurricane-prone area because of their adherence to putting life first; practicing safe harbor mooring; and allowing marshes to buffer the effects of a storm surge.
”We are a part of the coastal community. We know how to live there, how to survive there,” says Rosina. “We are an integral part of the environment, and we remain there to this day.”
The Ishaks are mindful that preserving life is a priority and that material possessions, unlike people, can be replaced. When they were warned that Hurricane Katrina would make landfall, they worked together to organize the village and ensure everyone’s safety. “It is a misconception that our people do not evacuate when hurricanes come on land,” says Rosina. “We work as a community to pack up and move to our boats.”
When a severe storm approaches their village, the Ishak people go from home to home to ensure that every member of their community moves to the harbor and boards the fishing boats. As part of their strategy, they secure their boats in the center of the narrow canal with several lines tied to trees and pilings on shore (called cross-tying) to ensure a safe mooring. Rosina and her people survived Hurricane Katrina by riding out the storm in their boats.
The structures in their village, however, did not survive the storm. Three years after the hurricane, Rosina says that not one building has been rebuilt. “This has to do with the Ishak community being considered ‘at risk.’”
Any community built outside of the levees is considered to be an at-risk community. As part of the Road Home program, managed by ICF International, communities at risk have to undergo an extensive building review, which includes height and architectural mandates and floor board inspections. The Road Home program gave this classification to the Ishak village despite their demonstrated ability to protect themselves against severe storms throughout history. The Ishak community has never suffered a casualty from a hurricane-related event.
Without federally mandated policies, the Ishak people wouldn’t be eligible for any federal funds to help rebuild their community. “There is still so much left to be done,” says Rosina. “The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is focused on other regions of the Gulf Coast, while here work remains unfinished.”
Rosina is concerned that the post-Katrina rebuilding process is a repeat of past mistakes. The Louisiana authorities continue to create deeper levees and cut more canals, while marsh land, the best defense against severe storms and residual flooding, remains underutilized and unprotected.
Rosina also feels her people are a marginalized community and that it is important to consider how a culture lives and works before the government sends out blanket mandates. “It is important to work with the community and the people before deciding which communities are beyond repair,” she says. “Our culture values life over property. Our traditions have been working for hundreds of years.”
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Degenerate art or Entartete Kunst
From the 1920s and onwards the German Nazis applied the term Entartete Kunst to pretty much all art from the avant garde art movements. E.g. expressionism. But even more conventional and traditional art was considered wrong and deemed unhealthy for the public to view. Any art which did not conform to Nazi goals and agendas failed the test. Much art was thus considered non-German, perverse, Jewish, Bolschewik and Communist by the National Socialist party. In summary the art was accused of degenerating German culture to a primitive and and unhealthy state of affairs.
Under direct supervision of Adolf Hitler, the art was confiscated and exhibited in Dresden, Weimar, Karlsruhe, Munich, Berlin and Stuttgart
The sole aim of the exhibitions was large-scale defamation of the art to prevent further and irreversible damage of society. The idea was to educate the public by showing exactly how bad and damaging the art was. In reality the scapegoating and displaying of Enteartete Kunst helped create respect for the avant garde movements. Ironically, then, Hitler acted as a great PR campaigner for degenerate art, though he wanted to achieve the opposite.
However, it was not all good news. The Nazis either pursecuted artists via Gestapo or disallowed them to work. Emil Nolde was officially banned from creating art, and much of Nolde’s work from period is called ‘unpainted paintings’. Emil Nolde’s water colours, drawings and oils were kept in hiding until the end of WW2.
So-called degenerate artists were: Emil Nolde, Heinrich Zille, Ernst Barlach, Otto Dix to name but a few.
See perhaps also article on expressionism.
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History of the Children of Peace
The Children of Peace, the builders of the Sharon Temple, embodied contradiction after contradiction. They were a “plain folk”, former Quakers with no musical tradition, who went on to create the first civilian band in Canada and build the first organ in Ontario. They built an ornate temple to raise money for the poor, and built the province’s first shelter for the homeless and by 1851, Sharon was the most prosperous village in the province. They took a lead role in the organization of the province’s first co-operative, the Farmers’ Storehouse, and opened the province’s first credit union. They played a critical role in the development of democracy in Canada through their support of William Lyon Mackenzie and by ensuring the elections of both “fathers of responsible government,” Robert Baldwin and Louis LaFontaine, in their riding in 1841, despite threats of political violence. But today, they are primarily remembered for the Temple, an architectural symbol of their vision of a society based on the values of peace, equality and social justice.
The Temple was constructed between 1825 and 1831. It was constructed in imitation of Solomon’s Temple and used once a month to collect alms for the poor; two other meetinghouses in the village of “Hope” (now Sharon) were used for regular Sunday worship. The Children of Peace saw themselves as the new Israelites lost in the wilderness of Upper Canada. The village of “Hope” (now Sharon) was their new Jerusalem, the focal point of God’s kingdom on earth.
The leader this group was David Willson, who was born in New York State in 1778 and migrated to Canada in 1801. He joined the Quakers, of which his wife was a member, but his ministry was rejected when he began to preach at the beginning of the War of 1812. He was joined by a majority of the Quakers living on Yonge Street, including the Master Builder of the Temple and Meeting Houses, Ebenezer Doan; Doan’s farmhouse and out buildings now stand on the museum grounds. Samuel Hughes, another member, played a large role in the development of the Farmers’ Storehouse, and reform politics.
The consolidation of the Children of Peace in a single village, Hope, was accompanied by their adoption of a cooperative economy. Through cooperative marketing, the establishment of a credit union, and a land-sharing system, the Children of Peace all became prosperous farmers in an era when new farmers frequently failed. The Children of Peace were never communal like many of the other new religious movements then sprouting up in the United States (like the Shakers, the early Mormons or the Oneida Perfectionists). The Children of Peace viewed commercial exchange as a necessarily moral act; in selling their wheat they were not concerned to simply obtain the “highest market price.” Since they did not have to calculate for profit, the logic of their commercial exchanges was based on moral principles, not economic ones. David Willson urged the members of his sect not to bargain at all, but seek a fixed price that represented their own needs, not the highest amount the market would bear.
Although captivated by visions of equality, the Children of Peace lived in an autocratic colony. They inspired other settlers to fight for democracy within a loose-knit “Reform Movement” of disenchanted farmers and tradesmen. David Willson had long been an active political figure. He had, for example, suggested the “General Convention of [Reform] Delegates” held in February of 1834 to nominate candidates for the four ridings of the County of York. This was the foundation on which the Canadian Alliance Society, the first true political party in the province, was erected; these candidates were required to pledge in advance to fight for a democratic reform platform in the House. David Willson was the main speaker before the convention and “he addressed the meeting with great force and effect”.
William Lyon Mackenzie was the elected representative for their riding, and was eventually to attempt to overthrow the government in the Rebellion of 1837. Some of the Children of Peace, including Willson’s sons and son-in-law, participated. The events and consequences of the rebellion are well known: the skirmish at Montgomery’s Tavern, the hanging of Samuel Lount, Lord Durham’s Report, political reform and Responsible Government (Cabinet rule). Less well known is the tedium of the jail cell in harsh winter conditions endured by many of the rebels. To while away the long hours, many prisoners carved small, ornate boxes as presents for their families. The boxes memorialize friends lost in battle, and express a defiant call for liberty and democracy. They were the sole consolation for those who had been widowed, or whose husbands remained in jail; for example, David Willson’s daughter, a pregnant Mary Willson Doan, wrote to her husband in jail wishing “you would be permitted to come to your little home”, acknowledging the reality, and desiring a “box” for her yet unborn child. That child, David Willson Doan, was born twelve days after the letter was written. Charles Doan remained in jail for a further five months.
During the 1840s, Willson continued his association with the Reform Party; he was, for example, the campaign manager in the area for both Robert Baldwin and Louis LaFontaine, the “Fathers of Responsible Government” and first elected premiers of the province. The band of the Children of Peace was a familiar sight at Baldwin’s campaign rallies.
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You are here
Cooking in Baskets Using Hot Rocks
Jonathan Thornton (US)
Baskets are among the most ancient of human artefacts. Everyone is familiar with their most common functions as containers for transport and storage. When told that baskets have also served as cooking vessels, most people will be unable to conceive of how this is possible, yet this was a primary function of baskets for many cultures of the past, and some until the present. The surprising key to this method is in the use of hot rocks, which cook the contents of the basket quickly and efficiently without charring or damaging the container. Though baskets are discussed here, the technique is transferable to any organic container, including those made of bark and leather (Nelson 2010).
In my course on the technology of materials in the Art Conservation Department of Buffalo State College, I talk about, and sometimes demonstrate, this ancient cooking technique. I want to make my students aware that Eastern American Indians used the method until relatively recently, and that some groups of California Indians still do for community occasions. Almost certainly the method was used by ancient Europeans as well. The Fulacht Fiadh of Ireland, also called ‘burnt mounds’ in the rest of the British Isles, consist of semicircular piles of heat-cracked stones surrounding a central pit. Often mentioned in ancient literature, the name is old enough that its etymology is uncertain (O’Drisceoil 1990, O Brien 2012). The stones were almost certainly used for heating water, though what the water was used for- cooking, bathing, dying or brewing is still debated. Quite possibly all of these activities were carried out at the sites, which are the most common archaeological features in Ireland.
I was first shown how to cook with hot rocks about twenty years ago by Craig Bates, then Curator of Ethnology at Yosemite National Park. Craig is an expert on the crafts of California Indians, particularly the Mewok Nation, a Native American tribe that he had married into. In demonstrating the technique to my students I use coiled baskets of tight construction that hold water well, particularly after the fibres have swelled by soaking. Baskets that have been previously used for cooking are additionally sealed by cooked starches that fill the interstices and swell when the basket is wet.
The choice of rocks is also important, and some cultures went out of their way to secure the best ones, using them over and over. At “Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump” in Alberta Canada, archaeologists determined that ancient Indians had transported suitable cooking rocks over considerable distances because the sandstone locally available was unsuitable for large-scale cooking of Bison meat (Brink and Dawe 2003). Another researcher did comparative studies of various stone types and found that of those tested, quartzite worked best (Thoms 2009). The stone types used in Fulacht Fiadh have also been characterised by Buckley (1990). I use vesicular basalt, as do the California Indians in the Yosemite area. Basalt is a dense black volcanic rock with a high metal content. Vesicular basalt is a type that includes many air bubbles as a result of the expansion of dissolved gases at the time of eruption. The bubbles, and the tubular passages caused by gas release create a high surface area for heat uptake and transfer. The sponge-like structure also reduces the risk of thermal shock which can cause stones to shatter explosively when they are introduced into the fire or cooking basket. Steam is generated throughout the channels in vesicular basalt and not just at the surface. Interestingly, this type of rock is used for the heating stones in saunas, and for the same reasons. My cooking rocks have been used over and over again and are still undamaged. In experimental situations using unknown rock types I would always recommend eye protection.
Two types of tools are used by California Indians, both made from bent green wood. The rock handling tool is a flat strip of timber that has been bent in the middle of its length like a pair of tongs. It is used to put stones into the fire and to retrieve them for cooking. Two long sticks can be used like chopsticks, but they are harder to manage if they are not joined together on one end. The stirring tool is made from a round green shoot that is bent in the middle into a loop resembling a spoon and lashed together where the ‘bowl’ meets the handle. The aperture of the loop part is small enough so that the cooking stones do not fall through. This tool is used to move the stones around so that they do not dwell in one place and damage the basket, though theoretically, the release of steam around the stone will control the maximum temperature.
In demonstrating the technique, I cook acorn ‘porridge’ as do current California Indians. The acorns have previously been dried and ground to coarse flour, then soaked repeatedly in changes of water to remove the bitter, but water-soluble tannins. The acorn flour is then mixed with water in the basket. The cooking stones are heated in the coals of a fire. When they are judged to be hot enough, the tong tool is used to remove a stone from the fire. The rock is quickly dipped in a basket of plain water to rinse off any ash and grit. As Craig said: “American Indians dislike grit in their food as much as anyone else does.” It is then put into the basket and stirred with the stirring tool. Superheated steam rising through the contents of the basket produces a rolling boil very quickly, and the contents are mixed by the boiling. Once the boiling stops, the rock can be replaced by another, but acorn porridge can be cooked in one basket by one fist-sized rock, since so much heat is stored in it.
Acorn porridge is bland though nourishing. My students do not necessarily appreciate the dish, but they always enjoy the demonstration, and are always surprised by it.
BRINK JW, DAWE B. 2003. “Hot rocks as scarce resources: the use re-use and abandonment of heating stones at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump.” The Plains Anthropologist. 48(186): pp.85-104
BUCKLEY VM. 1990: Experiments using a reconstructed Fulacht with a variety of rock types: implications for petromorphology of FulachtaFiadh. In Burnt Offerings. 170-172.
BUCKLEY VM, EMER E (eds). 1990. Burnt Offerings: International Contributions to Burnt Mound Archaeology. Wordwell Limited. Dublin Ireland.
ELLWOOD EC. SCOTT MP. LIPE WD. MATSON RG. JONES JG. 2013. “Stone-boiling maize with limestone: experimental results and implications for nutrition among SE Utah preceramic groups.” Journal of Archeological Science 40(1):35-44
O BRIEN, WILLIAM (2012) Aspects of fulacht fiadh function and chronology in Cork. Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society, 117 : 107-133
O DRISCEOIL, D A. 1990. "Fulachtafiadh: the value of early Irish literature". In Burnt Offerings. 157–164.
NELSON K. 2010. “Environment, cooking strategies and containers.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29(2):238-247
THOMS AV. 2009. “Rocks of ages: propagation of hot-rock cookery in western North America.” Journal of Archaeological Science 36(3):573-591
Fig 1. Applying the hot rock to the water
Fig 2. Rinsing rock and cooking
Fig 3. Stirring acorn in basket
Fig 4. Used rock
© by: EXARC since 2001. All rights reserved
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მიმდინარე დრო:0:00მთლიანი ხანგრძლივობა:7:33
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ვიდეოს აღწერა
- [Voiceover] In this video we're going to be talking about how you make a buffer. There are two main situations where you make a buffer, and for lack of a better way to put it, the first way is when you know you want a buffer with a specific pH, so you're making it on purpose for a specific application, and then the second time that you might make a buffer, especially in chemistry class, is by accident, which is to say that you're doing something else, you're probably a titration, for example, and you just happen to have done a reaction where it ends up with a buffer in your solution. So we're gonna talk a little bit about both of those situations. One equation that I'm going to refer to, and I'm gonna assume that you're already familiar with, is the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. So that is pH equals the pKa of the weak acid plus the natural log of our weak base, which I will abbreviate as a minus, divided by our weak acid concentration. So if you're interested in the derivation of this, we won't go through that in this particular video, but we do have other videos that talk about it. So let's say we have a specific reaction we wanna run at, say, a pH of four. So we wanna make a pH-four buffer. In that case, we normally make a mixture of a weak acid plus a weak base, and that weak base might either just be a weak base like ammonia, or it might be a salt with the conjugate base of our weak acid. So an example would be acetic acid, CH3COOH, and that's our weak acid, and we might combine that in solution with sodium acetate. So sodium plus CH3COO-minus. And so I'm gonna draw this using the molecular structures too, because I think that makes it a little bit easier to see the relationship between these two structures. We have our acetic acid, which has a CH3 group here, and a carboxylic acid group with the proton, and this proton is acidic, so it can donate that proton, and then you get the acetate. So CH3COO-minus, and then we have a sodium cation. So if we combine our acetate and our sodium acetate salt and solution, what we get is an equilibrium between these two things, and that's how we have something that acts like a buffer. We have our weak acid, our weak acid being acetic acid, and what our weak acid does is it, let's see, let's do this in a different color. What our weak acid does is it soaks up any added weak base. So, sorry, it soaks up any added strong base, so hydroxide ions. So it'll react with your hydroxide ions and keep it from changing the pH as drastically as it would if the weak acid wasn't there. And on the other side of our equilibrium, we have our weak base, which is the conjugate base of our weak acid, and what that does is it soaks up any added H-plus ions, say, if you added some strong acid. So that's one very common scenario where you'll have a buffer. You want a specific buffer with a specific pH, so you might use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, and you'll say, "Okay, I want a pH of four," and then we'll look at different salts and their pKa, and then we'll adjust these concentrations to get the pH that we want. The second situation where you might get a buffer, and this one is also really common in chemistry, is by accident. (chuckles) So what this means is you've made a buffer because you combined a weak acid with a strong base. Or another way you can make a buffer, which I will write in parentheses, is you combine a weak base with a strong acid. And this is very common in titrations. So anytime you titrate a weak acid or a weak base, when you titrate it with a strong base or a strong acid, you end up making a buffer for part of your titration. So the example we'll go through here, we're gonna start with the weak acid, acetic acid, like in our other example. So we have this acetic acid, but this time we're going to react it with the strong base sodium hydroxide. So sodium-plus OH-minus is how it dissociates. And so what happens when you react these two things together is you get a neutralization reaction, and this acidic proton, so this acidic proton right here on our acetic acid can react with the hydroxide and it will make H2O. And then what that leaves us with here is our acetate becomes, sorry, our acetic acid becomes acetate. And so you can see that if you react a strong base with a weak acid, which I will label, if you react a weak acid with a strong base, you end up making the conjugate base of your weak acid. And so what this means is that even if you didn't combine your conjugate base with your weak acid up front, like in example one, you actually make it in solution, and so you can still end up making a base. So the key situation where you're going to see this is in a titration. To be more specific, you'll see it in the buffer region. And like I said earlier, this occurs when, when you're titrating a weak acid or a weak base, so a weak acid or base. So you don't make a buffer if you're titrating a strong acid or a strong base. But what this means is that whenever you're doing this kind of reaction where you might be making a buffer as the reaction goes on, that means we can use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation right here to do calculations about the pH or the concentrations in our solution. So these are the two main situations where you'll have a buffer, and in both of these situations you'll probaby be using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation to do different kinds of calculations.
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Perhaps propelled by the recent dawn of solar powered airplanes, this stunning solar powered blimp is poised to take flight by harnessing sunlight for fuel. Dubbed Nephelios, the solar-powered helium blimp was designed and built by high school engineering students in France. The history making blimp will begin test flights in the next 2 weeks, and by summer’s end the designers hope to fly Nephelios across the English Channel, “just to show that it’s possible.” Nephelios will be the first manned solar airship in existence, and its inaugural flight will prove that CO2-free air travel is now a reality.
solar powered blimp, solar power, solar blimp, airship, solar airship, France, English Channel
Part of the Sol’R Project, Nephelios consists of a lightweight aluminum frame with an outer wrap of nylon and polyethylene, which is filled with helium (He, atomic #2, and a noble gas, just in case you forgot). Stretched out on top of the blimp are flexible solar panels that collect energy from the sun and convert it to power a small motor, which turns two large red propellers. The solar panels are capable of generating 2.4 kW of power and provide enough energy to propel the 18 foot in diameter blimp at 25 mph.
In June, Nephelios debuted at the French Air Show in Le Bourget, where it was well received and commended for resurrecting the airship. As previously mentioned, within the next two weeks, the student group will be testing the blimp for the first time, and by the end of the summer the students hope to fly it across the English Channel at the Strait of Dover, which is the shortest span of ocean between the two continents. They expect the flight to take a little less than an hour. When they succeed, this will be the first flight of a solar powered airship, and we eagerly await the landing of Nephelios in the UK.
+ Sol’R Project
Via Wired
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Freas and Geeks Media techniques Essay
Custom Student Mr. Teacher ENG 1001-04 24 February 2016
Freas and Geeks Media techniques
How Media Techniques Create Stereotypes in Freaks and Geeks
Take a look again at high school stereotypes through the short lived television series from the late 90’s, Freaks and Geeks. Based on the pilot episode of Freaks and Geeks, media techniques are used effectively to depict the different stereotypes in high school. The camera shots & movements are used adequately to show the power of the bullies and the weakness of the victims. For example, when Sam Weir is approached by Alan (the bully), at lunch, the camera is pointed upwards towards Alan’s face to make him seem bigger and scarier while the camera would be pointed down on Sam’s face making him seem smaller and inferior to Alan (Kasdan 1999). This example shows effective use of media techniques by using camera shots because the audience can easily depict the two different stereotypes, the bully and the geek. Another way that media techniques are used effectively is through the use of setting. For instance, the “freaks” of the show are shown hanging around the patio which is a dirty and worn down area separated from the field and other students (Kasdan 1999). This is a clear way for the audience to see the difference from the regular students and the “freaks” therefore making this media technique effective. These two techniques show how Freaks and Geeks uses media techniques effectively to illustrate the stereotypes one might see in high school. Using media techniques such as camera shots and setting effectively is a task that Freaks and Geeks has accomplished to portray different high school stereotypes.
Works Cited
“Pilot.” Freaks and Geeks: The Complete Series. Writ. Paul Feig. Dir. Jake Kasdan. DreamWorks, 1999. DVD.
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The empty forest
+ See all authors and affiliations
Science 25 Jul 2014:
Vol. 345, Issue 6195, pp. 396-399
DOI: 10.1126/science.345.6195.396
You are currently viewing the summary.
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Much of Asia, Africa, and Latin America suffers from overhunting. Lambir Hills National Park in western Borneo, one of the most diverse forests in the world, is a key case study in how the forest fares when it loses the herbivores that once thinned saplings and the fruit eaters that dispersed seeds. At Lambir, saplings became more crowded, raising the risk that the plants would get sick, and the number of species has fallen. Some officials and activists are trying to stop overhunting and illegal trade of wildlife. If hunting can be controlled in the parks, researchers hope, large animals may one day return.
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Module Twenty Seven, Activity One
Introduction to the Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (often abbreviated by its initials, DRC) is a very diverse country geographically, culturally, and economically with a rich, but often very troubled, history, as we will learn as we engage in the four learning activities in this unit.
Take a look at the coat of arms and flag of the DRC. As is the case for many countries, including the United States, these national icons have significant symbolism for the DRC. Indeed, even before we learn about the history and cultures of the DRC we can learn something about the country by carefully looking at these two important national symbols.
Dem Repub of Congo Coat of Arms Flag of Dem Repub of Congo
The images or icons included in the coat of arms and flag are important to the national identity. Make a list of the various images or icons that are part of these two national symbols and briefly indicate why you think each of the images –including the motto –were included in the national flag and coat of arms. Some of the icons will be familiar to us and obvious as to why they were incorporated into these national symbols. However, some of the images may not be easily identifiable and therefore not obvious as to why they would be incorporated. Nevertheless, by the time we complete the five learning activities in this module, it will become clear why these icons are part of the national coat of arms and flag.
Your Turn:
On a sheet of paper make a list of the various symbols that comprise the coat of arms. Beside each symbol suggest what you think the meaning of that symbol might be. The national motto, Justice, Paix, Travail, is in French, which is one of the official languages of the Congo. Translate these words into English.
Now describe the colors and symbols on the flag. What do you think the star symbolizes? The red and gold stripe? The blue background?
Peoples of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
In spite of the devastation of the Great African War (1995 – 2007, analyzed in learning activity four of this unit) that caused the death of an estimated seven million Congolese, the DRC remains the fourth most populated country in Africa with a population of 79.4 million (2015), following Nigeria, Ethiopia and Egypt. The DRC’s population is currently growing at 2.7 percent annually. Not unlike most African countries, the population of the DRC is heavily skewed to youth: 44% of the national population is under 24 years of age! Compare this to 32% of the population for the same age group in the U.S. and 24% in Japan. This demographic reality makes great demands on the government and economy of the DRC in terms of providing schooling (and other social services) and opportunities for employment in an economy decimated by war, mismanagement, and the on-going legacy of the exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources by international companies that began with the slave-trade, expanded during colonialism and continues throughout the post-colonial era (detailed in the following learning activities).
Reflecting the demographic trends in all of Africa, the DRC is rapidly urbanizing. At its independence in 1960, less than 15% of the population lived in urban areas; the vast majority of the population lived in rural areas. Today, it is estimated that 42.5% of the Congolese live in urban areas. There are five major cities with a population bigger than a million: Kinshasa (10 million), Lubumbashi (nearly 2 million), Mbuji-Mayi (1.5 million), and Kanaga and Kisangani (each with approximately 1 million).
Your Turn:
1. Rapid population growth is a major issue in a number of African countries. What do you think are some of the social and economic consequences of rapid population growth for developing countries such as the DRC?
2. What demands are placed on societies, such as the DRC, when the percent of the population who are youth is growing at a much faster rate than the adult population?
3. What social and economic issues, do you think, become important in a country, such as the DRC, that experiences a rapid transfer of population from rural to urban areas?
4. Demographers who study population trends in developing countries are concerned with the demands placed on societies by rapid population growth. One of the equations that they use to measure this concern is “population doubling time.” This is the period of time in which a society will need to double its capacity to provide housing, schooling, healthcare and employment for its citizens. Demographers use a very simple equation to determine the number of years that it will take for a given country to double its population: pdt = 70 divided by the population growth rate. Given the information provided above, in what year would we expect that the DRC’s current (2015) population of 79.4 to double to 158.8 million?
As is the case in most African countries, the DRC is a multi-ethnic country comprised of more than 200 distinctive ethno-linguistic groups, most of which belong to the large Niger-Congo/Bantu language family (introduced in Module Eight, Learning Activity Two).
The four largest, and politically the most influential ethnic groups, are the Mongo, Luba, Kongo and Mangbetu-Azande. While the DRC’s cultural diversity enriches the national culture through vibrant cultural expression in art, music, literature and performance, ethnicity—ethnic identity—was exaggerated, manipulated and exploited by Belgian colonial officials to minimize the development of nationalism (identification with a unified Congo) among the Congolese. The practice and legacy of divide and rule survived the end of colonialism as the leaders of independent Congo used ethnicity in a similarly divisive manner to enhance and maintain their personal power.
Relatedly, the DRC is a multilingual country with more than 200 languages spoken, most of which belong to the large Congo-Niger/Bantu language family. Given its colonial heritage, French remains the official language of the country. Four indigenous African languages are given a special status as national languages: Kituba (Kikongo), Lingala (major language of internal trade and commerce), Kiswahili, and Tshiluba.
Religiously, the Congo is also diverse, but reflecting the impact of Christian missionaries that began in the 16th century with arrival of the Portuguese in the Kongo Kingdom (detailed in the next learning activity), contemporary Congo is overwhelmingly Christian. Fifty percent of Congolese identify as Roman Catholic, thirty percent belong to variety of Protestant denominations, ten percent to the Kibanguist Church (largest African Independent Church in all of Africa), ten percent are Muslim and the remaining ten percent are followers of indigenous African religions. (For a much deeper discussion on Christianity- including African Independent Churches, Islam in Africa, and, African Indigenous Religions, see Module Fourteen Religion in Africa.)
Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
The DRC is located in central Africa. Globally, its exact location extends from 12 degrees East (longitude) in the west of the country to 30 degrees East (longitude) in the east of the country and 5 degrees North (latitude) in the north to 12 degrees South (latitude) in the south. As indicated, the equator runs through the north central part of the country.
The DRC covers 2,345,410 square kilometers (905,568 square miles), making it the second largest country in Africa behind Algeria and the eleventh largest country in the world. If the DRC were a state in the U.S. it would be by far the largest, almost a third larger than Alaska (1,723,337 square kilometers).
Dem Repub of Congo Location Map
Area Map Congo
CIA: World Factbook
Congo US Map
CIA: World Factbook
One of the most interesting features of the geography of the DRC is that in spite of its size and central location in the “heart of Africa,” the country is almost completely landlocked. The DRC has 10,481 kilometers of land border with nine neighboring countries in addition to over 1,000 kilometers of lake boundary with Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda in the east. However, the DRC has only 37 kilometers of coastal border with the Atlantic Ocean in the west, at the mouth of the Congo River.
As clearly demarcated on the maps above, the DRC shares borders with nine neighboring countries, the largest number of bordering states of any African country. To the south the DRC is bordered by Angola (2,646 km); to the south east, Zambia (2,332 km); to the east, beginning in south, Tanzania (479 km); Burundi (236 km); Rwanda (221 km); Uganda (877 km); to the north east, South Sudan (714 km); to the north Central African Republic (1,747 km); and to the north west, the Republic of the Congo (1,229 km). The DRC also shares a short border to the north-west (on the Atlantic coast) with the tiny Angolan oil-rich enclave of Cabinda – an anomaly of colonial penetration of central Africa.
Administratively, the DRC is currently divided into 11 provinces (see map). However, the current president, Joseph Kabila, has proposed a radical reformation of provinces that would increase the number of provinces to 26. The argument that he uses to justify this change is that an increase in the number of provinces will help decentralize power, increasing democratic participation at the local level. Most opposition parties are opposed to the plan asserting that the plan is yet another attempt at divide and rule in that the new provinces will be so small that they have no real power, making them dependent on the central government and reducing the ability of the regionally based opposition groups to effectively challenge the president and ruling party.
Your Turn
In your Exploring Africa journal, write your own argument for or against increasing the number of provinces to 26.
Questions to consider:
• What could some negative effects on increasing the number of provinces be?
• What could some positive effects be?
• How might adding more provinces decentralize power in the government?
• Why might more provinces mean more centralized power?
• What are some examples of other nations or states with at least 26 provinces that support your argument?
Topography of the DRC
The physical geography of the DRC is comprised of its physical features, what geographers refer to as topography or relief, primarily measured by altitude and the surface features; its vegetation—the dominant flora or plant life in a given area; and climate, measured in average temperatures and precipitation or amount of rainfall. These categories determine the country’s environment and impact human activity.
As demonstrated on the maps below, the Congo is geographically diverse and can be divided into approximately four topographical zones. The coastal zone—adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean is the smallest of the topographical regions is comprised of a narrow coastal plain at the mouth of the Congo River that raises as an escarpment into low altitude range of fold mountains eastward into the interior of the DRC.
The great Congo (or Central) Basin topographical region covers most of the north-central part of the country. This region, as demonstrated below, is dominated by the Congo River and its major tributaries, Africa’s largest tropical rainforest and bordering savanna. Its relief is characterized as a vast rolling plain with an average altitude of 520 meters (1,700 feet).
The Congo Basin is partially surrounded to the south, east and north-east by separate high plateaus with an average altitude between 900-1,220 meters (3,000 – 4,000 feet). These plateaus do have some forest cover but are primarily savanna grasslands providing the agricultural potential that supported the largest political kingdoms in pre-colonial Congo.
The fourth topographical zone is the Eastern Highlands-Lake region that is part of what forms the western edge of the Great Rift Valley. This region includes the Lakes Albert, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika and Mweru (from north to south) that forms part of the DRC’s borders with Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia. The mountain range that frames the western edge of the Rift Valley includes a number of active volcanoes and boasts the highest mountains in the Congo, including Margherita Peak (5,109 meters/16,763 feet). The well-watered rich volcanic soils of this region support some of most productive farming in the country.
Vegetation and Climate
Vegetation is directly linked to climate and human activity. As a result of high precipitation, Congo’s vegetation is dominated by the largest tropical rainforest in Africa, and in the world is second in size to only to the Amazon rainforest. However, as clearly demonstrated on the vegetation maps, the tropical rainforest covers less than 40% of the country. Similar to neighboring areas in east and southern Africa, a significant section of the Congo is covered by savanna forests and grasslands. If we compare the vegetation maps with the political maps above, we will see that most of the large urban areas in the Congo are situated outside of the tropical rainforest area. The city of Kisangani is an exception. It is located in a forest area in the northeastern part of the country.
Your Turn:
What are some potential benefits and possible constraints of living in a land with this type of topography? Complete the T-chart below to brainstorm some pros and cons of living in this kind of land.
Topography of the Congo and its Effects on the Population
Topography of the Congo Table
As we will learn in the next two learning activities that focus on the history of and contemporary issues in the Congo, much of the “history” of the Congo takes place outside of the tropical rainforests. The sophisticated societies and centralized kingdoms of pre-colonial Congo all existed in the Savanna regions of the country. In spite of this fact, much of the popular lure of the Congo comes from perceptions of the forest that dominated European writings on the country. Although the vast majority of the peoples of the Congo lived outside the tropical rainforests, this dominant environment impacted the way in which outsiders (particularly European travelers and colonists) understood the Congo and its heterogeneous peoples).
Professor Jan Vansina captured this tendency in his seminal work, Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa, where he asserts that in the late 19th and early 20th centuries European writers claimed that the Congo had “no history except for the gyrations and migrations of ‘clans’ and ‘tribes’ which were the primary unit of society . . . They matched a never changing, monotonous, dark, debilitating juggernaut of a rainforest. No wonder that ways of life [were presented as] unrefined in such a ‘terrifying’ or ‘brutalizing’ environment, which smothered any puny attempts at change.” ( p. 5). This deeply held European perception that human life and societies in the Congo were negatively determined by the “never changing, monotonous, dark, debilitating juggernaut of a rainforest,” shaped and informed Belgian colonial policies and practices in the Congo.
In the last learning activity in this module we will return to this theme in our discussion of Joseph Conrad’s late 19th century novel, Heart of Darkness, which is situated in the Congo rainforests.
Precipitation in tropical zones around the world are directly impacted by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is a weather trough that is formed where the northern and southern trade winds converge. The ITCZ moves north and south of the equator seasonally. The ITCZ normally reaches furthest north in June and July soon after the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere. The ITCZ reaches furthest south at the time in December-January around the time of the summer solstice in the southern hemisphere. Precipitation is directly related to the position of the ITCZ.
Take a look at the map of the ITCZ. Based on the fact that the equator runs through northern Congo with most of the country located south of the equator, in what months would expect to see the heaviest rainfall? Now look at the table that registers the rainfall by month. Are your assumptions correct?
Vegetation Map One Vegetation Map 2 Intertropical Convergence Zone MapAverage Temperature and Precipitation Table
Your Turn:
Carefully study and compare the vegetation maps with the precipitation and relief maps:
• In which regions of the DRC do you think the most cultivation of food crops takes place?
• Why do you think that this is the case?
• What is the natural vegetation of these regions?
• In what region(s) does the least agricultural production take place?
• Why do you think that this is the case?
Hydrology: Rivers and Lakes
The geography of the Congo is dominated by water –vast river systems and lakes—as is clearly demonstrated in the map below. One of the ways to understand and assess the potential wealth of an area is to assess its natural resources. Water, as you know, can be classified as a natural resource. Hydrography is the science of the measurement, description, and mapping of the surface waters of the earth with special reference to navigation.
The hydrology of the region is dominated by the Congo River basin, which drains an area nearly as large as the United States east of the Mississippi River. The region is bordered by the great lakes of central/east Africa in the east (Tanganyika, Edward, Albert, Victoria), and outside of the Congo to include Lake Chad in the north, and Lake Nyos in Cameroon in the East.
Congo Rivers Map
The Congo River
The Congo (river) for which two African countries are named -Democratic Republic of the Congo and Republic of the Congo -is the second longest river in Africa (after the Nile), and one of the longest in the world, spanning 4,374 kilometers (2,718 miles). The entire length of the river lies within Democratic Republic of Congo or forms part of its border. It is also one of the largest rivers in the world for in the size of its watershed and the volume of water discharged. The Congo drains the vast Congo River Basin, an area of more than 4.1 million square kilometers (1.6 million square miles) which is nearly as large as the U.S. east of the Mississippi river, and, at high water periods, discharges approximately 40,250 cubic meters (1.2 million cubic feet) of water per second into the sea. By comparison, the Mississippi river drains 2,979,000 square kilometers (1,150,000 square miles) and discharges an average of 16,800 cubic meters of water per second (593,000 cubic feet) Located in the heaviest rainfall belt of Africa, the Congo carries more water than any river in the world except the Amazon River in South America. As a navigable route into the African interior, the Congo serves as a main artery for transportation and has figured prominently in the region’s history. Kinshasa, the capital of Democratic Republic of Congo, and Brazzaville, the capital of Republic of the Congo, lie across the river from each other in the lower reaches of the Congo River.
At points the river is 16 kilometers wide and encircles approximately 4000 islands. The Congo River is divided into sections: the headwaters, the upper Congo, the middle Congo and the lower Congo.
Barges and Boats on the Congo River
Economically, the Congo River with its tributaries provides about 14,500 km of navigable waterways (9,000 mi). It is a vital means of transportation for millions of people, but also for the shipment of goods. It enriches the diet of the population with the fishing of perch, tilapia, and eels that are mostly locally consumed. It also provides sources of electricity with the hydroelectric dam built at the Inga Falls.
The Inga Falls, which discharges on a yearly basis more water than any other waterfall in world, with its 90 meter drop, provides an ideal location for the production of hydroelectricity. Currently, there are two dams at Inga and a third dam is under construction. Together, the three dams have the potential of generating 39,000 megawatts of electricity, which would make the complex of three dams, if completed, the largest hydroelectric complex in the world, considerably larger than the 22,000 megawatt capacity of the recently completed Three Gorges Dam in China. However, the political instability that has plagued the Democratic Republic of Congo for the past 20 years has caused the two existing Inga Falls dams to perform at under capacity, while delaying progress on the construction of the third dam.
Inga Dam Master Plan, British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) 15 November, 2013
Inga Dams
Inga Dams
Your Turn:
On your computer go to Google Earth
1. Search for the Congo River. First, look at the satellite image of the entire Congo River Basin. Then zoom in on different sections of the river. What do the satellite images and attached photographs tell you about the topography and vegetation of the Congo River Basin? Using the same images, what can we learn about the human demography (population density and settlements) in the Congo River Basin? What is the relationship between topography, climate, vegetation and human demography?
2. Search for and zoom in on the Inga Falls and hydroelectric dams on the Congo River. Using the satellite imagery locate the dams in relationship to the waterfalls. Examine the physical terrain, vegetation and distance to major urban areas and mining centers in the Congo. How might these factors impact the distribution of electric power from the dams?
Economy of the Congo
As we learned in Module Nine: African Economies when studying the economy of a region or a country, three sectors are considered: the primary sector, the secondary sector and the tertiary sector. In this introductory section we are not going to follow this threefold division, even though their domain of categorization will be included in the section. We will instead briefly look at the two major areas of the Congo’s economy: mining and agriculture.
Congo is incredibly rich in mineral resources. Consequently, mining became a major economic activity in the country—particularly in the Katanga province of south-west Congo. As demonstrated in the map below, Congo is rich in a wide variety of minerals. The ore fields of Congo produce manganese, cobalt, zinc, copper, tin, and uranium. Diamonds are also mined in the country. In addition, the Congo is the world’s largest producer of coltan, from which tantalum is derived, which is a central component of the microprocessors found in cell phones and computers. Some of these minerals, including coltan, are mined in the conflict ridden eastern Congo; some have called them conflict minerals, since opposing armed groups have used these minerals to fund the purchase of arms that brought tremendous devastation to parts of eastern Congo as is detailed in the third learning activity of this module.
As we learned above, the Congo has begun to tap the hydroelectric potential of the Congo River through an installation at the Inga Falls hydroelectric Dam. The hydro-complex on these falls is an important source of power for Congo’s mineral processing industries.
However, in spite of Congo’s rich natural resource base, largely due to impact of colonialism, the Cold War, and the impact of globalization, the Congo is not highly industrialized (See Module Nine, Activity Nine). Industrial activities are often only a small portion of the country’s GDP,and are still on a small scale. The industry that exists consists mainly of mineral processing. The main processing center in Congo, for example, is Lubumbashi, Kolwezi, in the south central and southeastern part of the country.
Mineral Distribution Map
Mineral Distribution Map
While mining has dominated the economy of the Congo in both the colonial and postcolonial eras, the vast majority of Congolese made their living through agriculture.
However, agriculture has not always been the major activity in the region. The first inhabitants of the region are believed to have been hunter-gatherers. But over time with a settlement along the Congo basin, agriculture has become part of the subsistence activity of the populations and with colonialism in the 20th century, peasants moved from a subsistence agriculture to the type of agriculture that would generate more financial resources for the colonial state.
Two types of farming techniques will be addressed in this section: subsistence agriculture and commercial agriculture. Subsistence agriculture, quite common in farming societies, is mostly intended to ensure survival and nutrition for the peasant’s family. In terms of cycle and technique, subsistence agriculture is quite simple, as it follows the rain cycle. Fields are cleared during the dry season and they are left ‘fallow’ after one crop or more (See Module Nine, Activity Two) Peasant-farmers use mostly rudimentary tools and little to no manure is used.
Various subsistence crops are grown in the Congo. Plantains are the staple food in the equatorial forest but the consumption of yam and taro is not negligible. Cassava has been included in the diet since the 19th century and vegetable fat is obtained from palm oil. Cassava and maize (corn) have partially replaced sorghum and millet, the indigenous crops of the savanna region.
There are almost no cattle kept in the Congo—expect in the southeast. Unlike other parts of Africa, most of the region does not have a history of cattle rearing. This a direct result of the widespread presence of disease vectors like the tsetse flies that carry and transmit trypanosomiasis. This disease (sleeping sickness) attacks animals (but also humans) making it very difficult for cattle to survive in the region.
Commercial agriculture came with the colonialism. Large palm oil, sugarcane, cocoa, and coffee farms were established by European companies. With the establishment of these commercial farms, the agricultural system was anchored into a modern monetary system. The new system enabled peasant-farmers not only to satisfy the needs of their family but also to fulfill the expectations of a growing consumer market. In addition, it allowed them to also earn money; this new approach to farming is called cash crop agriculture. Unfortunately, the revenue of the colonial power influenced the type of cash-crop agricultural system that prevailed in the region: forced labor and forced production of commercial crops.
Since most of central Africa is located in the equatorial zone, the rich green rainforest helps develop a wood industry. Consequently tropical lumber became a relatively small but important export product for the Congo. As will learn in the next section, natural rubber, harvested from the tropical rainforest, under the most brutal forced labor conditions, was, until the discovery of copper in the early 20th century, the leading export of the Congo.
The DRC is incredibly endowed with mineral resources, abundant water resources for agricultural and hydroelectric power, and adequate arable land. For the past 130 years, large transnational corporations and colonial regimes have accrued tremendous profits from these natural resources. Yet, the DRC remains one of the poorest and least developed countries in Africa. It is to this story that we now turn our attention in the next three learning activities.
Your Turn:
Before you continue on to the next learning activities, conduct your own research on the above statement: “the DRC remains one of the poorest and least developed countries in Africa. Using knowledge you gained from this learning activity, and further independent research, argue why the DRC is so underdeveloped and poor.
Go on to Activity Two or select from one of the other activities:
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This Tube Worm Will Outlive Us All
Some members of the species can live past 300.
This will be alive, and you will be dead.
This will be alive, and you will be dead. Chemo III project, BOEM and NOAA OER
Down in the depths of the Gulf of Mexico, there are cold seeps, deep on the ocean floor, that are home to various kinds of tube worms. (A tube worm, for what it’s worth, is fairly a broad category—a wormy invertebrate that anchors itself someplace underwater and builds a nice, mineral tube for itself.)
A couple of these tube worms, namely Lamellibrachia luymesi and Seepiophila jonesi, have long life spans, much longer than creatures of their size are supposed to have. But there’s a third species of tube worm in the area about which little is known, Escarpia laminata, first identified in 1985. A team of scientists decided to learn more about this mysterious tube worm and wondered if it also lived an unusually long time.
What they found, as they report in The Science of Nature, is that Escapardia laminata can grow even older than its counterparts—some individuals might even reach 300 years old. In other words, a tube worm that’s alive right now is likely going to outlive all of us.
Tubes! Chemo III project, BOEM and NOAA OER/CC BY 2.0
The team came to this conclusion by studying 356 tube worms and measuring how much they grew. With that data, as well as observations about the death and birth rates of the species, they used an age-prediction model developed for other tube worms to estimate just how long these tube worms could be around. Generally, they found these tube worms could live 100 to 200 years, but the largest of them could live 300 years.
Escapardia laminata lives so long partially because they live in such a safe place. It’s relatively rare for a tube worm living deep in the Gulf of Mexico, at least three-fifths of a mile or so down, to encounter a threat that kills them. So why not just keep living? The evidence in this new study, its authors say, supports that theory that, in absence of threats and high rates of death, evolution selects for the members of the species who live the longest. Eventually you get 300 year old tube worms.
Tube worms are not the longest lived creatures in the sea, though. The marine clam Arctica islandica is thought to be able to live more than 500 years. The longest animal, in length, is also thought to be a sea creature—the bootlace worm, which is grossly long. Oceans! There’s a lot of weird stuff that happens there.
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Kawasaki Disease Defined
What is Kawasaki disease?
Kawasaki Disease Defined
Dr. Greene’s Answer:
Kawasaki disease is an uncommon but important cause of fever in children. It was first noticed in Japanese children following World War II. While it is more common among the Japanese, we now know that it occurs in all racial groups, primarily in children under 5 years of age. Sometimes Kawasaki disease appears in clusters of children, suggesting that infectious organisms may trigger the condition.
A. Fever lasting for at least 5 days
B. Presence of any four of the following five conditions:
1. Red eyes without discharge
5. Swollen neck lymph node or nodes.
C. Illness not explained by another known disease.
To make the situation more confusing, many children with true Kawasaki disease do not fulfill all of the classic criteria. We call this ‘incomplete’ or ‘atypical’ Kawasaki disease. We know that some children have it because they go on to develop the coronary artery aneurysms of classic Kawasaki disease, even though they do not have all of the other symptoms.
These cases without all of the classic diagnostic clues are most common in infants less than 1 year of age. Sadly, infants are also the ones with the highest chance of coronary artery problems, and thus the ones who need accurate diagnosis most urgently.
The good news is that Kawasaki disease usually responds dramatically to therapy with intravenous gamma globulin (IVIG) and high-dose aspirin when caught in time. Recovery is usually complete when children are treated within the first 10 days of symptoms and before the development of coronary artery aneurysms.
Dr. Alan Greene
Leave a comment
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Most people know that a Hoosier is a native of Indiana. But where does the term come from and what does it mean? The answer is an unsatisfying “origin unknown.”
The earliest known use of the term dates to 1827, in a diary entry from 14 July:
There is a Yankee trick for you—done by a Hoosier.
The diary entry was published in the Samuel J. Cox’s 1860 Recollections of the Early Settlement of the Wabash Valley. Given the difference in dates between the original diary and the 1860 publication, there is some doubt as to the accuracy of the citation. The earliest clearly attested use dates to 11 February 1831 in a letter from a G.L. Murdock:
Our Boat will [be] named the Indiana Hoosier.1
Hoosier also has the sense of an uneducated, rural yokel, a rustic. Some believe that this is actually the original sense and that it later specialized to mean someone from Indiana. But this rustic sense can only be unambiguously dated to 1836, after the appearance of the Indiana sense. From Spirit of the Times, 15 October of that year:
After waiting almost as long as the Hoosier did for salt river to run by that he might pass over dry, I at last caught an opening.2
Both the Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition and the Historical Dictionary of American Slang reference a 1949 article in the Chicago Tribune that reprints an 1826 letter that uses the term, but this is in error. The letter is actually from 1846 and the Tribune “corrected” the spelling the word, which was hoesier in the original letter.3
In 1919, historian J.P. Dunn proposed that Hoosier came from a Cumberland dialectical term hoozer, meaning something large or big—literally a big hill. This explanation is often repeated, but it is almost certainly false. There is only a single attestation of the British term, in an 1899 word list of the Cumberland dialect, well after the term was established in the US. There are no known uses of hoozer in America.4
1Fred Shapiro, “Correction of ‘Hoosier’ First Use in OED,” ADS-L, 1 Feb 2007.
3Shapiro, “Correction of ‘Hoosier.’”
4HDAS, v. 2, H-O, 148.
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Scientists Genetically Engineer Mice With Super Endurance
How do you build a mouse that can run six-times farther than its average bretheren? Take away all its fast-twitch muscle fiber, along with its ability to contract its muscles.
According to ScienceNow, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania found the gene receptor that controls the protein responsible for muscle contraction. When they engineered mice to lack that protein, all the muscle in their body converted any fast twitch muscle (which is more powerful, but fatigues quicker) to slow twitch muscle fiber, which provided endurance gains.
The discovery of this gene could explain why some people are better endurance runners than others, and if discovered in humans (or any other animal, for that matter), could be used to create a human that could run and run and run and run. Although, the absence of speed and power might not be worth it. [ScienceNow via PopSci]
Image via Shutterstock/Emilia Stasiak
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NASA Logo, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Space Science Data Center Header
Heat Flow
NSSDC ID: 1972-096C-01
Mission Name: Apollo 17 Lunar Module /ALSEP
Principal Investigator: Dr. Marcus G. Langseth
The Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), which was part of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP), was designed to determine the rate of heat loss from the lunar interior by temperature and thermal property measurements at the surface and in the subsurface. The experiment was carried on the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions and was essentially identical on all three missions. The experiment apparatus consisted of two probes connected by 8 meter long cables to an electronics box which was in turn connected by a flat ribbon cable to the ALSEP station. The astronauts would drill two holes with the Apollo lunar surface drill (ALSD). The ALSD was equipped with borestem caps and retainers, borestems, bore bits, a bore bit/drill adapter, a treadle, and a bore stem/core stem wrench. The borestem assemblies used in drilling consisted of lengths of hollow fiberglass tubes, 2.5 cm in diameter, which would be connected together as the drilling progressed, and remained in the holes to provide a casing to prevent collapse of the hole walls during insertion of the probes. Nominally the holes were to be drilled to a depth of 3 meters but in practice no holes reached this depth. The probe would be lowered down into the borestem until it came to rest on top of the drill bit at the bottom of the hole. The borestem tube would project out of the surface a distance dependent on the depth of the hole.
Heat Flow Probes
Each heat flow probe was constructed of two rigid cylinders connected by a flexible joint. Each cylinder was 50 cm in length and held four platinum resistance elements which were electrically connected in pairs to form two accurate (+/-0.001 K) differential thermometers. The first pair of elements were located with one element near the top and one near the bottom of the cylinder, 47 cm apart from each other, and were connected in a bridge circuit. These sensors were designated the gradient bridge (DTG). The other two sensors were located 9 cm below the top DTG sensor and 9 cm above the bottom DTG sensor, 29 cm apart from each other connected by a bridge circuit. This pair was designated the ring bridge (DTR).
A thermocouple (the probe thermocouple) was mounted near the top of the upper cylinder, colocated with the top gradient sensor. Attached to the top of the upper cylinder was a long cable which connected the probe to the electronics box. The cable contained 3 more thermocouples spaced 65 cm, 115 cm, and 165 cm from the probe thermocouple. The thermocouples were spaced so that at least some of them were outside the borehole on the lunar surface.
1000 ohm Karma-wire platinum resistor heaters surrounded each of the four gradient bridge sensor housings on each probe. These were used for conductivity experiments and could be energized at either 0.002 W (low conductivity mode) or 0.5 W (high conductivity mode). The heaters would be turned on for approximately 36 hours for the low conductivity experiments and 6 hours in high conductivity mode.
The probes return absolute temperature data, differential temperature data (across the bridges), low- and high-thermal conductivity data, and thermocouple temperature data. Specifically, the experiment measured lunar temperatures of the following types, with corresponding accuracies noted in parentheses -- gradient bridge high-sensitivity temperature difference measurements (0.001 K) low-sensitivity temperature difference measurements (0.01 K), and absolute temperature measurements (0.05 K) over the temperature range 190 - 270 K; ring bridge temperature difference measurements (0.002 K) and absolute temperatures (0.05 K) over the range 190 - 270 K; thermocouple temperatures (0.07 K) over 70 - 400 K; and the reference bridge temperature (0.01 K) over 23 - 363 K.
The electronics box contained two multiplexers and amplifiers, dc/dc converter, and an isothermal block which contained a reference thermocouple and reference bridge. The electronics box was nominally kept at 278 to 328 K using heating elements, power control thermostats, a layered aluminized mylar insulation bag. fiberglass case, radiator plate, and sunshield. The instrument was powered by 29 volt d.c. from the central station.
Sensor Naming Convention
The sensors on probe 1 were individually designated as follows; for the upper cylinder the second number is "1", the upper gradient bridge sensor was DTG11A and the lower sensor was DTG11B; the upper ring bridge sensor was DTR11A and the lower DTR11B. For the lower cylinder the second number was "2", the upper gradient bridge sensor was DTG12A, the lower DTG12B, and the upper ring bridge sensor was DTR12A, the lower DTR12B. The bridge sensor pairs were designated DTG11, DTR11, DTG12, and DTR12. The sensors on probe 2 had the same format except that the first number represented the probe number, the first "1" in each designation was replaced with a "2", so the upper cylinder, upper gradient bridge sensor was DTG21A. Two numbering conventions exist in the literature for the thermocouples. We are using the convention that TC14 designates the thermocouple at the top of probe 1, TC13 is the cable thermocouple closest to probe 1, followed by TC12 and TC11. Probe 2 would have TC24, etc. (Another convention, seen in the Preliminary Science Reports, has the probe thermocouple designated as TC11, followed successively in the cable by TC14, TC13, and TC12.)
Instrument Operation
In normal operating mode a 7.25 minute measurement sequence is used to collect the ambient high- and low-sensitivity differential data from the gradient sensors and the thermocouple outputs. The same measurement sequence would be used when the heaters were commanded on for the low conductivity (0.002 W) mode, with the heaters activated in turn for typically 36 hours. For the high-conductivity (0.5 W) sequence, the ring bridge sensors were used and were read every 54 seconds. This mode nominally would last 8 hours. This mode could also be done without the heaters on, with measurements simply being made by the ring bridge sensors. This mode, known as a ring bridge survey, would be used approximately every 6 hours at first and less frequently later in the experiment.
Apollo 17 Operational History
The Apollo 17 heat flow electronics box was set up 12.3 meters north of the ALSEP central station with the hole for probe 1 drilled 5.7 meters east of the box and the probe 2 hole drilled 5.4 meters west of the box. Both holes were drilled about 250 cm into the lunar regolith. For probe 1 the sensors were at the following depths: DTG12B - 233 cm; DTR12B - 224 cm; DTR12A - 194 cm; DTG12A - 185 cm; DTG11B - 177 cm; DTR11B - 168 cm; DTR11A - 139 cm; DTG11A - 130 cm. Cable thermocouple TC13 was at a depth of 66 cm in the borehole, TC12 was right at the top of the hole, and TC11 was out on the surface. For probe 2 the sensors were at depths of: DTG22B - 234 cm; DTR22B - 225 cm; DTR22A - 195 cm; DTG22A - 186 cm; DTG21B - 178 cm; DTR21B - 169 cm; DTR21A - 140 cm; DTG21A - 131 cm. Cable thermocouple TC23 was at a depth of 67 cm in the borehole, TC22 was right at the top of the hole, and TC21 was out on the surface. Probe 1 was placed in the hole on 12 December 1972 at approximately 02:44 UT. The instrument was turned on at 03:02:00 UT and the first reading from probe 1 came at 03:05:48. Probe 2 was emplaced at 03:08. The first readings from probe 2 came at 03:08:28. On 18 February 1977 an anomaly occurred in probe 2 at the 230 cm level. The instrument was commanded off along with the other ALSEP experiments on 30 September 1977.
Heater schedule
The heaters were turned on and off in the low power (0.002 W) mode in January 1973 as follows, with the heater designation followed in parentheses by the depth of the heater, the date and time the heater was turned on, and the date and time the heater was turned off, in UT. For probe 1: H11 (130 cm, 3 Jan. 05:58 - 4 Jan. 18:00); H12 (177 cm, 14 Jan. 00:03 - 15 Jan. 11:48); H13 (185 cm, 21 Jan. 00:03 - 22 January 12:31); H14 (233 cm, 8 Jan. 06:21 - 9 Jan. 16:02). For probe 2: H21 (131 cm, 5 Jan. 05:18 - 7 Jan. 06:07); H22 (178 cm, 16 Jan. 12:06 - 18 Jan. 00:05); H23 (186 cm, 23 Jan. 00:31 - 24 Jan. 12:30); H24 (234 cm, 10 Jan. 05:59 - 11 Jan. 17:59). On 25 January at 18:00 UT H14 was turned on at high power, 0.5 W, and was shut off at 20:30 UT. The ring bridge DTR12 went off scale high.
Funding Agency
• NASA-Office of Space Science (United States)
• Planetary Science: Geology and Geophysics
Additional Information
NameRoleOriginal AffiliationE-mail
Dr. Sydney P. Clark, Jr.Other InvestigatorYale University
Dr. Marcus G. LangsethPrincipal InvestigatorLamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
Dr. J. L. Chute, Jr.Other InvestigatorLehman College
Selected References
Langseth, M. G., et al., Revised lunar heat-flow values, Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf. 7th, 1143-1171, 1976.
Langseth, M G., Jr., et al., Heat flow experiment, In -- Apollo 17 Prelim. Sci. Rept., NASA SP-330, Wash., DC, 1973.
[] NASA Logo -
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Border War: Fighting over Slavery before the Civil War
Border War examines the previously neglected cross-border clash of attitudes and traditions dating many generations back. By the mid-nineteenth century, nowhere else were tensions greater between antislavery and proslavery interests. Nowhere else was there more direct conflict between the forces binding North and South together and those driving them apart. There were mass slave escapes, battles between antislavery and proslavery vigilantes, and fierce resistance in the Border North to the kidnapping of free African Americans. There were also fights throughout the borderlands between fugitive slaves and those attempting to apprehend them. Harrold argues that, during the 1850s, warfare on the Kansas-Missouri line and John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia, were manifestations of a more pervasive border conflict that helped push the Lower South into secession and helped persuade most of the Border South to stand by the Union.
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Donatello's Annunciation
Only available on StudyMode
• Topic: Gabriel, Angel, Illuminated manuscript
• Pages : 9 (1631 words )
• Download(s) : 348
• Published : December 6, 2012
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In your own words, explain how Donatello has told the story of The Annunciation in sculpture and why contemporaries were so impressed with his achievement.
Donatello is considered to be one of the most influential artists of the 15th century. A
member of the innovative group of painters, architects and sculptors that revolutionised art in
Florence at the beginning of the 15th century, he succeeded in becoming perhaps the most successful
in his field due to his understanding of the aspects of classical sculpture and the creative and
emotive way in which he adapted them to his own works. In particular, his reliefs surpassed all
others of the time in terms of their dramatic effect and complexity of character placement and
spatial awareness. I am going to describe how Donatello depicted the scene of the Annunciation in
sculpture through his combination of different classical motifs and methods and also in the
materials he used. I will discuss how he conveyed human emotions through his careful and modern
placement of the characters while also staying true to the traditional image of the Angel Gabriel
delivering the news to the Virgin. I will also talk about how Donatello's risks, skill and innovation
made him so admired by his contemporaries and how he influenced subsequent changes in
The Cavalcanti Annunciation in shiacciato relief was made out of local macigno sandstone instead of the
usual marble. It is quite easy to carve which made it possible for Donatello to create the richly decorated
tabernacle and flowing lines of the figures. It also made it easier for Donatello to have greater depth in the
scene, creating more contrast between light and dark and [1]“in order to create the effect of an interior setting
with intarsia panelling”.
The sillouhette of Donatello's tabernacle seems to be the end product of a whole line of
tabernacles designed to house grave offerings or effigys of the gods. Some of the earlier ones from
Lilybeum on the south coast of Sicily actually provide a covering or shelter for the objects within.
This idea is echoed in Donatello's Annunciation which shows a walled room with a definite ceiling
and floor. This technique creates a sense of a place and gives the viewer the impression of looking in on a private moment, of experiencing something very personal and confidential. There are other
possible ,but perhaps less likely, sources as to the origins of the tabernacle form, such as the higly
decorative Roman fountains that can be found in their best condition in Pompeii. Another
suggestion is medieval manuscript illumination, in particular canon tables.
For the architectural detail, Donatello possibly took inspiration from shingled pilasters such as the
ones in the urn of T.Claudius Victor. Again, he adapted this idea to create a more refined pliaster
that tapers gracefully to the top. Manuscript illumination also has examples of the Annunciation
scene set in decorative tabernacles with detailed columns and pilasters which may have served to
inspire Donatello's own Annunciation aedicule. A prime example is a panel by Jacopo di Ciono
which also places the Virgin and angel opposite each other, pressed against either wall. Donatello
does not replicate the work of others but it would be fair to conclude that [2]“ Donatello is adapting
medieval traditions for the design of his tabernacle, as well as adopting antique ideas”.
The small, mischevious terracotta putti on top of the tabernacle are a clever addition by Donatello to
balance out the composition and act as a counterbalance to the solemn scene playing out underneath. Though
some critics state that they were a later addition, it is more probable that they were part of the original
architectural detailing. There is even more decorative addition with the patterns on the throne and rear wall...
tracking img
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3 Tutorials that teach Human Arrival and Expansion
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Human Arrival and Expansion
Human Arrival and Expansion
Author: Jensen Morgan
This lesson explains the context of humans on earth and provides an overview of human population growth.
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Hi, I'm Jensen Morgan. We're going to talk about some great concepts in environmental science. Today's topic is Human Arrival and Expansion. So let's get started.
We're going to talk about human history, human population growth, population explosion, and what has sustained human population growth. Like we discussed in an earlier video, we're going to compress history into a year. But this time, it's going to be just earth's history, not universal history.
So starting January 1st, 4.5 billion years ago, the earth was formed. 660 million, or by this scale, 11 months later by mid-November, every major group of multicellular organism had evolved. 5 to 8 million years ago, or somewhere between 9:00 AM and 2:00 PM on December 31st, human evolution began. Approximately 200,000 years ago, or at about 11:37 PM, December 31st, Homo sapiens evolved.
Over time, human behavior and skills have changed and evolved. During the Old Stone Age between 200,000 and 10,000 years ago, humans, or Homo sapiens, were hunter gatherers. They often lived in seasonally mobile small tribes.
However, with the advent of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, the Neolithic era began. Homo sapiens became more sedentary, primarily shifting to farming and settled communities. The invention of agriculture, along with a host of technologies and practices that resulted eventually, gave rise to human population growth and expansion.
This graph shows human population growth since 1000 CE or AD. From about 200,000 BCE to about 8,000 BCE, human population remained relatively low. The Black Death and widespread famine reached its zenith around 1350. Yet human population was still beginning to expand.
As the Black Death and widespread famine receded, human population experienced continuous growth since 1350 and really began to climb, reaching 1 billion only 450 years later. The population doubled to 2 billion in only 127 years, and then doubled again by 1999 to 6 billion.
If you look at the addition of a billion people, it took 127 years the first time, 32 years the second time, 15 the 3rd, 13 the fourth time, 12 the fifth, and 13 the last time in 2012, bringing the world population to 7 billion. It is still climbing.
Population growth really exploded following the beginning of the Industrial Revolution because population growth expanded cities and infrastructure, the revolution increased access to safe drinking water, cities allowed large amounts of energy to be centralized for human use, new forms of transportation allowed people to become more mobile.
The Industrial Revolution combined with the Green Revolution in the mid-1900s increased food productivity and reduced famine drastically. The Green Revolution was a combination of improved agricultural crop breeding, mechanization of farming, and chemical production of fertilizer. It increased world-wide production of food crops, especially in developing nations.
The Industrial Revolution reduced disease and increased longevity through improved nutrition, sanitation, and medicine. Human population growth has continued over time because of technological advancements in tool-making, such as the modern tractor, which increases productivity and decreases human labor requirements simultaneously, allowing for increased food productivity which can then support a larger human population.
Agricultural advancements, such as chemical fertilizers, have increased crop productivity by providing needed nutrients quickly with less human labor. This has increased food productivity and allowed for a larger human population.
In general, advances in agriculture and animal domestication have made it so that fewer people are needed to work to feed many people, which has allowed for specialization of other people's time. This specialization allowed for more technological advancements to sustain human health, which has allowed for even more population growth.
And technological advancements in industrialization such as highly-efficient manufacturing facilities, have generated goods and products that can preserve and protect human health to be cheaper and more widespread. This also has allowed for a larger human population.
In general, technological improvements have sustained human population growth because they have encouraged three things. Increased fertility-- the average number of children born to a single woman has risen because of food availability and medical care. Decreased infant mortality-- the rate of infant deaths per year has decreased due to better medical care and sanitation. And increased longevity-- human lifespans have increased due to better medical care, food production, and sanitation.
Now let's have a recap. We talked about human history, human population growth, population explosion, and what has sustained human population growth in general. Well, that's all for today. I look forward to next time. Bye.
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Les engages in New France
The engages were nothing more than indentured servants.
The Intendant of New France, Jean Talon, had ambitious plans for prosperous colony. Appointed Intendant of New France in 1665 the projects he launched gave new hope to the old pioneers, the Jesuit superior Fran?ois Le Mercier and Marie de l'Incarnation, the founder of the Ursuline Convent.
Francois Le Mercier was very optimistic about New France's future:
"If the course of events in the future corresponds to that of the past two years, we will no longer recognize Canada, and shall see our forests changing into towns and provinces which may some day be not unlike those of France."
Monsieur Talon was enforcing the King's orders exactly. He had a covered market built in Qu?bec as well as a brewery and a tannery. There was such a great number of animals in this country and these industries had never been attempted before in Canada, but if they succeeded they would greatly reduce the enormous expense of having everything brought over from France and they would provide the makings of a great country that, in time, would make the merchants rich according to Marie de l'Incarnation in some of her correspondence.
The colony needed workers in order to grow.
An indentured servant was bound to his employer for the duration of his contract which was usually three years. Pierre Boucher, who went to Canada as a young servant ("engages), was now a merchant and a seigneur, looking for employees of his own in France.
"All poor people would be better off here than in France, provided they are not lazy. They will not lack for work and they will not be able to say, as they do in France, that they have to scrounge for a living because no one has work for them."
Most of the men who went to New France were "engag?s or indentured servants. The "engage's employer whether a farmer, a religious order, or a merchant, paid for their transportation from France.
Pierre Boucher, who knew that life was hard in the colony, suggested to the new comers to be prepared: "It would be a good thing for a man who wants to come to live here, to bring food to last a year or two. He should also buy herds of oxen for they are worth twice as much here as in France. Money is also worth more, a quarter again as much, a 15 sol coin is worth 20."
During the tenure of his contract, the "engag? could not become a citizen, get involved in the fur trade or marry. Some were servants, but the majority performed hard labour such as clearing land. He earned a paltry sum of 75 livres a year, with food, lodging and clothing deducted. After three years of toil, he usually only had the shirt on his back, a gun and his freedom. His labour could be bought and sold without his consent. In 1665, a quarter of men over the age of 15 who lived in New France were "engag?s.
Between 1664 and 1671, about a thousand "engag?s settled in New France but only half of them stayed once their contracts ended. The others returned to France, once they received their release. This document basically served as their passport to return home.
According to the contract, a runaway could be flogged in public, put in shackles, branded or hanged. But these harsh punishments were rarely enforced and for the most part the "engages lived as part of the family.
In a letter to Colbert, Talon complained that their exodus threatened the collective future of the colony. "If things continue in this manner, the colony will not get stronger, despite the trouble you have taken to increase the population, many people have gone back this year, but a far greater number intend to go back next year by the ease with which they are given their notice."
Colbert's reply to him was thus: "His Majesty esteems it to be a notable disorder to which a solution must be found and to this effect has written (...) to (...) defend (...) any Frenchman returning to this Kingdom, if those who ask him permission do not have wife and children, and a considerable establishment in that country over there, then His Majesty esteems however, it is important that the French do not believe themselves to be held by force in that country..."
And what did the French do at the end of their indenture on the banks of the St. Lawrence? Nearly 15,000 French people came to Canada between Champlain's arrival in 1608 and the end of the 17th century. More than two thirds returned to France. Only 3,400 remained here. These would be the French pioneers of North America.
"There are a great number of poor folk in this country, and this is because when a family first settles here," recounted Mother Marie de l'Incarnation in a letter on October 29, 1665, "it takes them two or three years before they have enough to feed themselves, not to mention the clothing, furniture and a thousand and one little things necessary to maintain a proper household. But after these difficulties are past, they are able to live more comfortably, and if they manage their affairs well, they can, in time, become wealthy ? or at least as wealthy as is possible in such a new country."
? Lucie LeBlanc Consentino
Acadian & French Canadian Ancestral Home
2006 - Present
Please Navigate This Web Site
Using The Sidebar To The Left
If You Do Not See A Sidebar Click Here
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History of Stanford
The Rise of Silicon Valley
In 1939, with the encouragement of their professor and mentor, Frederick Terman, Stanford alumni David Packard and William Hewlett established a little electronics company in a Palo Alto garage. That garage would later be dubbed "the Birthplace of Silicon Valley."
Over the following years, Stanford would be a wellspring of innovation, producing advances in research and the formation of many companies that have made Silicon Valley one of the most innovative and productive high-tech regions in the world.
In 1947, professor William W. Hansen unveiled an electron linear accelerator prototype, and the following year construction began on a new Microwave Laboratory. In 1951 Varian Associates built a research and development lab on the edge of campus that would become the famed Stanford Industrial Park, now known as Stanford Research Park. In 1952, Stanford won its first Nobel Prize, which went to physics Professor Felix Bloch; three years later his colleague Willis Lamb, Jr. also won a Nobel.
Under the leadership of Terman, a professor of electrical engineering who served as provost from 1955 to 1965, the university embarked upon a campaign to build “steeples of excellence,” clusters of outstanding science and engineering researchers who would attract the best students. His role in fostering close ties between Stanford students and the emerging technology industries has led some to consider him the father of Silicon Valley. He created an entrepreneurial spirit that today extends to every academic discipline at Stanford.
Two of the university’s most iconic scientific institutions were built in the 1960s: the 2-mile-long linear accelerator (SLAC National Laboratory); and “the Dish,” a 150-foot diameter radio antenna in the foothills built as a joint venture between the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and the Air Force. Also in the 1960s, Professor John Chowning developed FM sound synthesis to digitally generate sounds, leading to the invention of the music synthesizer.
In the early 1970s, professor Vinton Cerf, known as the “father of the Internet,” developed with a colleague the TCP/IP protocols which would become the standard for Internet communication between computers. In the 1980s, John Cioffi and his students realized that traditional phone lines could be used for high-speed data transmission, leading to the development of digital subscriber lines (DSL). In 1991, SLAC physicist Paul Kunz set up the first web server in the U.S. after visiting Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web, in Geneva, Switzerland.
The Internet, of course, is central to the story of Silicon Valley. Google, the web’s most popular search engine and one of the world’s most influential companies, got its start at Stanford when Sergey Brin and Larry Page developed their page rank algorithm as graduate students in the 1990s. Before them, alumni Jerry Yang and David Filo founded Yahoo. Other legendary Silicon Valley companies with strong ties to Stanford include Cisco Systems, Hewlett-Packard Company, Intuit, Silicon Graphics, and Sun Microsystems.
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The political backdrop in the 1960’s was, for Britain, the end of a slow and prolonged withdrawal from empire. Colonialism was disappearing fast, in all corners of the globe.
But Britain then created a new colony called the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT).
What was Britain’s motive?
In December 1966, Britain signed a defence deal with the United States, which gave Diego Garcia for defence purposes for 50 years, with an option on a further 20 years. The deal was hidden from Parliament and attracted virtually no publicity.
The US Pentagon had selected Diego Garcia as being the ideal place from which to monitor the activities of the Soviet Navy. In 1972 a further agreement was signed between the US and British governments to establish a communications facility on Diego Garcia; another agreement in 1974 provided for a support facility, whilst in 1976 an ‘exchange of notes’ took place to allow for extending the runway - an 8,000 foot runway had by then already been constructed. Thus the island of Diego Garcia was gradually turned into a military base.
The Americans made it clear from the outset of negotiations that they would not tolerate any indigenous population inhabiting the Chagos islands while under US use.
This left the British with something of a problem – namely the 2,000+ community of Chagossians who already lived there. The British Foreign Office’s solution to this was to build and ‘maintain the fiction’ that the people of Chagos were merely migrant workers from the Seychelles and Mauritius, on contracts and with no rights as permanent domiciles.
This stance was strengthened and deepened through a consistent exchange of official memos and letters over the next few years, successfully hiding the truth from the UN, British Parliament and even US officials.
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Japanese Painting
Japanese painting
TOP > Japanese Painting
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Japanese Painting
Japanese painting (Nihon-ga)
The history of the picture what is called the "Japanese painting (Nihon-ga)" today was old, and it was brought a thousand and several hundred years ago to Japan. The paint to use for the Nihon-ga is a mineral pigment crushed in the shape of powder called "Iwa-enogu", and the beauty of the color is characteristic of the Nihon-ga. The picture which is the source of the Nihon-ga does existing in the countries of East Asia, the main point of the Silk Road and that reminds us of the width of the then trade, but it is only the Nihon-ga that succeed this technique today, and it is the painting which is valuable worldwide.
The word "Nihon-ga"
"Nihon-ga" consists of two words, "Nihon" and "ga". The former means Japan, and the latter does painting. Speaking of the Nihon-ga, a traditional Sumi-e (ink brush painting), Byobu etc. are generally recalled, but actually there is not the Japanese painting as those styles before the Edo era, and it is the word made up in comparison with the Western painting for the first time in the Meiji era. It contains not only a meaning as the Japanese traditional painting, but also a meaning as the painting of the new style of the Western painting method while being in succession to the Japanese traditional painting. Today the word "Nihon-ga" does not mean to a specific picture style, and is often interpreted as the painting which is painted with Iwa-enogu.
Shutou sansui-zu, Sesshu
Shutou sansui-zu
(winter landscape)
When it was the tenth century, the Japanese picture began to leave Chinese strong influence and tied to racial sensitivity and created styles called the Yamato-e (a meaning to the Japanese painting in old language). The Picture scroll of Genji tale in the Heian era is the typical of that. This unique picture-style called picture scroll develops greatly in a much relation with the literature in the Kamakura era. Furthermore, Yamato-e began to show the decorative characteristic called Syouhei-ga (painting on Japanese screens) in the Momoyama era. And the style called Rimpa (Rimpa School) which interwove Japanese original emotion in decorative, splendid expression was completed by prominent artists Honami Koetsu, Tawaraya Sotatsu and Ogata Korin. The Expression of the Tarashikomi and the sense of beauty settled as one of the characteristics of the Japanese traditional painting.
Wind God and Thunder God Screens, TAWARAYA SOTATSU
Wind God and Thunder God Screens
Tawaraya Sotatsu
On the other hand, Suiboku-ga (Ink brush painting) came from China as a part of the Zen culture of the Buddhism after the 14th century. The Samurai who gained power in place of the nobles in the Muromachi era had sympathy about the Zen culture with a severe spirituality, and it became the mainstream of the then culture. The Nihon-ga had two elements : the Yamato-e and the Sumi-e.
In addition, although it was not involved in the category of the Japanese traditional painting, the fact that the Ukiyo-e prospered as common people culture in the Edo era gave European Impressionists so much influence later was a notable event. As the Ukiyo-e painter, Kitagawa Utamaro, Ando Hiroshige, Katsushika Hokusai, Toshusai Sharaku, etc. are famous globally. As the national isolation of Japan was over by the Meiji Restoration (1868) and came to join the global community, the Western art flowed in one after another.
Maruyama Shijo-ha (Maruyama Shijo School) which attached great importance to realism studied the perspective of the Western painting and technique of the realism generally and made the basics of development of the later Japanese traditional painting.
View through waves off the coast of Kanagawa, KATSUSHIKA HOKUSAI
View through waves off the coast of Kanagawa
Katsushika Hokusai
However, the structure of the Nihon-ga painted with sumi (ink) or few color (pigments) was too weak, and it was not powerful in comparison with the structure of the strong oil painting image which plastered paint. Afterwards the Japanese painter took colors and materials of the Western painting, while maintaining two bases called Yamato-e and Sumi-e to reinforce the power of expression of the Japanese traditional painting. It seemed to be the figure which challenged to the crisis of the destruction of the Japanese traditional painting by the Western painting.
After World War II, the Japanese painters devoted to research into the Italian fresco before the Renaissance, Tunhuang cave temple fresco in China. And they created various color of the Iwa-enogu (mineral pigments), and even the firmness of the screen came not to be inferior to the Western painting. However, the Suiboku-ga system gradually became old-fashioned, and the style that developed from yamato-e came to occupy the position of the mainstream of the Japanese traditional painting. Only the painting which developed from yamato-e came to be called Nihon-ga (Japanese painting), and now the Suiboku-ga is away from the mainstream of painting circles in Japan.
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© 2015 Shmoop University, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Lottery
The Lottery
by Shirley Jackson
The Lottery Theme of Family
"The Lottery" plays around with the concept of family in interesting ways. The thing is, each person in the lottery must draw by household, so this is the moment, each year, when belonging to a given family has the most socially recognized significance. In the midst of this collective ritual, though, it's during the lottery that the emotional bonds that connect mother to child, husband to wife, and friend to friend, become completely insignificant. Once the lottery has ended, family bonds reassert their importance, and the families who have lost members mourn them. So Jackson is clearly drawing a line between the social place of families (with their male heads of households and unfair distribution of luck) and the emotional importance of family ties, which is a private matter.
Questions About Family
1. Does the lottery strengthen familial bonds or act as a destructive force?
2. How does the Hutchinson family compare to other families in the village?
3. Why does Bill Hutchinson tell his wife to be quiet when she protests his selection?
Chew on This
"The Lottery" distinguishes between family as an emotional bond and family (or the household) as a social bond.
The household in "The Lottery" is a microcosm of the village's overall social organization, with women deferring to men, and children deferring to their parents.
People who Shmooped this also Shmooped...
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combination was not found.
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St.Thomas University Online
Hotchalk Global
view a plan
Last is a lesson on Native American Superstitions
Language Arts, Social Studies
4, 5
Title – Native American Spider Superstitions
By – Jennifer Dalke
Subject – Social Studies, Language Arts
Grade Level – 4-5
Illinois State Goals: 16. Understand events, trends, individuals, and movements shaping the history of Illinois, the United States, and other nations
17. Understand world geography and the effects of geography on society
18. Understand social systems, with an emphasis on the United States
Instructional Objective:
Students will use reference books to find out more superstitions, where the different superstitions come from, and why they came about. They will also write their own spider superstitions.
* reference books
* handout
Anticipatory Set:
* I will start out by reading the two superstitions printed on the handout to the class. I will ask the children if they ever heard of these sayings before.
* I will ask the children if they think these are true. If you let a spider run free, will you really live and thrive?
1. I will explain that these sayings are called superstitions. Superstitions are beliefs that are not supported by science, so they cannot be considered fact. I will ask the children to share any other superstitions they have heard before.
2. I will explain to the children that all superstitions have stories behind them and that, if you look far enough back in history, we can find out where they come from. I will tell the children that today we will be finding out about superstitions and their origins.
3. I will pass out the spider superstition handout and explain to the children that they will use the reference books to find new superstitions. They must find one superstition and, on the back of the handout, write the superstition, the country it originated in, and why it came about.
4. After they have finished this, they should try to make up their own superstitions about spiders which they should write in the box on the front of the handout. I will ask them how they think they might do this. I will guide them to the conclusion that they should use their own experiences, beliefs, and ideas to come up with a unique superstition. I will share my own with them: If you kill a spider today, it will come back to you in May =)
5. I will let the children have about twenty minutes of working time. I will tell them that it is fine if they want to share their findings with their neighbors, but they must stay in their seats and use quiet voices.
6. I will pass out reference books and allow the children to work.
7. When they have finished, I will call on students to share any interesting, funny, or wacky superstitions they have found. I will ask each child to read his or her new spider superstition to the class.
Cassie (LD)- I will give Cassie a reference book that is already marked with where the information is. She will need to pick out the appropriate information from a short portion of the book. She can work with a partner who will help her to develop her own spider superstition.
* I will ask the students why they think different superstitions exist in all parts of the world. I will tell them that cultures, religions, and environmental factors are different in all parts of the world, and this influences the superstitions that came about.
* I will tell them that they should ask their parents, grandparents, or other family members if they have heard any other superstitions about spiders. The children may share any that they find out tomorrow in class. I will collect the handouts.
Students will be assessed on whether they have written down the correct information. They should have one superstition, where it originated, and why it came about. They should also have written their own new spider superstition.
E-Mail Jennifer !
Print Friendly
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Chacabuco, Battle of(Feb. 12, 1817), in the Latin - American wars of independence, a victory won by South American patriots over Spanish royalists near north of Santiago, Chile. It began the expulsion of the Spaniards from Chile, completed the next year at the Battle of Maipú. After Argentine independence from Spain had been declared in 1816, José de San Martín, leader of the independence movement in southern South America, embarked on the liberation of Chile (January 1817). Beginning in 1810, the independence movement there had been plagued by bitter rivalry between the brothers José Miguel and Juan José Carrera on the one hand and Bernardo O’Higgins on the other. Joined by O’Higgins, San Martín led about 5,000 troops on a difficult 20-day march over the high Andes; he lost about 2,000 men in the cold and high altitudes but managed to surprise the Spaniards. The Spanish general Rafael Maroto mustered only about 1,500 troops to meet the advancing enemy force at Chacabuco. Initially, the Spanish infantry drove back O’Higgins’ contingent, but a successful grenadier charge led by San Martín against the Spanish cavalry gave O’Higgins’ forces time to recover and attack the Spanish flank; the Spaniards were driven into rout. The people of Santiago honoured San Martín as the liberator of Chile and elected him governor, which office he refused in favour of O’Higgins. Before the final victory at Maipú, San Martín’s army sustained a serious defeat by loyalists at Cancha-Rayada, south of Rancagua, in March 1818.
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Search National Agricultural Library Digital Collections
NALDC Record Details:
Permanent URL:
Download [PDF File]
The introduction of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in New York City in 1890 and 1891 resulted in their permanent establishment in North America. The successful occupation of North America (and most other continents as well) has earned the starling a nomination in the Top 100 list of 'Worlds Worst' invaders. Pimentel et al. (2000) estimated that starling damage to agriculture crops in the United States was $800 million yearly, based on $5/ha damage. Starlings may spread infectious diseases that sicken humans and livestock, costing nearly $800 million in health treatment costs. Lastly, starlings perhaps have contributed to the decline of native cavity-nesting birds by usurping their nesting sites. We describe the life history of starlings, their economic impact on agriculture, and their potential role as vectors in spreading diseases to livestock and humans. We recommend that the database on migratory and local movements of starlings be augmented and that improved baits and baiting strategies be developed to reduce nuisance populations.
Linz, G.M. , Homan, H.J. , Gaukler, S.M. , Penry, L.B. , Bleier, W.J.
Includes references
USDA APHIS Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, 2007.
Journal Articles, USDA Authors, Peer-Reviewed
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The acceleration of a marble in a certain fluid
is proportional to the speed of the marble
squared, given by
a = bv2 ,
where v > 0 m/s and b = −4.8 m-1.
If the marble enters this fluid with a speed
of 1.2 m/s, how long will it take before the
marble’s speed is reduced to half of its initial
value? Answer in units of s.
Get this answer with Chegg Study
|
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Centum–satem isogloss
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Centum)
Jump to: navigation, search
Languages of the Indo-European family are classified as either centum languages or satem languages, according to the type of development of the dorsal consonants (sounds of "K" and "G" type) of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). These different developments gave rise to alternations of the kind found in the early attested IE languages in, for example, the words for "hundred": in centum languages these began with a /k/ sound (Latin centum was pronounced with initial /k/), while in satem languages they often began with /s/ (the example satem comes from the Avestan language of Zoroastrian scripture).
The table below show the traditional reconstruction of the PIE dorsal consonants, with three series (according to some more recent theories there may actually have been only two series). In the centum languages the palatovelars – which include the initial consonant of the "hundred" root – merged with the plain velars, whereas in the satem languages they remained distinct, while the labiovelars merged with the plain velars.[1]
*, *ǵ, *ǵʰ (palatovelars)
The centum–satem division forms an isogloss in synchronic descriptions of historical Indo-European languages. However, it has rarely been proposed as a genuine phylogenetic division of the diachronic development of the Indo-European phylum. That is, it is not thought that PIE split into a centum branch and a satem branch, from which all the centum and all the satem languages respectively would have derived. Such a division is made particularly unlikely by the discovery that, while the satem group lies generally to the east and the centum group to the west, the most eastward of the known IE language branches, Tocharian, is in fact centum.[2]
The terms centum and satem are derived from the words for the number "one hundred" in a traditional representative language of each group: Latin centum and Avestan satəm.
The centum–satem division refers to the development of the dorsal series at the time of the earliest separation of Proto-Indo-European into the proto-languages of its individual daughter branches. It does not apply to any later analogous developments within any individual branch. For example, the palatalization of Latin /k/ to /s/ in some Romance languages (which means that modern French cent is pronounced with initial /s/) is satem-like, as is the merger of *kʷ with *k in the Gaelic languages; such later changes do not affect the classification of these languages as centum.
Structure of the isogloss[edit]
The Anatolian branch likely falls outside the centum-satem dichotomy; for instance, Luwian indicates that all three dorsal consonant rows were maintained separately in Proto-Anatolian.[3] The centumization observed in Hittite occurred only after the break-up of Proto-Anatolian.[4]
While Tocharian is generally regarded as a centum language,[5] it constitutes a special case, as it has merged all three of the PIE dorsal series (originally constituting nine separate consonants) into the single phoneme *k. According to some scholars this complicates the classification of Tocharian within the centum-satem model.[6] However, as Tocharian has replaced some Proto-Indo-European labiovelars with the labiovelar-like, non-original sequence *ku; it has been proposed that labiovelars were still distinct in Proto-Tocharian, which places Tocharian in the "centum" group (assuming that Proto-Tocharian lost palatovelars at a time while labiovelars were a distinct phoneme).[5]
The canonical centum languages of the Indo-European family are the "western" branches: Hellenic, Celtic, Italic, and Germanic. This group merged Proto-Indo-European palatovelars and plain velars yielding plain velars only, but retained the labiovelars as a distinct set.[1]
Likewise the agreed satem languages belong to the "eastern" sub-families constituted by Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic. This group has lost the labial element of Proto-Indo-European labiovelars and thus merged them with plain velars, while the palatovelars remain distinct, realized as a sibilant phoneme.[7]
While the Albanian and Armenian branches are generally classified as "satem", they also show evidence of separate treatment of all three dorsal consonant rows.[clarification needed]
Incomplete satemization[edit]
Satem-like developments[edit]
The Centum languages show characteristic plain velars and labiovelars articulated at the back of the mouth in inherited Indo-European lexical items. Historically it was unclear whether the labiovelar row was an innovated by a process of labialization, or if it was inherited from the parent language (but lost in the satem row). Current mainstream opinion favours the latter possibility.
Bitectal hypotheses[edit]
The following summarize arguments that have been listed in support of a two-series hypothesis:[11]
• The reconstructed velars and palatovelars occur mostly in complementary distribution (velars before *a, *r and after *s, *u; palatovelars before *e, *i, *j, liquid/nasal/*w+*e/*i, and before o in o-grade forms by generalization from e-grade);
• It is unusual in general for palatovelars to move backwards, rather than the reverse (although it may be that the "palatovelars" were in fact plain velars, and the "velars" were pronounced further back, so there was not in fact backward movement);
• The plain velars are comparatively rare, and appear not to occur in affixes;
• In most languages where the "palatovelars" produced fricatives, other palatalization also occurred, implying that it was part of a general trend;
• The centum languages are non-contiguous, and there is no evidence of differences between dialects in the implementation of centumization, whereas there are differences in the process of satemization – there can be pairs of satemized and non-satemized velars within the same language, there is evidence of a former labiovelar series in some satem languages, and different branches have different numbers and timings of satemization stages.
Arguments in support of three series include:
• Albanian and Armenian are said to retain three series (although this is disputed, and it is pointed out that this does not falsify an original two-series hypothesis, as they may have been satem languages in which the labiovelars failed to merge);
• Luwian, an Anatolian (and hence centum) language, is said to retain three series – this is regarded as strong evidence, although it has been said (Sihler, 1995) to hinge on dubious etymologies;
• Some roots, such as that for "eight", have palatals in environments in which velars would be expected according to the complementary distribution hypothesis.
History of the concept[edit]
Schleicher's single guttural row[edit]
Brugmann's labialized and unlabialized language groups[edit]
Von Bradke's centum and satem groups[edit]
Brugmann's identification of labialized and centum[edit]
By the 1897 edition of Grundriss, Brugmann (and Delbrück) had adopted Von Bradke's view: "The Proto-Indo-European palatals appear in Greek, Italic, Celtic and Germanic as a rule as K-sounds, as opposed to in Aryan, Armenian, Albanian, Balto-Slavic, Phrygian and Thracian for the most part sibilants."[21]
There was no more mention of labialized and non-labialized language groups after Brugmann changed his mind regarding the labialized velars. The labio-velars now appeared under that name as one row of the five-row Verschlusslaute (Explosivae) (plosives/stops) containing die labialen V., die dentalen V., die palatalen V., die reinvelaren V. and die labiovelaren V. It was Brugmann who pointed out that labiovelars had merged into the velars in the Satem Group,[22] accounting for the coincidence of the discarded non-labialized group with the Satem Group.
Discovery of Anatolian and Tocharian[edit]
Blue: Centum languages
Red-orange: Satem languages
Orange: Languages exhibiting augment
See also[edit]
2. ^ Fortson 2010, chpt. 3.2–3.25
3. ^ Fortson 2010, p. 59, originally proposed in Melchert 1987
4. ^ Fortson 2010, p. 178
5. ^ a b Fortson 2010, p. 59
6. ^ Lyovin 1997, p. 53
7. ^ Mallory 1997, p. 461.
8. ^ Lehmann 1993, p. 100
9. ^ Szemerényi 1990, p. 148
11. ^ Quiles, C., López-Menchero, F., A Grammar of Modern Indo-European, Indo-European Association, 2012, p. 20ff.
12. ^ Schleicher 1871, p. 10
14. ^ Schleicher 1871, p. 163
15. ^ Brugmann 1886, p. 20
16. ^ Brugmann 1886, pp. 308–309
17. ^ Brugmann 1886, p. 312
19. ^ von Bradke 1890, p. 63
20. ^ von Bradke 1890, p. 107
23. ^ von Bradke 1890, p. 108
External links[edit]
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Why Are Daffodils Dangerous?
All above-ground parts of the daffodil are toxic.
All above-ground parts of the daffodil are toxic.
It may appear innocent at first glance, but the yellow-trumpeted daffodil (Narcissus spp.) carries two toxic agents in its showy flowers, stems, leaves and bulb. The above-ground parts of the daffodil contain lycorine and calcium oxalate crystals, which can be toxic to both you and your pets.
The European-native daffodil's distinct, showy, trumpet-shaped bloom makes it easy to spot. The central trumpet and the surrounding single rosette petals are yellow, white or red, although you may see a few other colors. Daffodils grow 12 to 15 inches tall and the flowers may form in clusters or as a single bloom. While short-lived, expect to see daffodils bloom in late winter or early spring. Daffodils grow in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 4 through 9.
Lycorine Dangers
The daffodil bulb contains the toxic chemical lycorine, which is a phenanthridine alkaloid found in many flowering plants, such as the amaryllis (Hippeastrum spp.), which grows in USDA zones 6 through 11. All parts of the bulb are toxic to people and animals, but the toxicity level is low unless you eat a large quantity. For example, a handful of bulbs is considered toxic, while one bite may lead to an upset stomach. If you accidentally ingest lycorine, you may begin to have stomach problems, such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain, as well as salivating, trembling, depression, convulsions and tremors. Lycorine is also poisonous to cats, dogs and horses. Symptoms are similar to humans but may also include low blood pressure and cardiac arrhythmias.
Calcium Oxalate Crystal Dangers
Daffodil plants also contain calcium oxalate crystals. If you come into contact with the leaves and stems, you will know it. The crystals cause immediate pain in your mouth or a burning sensation on your skin. Symptoms of ingestion include difficulty swallowing, swelling and temporary hoarseness. To avoid "lily rash," wear gloves while handling daffodils and wash your hands if you come in contact with this plant.
Getting Help
If you accidentally ingest the toxic chemical lycorine, contact a poison control center or go to the emergency room immediately. Symptoms may be alleviated with fluid replacement. If you believe your pet has eaten a daffodil bulb, contact your veterinarian as soon as possible. Oxalate crystal exposure is less severe than lycorine ingestion because the instant burning sensation acts as a warning sign to stop touching the plant. If your skin is exposed to oxalate crystals, wash the exposed area with warm, running water. For mouth burns or swelling, try eating cold foods, such as ice cream or ice pops, to dull the pain. If problems persist, contact your doctor immediately.
Photo Credits
• Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Getty Images
Suggest a Correction
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BackBright Hub EducationBrowse
"The Color Purple": High School Lesson on Comparing the Book & the Film
By Sarah Degnan Moje
In 1985, Steven Spielberg brought to life Alice Walker's novel "The Color Purple" on the big screen. After reading the novel, have your students watch the movie in class, and then compare the movie with the film. The book and movie are appropriate for mature students in 11th or 12th grade.
The Color Purple poster
The Movie
In 1985 Steven Spielberg was more well-known for "summer blockbusters" than for serious works of art. From the late 1970’s onward, he specialized in fun movies that brought huge crowds to the theater and provided entertainment with a plot, but without too much sadness or veil of shadows.
This all changed when he directed Schindler’s List in 1993. After that film he instantly became one of the most “serious” directors of our time. However, before he became known for the Holocaust film, Spielberg did step away from that blockbuster mentality in order to bring to the screen Alice Walker’s novel The Color Purple.
This film, released in 1985, closely mirrors the events in the novel. It also is unique in that a white, Jewish director is telling the tale of an oppressed and abused black Southern woman, and that he does it so well. One would think Spielberg lived Celie’s live, as he is so vividly able to bring it to live onscreen.
The Characters
His cast is amazing; giving Whoopi Goldberg a chance to shine, introducing a young and tough Oprah Winfrey and an even younger Lawrence Fishbourne, as well as giving action movie star Danny Glover a chance to portray a serious, sinister character who undergoes a life changing transformation. However, Ms. Goldberg steals the show with her portrayal of Celie and you can see the talent of Spielberg as a director in her onscreen performance.
Compare & Contrast
What better way to teach the novel than to compare it to the film using the downloadable power point and compare and contrast worksheet? Then, have students analyze the film and the choices Spielberg made as a director when it came to what to leave in and what to take out. Want to have even more fun? Take two days to watch one of his blockbusters and compare that film to The Color Purple, so your students can see how talented a director Spielberg truly is!
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Maya Stelas Illustration
Maya Empire for Kids
Stelas, the Stone Trees
A Maya stela is a huge stone slab with Maya glyphs and drawings on it. Each told a story. They were placed where the people could see them. It took time and effort to carve a story in rock, so only really important stories were told on a stela. Some historians refer to these ancient stone structures as stone trees.
Stelas have told archaeologists a great deal about the ancient Maya. Archaeologists cannot read all of the Maya glyphs, but they can read quite a few, and can piece together most of the story on each stela they have found.
Virtual Maya Stela of Today's Date (Have ancient artists chip one for you)
Mayas for Kids
Stela News - lesson plan
Interactive: Mayas Q&A
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Cultural Literacy AP Literature. 1- Achilles’ Heel This term is from Greek Mythology. According to myth, when Achilles was a baby, his mother dipped.
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Presentation on theme: "Cultural Literacy AP Literature. 1- Achilles’ Heel This term is from Greek Mythology. According to myth, when Achilles was a baby, his mother dipped."— Presentation transcript:
1 Cultural Literacy AP Literature
2 1- Achilles’ Heel This term is from Greek Mythology. According to myth, when Achilles was a baby, his mother dipped him in the River Styx because the waters from this river gave immortality to humans. His mother held him by his heel, so that was the only place on his body not touched by the water. Achilles’ heel was his one area of vulnerability. Eventually, Achilles was killed during the Trojan War when a poisoned arrow struck his heel. The term has come to refer to a person’s area of particular vulnerability. Example: Her inability to resist rich desserts was her Achilles’ heel, keeping her from losing the ten pounds she wanted to lose.
3 2- Pound of Flesh This phrase comes from Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. In this play, Shylock, a moneylender, agrees to finance a fleet of ships for a young merchant, Antonio. In the contract, Shylock demands a pound of Antonio’s flesh as payment should anything happen to the ships. When the ships are lost at sea, Shylock insists that he must have a pound of flesh, as the contract demanded. This phrase is used to describe someone’s insistence on being repaid, even if the repayment will destroy or harm the debtor. Example: “Sure, that initial low rate for a credit card is tempting for a college freshman, but eventually, the company will want their pound of flesh when you get over your head in debt.”
4 “We don’t read and write poetry because it’s cute. We read and write poetry because we are members of the human race. And the human race is filled with passion. And medicine, law, business, engineering; these are noble pursuits and necessary to sustain life. But poetry, beauty, romance, love– these are what we stay alive for.” ~Robin Williams as John Keating in Dead Poets Society 1) Copy the quotation (add to #4 in your notebook) 2) Summarize or paraphrase Williams / Keating’s point. 3) Explain what the quotation is saying about life. Add to Quote Response (#4)
5 3- Sacred Cow In Hinduism, cows are considered to be sacred; thus, cows are not to be harmed, and certainly not killed for food. If a cow wanders into a shop, the merchant can only try to lure it out with food; he is not allowed to interfere with it by prodding or poking, even if it is breaking everything in his shop. The idiom “Sacred Cow” refers to something that cannot be interfered with or harmed in any way. Example: When budget cuts are called for because the company is losing money, employees know not to suggest abandoning the annual company picnic. That event is a sacred cow as far as the chairman of the board is concerned.
6 4- Crossing the Rubicon After defeating the Gauls in the Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar was ordered home by his enemies in the Senate, so he traveled south toward Italy. The Rubicon was the river forming the northern boundary of Italy. By Roman law, a general was forbidden from crossing into Italy with any army. Nevertheless, Caesar led his army across the river, making civil war inevitable. After Caesar crossed the Rubicon, there was no turning back for him and his troops. To cross the Rubicon is to take an irreversible step, often involving some danger. Example: When I told my boss exactly what I thought of her, I knew I had crossed the Rubicon and would soon be seeking employment elsewhere. Add to#5, Cultural Literacy
7 5- Pearls Before Swine In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus admonished his followers to “cast not your pearls before swine.” That is, his followers were to deliver their message to those who would appreciate it, not to those incapable of appreciating something of value. Swine, or pigs, would be unable to appreciate pearls if the jewels were given to them. To “cast one’s pearls before swine” is to offer something precious to someone, or a group of people, unable to appreciate the value of what they are being given. Example: I gave my sister a rare, expensive first edition of To Kill a Mockingbird, and she simply said, “I’ve already read that book.” I realized I was casting my pearls before swine.
8 6- Once in a Blue Moon A “blue moon” is a second full moon within the same calendar month, a phenomenon that occurs approximately every three years. It is thought that calendar makers traditionally pictured the first full moon in red and a second full moon in the same month in blue. This phrase describes something that occurs very rarely. Example: I almost always turn in my homework on time, but once in a blue moon I get lazy and decide to take the consequences of skipping an assignment. #5
9 7- Mrs. Grundy In Speed the Plough, a 1798 play by Thomas Morton, Mrs. Grundy is a character who never appears on stage. However, other characters frequently ask, “What would Mrs. Grundy say?” Mrs. Grundy is a narrow-minded, conventional, prudish person. The word “Grundyism” and the phrase “Mrs. Grundy” refer to such an attitude of narrow- minded prudishness. Examples: My mother said, “At the risk of being a Mrs. Grundy, I really don’t think you should go out in public in that outfit.
10 8- Crocodile Tears Crocodiles were once thought to shed large tears before devouring their prey. This belief, which dates to ancient times, comes from the fact that crocodiles have small ducts in the corner of their eyes which release “tears” when the crocodile opens its jaw wide. Obviously, a cold- blooded reptile has no real feelings of sympathy for its prey. To shed crocodile tears is to show false sympathy for someone. Example: Although Judy shed crocodile tears for Maria when Maria was passed over for the promotion, it was apparent that Maria’s loss was seen by Judy as an opportunity to advance her own position in the company.
11 9- Sirens In Greek mythology, Sirens were sea creatures who lured sailors to their deaths on the rocky shores by singing a beautiful, irresistible song. They are usually depicted as women, or as half- woman, half bird. “Sirens” can refer to anything that tempts a person away from safety and toward a destructive path. A “siren song” is the temptation used to lure a person. Example: I had intended to stay home and study for finals, but the siren song of my friends describing all the fun we could have at the lake was too much for me to resist.
12 10- Read the Riot Act Under English Common Law, an unruly crowd had to be read the Riot Act before action could be taken, to force them to disperse. To “read the riot act” is to issue a stern warning that if unacceptable behavior does not cease, severe consequences will follow. Example: After asking us to be quiet several times, my father stormed upstairs and read us the riot act. After this, we knew it was really time to go to sleep.
13 11- Thirty Pieces of Silver / Betrayed with a Kiss In the Bible, Judas Iscariot was the disciple who agreed to betray Jesus to the authorities in exchange for payment. The thirty pieces of silver were the price of Judas’ betrayal. The way Judas identified Jesus for the authorities was to approach Jesus and greet him with a kiss of identification. “Thirty pieces of silver” refers to payment received for an act of treachery. “Betrayed with a kiss” refers to a supposed friend’s treachery. Examples: When the city council member abruptly changed his vote to support the wealthy developer’s controversial project, some of his colleagues muttered that he undoubtedly would receive thirty pieces of silver from the developer.
14 12- Gordian Knot According to legend, Gordius was a Greek king. He tied an extremely complex knot, and an oracle prophesied that whoever untied it would rule all of Asia. Alexander the Great “untied” the knot simply by cutting through it with his sword. A “Gordian knot” is any extremely complex problem, and “cutting the Gordian knot” refers to solving such a problem in a quick, decisive manner. Example: Each year, school counselors face the Gordian knot of scheduling classes so that teachers will have reasonable class sizes and students will have the opportunity to take the classes they need.
15 13- Ivory Tower A French poet, Alfred de Vigny, was said to have shut himself in an ivory tower so that he could compose his poems. Furthermore “ivory towers” are mentioned in various 18 th -century fairy tales. The term thus refers to a beautiful, unreachable place. It has come to have negative connotations of being out of touch with reality. A person who is secluded or protected from the real world and thus out of touch with reality is said to be residing in an “ivory tower.” Example: The engineers feared that the leaders of the company, sitting in their ivory tower, did not understand why the people in the field needed increased resources to insure the new bridge truly would be safe.
16 14- All that Glitters is not Gold This is a proverb derived from a Latin translation of Aristotle. The proverb read, “Do not hold as gold all that shines as gold.” In other words, just because something looks like gold, one should not assume that it actually is gold. The message of the proverb is that something which appears valuable on the outside, may in fact be less than valuable. Appearances can be deceptive. Example: When I expressed envy for the superstar who seemed to have everything, my friend simply said, “Remember, all that glitters…”
17 15- Sound and Fury In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, when Macbeth is informed that his wife has died, he speaks of the inevitability of death: Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. The phrase “sound and fury” refers to a great, tumultuous, and passionate uproar that actually is unimportant or meaningless. Example: The “Y2K” hysteria leading up to the turn of the millennium turned out to be just so much sound and fury.
18 Quiz Coming Soon! Make sure you review the following terms: 1. Achilles’ Heel 2. Pound of Flesh 3. Sacred Cow 4. Crossing the Rubicon 5. Pearls Before Swine 6. Once in a Blue Moon 7. Mrs. Grundy 8. Crocodile Tears 9. Sirens 10. Read the Riot Act 11. Thirty Pieces of Silver / Betrayed with a Kiss 12. Gordian Knot 13. Ivory Tower 14. All that Glitters is not Gold 15. Sound and Fury
19 Allusions of the week Add this to #3in your notebook
20 Derivatives practice– please get a copy of a root dictionary from the front of the room and add to your vocabulary list
21 Take a moment to review your vocabulary words for the week Label your paper Root Word Quiz #8
22 We need to start your Lord of the Flies essay assessment immediately The only things you may have on your desk are: a pencil or blue/black ink pen, a couple sheets of paper, notes from class, and your Lord of the Flies book You will only have the time available in this class period– I will not allow you to stay late or come back later to finish this
23 Please copy the vocabulary roots for the week. Label this paper #20 in your notebook. 1) ACER, ACID, ACRI (bitter, sour, sharp) 2) CIDE (kill) 3) CISE (cut) 4) LOC (place) 5) PAN (all) 6) PARA (beside, alongside) 7) PUNCT (point, dot) 8) SAT, SATIS (enough) 9) VAL, VALE (strength, worth) 10) VIC, VICIS (change, substitute, deputy)
24 Add to #3 in your notebook: Your Quiz over this has been moved until after Fall Break -I’m planning for Wednesda y Oct 16th
26 Create a new section in your notebook for Cultural Literacy. It will be #6 in your notebook.
27 Allusions of the week Add this to #___ in your notebook.
28 Add to #6 in your notebook.
31 Allusions of the week Add this to #___ in your notebook.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mass wasting in coastal Alaska
Colluvium is a general name for loose, unconsolidated sediments that have been deposited at the base of hillslopes by either rainwash, sheetwash, slow continuous downslope creep, or a variable combination of these processes. Colluvium is typically composed of a heterogeneous range of rock types and sediments ranging from silt to rock fragments of various sizes. This term is also used to specifically refer to sediment deposited at the base of a hillslope by unconcentrated surface runoff or sheet erosion.
Colluviation refers to the buildup of colluvium at the base of a hillslope.[1][2] Colluvium is typically loosely consolidated angular material located at the base of a steep hill slope or cliff. Colluvium accumulates as gently sloping aprons or fans, either at the base of or within gullies and hollows within hillslopes. These accumulations of colluvium can be several meters in thickness and often contain buried soils (paleosols), crude bedding, and cut and fill sequences.[citation needed]
This talus accumulation is an example of colluvium
Thick accumulations of colluvium may preserve a rich record of long term paleoclimatic change based on the paleosols and the remains of plants and animals, invertebrate and vertebrates that they often contain.[2] These fossils indicate previous geologic and environmental settings. Thick accumulations of colluvium often contain well-preserved and sometimes deeply buried archaeological deposits as excavated at the Cherokee Sewer Site, Cherokee County, Iowa, and the Koster Site, Greene County, Illinois.[3][4] Colluvium can also be rocks that have been transported downward from glaciers and so can indicate past stages of cooler and/or wetter weather. Deposits of detrital colluvium can reveal the soil composition and signify processes of chemical weathering.
Colluvium vs alluvium[edit]
The definitions of colluvium and alluvium are interdependent and reliant on one another. Distinctions between the two are important in order to properly define the geomorphic processes that have occurred in a specific geological setting. Alluvium is sand, clay, or other similar detrital material deposited by running water.[5] The distinction between colluvium and alluvium relates to the involvement of running water. Alluvium specifically refers to the geomorphic processes involved with flowing water and so alluvium is generally fine-grained clay and silt material that has the capacity to be entrained in water currents and eventually deposited. For these same reasons, alluvium is also generally well sorted material while colluvium is not.
See also[edit]
The rate of the natural processes of erosion and colluvium accumulation are increased by human induced removal of native vegetation such as on Koh Tao Island in Thailand.
5. ^ "colluvium | rock detritus and soil accumulated at the foot of a slope". Retrieved 2015-12-13.
External links[edit]
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History of Glastonbury
In 1636, thirty families from Pyaug (Wethersfield) were settled in Naubuc Farms, a tract of land belonging to Wethersfield on the eastern bank of the Connecticut River bought from the Native American Chief, Sowheag, for 12 yards of trading cloth. The Native Americans of Glastonbury were members of Algonkian-speaking tribes. They lived in clans of approximately100 individuals and each group was ruled by a sachem or chief. Clans took names from features of the land where they were centered. Naubucs lived in the plains to the east, the flat area at the north end of town. Nayaugs lived near the Noisy Water at the mouth of Roaring Brook. Wongonks lived at the Bend in the River behind today’s Town Hall, where the Connecticut River turned in the 1600s. The tribes were peaceful and farmed the land. In the summer, clans lived along the river in longhouses. In winter, they moved to the hills and lived in south- or west-facing caves. In 1672, Wethersfield and Hartford were granted permission by the General Court to extend the boundary line of Naubuc Farms 5 miles to the East, purchasing the land from the natives, forming Eastbury.
By 1690, residents of Naubuc Farms had gained permission from the General Court to become a separate town and, in 1693, Glassenbury came into existence. The ties have not been completely broken: the oldest continuously operating ferry in the United States still runs between South Glastonbury and Rocky Hill, also then a part of Wethersfield, as it did as far back as 1655.
During the Revolution, Glassenbury was home to George Stocking’s gunpowder factory, one of few gunpowder factories supplying George Washington’s troops. After his death in an explosion his wife Eunice continued operating the mill until the end of the war. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Glastenbury was a shipbuilding town, located between the Connecticut River, oak forests and reliable waterpower. The three main shipyards launched a total of 273 ships of record, for use in the West Indies Trade and coastal rivers of North America. The needs of these shipyards were filled by sawmills, charcoal kilns, and forges that created ship’s anchors as large as 3900 pounds. During this time approximately 1785 the Town changed its name to Glastenbury. It would change one final time in 1870 when the Town voted and took the name of Glastonbury. There are only two towns named Glastonbury, Glastonbury England and Glastonbury U.S.A.
As shipbuilding was ending, the early industrial beginning continued. The J.B. Williams Soap Factory started in 1840 in James B. Williams’ drugstore in Manchester, where he experimented with chemical formulas for shaving soap. When he had produced a formula that satisfied him, he moved his business to Glastenbury. Two years later, he was joined by his brother, William Stuart Williams. They formed what is believed to be the first commercial soap manufacturing business in the world. Although shaving soap was their first product, they also made ink and shoe and stove blacking. Products made by the J.B.Williams Company included Aqua Velva and Williams ‘Lectric Shave. Over time, J.B. Williams expanded to Montreal (around 1922), England, and Argentina. When the business was sold in 1957, ten former employees organized Glastonbury Toiletries and continued operation into the 1970’s. Remaining parts of the complex are currently the Soap Factory Condominiums and the Glastonbury Board of Education office.
During the World Wars, Glastonbury factories supplied leather and woolen goods to the military of Belgium, France, Great Britain, Italy, and the United States. Bert Harriman, founder of Harriman Motors, established the first factory in Connecticut built specifically for the manufacture of airplanes. The building still stands on Main Street in South Glastonbury. Our town has also been home to feldspar mines and mills, granite quarries, cotton mills, paper mills, and the first producer of Britania Ware, or German Silver, in the United States.
Also an agricultural town, J.H. Hale Orchards began in Glastenbury in 1866 when John Howard Hale and his brother, George, recognized that their grandfather’s seven peach trees did not suffer from the same difficulties other peach trees did in northern climates. The brothers developed those seven trees into orchards in Glastonbury, as well as Seymour, Connecticut. Known as the Peach King, a special spur of the local trolley stopped at the Hale packing house each evening, and by morning, Hale peaches were sold in New York City and across the country, under the slogan, “UC Top, UC all.” The Hale brothers were the first to grade their fruit. George married and moved to Georgia to expand the peach industry. By 1915, there were 1200 acres in two states.
Although John Howard never went beyond grade school, he understood the importance of a good education. He helped to develop the Glastonbury Grange, the Connecticut State Grange, and is one of the founding fathers of Storrs Agricultural College, now the University of Connecticut.
In 1948, the Saglio Brothers formed Arbor Acres and produced a chicken that was awarded the title “Chicken of Tomorrow” by A&P Food Stores. They were among the first to use genetic engineering to develop chickens that were meatier, matured more quickly, and laid more eggs. By 1958, Arbor Acres had gone world wide: 50% of all chickens consumed in the world were from Arbor Acres breeding stock.
Progressive from early in her history, Glassenbury ended importation of new slaves in the 1780’s, ten years before slavery became illegal in the State of Connecticut. Her first library was founded in 1803. Her first hospital was formed shortly after the Revolution to combat and treat small pox.
During the Revolutionary War, part of the sophomore and junior classes of Yale University was moved to homes in Glassenbury, in case of a lack of food in the city, or attack on New Haven Harbor. Noah Webster was one of the students who were moved to town. Later, he taught here in one of Glassenbury’s 10 one room school houses.
The Smith Sisters, staunch abolitionists and supports of the Women’s Suffrage Movement, from Glastonbury stimulated change in Connecticut and the nation. The five Smith sisters and their parents, Zephaniah Hollister Smith (1759-1836) and Hannah Hadassah Hickok Smith (1767-1850), were an extraordinary and prosperous Glastonbury family. They lived at 1625 Main Street, and owned land that extended to the Connecticut River. Today the home is designated a National Landmark by the Dept. of Interior of U.S. government.
The five Smith sisters were:
Hancy Zephina (1787-1871), who was mechanical and built her own boat, which she sailed on the Connecticut River. She also invented a device for shoeing cattle that was used by local blacksmiths. Her name was derived from a combination of Hannah and Zephaniah.
Cyrinthia Sacretia (1788-1864), who was skilled in needlework and who was a talented horticulturalist. She raised fruit trees, grapes, and strawberries, developing her own varieties and grafting her own apple trees. Her greenhouse stood behind the Smith home on Main Street. Her name reflected her parents’ love of classic Latin and Greek literature.
Laurilla Aleroyia (1785-1857), was an artist. The Victorian cottage across the street from the Smith home was built as her art studio. She painted decorative items and portraits that have sadly been lost, but many of her watercolor painting still exist and can be seen at the Historical Society’s Museum on the Green. Because of her detailed images, we know how the houses on Main Street looked in her lifetime. In fact, Laurilla’s works have been used as references by Glastonbury residents when restoring their mid-nineteenth-century homes. The only Smith sister to have sought some degree of independence, Laurilla taught French at Emma Willard’s boarding school for girls in Troy, New York, and later taught at Catherine Beecher’s Hartford Female Academy.
Julia Evelina (1792-1886), who was a scholar of Greek, Latin, and Hebrew, taught also at the Emma Willard school. A member of the religious sect known as Millerism, she, along with her sister Abby and its other followers, believed that the world would come to an end in 1843 or 1844. When it did not, Julia went to work to produce five literal translations of the Bible from Hebrew, Latin, and Greek to find out why those predictions had not been sound. She published her translation of the bible at her own expense in the 1870s to prove the intellectual capacity of women.
Abby Hadassah (1797-1878), who was named for her grandmother Abigail and her mother, Hannah Hadassah. Considered the quietest of the sisters, she became a spokeswoman for women’s suffrage when she was in her seventies.
Intelligent and resourceful, each of the members of the Smith family left their mark on the community. A graduate of Yale, Zephaniah Smith, the eldest son of Isaac Smith and Ruth Hollister, was born in East Glastonbury and was educated to be a minister. He left the ministry to become a merchant for a brief time, then, he studied and practiced law, and was a distinguished local legislator. He held various town government jobs throughout his life and, with the help of his wife and daughters, ran their farm.
In 1872, when Julia was 80, and Abby, 75, a problem arose in Glastonbury that would bring the two remaining Smith sisters national attention. When the Town of Glastonbury raised only the taxes of the Smith sisters and two widows and not those of a single male in town, Julia and Abby refused to pay the taxes and objected to the discrimination and what, to them, was a clear case of taxation without representation.
In fact, the female members of the Smith family had been politically powerless since the death of Zephaniah on February 1, 1836, as only white males, who were citizens, had the right to vote in the United States at this time. Inspired by the Women’s Suffrage Movement, Julia and Abby became ever more determined to challenge the town regarding their taxes.
But their repeated appeals to town officials to be treated as equal to men by the law made no difference. The town confiscated initially seven of Julia’s and Abby’s eight cows and, then, some of their land, eventually taking additional cows and stock certificates to sell to cover their tax debt. The sisters consulted lawyers and after a three-year legal battle, documented in Julia’s book published in 1877, Abby Smith and Her Cows, it was proved that the town had acted illegally in confiscating their land, but not their property. The Smith sister’s struggle drew attention and support from the press and from suffragists throughout the country because they chose to stand up for what they believed.
Julia was the last surviving sister and the only sister to marry, less than a year after the death of Abby. In 1879, at the age of 87, she married Judge Amos Parker from New Hampshire. It appears to not have been a happy marriage, for when Julia died seven years after her marriage, she left a note asking to be buried next to her sisters and requesting that only her maiden name be engraved on her gravestone.
Glastonbury’s involvement during the Civil War was more than military. Before the battles began, forty women, including Hannah Hickok Smith and her five daughters, signed a petition denouncing slavery. On February 5, 1840, it was presented to Congress by the former president, John Quincy Adams, and is believed to be the first anti-slavery petition brought before Congress.
Men from Glastonbury served in the Connecticut 1st Cavalry Unit. Connecticut’s only cavalry unit, it accompanied General Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865 to Appomattox Court House where Confederate General Robert E. Lee signed the surrender agreement that led to the end of the Civil War. This unit was the only cavalry unit present at the laying of the cornerstone of the Gettysburg Monument on July 4, 1865.
Glastonbury’s industries supported the Union’s war effort. At Hopewell Mills, cloth was produced for Union troop uniforms. In Curtisville, the Connecticut Arms & Manufacturing Co. produced pistols and rifles used by the Grand Army of the Potomac.
Another important Glastonbury resident was Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy under Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, and Father of the Modern Navy. In the troubled war years, Abraham Lincoln and Gideon Welles would not always agree. But integrity bred respect, and friendship soon followed. As the War for the Union became, as well, a war for emancipation, Welles, with Seward, would be the first of his advisors to whom the President would broach his plan for emancipation by presidential proclamation. And it was to Gideon and Mary Jane Welles that the Lincolns would turn in times of tragedy.
That now seems inevitable. Beginning as small-town politicians, each had grown through a struggle with ideas and events, and through a long and often-frustrating apprenticeship, to become a leader with the insight and patience necessary to help guide the nation through its darkest hour. Writing in 1851, Welles had characterized statesmen as those whose “great minds distinguished themselves on great occasions”--and in Abraham Lincoln and Gideon Welles they did.
Glastonbury is a town which is always changing and growing. It has participated in all the great movements of American history and continues to make a mark today. This has been just a short synopsis of Glastonbury’s history and the men and women who built it, continuing to make it a source of inspiration. To learn more about Glastonbury visit the Museum on the Hubbard Green M, T, Thurs. 9am-4pm, the 3rd Sunday of the month from 1-4pm or visit the Historical Society of Glastonbury’s website at: www.hsgct.org.
(History of Glastonbury provided by the Historical Society of Glastonbury)
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Maori Bird Kite
• Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
• Multiple Lesson Periods
• Directions
1. Kites may have originated in the South Sea Islands where people used them to fish. In China, kites lifted people for military purposes. The Maori people of New Zealand used kites to celebrate their belief that birds could carry messages between people and the gods. Their god Rehua is depicted as a bird, and is considered to be the ancestor of all kites. Invite students to conduct an exploration of the Maori culture, as well as the use of kites in their culture. Student research will be used to create an original kite.
2. Construction of kites begins with the spine and spar. With Crayola® School Glue, students attach the edges of two or more sheets of newspaper to create one large sheet. You can also use craft paper. Use a 30-inch (76 cm) long dowel as the vertical spine of your kite. Place a second, somewhat shorter dowel over the spine, about one-third of the way down. This horizontal dowel is called the spar. Use light, strong string to tie the pieces together. Glue the string and air-dry it.
3. An adult will cut a small notch in each end of student crossed dowels. Tie a loop in the end of a long string. Slide the string into the notch at the top of the crossed dowels and wrap it around the top of the dowel a few times. Pull the string snugly across the notch on one side of the spar and then through the bottom notch of the spine. Make a loop. Wrap the string around the bottom of the spine a few times, and then bring it up to the other side of the spar. Place it snugly in the notch, and then return it to the top of the spine. Wrap the string around the top a few times. Glue the string at the ends of each dowel. The crossed dowels should lay flat and have a loop at both the top and the bottom.
4. Students place crossed dowels on the newspaper. With Crayola Erasable Colored Pencils, trace the outline of the kite, using the string as a guideline. Draw a second line 2 inches (5 cm) outside the outline. Use Crayola Scissors to cut out the kite on the outside line.
5. Students paint their selected birds. Cover art area with recycled newspaper. Sketch the flying bird on the kite with colored pencils. Use Crayola Tempera Paint and brushes to paint the bird. Air-dry completely.
6. Assemble the kite. Turn the painted bird over. Place the dowel frame on the back of the kite. Fold the extra newspaper over the string and glue it in place. Air-dry the glue before continuing.
7. Turn the kite over. Cut a string longer than the kite’s height. Tie this string to the loop at the top. Tie a small loop in the string, slightly above the point where the two dowels cross each other. This string is called the bridle of the kite. Then tie the bridle to the loop at the bottom.
8. Tie another string, for the tail, to the bottom loop of the kite. Tie small strips of tissue paper to the string. (Traditional Maori kites did not have tails, so this step can be omitted.) Tie kite string to the bridle, and it's ready to fly! While flying kites, remind students to adjust the spacing of the loop on the bridle and the length of the tail to increase the kite’s stability.
• Standards
• Adaptations
Possible classroom resources include: Kite Flying by Grace Lin; Kites: Magic Wishes That Fly Up to the Sky by Demi; The Kite Surprise by Bill & Katie Frederick
Encourage students to research the Maori culture and traditions. What popular movies were filmed in New Zealand? How accurately do these movies represent the Maori? What influence do the Maori have in New Zealand today?
Use a world map to locate New Zealand. What landforms are located in this country? Look for mud pools, volcanoes, glaciers, and other phenomena. Why are these islands such a popular tourist destination?
Research kites from various cultures? Create an original kite from each culture that you investigate. How does your kite reflect the culture?
Windsocks are related to kites. Japan's windsocks are often made in the shape of car, which signify good luck in the Japanese culture. Create a fish-shaped windsock and hang it outside your classroom for good luck!
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Pre-K Grade 3
Pinocchio - Children's Literature - Questions for Tests and Worksheets - Third Grade (Grade 3)
You can create printable tests and worksheets from these Grade 3 Pinocchio questions! Select one or more questions using the checkboxes above each question. Then click the add selected questions to a test button before moving to another page.
Grade 3 Pinocchio
Why was the wood piece so strange?
1. It could sing and dance.
2. It could talk and feel.
3. It had eyes and ears.
Grade 3 Pinocchio CCSS: CCRA.R.1, RL.3.1
Grade 3 Pinocchio CCSS: CCRA.R.1, CCRA.R.3, RL.3.1, RL.3.3
Grade 3 Pinocchio
What was Pinocchio most afraid of?
1. Fire
2. Lightning and thunder
3. Water
Grade 3 Pinocchio
What did the toymaker do with the wood?
1. He made a puppet.
2. He made a toy soldier.
3. He made a dancing doll.
Grade 3 Pinocchio
What was Pinocchio's first mischief?
1. He ran out of the room and scared the cat.
2. He spilled glue all over the table.
3. He yanked Gepetto's wig off of his head.
Grade 3 Pinocchio
To whom did Master Cherry give the wood?
1. Lampwick
2. Geppetto
3. the Fairy
Grade 3 Pinocchio
Who was Master Cherry?
1. The local carpenter
2. The local house maker
3. The local butcher
Grade 3 Pinocchio
How did Pinocchio burn off his feet?
1. He was sitting next to the brazier.
2. He was sitting next to the hot fireplace.
3. He was sitting next to the melting pot.
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Contemporaneous corroboration
From Conservapedia
This is the current revision of Contemporaneous corroboration as edited by CPalmer (Talk | contribs) at 16:24, 19 November 2008. This URL is a permanent link to this version of this page.
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Contemporaneous corroboration is an historical method used by historians to establish facts beyond their limited lifespan. It is used to locate, identify and examine testimony of primary source witnesses. It is similar to methods used by police and lawyers based upon Mosaic Law, "by the testimony of two witnesses a matter is established." Literally it means, "at the same time the story is told by multiple witness."
(It differs from "contiguous", or sequential events, and "consequential" or the accumulation of events).
In contemporaneous corroboration the researcher or investigator must put out of his mind any conclusions he may be aware of, so as not to color his judgement. For example, everyone knows the verdict of history as to who won World War II. Now if the investigator begins with the conclusionary premise: "How did this come about?", he is using the "reverse method", seeking out facts to support his conclusion, and perhaps overlooking evidence of enormous consequence. Under the "contemporaneous" method of investigation, the researcher is ignoring conclusions and seeking out the heart and soul of the matter that consequently led to conclusions.
The contemporaneous method seeks to "live the life" of the event, beginning at a point in time and moving forward. The reverse method, also sometimes known as "reexamining a verdict", begins with a conclusion and works backward. Historians call this a backward argument, or "arguing backwards". The danger under the reverse method is beginning with a conclusion, one often arrives at the same result.
Contemporaneous method was demonstrated and popularized several years ago with the PBS television documentary The Civil War, an achievement in that medium for using historical narrative and still photography. Instead of traditional recreations by actors and set designers, the text was carried forward by studied historians speaking in the present tense—narrating events 130 years prior. This may have sounded peculiar to the lay audience yet employed the exact terms, form and method historians use to gain the time depth perception lacking when "looking back at events" using the reverse method.
For years after the TV event, it became fashionable for cop shows, both SWG (Hollywood Screen Writers Guild) productions and Reality shows, to show "real time" investigators recreating events of homicides and discussing sequences using the contemporaneous method—in the present tense—about past events, ignoring any judgement or conclusion already obvious. And the methods' purpose is obvious, to gain a greater understanding of the contemporaneous event leading to the conclusion, not the conclusion itself.
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Daily Lessons for Teaching Libra
Buy the Libra Lesson Plans
Daily Lessons
Objective: One of the major challenges DeLillo faces in this novel is turning Lee Harvey Oswald into a relateable human being. He begins this process by dramatizing Oswald's ambling, unhappy youth in New York. The objective of this lesson is to examine the humanizing characteristics of DeLillo's Oswald.
1) 1. For class discussion: As a class, review the first chapter of the novel, In the Bronx, and make a list on the board of challenges and disadvantages that young Lee Oswald faces. What does he have to struggle against at a young age? Ask the class what personal details of Oswald's life the class knew before starting Libra. How does the knowledge that he grew up in such adversity change students view of him? Is it a positive of negative change?
2. Divide the class into several groups and assign each group a notorious historical figure: John Wilkes Booth, Timothy...
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This section contains 7,687 words
(approx. 26 pages at 300 words per page)
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Math Explains History: Simulation Captures Evolution of Ancient Societies
Mon, 09/23/2013 - 8:02pm
National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis
Mongol horsemen. Intense warfare is the evolutionary driver of large complex societies, according to a new mathematical model whose findings accurately match those of the historical record in the ancient world. (Image courtesy National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis)The question of how human societies evolve from small groups to the huge, anonymous and complex societies of today has been answered mathematically, accurately matching the historical record on the emergence of complex states in the ancient world.
Intense warfare is the evolutionary driver of large complex societies, according to new research from a trans-disciplinary team at the University of Connecticut, the University of Exeter in England, and the National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis (NIMBioS). The study appears this week as an open-access article in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
The study's cultural evolutionary model predicts where and when the largest-scale complex societies arose in human history.
Simulated within a realistic landscape of the Afro-Eurasian landmass during 1,500 BCE to 1,500 CE, the mathematical model was tested against the historical record. During the time period, horse-related military innovations, such as chariots and cavalry, dominated warfare within Afro-Eurasia. Geography also mattered, as nomads living in the Eurasian Steppe influenced nearby agrarian societies, thereby spreading intense forms of offensive warfare out from the steppe belt.
The study focuses on the interaction of ecology and geography as well as the spread of military innovations and predicts that selection for ultra-social institutions that allow for cooperation in huge groups of genetically unrelated individuals and large-scale complex states, is greater where warfare is more intense.
While existing theories on why there is so much variation in the ability of different human populations to construct viable states are usually formulated verbally, by contrast, the authors' work leads to sharply defined quantitative predictions, which can be tested empirically.
The model-predicted spread of large-scale societies was very similar to the observed one; the model was able to explain two-thirds of the variation in determining the rise of large-scale societies.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Hudson River
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HUDSON RIVER, or North River, one of the largest and noblest rivers of the United States, and the principal river of the State of New York, is formed by the confluence of two small streams which rise in the Adirondack mountains in Essex county. About the middle of Warren county the river is joined by another of nearly equal size, the Schroon, which also has its rise in Essex county. After receiving the Sacondaga river 10 miles further south, the Hudson flows irregularly in an easterly direction to Sandy Hill, after which it keeps a very straight course almost due south until it falls into New York Bay. At Troy it receives the Mohawk, whose volume of water is greater than its own, and at Kingston the Wallkill, but its other tributaries, though numerous, are unimportant. Its total length is about 300 miles, and the length of its course from Sandy Hill 190 miles. At Glen's Falls, near Sandy Hill, it makes a precipitous descent of 50 feet, whence there are various rapids of different velocities until it reaches Troy. It is tidal nearly up to Troy, and the fall from Albany, 6 miles below Troy, to the mouth of the river, a distance of 145 miles, is only 5 feet. By means of a lock and dam it is navigable to Waterford, a short distance above Troy, but large steamers do not proceed further up than Hudson, 29 miles below Albany, and 116 from the mouth of the river. A short distance below Albany the navigation has been obstructed by shifting sands, the point at which the difficulties are most formidable being the “overslaugh” at Castleton, but extensive operations have been for some time carried on in order to effect a permanent remedy for the obstructions. The breadth of the river at Albany is about 300 yards, and thence to Haverstraw, distant 34 miles from New York, it varies from 300 yards to 900 yards. From Haverstraw to Piermont it expands into Tappan Bay, with a length of 12 miles and a breadth of from 4 to 5, after which it narrows to a breadth of between 1 and 2 miles. The scenery of the river is for the most part varied and beautiful, generally picturesque, and in many places in the highest degree striking and magnificent. In the upper part the views though not tame are a little monotonous, the gently sloping hills, with the variegated colours of wood and cultivated land and the occasional occurrence of a town or village, repeating one another without any marked feature to break their regularity. Below Troy, for a considerable distance, the number of islands renders much care in navigation necessary. Thirty miles from Troy noble views begin to be obtained of the Catskill mountains, towering up on the west bank, the nearest eminence at the distance of about 7 miles. Forty-six miles below Catskill is the large and flourishing city of Poughkeepsie, and 14 miles further down the prosperous city of Newburgh, a short distance below which, at the favourite summer resort of Cornwall Landing, the river enters the Highlands, passing between a series of hills whose frequently precipitous sides rise often abruptly from the water's edge. The views in this part of the river are of a character in some respects unparalleled, and at several points they have an impressiveness and surprising grandeur rarely equalled. The distance through which the river traverses this mountain scenery is about 16 miles, and about 10 miles after it is entered West Point is reached, a favourite landing place of tourists, the seat of the United States military academy, and historically interesting on account of Fort Putnam, now in ruins, built during the war of American independence, at which time a chain was stretched across the river to prevent the passage of British ships. After passing the pretty town of Peekskill the river widens into Haverstraw Bay, at the extremity of which is the headland of Crotou Point. Below is the wider expanse of Tappan Bay, upon which stands Tarrytown, famous both historically and from its connexion with Washington Irving, whose cottage of Sunnyside is in the vicinity. At Piermont, where the bay ends, the range named the Palisades rises picturesquely from the water to the height of between 300 and 500 feet, extending along the west bank for about 20 miles, the left bank being level and dotted with hamlets and villas. At the mouth of the river on the west bank are Hoboken and Jersey city, and on the east bank New York city.
By the Erie canal the river is connected with Lake Erie, by the Champlain canal with Lake Champlain, and by the Delaware canal with the Delaware river; and its commercial importance as a means of traffic is not excelled by that of any other river in the world. It was on the Hudson that Fulton, the inventor of steam navigation, made his first successful experiment. The Hudson River Railway skirts the east bank of the river from New York to Troy, whence it bends eastward on its way to Lake Champlain. On the west bank a railway is to run from Jersey City to Newburg, and branch lines from various centres touch both banks at several points. The Hudson has some valuable fisheries, the principal fish being bass, shad, and sturgeon. The attempts to stock it with salmon have not been very successful. Though Verrazzani in 1524 proceeded up the river Hudson a short distance in a boat, the first to demonstrate its extent and importance was Henry Hudson, from whom it derives its name. He sailed above the mouth of the Mohawk in September 1609.
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Galveston longshoremen strike
March 12, 1920
On this day in 1920, approximately 1,600 dockworkers in Galveston went on strike as part of a nationwide walkout. The ensuing battle between organized labor and open-shop factions stretched on for months. The Mallory and Morgan steamship lines used scab workers to combat the strikers, who were members of the International Longshoremen’s Association (ILA). The company employed white scabs to replace black ILA locals and black scabs to replace white ILA workers to inflame racial tensions. In an effort to prevent violence, Governor William P. Hobby deployed a detachment of Texas Rangers, and the Mallory company, fearful of conflict, suspended its Galveston operations. In June the governor declared martial law and dispatched 1,000 national guard troops. Eventually negotiations between the city of Galveston and the state government led to the withdrawal of the national guard, and Galveston ILA locals finally resumed work between December 1920 and July 1921, but with a smaller pay increase than they had sought. Ultimately, the dispute was a factor that helped foster antilabor attitudes among business and political entities in the state.
Rejected portrait of LBJ draws record crowd to Snyder museum
March 12, 1967
Falvel given command of Flash
March 12, 1836
On this day in 1836, Luke A. Falvel was commissioned captain of the Flash. On the same day, the crew was sworn in. The vessel was a privateer fitted out for service in the Texas Revolution. Privateers, private ships carrying letters of marque from the Republic of Texas, were used to supplement the small Texas Navy. The Flash was ordered to proceed to the Brazos River to pick up victims of the Runaway Scrape, take them to Morgan's Point, and defend that place in case of a Mexican attack. The ship sailed on several more missions before it ran aground and was lost in May 1837.
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Know these essential literary terms?
[choo] /tʃu/
verb (used with object)
to crush or grind with the teeth; masticate.
The faulty paper feeder chewed the letters up.
to make by or as if by chewing:
The puppy chewed a hole in my slipper.
He chewed the problem over in his mind.
verb (used without object)
to perform the act of crushing or grinding with the teeth.
Informal. to chew tobacco.
to meditate.
an act or instance of chewing.
something chewed or intended for chewing:
a chew of tobacco; taffy chews.
Verb phrases
chew out, Slang. to scold harshly:
The sergeant chewed out the recruits.
They liked to sit around chewing the fat.
Also, chew the rag.
Related forms
chewer, noun
unchewed, adjective
well-chewed, adjective
Can be confused
chews, choose. Unabridged
Cite This Source
British Dictionary definitions for chew the fat
to bite repeatedly: she chewed her nails anxiously
(intransitive) to use chewing tobacco
(slang) chew the fat, chew the rag
1. to argue over a point
2. to talk idly; gossip
the act of chewing
something that is chewed: a chew of tobacco
Derived Forms
chewable, adjective
chewer, noun
Word Origin
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
Cite This Source
Word Origin and History for chew the fat
Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
Cite This Source
Slang definitions & phrases for chew the fat
chew the fat
verb phrase
To converse, esp in a relaxed and reminiscent way •In earlier senses the terms meant ''to complain; wrangle'': You want a press conference, or do you want to chew the fat? (1900s+)
: He had big chew in his cheek (1920s+)
1. To chew tobacco (1930s+)
2. To eat (1890+)
3. (also chew over) To talk; converse; discuss; jaw: We got together to chew about the election/ Drop up and chew it over (1890s+)
Copyright (C) 2007 by HarperCollins Publishers.
Cite This Source
Idioms and Phrases with chew the fat
chew the fat
Also, chew the rag. Chat in a friendly, leisurely way, as in Let's get together for coffee and chew the fat, or John and Dave spend hours just chewing the rag. Before the 1880s in Britain, chew the fat meant “to grumble or complain,” and chew the rag also has been used in this way. Today both expressions are largely synonyms for a friendly talk or gossip session. Why this idiom uses fat and rag is not known, but some speculate that fat refers to juicy items of gossip and rag to ladies' sewing circles and the cloth they worked on while chatting.
The American Heritage® Idioms Dictionary
Cite This Source
Word of the Day
Difficulty index for chew
Most English speakers likely know this word
Word Value for chew
Scrabble Words With Friends
Nearby words for chew the fat
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Tests Show Radiation Causes Abnormal Fear
Grad Student's Experiments Prove Unusual Panic Follows Exposure
In the event of atomic war, what would be the reaction of irradiated combat personnel?
From the work of Ogden R. Lindsley, student at the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, has come the first partial answer to this question. The answer also represents the first stop towards a new, behavioral test for radiation sickness.
In experiments on dogs, Lindsley has found that two hours after radiation the animals exhibit marked anxiety and fear, and are often unable to perform their accustomed tasks.
If the situation is the same for humans as present evidence indicates a soldier irradiated from the blast of an atom bomb or artillery shall, or contaminated by the radioactive dust scattered by the blast, would panic or "freeze" in a fearful battle-ground situation.
He would appear physiologically normal in all respects. His perception would remained unchanged. But he would be able to defend himself poorly, if at all.
Lindsley's findings are not all gloomy, however. The same fear that can be disastrous on the battlefield can also give the first indication of radiation sickness, days in advance of chemical tests and clinical symptoms.
With prompt identification and immediate treatment, the way may be open to the saving of thousands of lives.
Lindsley, who is a student in the Department of Experimental Psychology, carried on his experiments at the Atomic Energy Commission laboratories, directed by Dr. W. W. Jetter of the Boston University Medical School. His basic tool in these experiments was a device known as the "Skinner Box." This is a small, cubby-hole sort of enclosure, in which the dog is placed. Inside the box are a feeding trough, a metal lever, and several electrical appliances, such as lights, buzzers, and horns that can be regulated from the outside. When the box is closed, it provides a perfectly controlled environment, by which the experimenter can test a particular segment of the dog's behavior.
Lindsley's method in these experiments was an adaptation of the technique developed by B. F. Skinner, professor of Psychology, and inventor of the "Box" which bears his name. Through the study of pigeons and rats, Skinner and other experimental psychologists, have discovered means for controlling an animal's behavior, and certain laws to which that behavior conforms. It was found that an animal, who has to perform a certain task for his food will work at a highly constant pace, when he is rewarded with food at an arbitrary, erratic rate.
Skinner Box
Lindsley placed his dogs in the Skinner Box, and taught them to press the lever in order to get food. He rewarded them intermittently, however. A dog would sometimes obtain food for one or two lever presses; other times, it would take a few hundred to do the trick.
By such a procedure, Lindsley got his dogs to work at a constant rate, each pressing the lever an average of over 3,000 times an hour. The next step was to break up the hour a day during which each dog worked into parts where the dog would sometimes not get paid off, no matter how much pressing he did on the lever. For the first 15 minutes, everything continued as before--the dog worked at a constant rate, and was rewarded at erratic intervals. Then came 10 minutes where the animal would not get paid off at all. During these 10 minutes, a light in the box flashed. All the dogs eventually learned that the light was a signal that work would go unrewarded. Thus, the dogs immediately ceased pressing the lever when the light went on. Next came another 15-minute period of constant response from the dog, provoked by the arbitrary reward schedule. Following this was five minutes during which a buzzer sounded. The dogs would be fed as before if they continued to work. The dogs were not initially frightened by the buzzer, and worked while it operated. Later during the last five seconds of the buzzing, however, an extremely loud horn was turned on. Not one dog worked during the horn, even though they could get food by pressing the lever while the horn was blaring. The sounding of the horn was a fear stimulus to the dogs.
In subsequent work periods, the majority of the dogs did not work during the buzzer, which, by association with the horn, had become a learned fear stimulus.
Stabilized Behavior
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Definitions for domedoʊm
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word dome
Random House Webster's College Dictionary
domedoʊm(n.; v.)domed, dom•ing.
1. (n.)a vault, having a circular plan and usu. in the form of a portion of a sphere, so constructed as to exert an equal thrust in all directions. a domical roof or ceiling. a polygonal vault, ceiling, or roof.
Category: Architecture
2. Crystall. a form having planes that intersect the vertical axis and are parallel to one of the lateral axes.
Category: Crystallography
3. Geol. a large-scale circular structural feature with flanks that slope gradually away from the center.
Category: Geology
Category: Railroads
5. a mountain peak having a rounded summit.
Category: Geology
6. Slang. a person's head.
Category: Status (usage)
7. (v.t.)to cover with or as if with a dome.
8. to shape like a dome.
9. (v.i.)to rise or swell as a dome.
Origin of dome:
1505–15; < MF dome < It duomo < ML domus (Deī) house (of God), church
Princeton's WordNet
1. dome(noun)
a concave shape whose distinguishing characteristic is that the concavity faces downward
2. attic, bean, bonce, noodle, noggin, dome(noun)
informal terms for a human head
3. dome, domed stadium, covered stadium(noun)
a stadium that has a roof
4. dome(noun)
a hemispherical roof
Kernerman English Learner's Dictionary
1. dome(noun)ʊm
a rounded roof
the mosque's dome
1. dome(Noun)
A common structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere, a cupola.
2. dome(Noun)
Anything shaped like an upset bowl, often used as a cover, e.g. a cake dome.
3. dome(Noun)
head (including the meaning 'oral sex')
4. Origin: From Latin doma. Compare French dôme.
Webster Dictionary
1. Dome(noun)
a building; a house; an edifice; -- used chiefly in poetry
2. Dome(noun)
a cupola formed on a large scale
3. Dome(noun)
4. Dome(noun)
5. Dome(noun)
decision; judgment; opinion; a court decision
1. Dome
A dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory. Corbel domes and true domes have been found in the ancient Middle East in modest buildings and tombs. The construction of the first technically advanced true domes began in the Roman Architectural Revolution, when they were frequently used by the Romans to shape large interior spaces of temples and public buildings, such as the Pantheon. This tradition continued unabated after the adoption of Christianity in the Byzantine religious and secular architecture, culminating in the revolutionary pendentive dome of the 6th-century church Hagia Sophia. Squinches, the technique of making a transition from a square shaped room to a circular dome, was most likely invented by the ancient Persians. The Sassanid Empire initiated the construction of the first large-scale domes in Persia, with such royal buildings as the Palace of Ardashir, Sarvestan and Ghal'eh Dokhtar. With the Muslim conquest of Greek-Roman Syria, the Byzantine architectural style became a major influence on Muslim societies. Indeed the use of domes as a feature of Islamic architecture has gotten its roots from Roman Greater-Syria.
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
1. dome
See spray dome.
Translations for dome
Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary
a roof shaped like half a ball
the dome of the cathedral.
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Pickering-Iazzi – Italian pioneer women
The need to recruit Italian women to colonize Africa after the “leggi razziali” required special strategies. These women were meant to bring to the colonies the idea of settlement and home. Very different from American pioneer women who had to face the unknown and many hardships, these women knew where they were going and most often the colonizers were treated to a Camelot where women only had to think of how to enjoy a “vibrant social life of pomp and circumstance” (p.209). The problem of colonial architecture was to design plans for the colonies which separated the whites from the blacks. Rava called the geographic separation a preventive measure so there would be no intermingling of the races. Basically, “reverse ghettos” were created with boundaries to make the separation loud and clear. Beautiful villa with gardens and servants were to give Italian women a lifestyle they could only dream of back home. It must have sounded wonderful but I wonder why if 100,000 females enrolled in pre-colonial camps, fewer than 10,000 actually went to Italian East Africa.
The need to create colonial residences was meant to show Italian dominance and superiority but it was also a way to protect colonizers from locals. The lifestyle offered to Italian colonial women appeared to give them power and make them feel responsible for the well being of the community. With all of the comforts they were to have, the anxiety of moving to a foreign country was probably not reason enough to leave the homeland and start a new life.
Italian villa in Asmara
American pioneer women
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ChristianAnswers.Net WebBible Encyclopedia
Hebrew: “arabah.” / Meaning: plain (in the sense of sterility); a desert
This name appears in only one verse of the King James Bible (KJV) (Josh. 18:18), but it appears many times in other versions. Except for Josh. 18:18 and Amos 6:14, the KJV always translates “arabah” as “plain.” In Amos 6:14, the KJV translates it as “wilderness.”
This name was especially associated with the generally sterile and hollow depression through which the Jordan flows from the Lake of Galilee to the Dead Sea.
The Arabs later called it el-Ghor. But the Ghor is sometimes spoken of as extending 10 miles south of the Dead Sea, and from there to the Gulf of Akabah on the Red Sea it is called the Wady el-Arabah.
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jump to: navigation, search
Recorded in Middle English c.1410 as retreve (altered to retrive in the 16th century; modern form is from c.1650), from Middle French retruev-, stem of Old French (=modern) retrouver "to find again", itself from re- "again" + trouver "to find" (probably from Vulgar Latin *tropare (to compose))
retrieve (third-person singular simple present retrieves, present participle retrieving, simple past and past participle retrieved)
1. (transitive) To regain or get back something.
to retrieve one's character or independence; to retrieve a thrown ball
• Dryden
With late repentance now they would retrieve / The bodies they forsook, and wish to live.
2. (transitive) To rescue (a) creature(s)
3. (transitive) To salvage something
4. (transitive) To remedy or rectify something.
5. (transitive) To remember or recall something.
6. (transitive) To fetch or carry back something.
• Berkeley
to retrieve them from their cold, trivial conceits
7. (transitive) To fetch and bring in game.
The cook doesn't care what's shot, only what's actually retrieved.
8. (intransitive) To fetch and bring in game systematically.
Dog breeds called 'retrievers' were selected for retrieving.
9. (intransitive) To fetch or carry back systematically, notably as a game.
Most dogs love retrieving, regardless of what object is thrown.
10. (sports, transitive) To make a difficult but successful return of the ball.
11. (obsolete) To remedy the evil consequence of, to repair (a loss or damage).
• Prior
Accept my sorrow, and retrieve my fall.
• Burke
There is much to be done [] and much to be retrieved.
Derived terms[edit]
Related terms[edit]
retrieve (plural retrieves)
1. A retrieval
2. (sports) The return of a difficult ball
3. (obsolete) A seeking again; a discovery.
4. (obsolete) The recovery of game once sprung.
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Positive and negative statements
A. Change these sentences into negative statements.
Example :
I am writing a letter.
I am not writing a letter.
1. Sabrina is ten years old.
2. Those men are policemen.
3. Rachel went to the library yesterday.
4. My father can sing and dance.
5. Paul reads the newspaper every morning.
6. My grandfather was sick last week.
B. Change these sentences into negative statements. Use contractions.
Example :
Tracy can ride a bicycle.
Tracy can’t ride a bicycle.
1. The children are playing football in the field.
2. Cindy is crying sadly.
3. Encik Ismail was a gardener.
4. My grandmother drinks a cup of coffee every morning.
5. I wrote a letter last night.
6. My parents were at home this morning.
C. Change these sentences into positive statements.
1. My brother isn’t tall and thin.
2. Mr Chong and Mr Toh aren’t teachers.
3. Danny doesn’t know how to use a computer.
4. The gardeners don’t water the plants every day.
5. Mabel doesn’t enjoy doing jigsaw puzzles.
6. They haven’t finished their homework.
7. The painting isn’t beautiful.
8. My brother wasn’t working in the factory.
1 comment:
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Take the 2-minute tour ×
I am confused that what is the actual role of a delegate? I have been asked this question many times in my interviews, but I don't think that interviewers were satisfied with my answer.
Can anyone tell me the best definition, in one sentence, with a practical example ?
share|improve this question
closed as too broad by Andrew Barber Aug 22 '13 at 15:38
out of curiousity, what did you respond so we can tell you how you can correct it? – Anthony Forloney Jan 11 '10 at 19:28
14 Answers 14
up vote 78 down vote accepted
I like to think of a delegate as "a pointer to a function". This goes back to C days, but the idea still holds.
The idea is that you need to be able to invoke a piece of code, but that piece of code you're going to invoke isn't known until runtime. So you use a "delegate" for that purpose. Delegates come in handy for things like event handlers, and such, where you do different things based on different events, for example.
Here's a reference for C# you can look at:
In C#, for example, let's say we had a calculation we wanted to do and we wanted to use a different calculation method which we don't know until runtime. So we might have a couple calculation methods like this:
public static double CalcTotalMethod1(double amt)
return amt * .014;
public static double CalcTotalMethod2(double amt)
return amt * .056 + 42.43;
We could declare a delegate signature like this:
public delegate double calcTotalDelegate(double amt);
And then we could declare a method which takes the delegate as a parameter like this:
public static double CalcMyTotal(double amt, calcTotalDelegate calcTotal)
return calcTotal(amt);
And we could call the CalcMyTotal method passing in the delegate method we wanted to use.
double tot1 = CalcMyTotal(100.34, CalcTotalMethod1);
double tot2 = CalcMyTotal(100.34, CalcTotalMethod2);
share|improve this answer
+1 for the nod to the simple but effective function pointer in C. – Aiden Bell Jan 11 '10 at 19:28
One question related to your answer. How is it really different from calling a function in normal way? Just because of that it is not known at runtime ? – NAVEED Jan 11 '10 at 19:51
@NAVEED - refer to my latest edit, I included an example. As far as the actual method call, it doesn't look any different from a normal method call in my example above (the calcTotal(amt) is calling the delegate), but the power of delegates is that you can use them as parameters, etc. when you want a method to be able to have different behavior. There are many other things you can use them for also, this is just a simple example. Hope that helps. – dcp Jan 11 '10 at 20:10
It's not known at runtime, and is a bound function rather than a free function - assigning a non-static method Foo to a delegate will call this.Foo() rather than a static function as a function pointer would do ( in C, you often have an extra void* parameter to pass this to the function pointer ) – Pete Kirkham Jan 11 '10 at 20:13
+1 for the quick and effective example establishing similarities with function pointers in C/C++. Much appreciated! – G21 Sep 25 '13 at 20:25
a delegate is simply a function pointer.
simply put you assign the method you wish to run your delegate. then later in code you can call that method via Invoke.
some code to demonstrate (wrote this from memory so syntax may be off)
delegate void delMyDelegate(object o);
private void MethodToExecute1(object o)
// do something with object
private void MethodToExecute2(object o)
// do something else with object
private void DoSomethingToList(delMyDelegate methodToRun)
foreach(object o in myList)
public void ApplyMethodsToList()
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Taken from here
Q What are delegates?
Or, as an easy pseudo example: something sends a request to object1. object1 then forwards the request and itself to object2 -- the delegate. object2 processes the request and does some work. (note: link above gives good examples)
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Wikipedia has a good article on the delegation pattern with simple and complex examples in java and php.
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Think about delegate as about a simplified implementation of Command pattern.
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While not really a "function pointer", a delegate might look like this is a dynamic language like PHP:
$func = 'foo';
function foo() {
print 'foo';
or in JavaScript you could do something like:
var func = function(){ alert('foo!'); }
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This is not an example of delegation. In your example, you're using what's called a variable function which basically looks for a function having the same name as the string to which a variable refers. See variable functions: php.net/manual/en/functions.variable-functions.php – Aquarelle Aug 27 '13 at 4:46
A great explanation and practical implementation of the Delegate pattern can be found in the Google Collections Forwarding Classes (also, the Decorator pattern).
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In Event communication sender does not know which object will handle the event. Delegate is type which hold the reference of method. Delegate has signature and holds reference to method which matches its signature so Delegate is like type safe function pointer.
button1.Click += new System.EventHandler(button1_Click) System.EventHandler is declared as a delegate here In .net Events work on the concept of Delegate (like Button Click)
Delegate is used when you do not know which code to invoke at run time So at that time Delegate is used to handle Events
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A delegate is an object that can refer to a method. Thus, when we create a delegate, we are creating an object that can hold a reference to a method. Furthermore, the method can be called through this reference. Thus, a delegate can invoke the method to which it refers. The principal advantage of a delegate is that it allows us to specify a call to a method, but the method actually invoked is determined at runtime, not at compile time.
Simple Delegate
Declaration of delegate:
delegate-modifier delegate return-type delegate-name(parameters)
Implementation of delegate:
Delegate-name delegate-object=new Delegate-name(method of class)
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Here I am going to explain delegates, multicast delegates and their usage.. Delegate is a type which holds the method(s) reference in an object. It is also referred to as a type safe function pointer. We can say a delegate is a type that defines a method signature.
When you instantiate a delegate, you can associate its instance with any method with a compatible signature. You can invoke (or call) the method through the delegate instance. Delegates are used to pass methods as arguments to other methods. Event handlers are nothing more than methods that are invoked through delegates. Advantages of using delegates are, Encapsulating the method's call from caller Effective use of delegate improves the performance of application Used to call a method asynchronously. There are some properties of delegates are
Delegates are like C++ function pointers but are type safe.
Delegates allow methods to be passed as parameters.
Delegates can be used to define callback methods.
Methods do not have to match the delegate signature exactly.
public delegate type_of_delegate delegate_name() // Declaration
You can use delegates without parameters or with parameter list
If you are referring to the method with some data type then the delegate which you are declaring should be in the same format. This is why it is referred to as type safe function pointer. Here I am giving an example with String.
The following example shows a delegate operation:
namespace MyDelegate { class Program { private delegate void Show(string s);
// Create a method for a delegate.
public static void MyDelegateMethod(string message)
static void Main(string[] args)
Show p = MyDelegateMethod;
p("My Delegate");
p.Invoke("My Delegate");
What is Multicast Delegate?
It is a delegate which holds the reference of more than one method. Multicast delegates must contain only methods that return void, else there is a run-time exception.
delegate void MyMulticastDelegate(int i, string s);
Class Class2
static void MyFirstDelegateMethod(int i, string s)
Console.WriteLine("My First Method");
static void MySecondDelegateMethod(int i, string s)
Console.WriteLine("My Second Method");
static void Main(string[] args)
MyMulticastDelegate Method= new MyMulticastDelegate(MyFirstDelegateMethod);
Method+= new MyMulticastDelegate (MySecondDelegateMethod);
Method(1,"Hi"); // Calling 2 Methodscalled
Method-= new MyMulticastDelegate (MyFirstDelegateMethod);
Method(2,"Hi"); //Only 2nd Method calling
Here Delegate is added using the += operator and removed using the -= operator.
Delegate types are derived from the Delegate class in the .NET Framework. Delegate types are sealed—they cannot be derived. Because the instantiated delegate is an object, it can be passed as a parameter, or assigned to a property. This allows a method to accept a delegate as a parameter, and call the delegate at some later time. This is known as an asynchronous callback.
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A delegate is an object that represents a pointer to a function. However, it is not an ordinary function pointer in that it:
1) Is Object Oriented
2) Is type safe, i.e. it can only point to a method and you cannot read the raw memory address it is pointing to
3) Is strongly typed. It can only point to methods that match its signatures.
4) Can point to more than one method at the same time.
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Delegates is mainly used with events.
The need is:
You do not want to execute a piece of code at the time when you run the program. After running the program you want to execute that piece of code whenever an event occurs.
Example :
1. Console application - code can be executed only at the time you run the program. (Written inside Main method)
2. Windows application (user interface programming ) - code can be executed when clicking the button after running the program.
This is what they say, you do not know which method will invoke at compiling time. you know it only at runtime that is when clicking the button.
Without delegates no user interface programming is possible. Because you are executing code whenever the user makes events that is clicking button , typing in textbox, selecting dropdownlist item and so on....
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A delegate is something to which a task is being delegated. The primary purpose of delegation is to decouple code and allow for greater flexibility and reuse.
In programming, and specifically object-oriented programming, this means that when a method is called to do some work, it passes the work on to the method of another object that it has a reference to. The reference could point to whatever object we wish, as long as the object conforms to a predefined set of methods. We call it "programming to an interface" (versus programming to a concrete class implementation). An interface is basically a generic template and has no implementation; it simply means a recipe, a set of methods, preconditions and postconditions (rules).
Simple example:
public void doSomething();
SomeImplementation implements SomeInterface
public void doSomething()
System.err.println("Was it good for you?");
public void doIt(SomeInterface someInterface)
Now you see I can use whatever implementation I want at any time without changing the code in SomeCaller because the type that doIt() is passed is not concrete but rather abstract since it's an interface. In the Java world, this is often expressed in the service paradigm where you call out to a service (an object advertising itself as a service via a specific interface) and the service then calls out to delegates to help it do its work. The service's methods are named as coarse-grained tasks (makePayment(), createNewUser(), etc.), while internally it does lots if nitty-gritty work through delegation, with the delegates' types being interfaces instead of the concrete implementations.
SomeInterface someImplementation = ... // assign here
SomeOtherInterface someOtherImplementation = ... // okay, let's add a second
public void doSomeWork()
(N.B.: How an implementation gets assigned is beyond the scope of this thread. Lookup inversion of control and dependency injection.)
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A delegate object is an object that another object consults when something happens in that object. For instance, your repair man is your delegate if something happens to your car. you go to your repair man and ask him to fix the car for you (although some prefer to repair the car themselves, in which case, they are their own delegate for their car).
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From the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries, pattern books were published detailing alphabet and numeral forms, and monograms (“ciphers”). Penmanship manuals taught proper writing skills through the repeated copying of the alphabet, the primary building blocks of a child’s education. Writing manuals contained instructions on preparing writing materials and implements, how to hold the hand and body when writing, and the proper execution of letter forms. Most writing manuals also included a practical section, with a series of model letter forms and strokes intended to be copied by the student.
Writing manuals provide a record of the evolution of writing styles, which were effected by the increased need for a rapid business cursive, expanding literacy and public education, changes in women’s education, and technical advances such as the replacement of the quill by the steel pen.
The numbers, letters, and monograms taught and illustrated in manuals and pattern books were used by a wide variety of craftsmen, including engravers, wood carvers, painters, and embroiderers—as seen in samplers and in other forms of domestic embroidery. In the seventeenth through the twentieth centuries, monograms, numbers, and letters were often embroidered in the corners of household linens to identify the owner and maintain a record of the household inventory. A twentieth-century example shows an intermediate step between hand and machine embroidery: felt embroidery forms of the alphabet, such as those distributed through Crowley’s Department store in Detroit, were used as a raised guide, to be covered with embroidered stitches for the embellishment of household linens.
Leave a Reply
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Recent geological evidence from Arctic Ocean seabeds reveals 50 million-year-old sediments that are composed almost entirely of Azolla fossils for an 800,000-year span. This interval, known as the "Arctic Azolla event," was a period when Azolla repeatedly blanketed the ocean surface, forming dense mats of vegetation.
Then something really interesting happened. As these Azolla plants died and became part of the sediment, they took atmospheric carbon down with them. Global atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide fell significantly, precipitating Earth's initial shift from a greenhouse world toward the current icehouse climate that we're now worried will melt.
Azolla is still with us, floating on the surface of ponds, lakes and rice paddies. Though tiny -- one Azolla plant could comfortably sit on top of your smallest fingernail -- it can double its entire body mass in less than two days. Some researchers think this makes it a promising alternative for biofuel production and carbon-capture efforts.
But Azolla does yet another interesting trick -- it captures all the nitrogen fertilizer it needs from the atmosphere around it. Since the dawn of agriculture, Asia's farmers have known about, and deliberately exploited, the benefits of growing Azolla as a companion plant with rice. The floating fern thrives in rice paddies, fixing nitrogen and other nutrients, constantly improving the soil composition and providing a natural, green fertilizer that significantly bolsters rice productivity.
The secret is that Azolla isn't just a plant; it's a "superorganism," a symbiotic collaboration of a plant and a microbe. In a special protective cavity inside each leaf, Azolla hosts a microbe called Nostoc that spends its entire life converting atmospheric nitrogen into food for its host.
Azolla and Nostoc clearly have demonstrated a prodigious ability to combat global warming, and they produce precious nitrogen that could help feed the world in a more sustainable way. Even though they have been co-evolving for nearly 100 million years, we know very little about them and how they communicate.
Wouldn't it be great to understand this symbiotic relationship better, and to be able to understand the biological "conversation" between the host and the microbe?
Because it is classified as a "lowly fern," Azolla has been sidelined in plant genome studies. Repeated appeals to granting agencies for funding to unlock the know-how embodied by this superorganism have been met with responses like "too unconventional" or "too risky."
But to sustainably produce food for a world population of more than 7 billion people -- all while reducing pollution and greenhouse gases -- we need to do some risky research. Novel ideas and innovative approaches that could reveal just how nature "does what it does" naturally might help to revolutionize current farming practices. The cost of continuing to do the same old, same old makes little economic sense.
Specifically, we need a more sustainable source of nitrogen. By 2015, roughly 200 million tons of industrially produced, nitrogen-rich fertilizer will be needed to grow the world's food, a process that will consume vast amounts of fossil fuel and exacerbate our carbon dioxide problems.
Azolla and Nostoc have great potential to reduce the world's reliance on fossil fuels, while scrubbing a bunch of CO2 out of the atmosphere in the bargain.
We're not talking about a lot of money to do this. Genomic sequencing of this unique Azolla-Nostoc system would cost well under $1 million. That's far less than the $8 billion each year that U.S. farmers pay for nitrogen fertilizer -- much of which finds its way into rivers and streams, damaging delicate water systems.
This small step toward potentially helping crops to use less synthetic nitrogen could benefit farmers' bottom lines, the environment and the prices we pay for food.
I'd like to see the genome of the Azolla superorganism sequenced so that we can understand the language that codes for the molecular machinery underlying this symbiotic partnership, and possibly tailor it to suit our needs. Knowing how this works might even enable us to engineer crops to fix their own nitrogen -- an achievement that could truly revolutionize modern agriculture.
Not often does such a small price promise a big gain.
Kathleen Pryer is a professor of biology at Duke University. She is also president of the American Fern Society and past-president of the American Society for Plant Taxonomists.
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Faust Topics for Discussion
This section contains 514 words
(approx. 2 pages at 400 words per page)
The original version of Faust was written in Goethe's native German. In the introduction, Kaufmann discusses the issues that have come about due to faulty translations or through the editorializing of the translators. Also, the translations from German into English and other languages have often wrecked the beauty of the prose, creating a loss of context, syntax, and meter. Discuss Kaufmann's opinion on the translations of Goethe's work. Do you agree or disagree? Translate a passage from the original German to see if it matches the text in the book. Was it changed to create a different context or meter? Explain.
Discuss the history of Faust. Who was Dr. Johann Faust? When was he born? Did he live in Germany? What are the similarities between the actual person and the character created by Goethe? Did Faust dabble in the black arts? Is there any proof that Faust made a pact with the devil? When and how did Faust leave the university? What is Faust's legacy? Explain.
Faust becomes mad with grief when he learns about the death of his baby and Gretchen's imprisonment. Mephisto says that Gretchen is not the only one. What does Mephisto mean by that comment? Were there other mothers that killed their illegitimate children? What happened to the others? How does this fact help or hinder Gretchen's case? What does Faust say in response to Mephisto's uncaring comment? What happens to Gretchen?
Why does the great Dr. Faust make a pact with the devil? How does the offer come about? Whose idea was it? What is the basis of the pact? Is Faust able to change his mind after the pact is made? Why is it important that the pact be sealed with Faust's blood? What does Faust expect to receive from the pact?
Goethe pays homage to the Eternal Feminine at the end of Faust's tale. Examine in detail the concept of the Eternal Feminine and why Goethe felt it was important for it to save Faust. Also examine Faust's use of Mater Gloriosa, Magna Peccatrix, Mulier Samaratina, and Maria Aegyptica. Also discuss why Goethe thought it was necessary to add biblical citations to the names of the women.
Discuss Mephisto. Who is Mephisto? Why does Goethe refer to Mephisto by this more familiar name in the dialogue but refers to him as Mephistopheles elsewhere? What other names are used in the text to refer to Mephisto? What other names are commonly used to describe the demon? What human characteristics does Mephisto exhibit? What elements of Mephisto's behavior may seem to be inferior to the all powerful deity Mephisto was destined to become? Explain.
Discuss the concept of souls. What is a soul? How, why and where does it exist? What substance makes up a soul? Is a soul a purely religious concept? How is a soul defined in the text? Why is it important for a person's soul to be claimed or saved after death? What happens if a soul is not claimed? Discuss the nature of Faust's soul and what happens to it in the end.
This section contains 514 words
(approx. 2 pages at 400 words per page)
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Introduction to Bryozoans
Colony of encrusting bryozoan (Figularia figularis) from the Holocene of California.
Bryozoans are colonial aquatic invertebrate animals like corals that form colonies composed of thousands of genetically identical individuals that are added to the colony asexually like building blocks. Economically, bryozoans are important fouling organisms of marine vessels and power plant water cooling systems as well as sources of natural anticancer compounds. Academically, bryozoans are important tools for testing evolutionary, ecological, and sedimentary hypotheses. Their utility in these studies is a function of their a) long fossil record (500 million years), b) diverse fossil record (>16,000 species), c)abundant fossil record (some rocks > 50% bryozoans by volume), and d) ability to reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction is important for evolutionary studies as it permits a) discrimination of genetic and environmental components of morphologic variation, b) colonial organization which provides a minimum constraint on intraspecific variation, and c) large data sets for rigorous statistical analysis.
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"url": "http://www2.dickinson.edu/departments/geol/bryoz.html"
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Science News
from research organizations
Florida's 'Worm Grunters' Collect Bait Worms By Inadvertently Imitating Mole Sounds
October 23, 2008
Vanderbilt University
Vanderbilt biologist Ken Catania has discovered the secret of "worm grunting" -- the Florida practice of driving a wooden stake into the ground and rubbing it with a long piece of steel to produce a grunting sounds that drives nearby earthworms to the surface where they can be collected for bait. The worm grunters are unknowingly mimicking the sounds that the worm's arch-enemy the mole causes while burrowing.
Gary Revell admiring the results of a day of worm grunting.
Credit: Kenneth Catania, Vanderbilt University
When biologist Ken Catania heard about the peculiar practice of worm grunting practiced in the Apalachicola National Forest in the Florida Panhandle one of his first thoughts was an observation made by Charles Darwin.
Worm grunting involves going into the forest, driving a wooden stake into the ground and then rubbing the top of the stake with a long piece of steel called a rooping iron. This makes a peculiar grunting sound that drives nearby earthworms to the surface where they can be easily collected for fish bait.
Despite a lot of speculation, worm grunters don't really know why the technique works. But Catania, an associate professor of biological sciences at Vanderbilt who studies moles, thought that the explanation might lie in Darwin's remark: "It is often said that if the ground is beaten or otherwise made to tremble worms will believe that they are pursued by a mole and leave their burrows." So this spring he traveled down to Florida and performed a number of experiments to test this hypothesis with the cooperation of veteran worm grunters Gary and Audrey Revell. His conclusion, that the humans are driving the worms to the surface by unknowingly mimicking the sound of digging moles, is reported in the Oct. 14 issue of the Public Library of Science.
"This is a fascinating biology story and a fascinating sociology story," says Catania, who received the MacArthur genius award in 2006. "The biology story is the question of why the worms behave as they do and the sociology story is the fact that hundreds of people once made their livelihood by collecting worms in this unique fashion."
Actually, the technique is practiced in a number of parts of the southeastern United States, under various names including worm fiddling, snoring and charming, but it reached its apex in the 1960's in Apalachicola when thousands of people grunted for worms until the U.S. Forest Service began permitting the previously unregulated practice out of concern for the impact the industry was having on the native worm population. Now far fewer people practice this technique. The Revells are two of the few that still make much of their living from worm grunting.
In his preliminary research Catania found some other interesting clues. One was the observation by the famous Dutch ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen that one species of gull performs a "foot paddling behavior" that appears to bring up earthworms to the surface, a response he attributed to an innate reaction that enables the worms "to escape their arch enemy the mole." More recently the American naturalist John Kaufmann who studied wood turtles reported that they engage in a stomping behavior that brings earthworms to the surface so they can eat them.
Catania's first step was to determine whether moles live in the areas where the worm grunters practice their trade. He found that eastern American moles (Scalopus aquaticus Linnaeus) were plentiful. The Revells took him to the best places in the forest, where he found more than 200 mole tunnels in the vicinity of 94 holes left by worm grunters.
Once that fact was established, they examined the practice of worm-grunting. Apalachicola is the home for a native species of earthworm Diplocardia mississippiensis that are prized for bait because of their large size. One of Catania's first experiments was to measure the worms' response to worm grunting. He used geophones to record the sub-surface vibrations that the method created.
Catania discovered that a single worm grunting session forced hundreds of earthworms to the surface within 12 meters (13 yards) of the stake. "This makes it possible for an experienced worm grunter to collect thousands of worms in a day," Catania says.
In one case, instead of collecting the worms, the biologist observed their behavior after they surfaced. After traveling a significant distance on the surface they began searching for a place to burrow back into the ground: a process that took anywhere from 10 minutes to over an hour. "This represents a major risk to the earthworms because they are vulnerable to predation and to dehydration," Catania observes.
The next step was to determine how the native earthworms respond to the presence of moles. He built a small test box (20x25x19 cm) and filled it with 50 earthworms. The box had a tube in the side that allowed him to introduce a mole to the mix. As soon as a mole began tunneling into the test box, dozens of earthworms popped to the surface, wriggling at top speed with many even crawling over the top of the box.
"Eastern moles don't come to the surface when they are foraging, so fleeing to the surface provides the worms both immediate safety and the most efficient means for getting away from them," Catania says.
He repeated the experiments in two larger outdoor enclosures (1.2 square meters or 13 square yards) with similar results in this more natural setting. He did find one difference in the worms response to grunting and mole digging: When the worms surfaced in response to grunting, they headed every which way; when they surfaced in response to the sound of a mole digging, most of them began crawling away from the mole's position.
The biologist also used the small test box to explore another popular explanation for the worm grunting effect: That it imitates the vibrations caused by heavy rainfall, bringing the earthworms to the surface to keep from drowning. After placing 50 of the earthworms in the test box he put it under a sprinkler for an hour. The system simulated a heavy downpour that produces one inch of rain per minute. In five trials, a total of only three worms came to the surface. When the dirt in the box was totally saturated, he removed the earthworms and found that they appeared completely healthy.
"This made the rain hypothesis questionable," he says. But the more definitive test of rain was to construct a large outdoor bin, fill it with 300 worms, and wait for thunderstorms. Even in very heavy downpours, only 1-2 worms came out in an hour. That seemed to rule out the hypothesis that worm grunting mimics the sound of rainfall.
Finally, Catania compared the vibrations produced by worm grunting and those of a mole burrowing. "The moles are quite noisy. Often you can hear the sounds of a mole digging in the wild from a few feet away," he says. Analyzing the geophone recordings of the two types of sound, he found that the worm grunting vibrations were more uniform and concentrated near 80 Hz whereas the moles produce a wider range of vibrations that peak at around 200 Hz. Nevertheless, there is a considerable overlap between the two.
According to Catania, one of the most interesting aspects of his results is the fact that the worm grunters, like the foot-paddling gulls and stomping turtles, appear to be benefiting from what evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins has termed the "rare enemy effect." The moles, which can eat up to their own weight in worms each day, are one of the worm's most serious predators. It seems that human collections have a much lower impact on the worm population. So the worms have not changed their behavior as a result of the earth grunters' activity. There are so many moles in Apalachicola that a worm's best strategy is still to flee to the surface whenever there is a strong vibration. Usually it means there is a mole around, and it's the unlucky ones that meet the rarer human predators, and end up on a fishing line.
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Vanderbilt University. "Florida's 'Worm Grunters' Collect Bait Worms By Inadvertently Imitating Mole Sounds." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 23 October 2008. <>.
Vanderbilt University. (2008, October 23). Florida's 'Worm Grunters' Collect Bait Worms By Inadvertently Imitating Mole Sounds. ScienceDaily. Retrieved May 27, 2015 from
Vanderbilt University. "Florida's 'Worm Grunters' Collect Bait Worms By Inadvertently Imitating Mole Sounds." ScienceDaily. (accessed May 27, 2015).
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Page:The Oak.djvu/120
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lary rays, and so forms a complete thin cylinder, concentric to the pith—from which it is separated by the breadth of the xylem—and the cortex, from which it is separated by the breadth of the phloem.
The cells of this cambium cylinder go on dividing continuously during the whole summer, until the cylinder is, say, ten times as thick as it was before. Now suppose it to rest during the winter and go on again next season, and so on during each successive period of growth. Obviously this would realize one fact in the process we are considering—namely, that the stem would grow in thickness year by year, its diameter being increased by twice the thickness of the added cylinder.
But to make the above supposition accord with the facts, we must further picture to ourselves that when the thickening cylinder has attained a certain thickness, a large proportion of those of its cells which lie on the inside—i. e., nearest the pith, and therefore abutting on, lose their cambial nature and the xylem—become converted into elements of the wood; while a smaller proportion of those on the outer side (beneath the phloëm) become new phloem elements. In this way it will be seen that the thin cylinder of active cambium cell travels outwards; ever receding radially farther from the pith, and leaving xylem between itself and the primary Vascular bundles next the pith, and ever driving outwards the primary phloem and cortex, adding new phloëm elements (but in far less proportion) to the inside of the phloëm. Each winter it pauses in this process, and
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Hello and Welcome to Phonics and Homeschooling. The resources for teach children at home. A method of teaching reading in which people learn to associate letters with the speech sounds they represent, rather than learning to recognize the whole word as a unit. Also find information about children education at home or Homeschooling.
Development of the field
In ancient India, the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini (c. 520–460 BC), who is considered the founder of linguistics, in his text of Sanskrit phonology, the Shiva Sutras, discovers the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. The Shiva Sutras describe a phonemic notational system in the fourteen initial lines of the Aṣṭādhyāyī. The notational system introduces different clusters of phonemes that serve special roles in the morphology of Sanskrit, and are referred to throughout the text. Panini's grammar of Sanskrit had a significant influence on Ferdinand de Saussure, the father of modern structuralism, who was a professor of Sanskrit.
The Polish scholar Jan Baudouin de Courtenay coined the word phoneme in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He worked not only on the theory of the phoneme but also on phonetic alternations (i.e., what is now called allophony and morphophonology). His influence on Ferdinand de Saussure was also significant.
Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy's posthumously published work, the Principles of Phonology (1939), is considered the foundation of the Prague School of phonology. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetskoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, though morphophonology was first recognized by Baudouin de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy split phonology into phonemics and archiphonemics; the former has had more influence than the latter. Another important figure in the Prague School was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the twentieth century.
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In 1968, Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), the basis for Generative Phonology. In this view, phonological representations (surface forms) are structures whose phonetic part is a sequence of phonemes which are made up of distinctive features. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or -. Ordered phonological rules govern how this phonological representation (also called underlying representation) is transformed into the actual pronunciation (also called surface form.) An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the Generativists folded morphology into phonology, which both solved and created problems.
In the late 1960s, David Stampe introduced Natural Phonology. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes which interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed are language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second-most prominent Natural Phonologist is Stampe's wife, Patricia Donegan; there are many Natural Phonologists in Europe, though also a few others in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Pullum. The principles of Natural Phonology were extended to morphology by Wolfgang U. Dressler, who founded Natural Morphology.
In 1976 John Goldsmith introduced autosegmental phonology. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as one linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as some parallel sequences of features which reside on multiple tiers.Government Phonology, which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of principles and vary according to their selection of certain binary parameters. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures include Jonathan Kaye (Linguist), Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, Monik Charette, John Harris, and many others.
In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed Optimality Theory—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints which is ordered by importance: a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become the dominant trend in phonology. Though this usually goes unacknowledged, Optimality Theory was strongly influenced by Natural Phonology; both view phonology in terms of constraints on speakers and their production, though these constraints are formalized in very different ways.
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Development of the Plains
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• Published : November 27, 2013
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How did the railroads develop the Great Plains?
{16 marks}
The railroads developed the Great plains in a lot of ways such as; law + order, work, communication and manifest destiny. Railroads helped develop the Great Plains as they made Law and order possible and enforceable. Before Law and Order the towns and villages were ran by vigilantes and road agents that not only controlled the towns viciously but unfairly as well. Due to railroads being built the Government were able to transport Police Officers and Sheriffs to the towns on the Great Plains to help restore Law + order and fairness to all the citizens settling there. This is how railroads helped develop the Great Plains as the Laws were able to make the citizens settle and without settled Citizens the Great Plains would have been havoc and unable to develop. Railroads also helped develop the Great Plains as they provided work for the citizens. During the process they provided jobs such as building the railroad and trains themselves but it was after the railroad had finished that they really helped develop the Great Plains with work. Train stations were built in which that provided jobs such as; ticket officer and train driver, but around the train stations many people opened shops and stores for the travellers. This is where most of the jobs were and this helped develop the Great Plains as more people started arriving which turned the Great Plains into a well-established and developed town/city. Communication was seldom before railroads on the Great Plains as they had not much technology and to travel would have taken a lot of time. Communication in a country between each city, town and village is vital especially for the Town Mayors and the Government. Without communication a country would be unable to run smoothly and would seize any kind of development they needed. This is how railroads helped develop the Great Plains, as citizens were able to communicate easier and quicker now. But more...
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The History of Kugel
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Salt and Pepper Noodle Kugel
When the word kugel first appeared in Webster’s Dictionary in the early twentieth century, it was defined as “a suet pudding,” a characterization derived from similarities between kugel and British steamed puddings. Later, the Merriam-Webster Dictionary updated the definition to “a baked pudding.” Baking, however, was actually a late step in the kugel’s evolution. For the kugel’s (kuglen plural) origin lay not in a casserole, but rather as bread dumplings in a stew pot.
By the 12th century, the concept of dumplings spread from China along the Silk Road to Italy then Germany, around the same time that cholent reached Germany from Spain by way of France. Within a century or so, German cooks began dropping a bread batter containing a little egg as a binder into the center of the Sabbath stew, the dumpling developing a rich flavor and texture as it simmered overnight and, after morning services, served warm alongside the stew for lunch.
Then emulating an emerging German practice of steaming puddings in a clay pot instead of in a stew or in intestines, Jewish housewives began cooking the dumpling in a kugeltopf --kugel was the Middle High German for “ball” and topf meant “jar/pot”-- a commonplace small rounded Teutonic earthenware jar. The kugeltopf was placed in the top of the stew, the steamy environment keeping the batter moist and preventing burning. This not only transformed the batter into a pudding with the potential for greater versatility, but also gave rise to a new name. In order to differentiate the pudding from the stew, people began calling it variously weckschalet (weck was German for “bread roll”), semmelkugel (semmel/zemmel was another Teutonic bread roll), and schaletkugel, a reference to the resulting round shape. In western Europe, these puddings are still called schalet, while in eastern Europe, kugel became the generic term for all these puddings. Whether pronounced kugel (by Poles and Lithuanians), koogle (by Germans), or keegal (by Galitzianers), this dish ranks high in the pantheon of Jewish foods.
As the kugel came out of the cholent, the rudimentary bread dumplings gradually evolved into an array of dishes. Onions, ubiquitous in Ashkenazic cookery, were sautéed and added for extra flavor. Gribenes, cracklings made while rendering schmaltz, provided another possible flavor element. The popularization of sugar in 17th century Europe led to sweet puddings. The common denominators of all true kugels are a starch base, eggs (or egg substitute), and fat, without the addition of water or other liquids. If the dish lacks any of the basic ingredients, it is technically a casserole or cake, not a kugel.
Kugel achieved new gastronomic heights when cooks substituted farfel and noodles and, on Passover, matza for the bread batter. The Frankfort rabbi, Joseph Yuspa Hahn (1570-1637) in Yosif Ometz, a collection of local customs, mentioned three types of schalets: weck, vermicelles(Western Yiddish for “noodles”), and matza. Hanh also instructs, “Do not forget to taste your schalet on Friday (before the onset of the Sabbath) to test whether it be properly cooked!” By the sixteenth century, rice kugels, typically reserved for special occasions, emerged in parts of eastern Europe, influenced by the Ottoman advances into Europe and their introduction of numerous Middle Eastern foods. Potatoes, after their popularization in the mid-19th century, provided an inexpensive and filling kugel, subsequently becoming the predominant type in the impoverished shtetls of eastern Europe. Whence the popular Yiddish folk song, “Sunday potatoes, Monday potatoes, Tuesday and Wednesday potatoes, Thursday and Friday potatoes, but Shabbos, for a change, a potato kugel.”
Beginning in the late 1700s, groups of Chasidim and students of the Vilna Gaon began moving to Israel, bringing with them the traditions of eastern Europe, including clothing and foods. In Jerusalem, they developed a distinctive noodle kugel, a hybrid of traditional salt-and-pepper noodle kugel and sweet noodle kugel, featuring a tantalizing contrast of ground black pepper and caramelized sugar, Yerushalmi kugel.
During the Middle Ages, only some wealthy families owned a home oven. Most foods were cooked on the hearth over an open fire, while baked foods had to be lugged to the town bakery or to the occasional private home oven, typically using the facilities for a fee. In addition, temperatures were difficult to regulate in those wood-burning brick or clay ovens and baked goods had to be carefully watched during the entire baking time. On the other hand, the temperature of stews or water in a pot could be reliably controlled. Consequently, for most of history, cooking was usually performed directly over a fire (roasting, braising, boiling, steaming, and poaching) and kugels were commonly steamed. In this vein, the first Jewish cookbook in English, The Jewish Manuel by Judith Montefiore(London, 1846), which contains the first record of the word kugel in English, offered a recipe for “Kugel and Commean,” (hamin) entailing a sweetened and spiced bread mixture in a covered “quart basin” steamed in a meat-and-bean stew. Similarly, Esther Levy, of German roots, in the first American Jewish Cookbook, Jewish Cookery (Philadelphia, 1871), included a recipe for “Coogle, Or Pudding, and Peas and Beans,” consisting of a sweetened noodle mixture steamed in a covered basin set in a soupy cholent.
Technology played an essential role in creating the kugel’s predominant modern form, particularly in America. With the popularization of the home oven in the mid-19th century, kugels suddenly shifted from the stew pot to baking it in a separate shallow container. The kugel, as we now know it, a baked casserole pudding, had arrived. Baking the kugel in an oven had another consequence, changing it from being primarily a Sabbath lunch dish and accompaniment to the cholent to one also served as a side dish for Friday night dinner and even during the weekday.
Here are a few seasonal kugel recipes:
Baked Rice Pudding (Rice Kugel)
Carrot Pudding
Baked Apple Kugel
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Hidden Figures… and Signatures: Black History Month
William Benjamin Gould was a slave in Wilmington North Carolina. His owner Nicholas Nixon would rent Gould out as a plasterer working on mansions and public buildings around town. When he was finishing up the interior trim work inside the luxurious Bellamy mansion, he did a risky thing for a slave, he signed his work. He scrolled his name on the inside of a section of some ornate molding before he attached it to the wall. No one knew of it till 100 years later when his signature was uncovered during a mansion renovation. It was quite the find, not just because it was unexpected, and not just because slaves weren’t supposed to be able to write, but mostly it was unexpected because historians actually knew who William Gould was.bellamysignaturebetter
In 1862, one year after that mansion was completed, William and six other slaves stole a small boat and rowed it out into the Atlantic Ocean where the Union Army had a series of ships blockading the Southern coast. They were scooped up by the USS Cambridge and now finding himself a free man, Gould joined the Navy.
At the war’s end Gould settled down and started a family in Massachusetts. He became an active member of the community and his story appeared in occasional articles in various periodicals. Not long after the signature was discovered in Wilmington, Gould’s diary was published as a book titled, Diary of a Contraband.
Remarkable story.
Even more remarkable is that out of the millions of black people who have lived in North America since the late 1600’s, we have such comparatively few records of their names or their stories. We know some, like Fredrick Douglass, but there were so many more. There was Henry “box” Brown, or Crispus Attucks, or William Gould. Black people have been present and participating in every step of the United States’ evolution and it is when we consider the level of that contribution that we realize how they are disproportionately invisible; so few names and even fewer stories. But if we learn to look closer, there is still a legacy.whole-hand
Trinity Church in New York City was built by black men. So was the U.S. capital. Dozens of universities, Harvard, Princeton, UNC, UVA, were built by black people. We can imagine that somewhere, even if only symbolically, in all these buildings, hiding under the plaster molding, are thousands of signatures just like Gould’s. The dome at Monticello, the columns at Mt. Vernon, and the masonry walls of St. Augustine, all built by people with hidden names. Look for them. Ask about them. On Bourbon Street, in Charleston, or even St. Louis, look for the black people. They were there.
But you have to look.
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Developing a Character
Let’s start with a made up name. How about Sally? Picture Sally in your mind. The Sally that I just pictured is eight years old. She has sand colored short straight hair, sparkling blue eyes, and a smile that embodies her upbeat attitude. She’s wearing a top that she asked her parents to buy for her when they visited the Monterrey Bay Aquarium. It is light blue and has silk screened images of the Aquarium’s sea otters. She has her running shoes on today because one of her friends just called and he asked her to meet him at the park to play softball. As she rode her bike to the park she was reviewing what her older brother had told her about batting. When she arrived at the park she was immediately greeted by her best friends from school.
otters, Monterey Bay Aquarium, blog
Now that we know what she looks like, what some of her interests are, and that she has many friends we need to have situation arise that further expresses her character and allows the reader to learn more about her. Consider the following two paragraphs:
A) Sally greeted her friends and then stood patiently, while her friend Thomas told her about his trip to the Seattle Aquarium. Conversations with Thomas always took patience because he stuttered a lot. Thomas considered Sally his best friend because she liked sea creatures like he did and she always waited patiently while he talked to her. She was the only one in their circle who always took time for his difficult speech.
B) Sally greeted her friends and then avoided talking to Thomas, who wanted to tell her about his trip to the Seattle Aquarium. Conversations with Thomas always took patience because he stuttered a lot. He desperately wanted to be Sally’s friend because they both liked sea creatures. Of the friends in their circle, Sally had the least patience when he tried to talk to her.
Both paragraphs give us insight into Sally’s character. The above paragraphs might lead to narratives that force them to go on an adventure as a team. If I used paragraph A, I would tell a story about how Sally learns about stuttering and helps Thomas get over his speech impediment while they are on their adventure. If I used paragraph B, I would tell a story about Sally having to develop patience and learn to become a compassionate person while they struggled to complete their adventure.
Which story would you like to complete? Try writing two more paragraphs for each and then go back and see if you are being true to Sally’s A or B character. How do you decide what your character’s personality is going to be?
Good Luck and Happy Writing!
I originally wrote this as a guest post for Darlene’s Book Nook.
I took the photo at the Monterey Bay Aquarium.
4 thoughts on “Developing a Character
1. […] Developing a Character ( […]
2. Hi honey
I’ve nominated you for a Kreative Blogger Award 🙂
The picture has got scrambled on my post though 😦 So you may need to follow the link to who nominated me to grab it.
Have fun
3. […] Developing a Character ( […]
4. I come up with a lot of my stories this way 😉
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Lecture 4 — Using functions and modules
• Material for this lecture is drawn from Chapter 4 of Practical Programming.
• We will first concentrate on functions for different data types. Python already comes with many functions that we can use to solve lots of interesting problems.
• We will then talk about using modules, including modules that you write.
• We will revisit all these concepts in later lectures.
What have we learned so far?
• So far, we have learned three basic data types: integer, float and strings.
• We also learned some valuable functions that operate on strings
(len) and that convert between data types (int, str)
>>> name = "Neil Degrasse Tyson"
>>> len(name)
>>> (name+"! ")*3
'Neil Degrasse Tyson! Neil Degrasse Tyson! Neil Degrasse Tyson! '
>>> print "%s was a speaker in Commencement %d" %(name,2010)
Neil Degrasse Tyson was a speaker in Commencement 2010
• The functions that Python provides are called built-in functions.
• We will see examples of these functions and experiment with their use in this class.
String Functions
• We will learn about many other interesting and useful string functions throughout the semester.
• Here are a few more string functions:
>>> name = "Neil Degrasse Tyson"
>>> name.lower()
'neil degrasse tyson'
>>> lowername = name.lower()
>>> lowername.upper()
>>> lowername.capitalize()
'Neil degrasse tyson'
>>> lowername.title()
'Neil Degrasse Tyson'
>>> "abracadabra".replace("br", "dr")
>>> "abracadabra".replace("a", "")
>>> "Neil Degrasse Tyson".find(" ")
>>> "Neil Degrasse Tyson".find("a")
>>> "Neil Degrasse Tyson".find("x")
>>> "Monty Python".count("o")
>>> "aaabbbfsassassaaaa".strip("a")
• All these functions take one or more values, and return a new value. But they are called in different ways. We must learn how each function is called. We will see the reason for the differences later in the semester.
>>> episode = "Cheese Shop"
>>> episode.lower()
'cheese shop'
>>> len(episode)
>>> episode + "!"
'Cheese Shop!'
• Be careful, none of these functions change the variable that they are applied to.
Exercise Set 1
1. Write code that takes a string in a variable called phrase and prints the string with all vowels removed.
2. Take a string in a variable called name and repeat each letters a in name as many times as a appears in name (assume the word is all lower case).
For example,
>>> name = "amos eaton"
## your code goes here
>>> name
'aamos eaaton'
3. Given a string in a variable called name, switch all letters a and e (only lowercase versions). Assume the variable contains only letters and spaces.
Hint: first replace each ‘a’ with ‘1’.
>>> name = "Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute"
## your code goes here
>>> name
'Ranssalear Polytachnic Instituta'
4. Suppose you are given a string with only letters and spaces. Write a program that transforms the string into a hashtag.
For example, 'Things you wish you knew as a freshman' becomes '#ThingsYouWishYouKnewAsAFreshman'.
>>> word = 'Bring back the swarm'
## your code here
>>> word
How about numerical functions
• Many numerical functions also exist. Let us experiment with some of these first. You should make a note of what they do.
• abs()
• pow()
• int()
• float()
• round()
• max()
• min()
Objects and Built_ins
• All the functions we have seen so far are built-in to the core Python. It means that these functions are available when you start Python.
• Type
>>> help(__builtins__)
to see the full list.
• All variables in Python are objects.
• Objects are abstractions:
• Each object defines an organization and structure to the data they store.
• They have operations/functions — we call them methods — applied to access and manipulate this data.
• Often functions apply to a specific object type, like a string. We have seen these functions for strings. Their call takes the form:
For example:
>>> b = 'good morning'
>>> b.find('o', 3)
It also works by:
as in
>>> 'good morning'.find('o', 3)
• You can see all the functions that apply to an object type with help as well. Try:
>>> help(str)
• Modules are collections of functions and constants that provide additional power to Python programs.
• Some modules come with Python, but are not loaded automatically. For example math module.
• Other modules need to be installed first. When we installed software in Lab 0, we installed a number of external modules, such as PIL for images that we will use later in the semester.
• To use a function in a module, first you must load it into your program using import. Let’s see the math module:
>>> import math
>>> math.sqrt(5)
>>> math.trunc(4.5)
>>> math.ceil(4.5)
>>> math.log(1024,2)
>>> math.pi
• We can get an explanation of what functions and variables are provided in a module using the help function
>>> import math
>>> help(math)
Exercise Set 2
1. Write a Python program that computes the area of a circle. Your program should use the math module. Remember, the formula is
a(r) = \pi r^2
2. What happens when we type
import math
math.pi = 3
and then use math.pi?
Different Ways of Importing
• The way you import a module determines what syntax you need to use the contents of the module in your program.
• We can import only a selection of functions and variables:
>>> from math import sqrt,pi
>>> pi
>>> sqrt(4)
• Or we can give a new name to the module within our program:
>>> import math as m
>>> m.pi
>>> m.sqrt(4)
• Both of these methods helps us distinguish between the function sqrt and the data pi defined in the math module from a function with the same name (if we had one) in our program.
• We can also do this (which is NOT recommended!):
>>> from math import *
Now, there is no name difference between the math module functions and ours. Since this leads to confusion when the same name appears in two different modules it is almost always avoided.
Program Structure
• We have now seen several components of a program: import, comments, and our own code, including input, computation and output statements. We will add more components, such as our own functions, as we proceed through the semester.
• You should organize these components in your program files to make it easy to see the flow of program
• We will use the following convention to order the program components:
• an initial comment explaining the purpose of the program,
• all import statements,
• then all variables and input commands,
• then all computation,
• finally all output.
• In the rest of the class, we will first examine the following program structure and then write our own program to compute the the length of the hypotenuse of a triangle in the same format.
""" Author: CS-1 Staff
Purpose: This program reads radius and height
of a cylinder and outputs its area and volume.
import math
print "Computing area and volume of a cylinder"
radius = float( raw_input("Enter radius ==> ") )
height = float( raw_input("Enter height ==> ") )
area = 2*math.pi*radius*height + 2*math.pi*radius**2
volume = math.pi*radius**2*height
print "Area is: %.2f" %area
print "Volume is: %.2f" %volume
• Python provides many functions that perform useful operations on strings, integers and floats.
• Some of these functions are builtin while others are organized into modules
• After a module is imported, the functions in the module can be used by a call of the form:
• You can see the details of a function by:
>>> help(module_name.function_name)
• Python has many modules that make it easy to do complicated tasks. If you do not believe it, try typing:
>>> import antigravity
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General English
• noun
(written as NEAR)
a binary operator used in searches of computer text that returns true if it finds two words within a specified distance of each other within the text, and false otherwise
• acronym forNear Earth Asteroid Rendezvous
(written as NEAR)
Origin & History of “near”
Historically, near is a comparative form, and its ancestor originally meant ‘nearer’. It was borrowed from Old Norse náer, the comparative of - ‘near’, which came from the same prehistoric Germanic source as produced English nigh (OE) and next (not to mention German nah ‘near’). By the time it reached English it had lost its comparative force, and simply meant ‘close’ (which is also the sense of its modern Scandinavian descendants, Swedish nära and Danish nær).
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"url": "http://www.dictionarycentral.com/definition/near.html"
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John Steinbeck
HOMEINSTITUTE 2011Teacher ResourcesVisiting Steinbeck CountryAbout SteinbeckImage Gallery
Teacher Resources
The Grapes of Wrath as a Multigenre, Multivocal Text
by Kris Sieloff, Baltimore City College High School, Baltimore, MD, 2009
The following lesson is intended as an extension of the close reading and analysis of the writer’s technique in constructing The Grapes of Wrath. This approach was inspired by the article, “Steinbeck’s Human Ecology: The Intercalary Chapters of The Grapes of Wrath,” as well as the method of dialogic pedagogy presented by Prof. Mary Adler in one of our institute workshops. An emphasis on the intercalary chapters provides an exploration of Steinbeck’s illustration of the phalanx theory, the tension between the universal and particular, or the individual and community in Grapes of Wrath. As students analyze Steinbeck’s novel for the diversity of languages and world views, they will engage in their own collective and dialogic search for meaning through group textual analysis, culminating in a Socratic seminar. The final assessment, the multigenre project, requires students to extend their understanding and engagement with the text and reinforces the overarching theme of the lesson.
Grade Level
1. Students will interpret Steinbeck’s Theory of the Phalanx and analyze its appearance in the intercalary chapters (those chapters in between the Joad family narrative) of The Grapes of Wrath.
2. Students will collaborate to analyze the diversity of languages within the intercalary chapters.
3. Students will engage in Socratic discussion about the philosophy the novel appears to advance, about the tensions between the universal and particular, and the role of the individual in relation to community.
4. Students will compose a multigenre project consisting of works that illustrate themes they identify within the intercalary chapters.
1. The teacher will provide background on Steinbeck the Reporter informing Steinbeck the Novelist using excerpts from Steinbeck’s journalistic renderings of the migrant experience. Suggested texts include: “Dubious Battle in California,” “The Harvest Gypsies: Squatters’ Camps,” or “Starvation Under the Orange Trees” from America and Americans and Selected Nonfiction. Discussion of these texts should focus on the writer’s style, journalistic as opposed to prosaic or poetic.
2. Definition: What is the Theory of the Phalanx? The teacher should introduce the following texts and students will explain the Phalanx Theory in their own words.
1. Steinbeck’s letters to Carlton Sheffield and George Albee [Letter to Carlton A. Sheffield, June 21, 1933 and Letter to George Albee 1933 in Steinbeck: A Life in Letters].
2. Ecclesiastes 4:9-12
3. Merriam-Webster definition of “phalanx”
3. In preparation for the group analysis activity, the teacher will introduce the concept of Mikhail Bakhtin’s heteroglossia, or the diversity and stratification of languages or voices within the text [in Bakhtin, Mikhail. (1935). “Discourse in the Novel.” The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981]:
“The novel orchestrates all its themes, the totality of the world of objects and ideas depicted and expressed in it, by means of the social diversity of speech types and by the differing individual voices that flourish under such conditions” (Bakhtin 263). It is important to remember that heteroglossia is opposed to unitary language, and this opposition leads to tensions within the text. Examples of heteroglossia include different stratas or registers, such as social, professional, dialects, jargon, and the language of authority. In addition, according to Bakhtin, the author will identify a “common language” to express the worldviews of a given social group, but the author will maintain a distance from this group; thus, the style of the novel may fluctuate, from journalistic to poetic, for example. "
4. Group Assignment: What voices do you hear in this chapter, and what can we learn from the variety of voices? Students will be divided into groups of 3-4 students; each group would be assigned a pair of chapters (Chap 1 & 3, 5 & 7, 9 &11,12 & 14, 15 &17, 19 &21, 23 & 25, 27 & 29) for analysis using the following chart.
Types of Discourse (Heteroglossia) Examples: Voice of authority, folk wisdom, voice of narrator, voice of author, multi-voiced dialogue, jargon, juxtaposition or conflicting language, silence; literary devices such as personification, imagery, parallelism, repetition, allegory or allusion Quotes Themes, beliefs, or worldviews revealed in the language of the text
1. After completion of the group analysis activity, the class will conduct a Socratic Seminar focusing on the following concepts: Based on your group’s analysis of the assigned chapters, what beliefs does the novel seem to present about humanity? Does the narrative voice appear to be endorsing a specific world view? What tensions are apparent in these chapters? What themes have emerged from your analysis of these chapters?
2. The teacher will present a variety of written, visual, and auditory texts to inspire student thinking as they prepare for the final assessment. (See “Multigenre Project Models/Ideas”).
Select a theme from our analysis of the intercalary chapters and construct a multigenre project containing at least four genres. Examples: ballad, prose poem, dialogue, collage, news article, diary entry, scrapbook page, editorial or letter to the editor, political cartoon, storyboard or comic strip, advertisement, video. You must include endnotes explaining the selection of each genre and the piece’s relationship to the theme you have selected.
Additional Resources
• Adler, Mary. “Eliciting Classroom Voices: A Dialogic Steinbeck Curriculum.” Lecture and Powerpoint Presentation, NEH Steinbeck Institute, July 2009.
• Shillinglaw, Susan and Jackson J. Benson, Eds. America and Americans and Selected Nonfiction. New York: Viking Penguin, 2002.
Stanford University
HOMEINSTITUTE 2011Teacher ResourcesVisiting Steinbeck CountryAbout SteinbeckImage Gallery
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A Perch's Life
Perch Dissection Vu-PAP BIO-3
The Perch (Perca flavescens)
The perch, (Perca flavescens) is classified as phylum Chordata, which means that the perch has a backbone. The perch also belongs to class Actinopterygii, order Perciformes, and family Percidae. Certain characteristics include being carnivorous, growing up to one pound in weight, and will live between 9-10 years. The perch will reproduce around spring time, when female perches lay their eggs in the lake in which they live in.
Today's Objectives
The student will observe the external and internal structures of the perch. The student will focus on the organs, the functions of the organs and the endocrine and circulatory systems of the perch.
Body system spotlight: Circulatory
The perch has a closed circulatory system, which means that blood does not leave the blood vessels. The system consists of the heart, gills, arteries, capillaries, and veins. Deoxygenated blood (blood with little oxygen) is pumped from the heart to the gills. The gills then oxygenates the blood and the blood is returned back to the body, which is eventually cycled back to the heart to start the cycle again.
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To Kill a Mockingbird
By Harper Lee
The purpose of this webquest is to help you learn about the setting and history behind the novel before reading. You will find information about the social climate in the South during the 1930s and American history leading up to the social climate in the South.
The Scottsboro Boys
Your job is to research the Scottsboro Boys. Click on the link below to start learning about them. When you are finished, answer the questions below.
1. Who were the Scottsboro Boys? How did they get into so much trouble?
2. Where and when did the Scottsboro Boys' original trial take place? How do you think this affected the outcome of their trial?
3. What does the NAACP acronym stand for? Why did the NAACP decide not to help the Scottsboro Boys?
4. The Communist Party came to the aid of the Scottsboro Boys. How did the South perceive the Communist Party, and how was it similar to the perception of blacks? What was the Communist Party's hidden agenda in providing aid to the Scottsboro Boys?
5. The Scottsboro Boys were not provided with adequate defense lawyers. Please list at least 3 ways in which the defense lawyers were inadequate.
6. Describe the trials. Were they fair or unfair? Please include at least 3 supporting facts to back up your description.
7. Were the Scottsboro Boys ever pardoned of their convictions?
8. The Scottsboro Boys' trial took place during the childhood of To Kill A Mockingbird's author, Harper Lee. Make a prediction about how this trial might be an important factor behind the book.
Growing up White/Black in the South
Your second step is to learn about what it was like to grow up white and black in the South in the 1930s. Please read the links below and answer the questions.
"Growing up Black in the 1930s"
1. What does Mrs. Barge know about her ancestry? How does she talk about her family?
2. What were her and her family's living conditions like?
3. When was the first time she noticed a difference between the lives of black people and the lives of white people? From Mrs. Barge's account, what do you think is the most astounding difference?
4. What was school like for Mrs. Barge?
5. What kind of jobs were available to black people int he South?
6. Were black people allowed to vote?
7. Mrs. Barge clearly has a different opinion of white people than her father does. What does she say that proves this? How does her perception of white people differ from her father's? Why do you think that is?
"Growing up White in the 1930s"
1. What do these three ladies have in common about their ancestry? How do they talk about their families?
2. What were the three ladies living conditions like?
3. What were these ladies' first experiences with black people?
4. Did these white ladies every play with their black peers?
Questions over both:
1. Please compare the three ladies' backgrounds from "Growing up White in the 1930s." How do their backgrounds differ from Mrs. Barge's background from "Growing up Black in the 1930s"?
2. The ladies in "Growing up White in the 1930s" talk about what made a "good family" in the South. What do they say makes a "good family"? How do you think Mrs. Barge would describe a "good family"? Compare and contrast the three ladies' families to Mrs. Barges family, explain the similarities and differences. Based on your explanation, would Mrs. Barge's family be considered a "good family"? Why or why not?
3. List the occupations available to black women in the South in the 1930s according to Mrs. Barge's interview. How did these occupations influence Mrs. Barge's perception of white people? How did these occupations influence the perception of black people according to the three ladies' accounts from "Growing up White in the 1930s"?
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Textile Society of America
Date of this Version
Copyright 2006 by the author.
A uniform of any kind, whether worn by a fireman, a nurse or a soldier, is designed to inform us about the person who wears it; and the same thing holds true for a prisoner uniform. In this presentation I am examining textiles from recent history: the prisoner uniforms from Nazi concentration camps; I attempt to “read” the information they contain.
Most, but not all, of the prisoner uniforms were striped. Iconography, in this case the stripes, is the most readily interpreted aspect of a textile. But other aspects of the uniforms are also well worth exploring. Manufacturing details, such as the materials used and the tailoring, tell us about the practical application of Nazi ideology and about the quality of textile materials in wartime. Alterations made by prisoners testify about living conditions as well as the prisoner’s adaptation to these conditions. Even the damage on the uniforms is telling; wear patterns and different stains suggest the prisoner’s work assignment.
As the textile conservator at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, I have worked on approximately 250 prisoner uniforms from Nazi concentration camps. What may seem like a monotonous task became fascinating when close observation of the uniforms revealed details of history that support the findings of scholars based on archival sources such as documents, photographs and films.
It is usually assumed that prisoners are dressed in striped uniforms because stripes stand out in the natural environment and that makes it harder for them to escape. However, this may or may not be the reason why stripes were chosen as the pattern for prisoners. In European visual cultures, stripes have a long association with loss of freedom and their pejorative meaning goes back hundreds of years. Stripes were considered an unnatural pattern in medieval Europe.
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"url": "https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tsaconf/341/"
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From the Harvard Annex to Radcliffe College
By Talia Weisberg
Although Harvard was established in 1636, women were not welcome to the college in any capacity until the 1870s. Most Harvard students today know that previous generations of Harvard women had to matriculate at Radcliffe, but few know about the efforts that nineteenth century feminists exerted to establish a women’s college at Harvard.
In 1879, advocates for women’s education opened a school for women at Harvard colloquially known as the Annex. Arthur Gilman, who spearheaded and financed the project, was inspired by the desire to give his daughter an education beyond what the women’s colleges or seminaries that had been recently established could offer. Several high-profile Cambridge women helped manage this new Annex, including women with familiar last names, such as Elizabeth Cary Agassiz and Mary B. Greenough.
And thus, Radcliffe’s precursor, the Harvard Annex, was established for 27 students in a building on Appian Way. Women who enrolled in the Annex were not given Harvard housing and therefore forced to find lodging with Cambridge families, but they did have access to Harvard libraries, were subject to the same admissions criteria as men, learned the same lessons from the same professors, and sat through the same exams. True to Gilman’s dream, the Annex curriculum covered a wider span than other women’s colleges of the era did, from languages to history to music to physics. Radcliffe distinguished itself from other women’s colleges because its students took classes with Harvard professors – Radcliffe did not actually have any of its own faculty. Fifty women were students at the Annex in 1885; by 1891, there were 172.
The women’s education advocates who created the Annex hoped that the success of the endeavor would encourage Harvard to admit women directly into the college. The president at the time, Eliot, did not share their progressive views on women’s education, and refused to merge the two schools. “The difficulties involved in a common residence of hundreds of young men and women of immature character and marriageable age are very grave. The necessary police regulations are exceedingly burdensome,” Eliot said.
Because Harvard refused to officially recognize the Annex, women who finished the four-year program only received a certificate of completion and not a degree. After intense negotiations between Annex and Harvard administrators, this injustice was finally rectified in 1894. It was agreed that the Annex would become Radcliffe College, a degree-granting institution for women under the auspices of Harvard.
When Radcliffe was established, the center of women’s education at Harvard moved out of the house on Appian Way and into what are now known as the Quad and Radcliffe Yard. Radcliffe and Harvard continued to have a complicated relationship throughout the twentieth century, but Radcliffe was able to maintain the reputation as one of the most preeminent institutions of higher learning for American women.
Although Harvard is now completely coeducational and neither the Annex nor Radcliffe confers degrees any longer, Harvard students who care about empowering women must not forget the history behind coeducation at Harvard. Women and men of the 1800s and 1900s worked tirelessly for our right to an equal education. Some people may think that the nineteenth century push for women’s education and twentieth century push for coeducation were the inevitable products of progress, but in reality, there is no such concept as “oh, it would have happened no matter what.” Activists had to actively work towards these goals. Had they not, the historical narrative would have read very differently. It is our duty to ensure that the legacy of the creators of the Annex and advocates of women’s education at Harvard is not forgotten.
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Elephant bird
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Elephant birds
Temporal range: Quaternary
Elephant Bird Egg.JPG
The egg of an Elephant bird
Scientific classification
(Bonaparte, 1853)[1]
Elephant birds are an extinct family of large birds which could not fly. They were found only on the island of Madagascar. The group had two genera, Aepyornis and Mullerornis, and seven species. Like several other flightless birds, they were hunted to extinction.[2]
Description[change | change source]
The Elephant birds, which were giant ratites, have been extinct since at least the 17th century. Étienne de Flacourt, a French governor of Madagascar in the 1640s and 1650s, recorded frequent sightings of elephant birds. Aepyornis, one of the world's largest birds, is believed to have been over 3 metres (10 ft) tall, weighing close to 400 kg (880 lb).[3] Remains of Aepyornis adults and eggs have been found. In some cases the eggs have a circumference of over 1 metre (3 ft) and a length up to 34 centimetres (13 in).[4] The egg volume is about 160 times greater than a chicken egg.[5]
References[change | change source]
1. 1.0 1.1 Brands, S. (2008)
2. Ellis, Richard (2004). No turning back: the life and death of animal species. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 102. ISBN 0-06-055804-0.
3. Davies S.J.J.F. 2003. Elephant birds. In Hutchins, Michael. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. 2nd ed, Gale, Farmington Hills, MI. p103. ISBN 0-7876-5784-0.
4. Mlíkovsky J. 2003. Eggs of extinct aepyornithids (Aves: Aepyornithidae) of Madagascar: size and taxonomic identity. Sylvia, 39: 133–138.
5. Hawkins A.F.A. and Goodman S.M. 2003. In Goodman, S.M. and Benstead, J.P. (eds). The Natural History of Madagascar. University of Chicago Press. p1026
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"url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant_bird"
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Goldbook title
IUPAC > Gold Book > alphabetical index > C > collision theory
Gold G Icon
Indexes Download
collision theory
Various collision theories, dealing with the frequency of collision between reactant molecules, have been put forward. In the earliest theories reactant molecules were regarded as hard spheres, and a collision was considered to occur when the distance d between the centres of two molecules was equal to the sum of their radii. For a gas containing only one type of molecule, A, the collision density is given by simple collision theory as:
Z AA = 2 π σ 2 u N A 2 2
Here N A is the number density of molecules and u is the mean molecular speed, given by kinetic theory to be 8 k B T π m, where m is the molecular mass, and σ = π d AA 2. Thus:
Z AA = 2 N A 2 σ 2 π k B T m
The corresponding expression for the collision densityZ AB for two unlike molecules A and B, of masses m A and m B is:
Z AB = N A N B σ 2 π k B T μ
where μ is the reduced massm A m B m A + m B, and σ = π d AB 2. For the collision frequency factor these formulations lead to the following expression:
z AA or z AB = L σ 2 8 π k B T μ
where L is the Avogadro constant. More advanced collision theories, not involving the assumption that molecules behave as hard spheres, are known as generalized kinetic theories.
Interactive Link Maps
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Cite as:
DOI of this term:
Current PDF version | Version for print | History of this term
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In everyday life we encounter more and more carbon dioxide information. However, it's difficult to understand the magnitude of the numbers told. What does a kilogram of CO2 really mean?
Convert between a CO2 amount to other units as cups of tea or hours in flight.
Compare between two different emissions, for instance how many carrots are equivalent to a kilo of beef?
Use our API to convert CO2 to a more understandable number and use it on your own site.
Our carbon data comes from AMEE and from KTH research. Some assumptions were made in this application and the data is mostly is localized to Sweden. See all references.
The technologies behind the site includes HTML, Rails and jQuery. The project is released as open source and the code can be found at GitHub.
Statistics about the usage can be found here. is an application from the Centre for Sustainable Communications at KTH, Stockholm. was developed by David Kjelkerud, Henrik Berggren and Jorge Zapico at Ecomo09, an environmental hacking day in London.
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"url": "http://carbon.kilowh.at/about"
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Follicle (fruit)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A milkweed follicle releasing its seeds.
In botany, a follicle is a dry unilocular fruit formed from one carpel, containing two or more seeds.[1] It is usually defined as dehiscing by a suture in order to release seeds,[2] for example in Consolida (some of the larkspurs), peony and milkweed (Asclepias).
Some difficult cases exist however, so that the term indehiscent follicle is sometimes used, for example with the genus Filipendula, which has indehiscent fruits that could be considered intermediate between a (dehiscent) follicle and an (indehiscent) achene.[3]
An aggregate fruit that consists of follicles may be called a follicetum. Examples include hellebore, aconite, Delphinium, Aquilegia or the family Crassulaceae, where several follicles occur in a whorl on a shortened receptacle, or Magnolia, which has many follicles arranged in a spiral on an elongated receptacle.[2]
The follicles of some species dehisce by the ventral suture (as in Banksia),[4] or by the dorsal suture (as in Magnolia).[5]
2. ^ a b Wikisource Rendle, Alfred Barton (1911). "Fruit" . In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 257.
3. ^ "Flora of China online".
4. ^ Renshaw, A.; Burgin, S. (2008). "Enantiomorphy in Banksia (Proteaceae): flowers and fruits". Australian Journal of Botany. 56 (4): 342–346. doi:10.1071/BT07073.
5. ^ Kapil, R. N. and N. N. Bhandari (1964) Morphology and embryology of Magnolia Archived 2013-05-01 at the Wayback Machine. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 30, 245-262.
External links[edit]
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Definition - The language element to which affixes are attached. For example, the base of bobbing, bobs, and bobbed is bob.
1. The base is the part of the word that is listed in the dictionary.
Etymology -
The term derives via Old French from the Late Latin bassus, thick, stumpy, or low. It is possibly related to the Greek basson, the comparative of bathys, deep.
Oxford English Dictionary -
Its first citation in this sense is from 1845:
"The p is indicatory, signifying that, for the radical vowel of the base, a Guna letter or diphthong is to be substituted."
(Proc. Philol. Soc. I. 28)
Please comment
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A mock suicide bomber det0nates his explosives during an anti-terror drill in Indonesia. (EPA/Hotli Simanjuntak)
However, new research shows that terror attacks may not be as unpredictable as people think. A paper by Stephen Tench and Hannah Fry, mathematicians at the University College London, and Paul Gill, a security and crime expert, shows that terrorist attacks often follow a general pattern that can be modeled and predicted using math.
Predicting human behavior is obviously a difficult thing to do, and one can't always extrapolate from past events to predict the future. As one academic discussion of the topic points out, if you made a forecast in 1864 about how many presidents would be assassinated in office based on historical data, the expected number would be zero. But over the next 40 years, four U.S. presidents were killed in office.
Yet when you put individual human acts together and look at the aggregate, they often do follow a pattern that can be represented with math. As Sir Arthur Conan Doyle writes in "The Sign of Four," the second Sherlock Holmes novel, ". . . while the individual man is an insoluble puzzle, in the aggregate he becomes a mathematical certainty."
The Hawkes process
The mathematical model that Tench and Fry use to look at terrorist attacks is called a “Hawkes process.” The basic idea behind Hawkes processes is that some events don’t occur independently; when a certain event happens, you’re more likely to see other events of the same kind shortly thereafter. As time elapses, however, the probability of a subsequent event occurring gradually fades away and returns to normal.
A mathematician named Alan Hawkes first developed the idea while searching for a mathematical model that would describe the patterns of earthquakes. Earthquake tremors aren’t independent events, either – after an earthquake hits, the area often experiences aftershocks. So Hawkes designed his equations to reflect the greater probability of experiencing a subsequent tremor shortly after the first one.
Since Hawkes developed the model in the 1970s, similar equations have been used to describe all kinds of sequences of related events, including how epidemics travel, how electrical impulses move through the brain, and how emails move through an organization. Recently, Hawkes processes have also been used to predict the locations and timings of burglaries and gang-related violence.
Why gang-related violence follows a Hawkes process is fairly easy to understand. A murder or shooting by one gang often provokes retaliation by another gang. So following the first incident, the probability of a second incident typically goes up.
It's a little harder to understand why burglaries follow a Hawkes process – i.e., why one burglary would increase the chances of another burglary happening soon after. But as Hannah Fry, one of the paper’s mathematicians, explains in the video by Numberphile below, having your house burglarized does increase the chances that thieves will visit again. The burglars now know the location of your valuables and the layout of your house and your neighborhood, meaning your neighbors are more likely to be burglarized in the future, too.
Hawkes processes so accurately describe how trends in crime vary that some security companies and law enforcement bureaus have started to use them in their work. As Fry says, companies like PredPol monitor data on past crimes to model geographic “hotspots” that can be more heavily policed or can become the focus of specific crime-prevention policies.
Predicting terrorist attacks
In their paper, Tench, Fry and Gill apply this same model to terrorism in Northern Ireland. The paper looks at more than 5,000 explosions of improved explosive devices (IEDs) around Northern Ireland during a particularly violent time known as “the Troubles” between 1970 and 1998, when paramilitary groups in the mostly Catholic Northern Ireland fought to secede from Britain and join Ireland. The researchers used the process to analyze when and where one group, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), launched its terror attacks, how the British Security Forces responded, and how effective those responses were.
As the chart below shows, the IED explosions follow a pattern. After one incident, others follow more quickly before subsiding, creating the peaks in the data below.
(Fry, Tench and Gill)
So you have the ordinary chance of the event, but afterward you have a “little kick,” as Fry says, that increases the probability that you’ll have another attack – but then fades away over time. Mathematicians can capture and model these patterns using a Hawkes process equation. The math can reveal patterns in past terrorist activity that weren't seen before, or be used to test different theories about those patterns, the researchers say. It can also create predictive models, which estimate the probability of future attacks at different times and in different areas.
The researchers say that their analysis shows distinct phases in the conflict between the Irish terrorists and authorities. For example, bombings slowed down as the IRA was infiltrated by British security forces and when more of its members were imprisoned, and bombings increased when the group launched a renewed campaign of violence or tried to use incidents of terrorism as a bargaining tool in negotiations.
One of the most fascinating lessons of the research is on the effects of counterterrorist operations. The paper shows evidence that the death of Catholic civilians, whom the IRA claimed to be representing, would cause the group to increase their IED attacks in retaliation.
That finding echoes previous research that looked at counterterrorism operations by the United States and its coalition partners in Iraq. That paper showed that counterinsurgency operations that were carried out indiscriminately – in other words, attacks that hurt or kill innocent people who were not necessarily insurgents -- led to a backlash of terrorist violence. In contrast, counterinsurgency operations that were carried out in a discriminating, targeted way led to a lower level of violence than before.
The paper looks at events in the past, but Tench says the same technique can be used to project future trends. After one terrorist attack, and especially after civilians are killed, the likelihood of subsequent "aftershocks" increases for a specific time period, and authorities need to intervene quickly to avoid a long period of violence. They must also ensure their counterterrorism operations are targeted at the actual insurgents, to avoid provoking the destructive wave of violence that indiscriminate counterterrorism has been shown to do.
Tench says he hopes counterterrorism officials will start using the technique as part of their portfolio. "This application of the Hawkes process is a relatively new idea, so I imagine it might take some time to filter through," he says.
You might also like:
Photos show what crime looks like before it happens
How to change someone’s mind, according to science
Most thieves are actually really bad at what they do
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| Year 2
2 6
In Geography, the children have been developing their mapping skills and preparing to draw their own map of a route around the school grounds. The recent glorious weather was perfect for this outdoor activity, as the children were collecting objects in order to create their own journey stick, which would help them to recall the key features of their route. Some very imaginative objects were collected, which included leaves, stones, foliage and feathers which were carefully attached to their sticks as they proceeded along the route. They were able to discuss the importance of the correspondence between halfway along the route and half way along their stick and begin to identify right and left turns. Back in the classroom, the children were able to explain why they had selected their objects and these will help them to draw their route map.
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AP U.S. History Students Explore Mount Vernon as Primary Source for Colonial Studies
On Wednesday, Oct. 17, students in the AP U.S. History class visited George Washington's Mount Vernon, in Mt. Vernon, Virginia, as part of their study of the colonial and revolutionary periods. Teachers Chuck Goetz and Tonya Montgomery used the visit as a chance to show students that primary sources take many forms and can be analyzed in the same way as the documents students explore in class, considering historical context, purpose, point of view, and intended audience.
Students learned what 18th century life would have been like as they visited a blacksmith shop, a spinning shed, a kitchen, and a washing house near Washington's home at Mount Vernon. They also visited several sites that were used to provide food for the 300+ people who lived at Mount Vernon in 1799, including the gardens, smokehouse, wharf, and treading barn. Several students remarked throughout the day that they enjoy the conveniences of their own daily life in comparison!
Students also explored how the Washington's divided their private and public lives in their home and around their estate. Discussions about race and class were embedded throughout the day as students recognized the various roles that were filled by the enslaved people who lived at Mount Vernon and visited the reconstructed homestead of one enslaved family - Silla, Slammin' Joe, and their six children. After a day of exploration, students initiated an interesting conversation Washington's place as a hero in history, combining their knowledge of him from their class meetings in ninth grade where Mr. Connolly used General Washington as an ongoing example with their own experiences of the day. The trip will continue to enrich and inform such classroom conversations throughout the year.
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Canta che ti passa: Italian Commentary in Music (ITA4117.01)
Barbara Alfano
“‘Canta che ti passa,” (Sing and you’ll feel better), says an old Italian adage. Yet, Italians do not always sing to forget their troubles. Much of the Italian musical tradition expresses social and political commentary, seriously or ironically. Songs as diverse and far apart in time as Toto Cotugno’s populist “L’italiano” (An Italian, 1983), Giorgio Gaber’s intellectually engaged “Io Non mi sento italiano” (I’m Not Really Italian, 2003), and Nilla Pizzi’s tongue-in-cheek “Papaveri e papere” (Poppies and Ducks, 1952) are equally representative of the many cultural faces of Italy. Through music–but not only–students will learn what Italians have to say about their own cultural, social, and political habits, and possibly sing along. Journal articles, interviews, advertisements, web sites, film, and videos will also be part of this course. Students will strengthen their speaking skills and become familiar with the linguistic structures that will enable them to express their viewpoints with a certain ease, developing, on the writing side, paragraph-level discourse. We will focus in particular on the use of the subjunctive and the conditional, and on the agreement of verbal tenses, while also reviewing the basic grammar covered in the first two terms of Italian. Intermediate-low level. Conducted in Italian.
Prerequisites: Two terms of Italian or permission of instructor.
Credits: 4
Maximum Enrollment: 18
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Jaques Speech Act In As You Like It
In William Shakespeare’s As You Like It the speech act is introduced and helps to create a unique insight into the play and its events. Shakespeare integrates a speech act by Jaques to deliver a deeper meaning and lesson to the audience or reader of the work. Jaques in his speech act conveys a message with a much deeper meaning and teaching to society in general. The speech act rendered by Jaques addresses the themes of satire, philosophy, and the ages of man.
Jaques starts his speech act by stating that
” All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages.” (II, vii, 139-143)
Jaques has turned to philosophy in his search for a new identity, and as a philosopher he starts to question what he sees and hears around him. This drives him to offer this speech act where he sees the world as a stage upon which people perform. Their different ages signify varying acts and scenes in As You Like It. The descriptions presented by Jaques lead one to believe that the roles are somewhat beyond the player’s control and perhaps even that the script has been set by an eternal power.
Jaques addresses the topic of satire utilizing a unique way to convey the message to the audience or reader. A mention is made of the infant who “mews and pukes in the nurses arms “(II, ii, 144-146). He describes the event in such a graphic manner in order to paint a clear picture of the situation in the audience’s mind. Jaques later relates how “a whining schoolboy, with his satchel and shining morning face creeps to school (II, vii, 146-147). He goes on further to describe how the “lover, sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad made to his mistress’ eyebrow (II, vii, 147-148). Jaques takes his satirical approach further as he states that “the justice, in fair round belly with good capon lined, with eyes severe and beard of formal cut … plays his part” (II, vii, 153-156). Jaques finally ends his satirical approach by telling how at the end of life one is left “sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything”(II, vii, 166). He makes his point of the life that is lead by many in society and achieves his purpose through the usage of satire to do so.
Jaques handles the issue of philosophy in his speech act in a way that enhances the rest of the play. As he states that ” all the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely players ” Jaques poses a philosophical view of the situation being addressed. He opts to use symbolic means to express his feelings about the behavior of humans in society in which humans simply play out their lives on stage. Jaques goes on to say that ” one man in his time plays many parts, his acts being seven ages” (II, vii, 2-3). He categorizes the stages of life into seven significant categories which all contribute to man’s ultimate end. Jaques expresses a very pessimistic view of life and society in general through his philosophical examples.
As his speech act continues, Jaques makes a remark about the seven ages of man and how they add to man’s ultimate end. Jaques breaks up the stages into infancy, schoolboy, lover, soldier, justice, a ridiculous old man or “pantaloon” and finally the stage at which one has no teeth, eyes, taste, or anything else (II, vii, 158). He regards infancy as a stage in which a child is so dependent upon a nurse or other helping hand. The infant then develops into a schoolboy who can be reluctant to attend school at times. This boy has already grown into a person who now begins to feel and act according to the feelings. The next stage encompasses one in which the man develops into a lover who will sing a ballad if necessary and who may not always be the most loyal husband or lover. The next stage as a soldier turns into one in which he is proud to serve and “quick to battle in order to build reputation” (II, vii, 149-151). This is a man now who is ready to serve his country and fight for a necessary cause. The man then develops into a justice who can be imperfect in many ways. Besides a “fair round belly”, he can be influenced by outside forces to sway a ruling or mold a case a certain way. As he approaches the old man stage, the individual begins to act in certain ways that bring ridicule unto himself. The last stage of all encompasses the old age of the man and leaves him without any senses or anything else, according to Jaques.
The speech act rendered by Jaques addresses the themes of satire, philosophy, and the ages of man. He conveys his deeper message to the audience or reader of the work through an elaborate and interesting method. He satirizes justices, a lover and even relates how at the end of the road one is left without any senses. He is able to depict the stages of man through real-life situations. Jaques also achieves integration of philosophical themes into his speech act. He turns into a philosopher as he analyzes and reflects on how people in society behave. Jaques relates this speech act in such a way that magnifies the effect of the play on the audience or reader of the work.
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South America to c. 1500
Inverse-face beaker
Feline fangs, rather than human teeth, suggest that this figure is either supernatural or in contact with deities.
Inverse-Face Beaker
Intro to the Inka
The Inka empire spanned from Ecuador to Chile, and was connected by a road system used for official business only.
Introduction to the Inka
Detail, Keru Vessel, Inka, lacquered wood, Colonial, Peru (Brooklyn Museum) Keru Cup. Inka. Colonial. Wood; lacquered, 7 3/8 x 6 15/16inches / 18.7 x 17.6cm (Brooklyn Museum)
Although this vessel depicts a royal Inka couple, it was produced after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors.
Keru Vessel
These receptacles held liquid offerings, the surface of the liquid were eyes that saw into the underworld.
Inka stone vessels
Mask with Nose Ornament, c. 500 B.C.E.–1600 C.E., gold alloy, 15.5 x 18 cm, Quimbaya © The Trustees of the British Museum. This spectacular hammered mask with a dangling nose ornament would probably have been placed on top of the face of a funerary bundle – the wrapped body of the deceased—transforming him into an ancestor and semi-divine figure.
For centuries Europeans were dazzled by the idea of a lost city of gold in South America… but did it really exist?
Ancient Colombian goldmaking
Nasca culture
These images carved into the desert floor cannot be truly appreciated from the ground—so who were they made for?
Nasca Geoglyphs
Feline-Head Bottle
Multiple points of view are combined in the decoration of this vessel, tip it and see!
Feline-Head Bottle
A well-known ushnu site, Vilcashuaman was a major Inka administrative centre on the main Inka road running along the Andes mountain chain and down to the coast. © Trustees of the British Museum
Sites for ritual activity, ushnus occupied the best real estate, chosen for their views of snow-capped mountains.
What is an Inka ushnu?
Moche bottle
Thousands of ceramic bottles were produced by Moche ceramicists, and many multiples were made using molds.
Moche Portrait Head Bottle
All-T’oqapu Tunic
Andean cultures had long valued textiles, but they were especially significant and finely-made in the Inka Empire.
All-T’oqapu Tunic
Machu Picchu
The Inka emperor hosted feasts, performed religious ceremonies, and ruled his empire from this remote citadel.
Machu Picchu
Maize cobs
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Our First Mention
The first written mention of the Waccamaw Siouan Indians appeared in historical records of 1712 when a special effort was made to persuade the tribe along with the Cape Fears to join James Moore’s expedition against the Tuscarora. It is believed that the Waccon Indian, the Siouan tribe which Lawson placed a few miles to the south of the lower or hostile Tuscarora, ceased to exist by the name Waccon but that they moved southward as a group and became the Waccamaw Indians. Tribal names were often changed or altered, especially by the whites in their spellings, and the Waccamaw appeared first in historical records at about the same time that the Waccons disappeared.
The Waccamaw, then known as the Waccommassus, were located one hundred miles northeast of Charleston, South Carolina. In 1749, a war broke out between the Waccamaw and the State of South Carolina. Twenty nine years later, in May 1778, provision was made by the Council of South Carolina to render them protection. After the Waccamaw and South Carolina war the Waccamaw sought refuge in the swamp lands of North Carolina. The present home of the Waccamaw Siouan, is situated on the edge of the Green swamp about thirty-seven miles west of Wilmington, North Carolina.
Swamp Life
Lawson and Lederer, early explorers of the Carolinas, mention the existence of the Waccamaw Siouan whom they reported were part of the Eastern Sioux Nation but never visited their forbidden swampland refuge. Though, the language is now lost, certain conclusions can be drawn from the knowledge of the Catawba language. A game played by the Catawba Indian Children is spelled Wap-ka-hare. This almost unpronounceable name is translated as "ball knock." To hear an Indian say it, it sounds "Wahumwar." It is reasonable to believe the Waccamaw is an English translation of a part of the phrase that told of the ball of fire that knocked into the earth and created the lake known today as Lake Waccamaw. The natural conclusion, substantiated by these theories, is that the Waccamaw are the "People of the Falling Star."
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La Folia
From Young Composers
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La Folia is term for a musical framework used during the Baroque period for songs, dances and sets of variations. It is most easily recognised by it's trademark chord progression (in the key of D Minor): Dm A7 Dm C F C Dm A7 Dm A7 Dm C F C Dm A7 Dm. However, like other dance forms and ostinato types, the folia did not consist merely of a chord progression, but included a complex of other distinctive musical elements such as metric patterns, rhythmic and melodic figures, cadential formulae and so forth.
The history of the folia predates the earliest surviving musical sources. A dance called the ‘folia’ was popular in late 15th-century Portugal; it probably originated as a folk dance, but Portuguese sources of the period mention folias sung and danced during both popular festivals and courtly spectacles. Folia texts appear in Portuguese and Spanish theatrical works of the 15th Century. Sung on stage by an ensemble in costume, they retain a popular tone and a metrical form characterized by a refrain of two, three or four lines. The few descriptions of the folia dance containing specific references to its performance manner date from the beginning of the 17th century. In 1611 Sebastián de Covarrubias described the folia as a Portuguese dance that was very noisy, performed with tambourines and other instruments by disguised street-porters carrying young men in women’s clothing on their shoulder. He also explained that the name, which means ‘mad’ or ‘empty-headed’, was appropriate because the dance was so fast and noisy that the dancers seemed to be out of their minds. Gonzalo Correa, in 1626 related the poetic form of the folia to that of the seguidilla and added that the performance was often accompanied by guitar, sonajas and panderos (types of tambourine).
The Early Folia
The earliest known composition to use the folia progression in an ostinato fashion is the Fantasia que contrahaze la harpa in Alonso Mudarra’s Tres libros de música en cifras para vihuela of 1546. The title ‘folia’ first appeared in 1577, however, in Francisco de Salinas’s De musica libri septem.
There is no doubt that the folia was enjoying great popularity in Italy by the early 17th century. The chords to be strummed as the accompaniment to the folia were included in more than 50 tablatures for the five-course guitar, beginning with Girolamo Montesardo’s Nuova inventione d’intavolatura (1606).
The rhythmic pattern of the early folia continually emphasizes 3/4 metre, whereas both the melody and the harmonic changes often oscillate between 3/2 and 6/4. Though most often in G minor, the folia may be cast in other keys or, rarely, in the major mode; sometimes both major and minor modes alternate within a single statement of the scheme.
The Late Folia
In the course of the 1670s the folia scheme underwent some decisive transformations. Lully, who composed the earliest known example of the new folia model (an "Air des hautbois", dated 1672), no doubt played a vital role in the late history of the genre. The new structure developed by Lully and his French colleagues remained popular in France and England until the end of the Baroque period. This late folia begins with a statement of the scheme in in which all second beats are dotted. This threw a powerful secondary accent on the opening chord, a significant detail that may have acted as a transition to the new rhythmic structure employed by the later folia.
In the later folia the first accent falls on I, with a resulting shift in the rhythmic structure. The melody, which was for the most part, fixed, moves a 3rd lower than the melody in the earlier folia, with second beats dotted, particularly in the odd-numbered bars. The second-beat accentuation may be the reason why this folia was said to be related to the sarabande. The later folia has no ritornellos, is almost always in D minor, and is generally slow and dignified.
Examples of La Folia in music
Over the course of three centuries, more than 150 composers have used it in their works. Some famous examples include variations by Vivaldi, Corelli,Salieri, Scarlatti, and Corbetta
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Contemporary monks' robes follow the same design as medieval monastic habits.
Catholic monasteries and the monks who live in them have weathered the ups and downs of colorful historic times while embracing an architectural austerity and color palette that starkly differentiated them from society. The subdued and neutral shades of monks' robes visibly proclaimed their vows of poverty and detachment from the ornaments and distractions of this world. Different monastic orders chose distinctive hues for their habits as an additional means of advertising their particular missions and philosophies.
Evolution of Monastic Style
In early days, the habits of religious orders were somewhat of a hodgepodge. Monks wore whatever color of poor garment was available, based on donations from the faithful, local cloth and vegetable dyes, or the tradition of their monastery. Robes were gray, brown, undyed wool or a mix of dun colors. As the monasteries grew in power and prestige, traditions codified and each order identified itself with colors chosen to express the philosophy or commitment of that particular community. By the twelfth century, as monastic growth and influence was approaching its zenith, the habits of the orders had become distinctive uniforms.
Black and White Monks
Benedictines were the most organized and widespread order and, like other religious houses, they started out wearing simple undyed wool robes -- a kind of dingy white shading to dark, depending on the local sheep. Eventually they settled on black as the color for habits and became known as "the black monks." True black robes required dye so the adoption of a processed color may have signified the relative wealth of the Benedictine communities, without refuting ideals of monastic humility and simplicity by embracing an ostentatious -- and more expensive -- color like red or blue. The Carthusians, an order of mostly contemplative monks, wore undyed white wool robes with white over-tunics called scapulars or cowls. They were known as "white monks" due to the all-white habits of fully-professed Carthusian monks.
Cistercians follow the Rule of St. Benedict but their practices are more severe and, unlike the Benedictines, Cistercians do not wear black. Cistercian robes are undyed and range in hue from grayish-white to light brown. The undyed wool of their tunics and cowls is a mark of their poverty. Despite the fact that none of their garments are exactly white, Cistercians are also called "white monks" to distinguish them from the more worldly Benedictines.
A reform monastery of the Cistercian order is today known as Trappists wear a stark white tunic under a black scapular -- a kind of protective apron -- to signify their strict adherence to monastic life. Trappists are a relatively recent monastic order. Unlike most monasteries that were founded in the Middle Ages, the Trappist order began in the vivid and opulent seventeenth-century Renaissance, well after the dissolution of the established monasteries by Henry VIII in the fourteenth century.
Carmelites and Friars
Brown went in and out of fashion in monastic couture. The Carmelites chose brown wool and stayed with it as a reminder of the cross on which Christ was crucified and of the humility of the soil of the earth. The sturdy brown robes are held together with a leather cincture, a visible sign of the vow of chastity the monks take when entering the order.
Franciscans, itinerant mendicant preachers who are actually friars, embrace a life of poverty and their original brown robes reflected the destitution of the peasants they served. The robes of St. Francis' followers were made of cloth and old clothing donated by those peasants, who always wore undyed brown. The color brown also symbolizes the Franciscan commitment to protect the earth and nature and to contribute to society.
Dominicans are also teaching friars, not monks, who wear white tunics. Their pale robes reflect traditional garb of teachers and represent purity. Tunics are belted in black leather and their white scapular is a blessed shield of protection from the Blessed Virgin, the Mother of God, not a protective apron for their robes.
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Carbonate Petrography
25 strangest Geologic Formations on Earth
The strangest formations on Earth.
What causes Earthquake?
The Geologic Column
Folds and Foliations
Amethyst Gemstone
What is Amethyst?
Amethyst colour
The colour in amethyst from most localities is unevenly distributed in the individual crystals. In amethyst geodes it is often most intense in the growth zones under the rhombohedral faces (at the tips). Occasionally the colour is deeper under either the r or z rhombohedral faces, giving the crystal a pinwheel appearance when viewed from the top. In prismatic crystals the colour may appear in phantom-like thin layers, while in sceptres and skeleton quartz the colour is often concentrated along the edges, and accompanied by smoky zones. Despite the intense colour, the content of iron occupying Si positions in amethyst is rather low, in the 10-100 ppm range.
When heated to more than about 300-400°C, amethyst loses its violet colour and often turns yellow, orange or brown, and then resembles the quartz variety citrine, but depending on the locality and the temperature during the heat treatment it may also turn colourless or rarely green.
Irradiation with UV light will also destroy the colour centres, and accordingly prolonged exposure to sunlight will slowly fade amethyst. The photo to the right shows the effects of heat (bottom left and right) and UV irradiation (top right) on the colour of a specimen from Uruguay.
Amethyst is pleochroic when the polarisation of the light is changed from parallel to the c-axis to perpendicular to the c-axis, amethyst changes its colour from blue-violet to purple. The strength of the effect varies to a considerable degree, and changes in the hue depending on the direction of the transmitted light may be observable with the naked eye, in particular in crystals with a zonar development of colour, which may even show sky-blue tones.
Amethyst Crystals
Amethyst crystals do not get very large, crystals longer than 30 cm are very rare. It is found in various forms and shapes, the most common growth forms are:
Amethyst types
Purple Amethyst
Brandberg Amethyst
Chevron Amethyst
Cacoxenite in Amethyst
Rutiliated Amethyst
Amethyst Healing Properties
Physical properties of Amethyst
Chemical FormulaSiO2
Crystal SystemHexagonal
Refractive Index1.54 - 1.55
SG2.63 - 2.65
TransparencyTransparent to translucent
Double Refraction.009
Mineral ClassQuartz
Amber Gemstone
What is Amber?
Amber is fossilised tree resin (not sap), which has been appreciated for its colour and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects. Amber is used as an ingredient in perfumes, as a healing agent in folk medicine, and as jewellery.
Amber is heterogeneous in composition, but consists of several resinous bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. Amber is a macro-molecule by free radical polymerisation of several precursors in the labdane family, e.g. communic acid, cummunol, and biformene. These labdanes are diterpenes (C20H32) and trienes, equipping the organic skeleton with three alkene groups for polymerisation. As amber matures over the years, more polymerisation takes place as well as isomerization reactions, cross-linking and cyclization.
Distribution and mining
Amber is globally distributed, mainly in rocks of Cretaceous age or younger. Historically, the Samland coast west of Königsberg in Prussia was the world's leading source of amber. First mentions of amber deposits here date back to the 12th century. About 90% of the world's extractable amber is still located in that area, which became the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia in 1946.
Geological record
Transparent Amber.
Semitransparent Amber.
Non-transparent (bone and foamy)
Amber Healing Properties
These stones link the everyday self to the spiritual self.
Physical Properties of Amber
ColourBlue, Red, Green, Yellow, Orange, Brown
Hardness2 - 2.5
Crystal SystemAmorphous
Refractive Index1.539 - 1.545
SG1.0 - 1.1
TransparencyTransparent to nearly opaque
Origin of Earthquakes in the Hawaiian Islands
Where do earthquake travel-time curves come from?
Tsunamis Generated by Megathrust Earthquakes
How is Mars Compare to Earth?
Convergent Margin, Subduction to Tsunami
Divergent Boundary, Fast Spreading Ridge
What is Amazonite?
Amazonite (sometimes called "Amazon stone") is a green variety of microcline feldspar. The name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which certain green stones were formerly obtained, but it is doubtful whether green feldspar occurs in the Amazon area.
A green to blue-green variety of K-feldspar, usually microcline, but sometimes applied to orthoclase. The colour is usually caused by an elevated content of Pb (up to 1.2% PbO).
However, there are also indications that the green colour of some microcline is caused by divalent Fe. Overenthusiastic uses of this name include giving this name to slightly gray-green hues in microcline that are often photosensitive and turn from greenish gray to light smoky gray. Sunlight can sometimes enrich the colour of genuine amazonite.
Amazonite properties
Mohs Hardness of 6-6.5 with a triclinic crystal structure. Amazonite or Microcline is a form of alkali feldspar, and it’s colour is due to the presence of lead. Although the main colour of Amazonite is teal it may also be partially colourless, white, yellow, pink, red, gray or green. It’s striking colour is due to the presence of lead and is that mineral that determines the depth of the colour.
Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, 50 miles southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks. More recently, high-quality crystals have been obtained from Pike's Peak, Colorado, where it is found associated with smoky quartz, orthoclase, and albite in a coarse granite or pegmatite. Crystals of amazonite can also be found in Crystal Park, El Paso County, Colorado. Other locations in the United States which yield amazonite include the Morefield Mine in Amelia, Virginia. It is also found in pegmatite in Madagascar and in Brazil.
For many years, the source of amazonite's colour was a mystery. Naturally, many people assumed the colour was due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colours. More recent studies suggest that the blue-green colour results from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar.
Amazonite healing properties
Physical Properties of Amazonite
Chemical FormulaKAlSi3O8
ColourBlue, Green, Purple, Gray, Multicolored
Hardness6 - 6.5
Crystal SystemTriclinic
Refractive Index1.52 - 1.53
SG2.56 - 2.58
TransparencyTranslucent to opaque
Double Refraction-.008
Cleavage2,1 - basal ; 2,1 - prismatic ; 3,1 - pinacoidal
Mineral ClassMicrocline
Agate Gemstone
What is Agate?
Agate is the name given to numerous varieties of banded Chalcedony, a mineral of the Quartz family. Its name comes from the Achetes River in Sicily, where Agates were first found. Usually banded in layers, or stripes, some varieties have "eye" markings, or specks of colour, some have fossilised inclusions, and others are solid. Called the earth rainbow, the concentric bands of Agate form in nearly every colour the earth can produce, including a colourless form.
It is a translucent variety of microcrystalline quartz. It is used as a semiprecious stone when it is of desirable quality and colour. Agate generally forms by the deposition of silica from groundwater in the cavities of igneous rocks. The agate deposits in concentric layers around the walls of the cavity, or in horizontal layers building up from the bottom of the cavity. These structures produce the banded patterns that are characteristic of many agates.
Coyamito Agate.
Historically, Agate has been discovered with the artefacts of Neolithic people, and was used as healing amulets and ornamentation dating back to Babylon. Its medicinal uses continued through the ancient Greek and Egyptian civilisations, and spread throughout Africa and the Middle East into Russia. Agate sparked a world renowned stone-cutting and polishing industry in Germany that flourished from the 15th to the 19th century, and exists today.
Petrified wood agate.
Metaphysically, Agate has a lower intensity and vibrates to a slower frequency than other stones, but is highly regarded as a stabilising and strengthening influence. The layered bands of microscopic quartz in Agate may appear delicate, they are actually very strong. Agate is excellent for balancing emotional, physical and intellectual energy, and in harmonising yin and yang, the positive and negative forces of the universe.
Agate occurs in a wide range of colours, which include brown, white, red, Gray, pink, black, and yellow. The colours are caused by impurities and occur as alternating bands within the agate. The different colours were produced as groundwater of different compositions seeped into the cavity. The banding within a cavity is a record of water chemistry change. This banding gives many agates the interesting colours and patterns that make it a popular gemstone.
Agua Nueva agate.
Types of Agates
The world of agates is a fascinating and ever evolving places. There are hundreds, if not thousands of types of agates. They are found around the world. They bring a wonder and magic to the planet with their swirls of colour bands.
Blue Lace Agate, Crazy Lace Agate, Dendritic Agate, Fire Agate, Laguna Agate and Moss Agate.
A matched pair of bookends cut from a large agate nodule.
Agate Gemstone
Tumbled Agate
More About Agate
Most agate has unimpressive colours and patterns. However, agate is a porous material that readily accepts dye. Most of the spectacularly coloured agates sold in the gemstone trade have been dyed. Rarely, the colour patterns of an agate form interesting landscape scenes. These are sought after by collectors.
Moss agate
Moss agate contains green filament-like inclusions, giving it the superficial appearance of moss or blue cheese. There is also tree agate which is similar to moss agate except it is solid white with green filaments whereas moss agate usually has a transparent background, so the "moss" appears in 3D. It is not a true form of agate, as it lacks agate's defining feature of concentric banding.
Agate Healing properties
Blue lace agate
Crazy lase agate
Dendritic agate
Fire agate
Laguna agate
Moss agate
Physical Properties of Agate
Chemical FormulaSiO2
Crystal SystemHexagonal
Refractive Index1.54 - 1.55
SG2.63 - 2.65
Double Refraction.009
Mineral ClassQuartz (Chalcedony).
Alexandrite gemstone
Forming of Alexandrite
Alexandrite is the rare colour-change variety of the mineral chrysoberyl. Its rarity is a result of its unlikely chemical makeup. Alexandrite can only form when aluminium and beryllium combine with trace elements like iron, titanium and, most importantly, chromium. On rare occasion, vanadium may also be present. The unlikelihood of the rare element chromium being in the right place to combine with aluminium and beryllium under exactly the right conditions to create alexandrite is what makes it so rare and valuable
The magic of changing colours.
Alexandrite mining
Russia has remained the primary source of alexandrite since gems from the mines of the Urals became available on the market. When the Russian deposits were thought to have been exhausted, interest in the unique colour miracle decreased - especially since alexandrites from other mines hardly ever displayed the coveted colour change. But the situation changed dramatically in 1987, when alexandrites were discovered in a place called Hematita in Minas Gerais, Brazil. The Brazilian alexandrites showed both a distinctive colour change and good clarity and colour. Thus the somewhat dulled image of the miraculous stone received another boost. The colour of the Brazilian stones is admittedly not as strong a green as that of Russian alexandrite, but the colour change is clearly discernible. Today Hematita is one of the most important deposits of alexandrite in economic terms. Occasionally alexandrite with chatoyancy is discovered there, an effect which has not yet been observed in Russian alexandrite. Alexandrites are also obtained from sources in Sri Lanka, but the hue of these stones compares less than favourably with that of the Uralian alexandrites. They appear green in daylight and a brownish red in artificial light. The Tunduru area in southern Tanzania has also produced some outstanding specimens since the mid-1990s. Alexandrites are also found in India, Burma, Madagascar and Zimbabwe. Although this stone is still considered a rarity, specialised gemstone dealers do stock it, especially since improved trade relationships between Russia and the rest of the world have ensured a better supply of Russian alexandrites to the market.
Physical properties of Alexandrite
Chemical FormulaBeAl2O4
ColourBlue, Red, Green, Yellow, Pink, Purple, Gray, Multicolored
Crystal SystemOrthorhombic
Refractive Index1.744 - 1.755
SG3.5 - 3.8
TransparencyTransparent to nearly opaque
Double Refraction.009
Cleavage1,1 ; 3,2. Often exhibits parting along twinned crystals.
Mineral ClassChrysoberyl
Almandine Gemstone
Almandine, also known incorrectly as almandite, is a species of mineral belonging to the garnet group. The name is a corruption of alabandicus, which is the name applied by Pliny the Elder to a stone found or worked at Alabanda, a town in Caria in Asia Minor. Almandine is an iron alumina garnet, of deep red colour, inclining to purple. It is frequently cut with a convex face, or in cabochon, and is then known as carbuncle. Viewed through the spectroscope in a strong light, it generally shows three characteristic absorption bands.
It is also a popular gemstone and the most widely used Garnet in the gem trade. More gemstones are faceted from Almandine than any other type of Garnet. Only a small amount of Almandine crystals are transparent and light enough for gemstone use; most of the Almandine found is rough and opaque and not gem quality. Some Almandine Garnets display asterism when polished as cabochons, and are known as "Star Garnets".
Almandine deposits
Almandine occurs rather abundantly in the gem-gravels of Sri Lanka, whence it has sometimes been called Ceylon-ruby. When the color inclines to a violet tint, the stone is often called Syriam garnet, a name said to be taken from Syriam, an ancient town of Pegu (now part of Myanmar). Large deposits of fine almandine-garnets were found, some years ago, in the Northern Territory of Australia, and were at first taken for rubies and thus they were known in trade for some time afterwards as Australian rubies.
Almandine is widely distributed. Fine rhombic dodecahedra occur in the schistose rocks of the Zillertal, in Tyrol, and are sometimes cut and polished. An almandine in which the ferrous oxide is replaced partly by magnesia is found at Luisenfeld in German East Africa. In the United States there are many localities which yield almandine. Fine crystals of almandine embedded in mica-schist occur near Wrangell in Alaska. The coarse varieties of almandine are often crushed for use as an abrasive agent.
Types of Almandine
Types of Almandine Garnet include Carbuncle, Merelini Mint Garnet, Thai Garnet, Grandite, and Precious Garnet. Some rare Almandine crystals from India or Idaho have asbestos inclusions that create a highly prized, star-like effect when faceted. Precious, or Noble Garnet, is deep red and transparent. Brown and opaque Almandine is ferrous and aluminum-like with traces of manganese and/or magnesium.
Healing properties of Almandine
In this article, the metaphysical properties of Almandine Garnet are explored. Almandine is a strong regenerative healing crystal bringing strength and stamina, and aids circulation and all blood related issues.
It is an excellent crystal for fertility, sexual potency and libido. Emotionally, Almandine cultivates a sense of security, safety and abundance. It is associated with the First Chakra and has the healing energy to help arouse the kundalini and keep those energies grounded.
It is a stone of physical love and relationships, and a spiritual stone of psychic protection. It increases willpower and resistance to all things negative. Almandine Garnet ranges in colour from light to deep scarlet, dark red, and muted shades of brown.
A host of angels are associated with its colour energies and it honours three Goddesses. Garnet is the traditional birthstone of January, and Almandine is the natural birthstones of those born in the first month of autumn and mid-autumn.
Garnet is the zodiac stone for those born under the sign Aquarius, and is an Enhancer Strengthener crystal. It has the properties of fire energy and is a talisman of protection.
Physical Properties of Almandine
Chemical FormulaFe3Al2Si3O12
ColourRed, Black
Hardness7.5 - 8.5
Crystal SystemIsometric
Refractive Index1.780 - 1.810
TransparencyTransparent to translucent
Double RefractionNone
CleavageNone. May exhibit parting.
Mineral ClassAlmandine (Garnet)
The name chrysoberyl comes from the Greek words chrysos, meaning golden, and beryllos, which refers to its beryllium content. Chrysoberyl has been a prized stone for thousands of years in Asia, as it is believed to provide the wearer with protection from the evil eye. There are three different gem varieties of chrysoberyl. Each of these stones is chemically alike, but optically very different, each one having a unique and beautiful feature of its own. The pale yellow green variety of chrysoberyl came from Brazil, and was known as chrysolite. It was popular in Spanish and Portugese jewelry in the 18th and 19th centuries. This stone displays an exceptional brilliance. Chrysoberyl is the third-hardest frequently encountered natural gemstone and lies at 8.5 on the hardness scale, between corundum and topaz.
Popular Chrysoberyl
Today however, the most popular varieties of chrysoberyl are cat’s eye and alexandrite. Alexandrite, which is a very durable and rare stone, displays a beautiful color change. In the daylight, it is green, but under incandescent light, it changes to a red, mauve, or brown color. It has been said that alexandrite was named after czar Alexander II, as it was discovered on the czar’s birthday in 1830, in the Ural Mountains. Cat’s eye, which is also known as cymophane, contains many parallel, featherlike fluid inclusions or needle like inclusions of rutile. These inclusions, when cut as cabochons, display a white line across the yellowish gray stone. Chrysoberyl is a beryllium aluminum oxide. It is a very hard, durable stone, rating an 8.5 on the hardness scale. In fact, chrysoberyl is exceeded in hardness only by diamonds and corundum. Chrysoberyl has a vitreous luster and occurs in a wide range of colors, from green, to greenish yellow, yellow and brown. When cut well, gems are quite brilliant, but lack fire.
Alexandrite’s color change is caused by small amounts of iron or chromium. Alexandrite is also strongly pleochroic, appearing green, red, orange or yellow when viewed from different directions. Cat’s eye on the other hand, displays no pleochroism. The stone ranges in color from a honey yellow or honey brown color, to a yellowish green or almost emerald green. The most highly prized cat’s eye color however, is a light golden brown. Cat’s eye has a lovely velvety, silk like texture and is different than the common quartz variety of cat’s eye, which is brown and called tiger’s eye. Tiger’s eye is much weaker in color than cat’s eye.
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K2 People of Mapungubwe
K2 – No, Not the Mountain (1000 AD – 1220 AD)
©Roger de la Harpe
The Zhizo presence at Schroda, a well studied archeological site in Limpopo Province, lasted from 900 to 1000 AD. Then, a new group of people entered the valley, and this caused the Zhizo to leave the region rather abruptly. These new arrivals brought with them a different kind of pottery with distinctive decorations, which show that they were affiliated to the Leopard’s Kopje culture which was present in Zimbabwe and the northern parts of South Africa.
They established their capital at a site which is unimaginatively called K2, on the southern side of Bambandyanalo Hill. They proceeded to dominate the area for the next 200 years. K2, by the way, should not be confused with the Himalayan peak of the same name, which is the second highest mountain on Earth after Everest. This K2 is named after a system for numbering successive settlements, known as Koms.
It is reasonable to assume that these settlers were initially drawn into the Limpopo basin by the same promise of elephants and ivory that had attracted the Zhizo. And archaeological evidence has also shown that rainfall increased during this period, making agriculture more viable.
Evidence of Agriculture
©David Fleminger
All in all, the K2 culture was a more substantial affair than the humble Zhizo. At its peak, K2 was home to around 1500 people, and was probably divided into several ‘suburbs’ arranged around a central homestead. A powerful chief probably ruled the settlement, with subservient chiefs and headmen serving under him.
The K2 capital extended over an area of roughly 5 hectares, and a number of smaller homesteads were also established throughout the area. Unlike the Zhizo, however, these outlying villages were often located on the fertile floodplains of the Limpopo.
There is evidence that the K2 people practised mixed-subsistence agriculture. They grew millet, sorghum, beans, pumpkin and melons, and they kept sheep, goats and cattle. They probably also hunted to supplement their diet. It is thought that the settlements of K2 were organised around the Central Cattle Pattern that characterised iron-age Bantu settlements across the subcontinent.
Simply put, this spatial arrangement usually consisted of a central cattle kraal with huts arranged around the circumference. Putting cattle in the centre of the village was both practical and symbolic; a physical manifestation of the political and social importance of cattle to this kind of society. Cattle were used to pay fines, secure marriages (lobola), settle disputes and show fealty to the chief. In fact, a man’s power was directly proportional to the number of cows he owned.
K2 Burials
©David Fleminger
At K2, the central cattle kraal is evidenced by substantial deposits of dung, with the remains of huts arranged around the periphery. The houses at K2 are thought to have been circular, with walls made of daga (a mixture of mud and dung). The floors were gravel or clay and the roof was thatched with local grasses. This was the woman’s domain, and over 90 graves have been excavated around this ‘female’ zone.
Men, for their part, would have been buried in or near the cattle kraal. The burials at K2 usually follow a reasonably consistent form. The bodies were buried in a sleeping position with their heads facing west, where the sun sets. Women were found resting on their left side, while men were resting on their right (the senior side). A number of strange ‘beast burials’ containing shattered animal bones and broken pottery were also found, and they are thought to have spiritual significance.
Accommodation at K2 would have been divided up according to social status. Single people lived together in the front of the settlement and more powerful leaders were housed at the head of the kraal, away from the commoners. As the settlement grew, this social hierarchy would become more pronounced.
By David Fleminger
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A microscope image of synthetic brochosomes (false colored). Image: Shikuan Yang, Birgitt Boschitsch.
Synthetic microspheres with nanoscale holes can absorb light from all directions across a wide range of frequencies, making them a candidate for antireflective coatings, according to a team of engineers from Penn State. The development of these synthetic spheres has also led the engineers to discover that insects known as leaf hoppers use similar particles to hide from predators.
Scientists have long been aware that leaf hoppers extrude microparticles called brochosomes and wipe them on their wings. Because these particles are superhydrophobic, they allow the leaf hopper's wings to stay dry in wet conditions. What was not understood before this current work is that the brochosomes also allow leaf hoppers and their eggs to blend in with their backgrounds at the wavelengths of light visible to their main predators, such as the ladybird beetle.
"We knew our synthetic particles might be interesting optically because of their structure," said Tak-Sing Wong, assistant professor of mechanical engineering and professor in engineering. "We didn't know, until my former postdoc and lead author of the study Shikuan Yang brought it up in a group meeting, that the leaf hopper made these non-sticky coatings with a natural structure very similar to our synthetic ones. That led us to wonder how the leaf hopper used these particles in nature."
A search of the scientific literature turned up nothing about the use of leaf-hopper brochosomes as camouflage. But the size of the pits in the synthetic microspheres are very close to the wavelengths of light, allowing them to capture up to 99% of light, at wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet through visible and into the near infrared. The particle surface acts like a metamaterial, the type of material used in cloaking devices.
"The problem is that in the field, these leaf hoppers produce very little of this product, and it is very hard to collect," Wong said. "But we had already produced large quantities of these structures in the lab, enough to put inside a machine to look at their optical properties."
In a paper in Nature Communications, the researchers describe simulating insect vision and finding that the brochosomes are very likely camouflage coatings against leaf hopper predators. Camouflage is common in nature, but there are very few examples of natural antireflective coatings, with moth eyes being a prominent exception. Moth eyes are covered in anti-reflective nanostructures that prevent light from reflecting off them at night when predators might see them.
The synthetic microspheres are produced via a rather complex five-step process that involves electrochemical deposition. However, the process can be scaled up and the synthetic brochosomes could be made from many different materials, including gold, silver, manganese oxide or even a conductive polymer.
"Different materials will have their own applications," Wong said. "For example, manganese oxide is a very popular material used in supercapacitors and batteries. Because of its high surface area, this particle could make a good battery electrode and allow a higher rate of chemical reaction to take place."
As an antireflective coating, this material could have applications in sensors and cameras, where capturing unwanted light reflection could increase the signal-to-noise ratio, which could also prove of use in telescopes. For solar cell applications, a coating of synthetic brochosomes could increase light capture at multiple wavelengths and from every angle due to their three-dimensional soccer-ball-shaped structure, making it unnecessary to build devices that track the sun.
"This paper is more of a fundamental study," Wong said. "In the future, we may try to extend the structure to longer wavelengths. If we made the structure a little larger, could it absorb longer electromagnetic waves such as mid-infrared and open up further applications in sensing and energy harvesting?"
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The geometry of self-reference (and thus the difference between the "map" and "journal") can be seen easily through the analogy of the "planet ij," a sphere occupied by a single kingdom which expands over the planet's homogeneous surface.
As the kingdom expands, it enlarges its wall by adding stones to a new construction. With every expansion, new stones are required. The wall, and the space containing it, operate according to the consistent rules of ordinary logic: a larger wall requires more stones.
At the point where the wall equals the "great circle" circumference of the planet, however, something strange happens. Every new wall past this point requires not more stones but fewer. The residents of the kingdom cannot explain this using a "map logic," but their journal experience continues to produce these "irrational" results at an accelerating rate.
Finally, the kingdom expands to enclose all but a small circular territory. It is evident that, within this new logic, 'ij', a flip has taken place. What was formally the "inside" of the kingdom now looks more like an outside. What was originally the vast expanse of territory "outside" the kingdom now looks like an inside.
diagraming the planet ij
The expansion project viewed from "above" quickly reveals the problem. The points AC are at the same "level" (we could imagine an equator connecting them) while B is at the "pole."
A traveler moving from A to B experiences curvature equally, but it is not until point B that the contradiction is encountered in an obvious way. A wall built at this point would "flip" from requiring more stones to requiring less. Similarly, a traveler starting out from C would experience the same events but in a mirror sequence. A view taking only the end points A and C into account could "ignore" the polar experience and just think of A and C as antipodes – opposite versions of the same thing.
A more accurate view would show that there are a few significant points along the way, however. At A or C, no contradiction is apparent. At B, the contradiction is realized as a slowdown in the need for new stones turns into stones left over from each expansion. Halfway between A and B, also halfway between B and C, there is an exact balance of the "ordinary" view (as if the space were flat) and the revised view of the space as curved.
We can demonstrate this metaphorically by looking down on B as if it were the "north pole" and imagining arrows drawn at the "equator," all facing south. At a position 90º away, the evidence of curvature is at its maximum because we are also 90º "vertical" to the line connecting A and C directly. Taking 'ij' as the effect of curvature and '+1, -1' as the distance between A and C without the knowledge of curvature, i and j are in "perfect balance" at a 45º position.
The view halfway between an imaginary and a transitive ("un-curved") view is the most ambiguous. It can see B in its uncurved role and also as a polar point. B oscillates with B-cross to produce the square-wave phenomenon, ij, or .
the indispensable imaginary dimension
Just as the imaginary numbers in mathematics enable operations that would otherwise be difficult or impossible, the imaginary dimension (called "curvature" here) gives the residents of the planet ij an appreciation of how their map experience is connected to their journal experience.
Mathematically, it is rather easy to demonstrate how this happens. In a second-degree equation, x-squared plus one equals zero (see left), a solution can be expressed in two ways. Either an imaginary number (i) can be invented to stand for "the square root of minus 1," or the equation can be solved by substituting first +1 and then -1 to find that the value gets "inverted." Clearly, this is an example of the "inverter switch" because x uses itself in its own definition.
Plotting the values of the possible solutions creates a diagram similar to that of the "polar" view of B. The horizontal or 'x' axis stands for +1 and -1, and the vertical or 'y' axis stands for the values of ± i. Note that the negative term -i has been changed to j in order to describe B's oscillating behavior as "ij."
One usually assumes that the mathematical use of "imaginary numbers" has nothing to do with the artistic use of the imagination in everyday life, but boundary language points to a clear and solid connection. Just as imaginary numbers facilitate transactions that are "unimaginable" in rationalistic terms, the artistic imagination plays out relationships that are not and possibly can not be explicitly visible in everyday life. That there is a connection between these two uses of the "impossible" – and that they may even be able to share a common system of notation – is an exciting prospect.
fractals and self-reference
By now, even people with little or no interest in mathematics have heard about catastrophe theory and the strange notions of improbable connectivity, inspired largely by the theoretical advances of Benoit Mandelbrot. Fractals and "self-similar forms" involve recursion and have much to offer the study of boundary language. We will limit our comments here to show how Spencer-Brown's calculus is able to link such apparently different topics as fractals, self-reference, irrational measurements (intransitivity) and imaginary constructions in art and elsewhere.
Borrowing from Louis H. Kauffman's "Some Notes on Teaching Boolean Algebra," we can look at the Golden Rectangle's Fibonacci series as a branching structure that repeats its pattern at each successive level.
Using the notion of the inverter switch, we can turn the equation, Ø=1+1/Ø into a tree structure. It's also possible to describe the same series in Spencer-Brown's form: . is a similar form, but it lacks the external cross. The calculus shows that self-similarity takes the form of a series of nested crosses. The number of crosses, odd or even, changes only the "entry point" at which one metaphorically "jumps into" the self-replicating sequence. The Fibonacci series, with its extra cross, is thus structurally equivalent to the self-similar "polar point" of the planet ij, .
the representation in front of the representation
This seemingly trivial point – that adding an extra cross does not change the fundamental structure of the form – is actually a matter of enormous importance. Particularly in works of art, the added margin, which should invert the value of the space but doesn't (one moves from inside to inside) because the movement has a self-referential function, is not an anomaly but, rather, an artistic commonplace. We shall explore it through several examples: Picasso's 1907 painting, "Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon," where a figure holds back a curtain and thus introduces a "painting within a painting"; Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window, where the apartment of a photographer immobilized with a broken leg becomes the analog of the audience's viewing space; and The Wizard of Oz, where Dorothy returns from "away" to a home that is no longer a home, and her estranged bedroom becomes a viewing chamber into the fantastic space of the tornado.
These and other samples of self-reference (the theme in art is called "iconicity") show that self-reference is both fundamental and informative. Moreover, its formations follow regular rules that permit us to compare them if we can synchronize their uses of boundaries. The process of synchronization involves the diagram known as the "bolagram" (boundary language diagram), which attempts through an economy of terms and processes to embrace a broad range of phenomena in culture, art, and science.
© 2012, Donald Kunze, all rights reserved
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The term 'pneumoconiosis' refers to a group of lung diseases caused by the inhalation - and retention in the lungs - of dusts. The most commonly occurring types of pneumoconiosis (apart from asbestosis) are coal worker’s pneumoconiosis, arising from the inhalation of coal dust, and silicosis, arising from the inhalation of respirable crystalline silica (RCS). There is a long delay - up to ten years or more - between exposure and onset of disease, so most new cases or deaths from pneumoconiosis reflect the working conditions of the past and occur in individuals who have retired.
Pneumoconiosis cases can be classified in four groups:
In 2008, the number of cases of coal worker’s pneumoconiosis (230) continued to fall compared with previous years, whereas the number of cases of silicosis or other pneumoconiosis (85) remained similar to previous years. For silicosis and other pneumoconiosis cases, the industries affected are quarrying, foundries and potteries, suggesting that silica is the predominant cause.
Updated: 2018-11-06
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Preliminary Phylogenetic Analysis of Briese Family Relationships
Surname origin map thumbnail centered on Prussia
A comparison was made of 37 STR markers on the Y-chromosome of eight individuals bearing the surname Briese. Based on paper records, two of these individuals were known to be related, but relationships could not be determined for others. The genetic study showed three distinct genetic lineages bearing the Briese surname. Five of the eight were shown to have had a common ancestor within genealogical time, which suggests that a cluster of related Briese families lived in the Deutsch Krone area of West Prussia in the 18th century. A sixth individual, originating from a different geographic region, Meseritz in Posen, was more distantly related, while the remaining two individuals were not related at all, either to the group or to each other. While not providing proof, these findings agree with the hypothesis that the Briese surname originated as a place name that was initially adopted by unrelated people. This would result in distinct clusters of more-closely related families, genetically distinct from other such clusters. Genetic genealogy can help to determine relationships between emigrant Briese families and those remaining in Germany. More individuals from Briese families with known origins are needed to participate in this study to confirm and enlarge on these preliminary findings.
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Posted by Ancestry Team on May 25, 2018 in Who Do You Think You Are?
Through an incredible journey, Jon Cryer discovered that his 9x great-grandfather, James Adams, came to America as an indentured servant. After a disastrous attempt to repel the English from his beloved Scotland, James Adams and other Scots were captured, shipped to Massachusetts against their will, and compelled into approximately 7 years of indentured service for Saugus Iron Works starting in 1650. What happened to this man who came to America with nothing, not even his own freedom? How did his family ascend to prosperity, to the point where one of his descendants became an Emmy-winning actor?
Jon Cryer
The answer to discovering James Adams’s fate after his indenture was over is the same answer for anyone wishing to document their ancestors in Colonial America: historical deeds. Deeds are invaluable because many records used for genealogy (vital records, censuses, etc.) were nonexistent in colonial times. Deeds can name an ancestor’s relatives, and the size and value of their property. Deeds are made even more important as people sometimes chose to use deeds instead of wills as a mechanism to transfer land and personal property to their heirs.
Such was the case for James Adams. Thanks to a deed created in 1698, we see that he rose from indentured servitude to enough prosperity to own his own land and pass support to his children. On 12 May 1698, James Adams deeded his home and land to his son, James Adams Jr. The deed specified that James Adams Jr. was to provide a “suitable house” for James Adams Sr. and his wife, Priscilla. James Adams Jr. was also obligated to “maintain them both with a sufficiency of food, raiment, and what else is necessary for their comfort all during the time of their natural life and at death a decent burial.” Finally, the deed dictated that James Adams’s daughters were to each be paid twenty shillings a year, up to a total of twenty pounds. This record is a perfect demonstration of using a deed in place of a will: the deed bequeathed James Adams’s land and money as effectively as if he had done it through a will.
A complication arose when James Adams’ Jr. sold the land to a neighbor named John Heald — while James Sr. and his wife were still living. How would James Sr. and his wife be taken care of, if the land no longer belonged to the family? On 30 Nov 1700, James Adams Sr. secured his future by signing a deed with John Heald in which both parties acknowledged that Heald had made the purchase but was still committed to additional obligations to James Adams Sr. James Sr. made sure each of his daughters were still cared for, and required John Heald to pay four pounds to each of them after James Sr.’s death. The 1700 deed also clarified that James Sr. and Priscilla would live “in the dwelling house that said James Adams, Sr., hath built . . . and lived in.”
Thanks to these deeds, we see that James Adams came a long way from being simply one of “35 Scots” sold to Saugus Iron Works in America. Not only did he overcome the trials of capture, imprisonment, and forced servitude, he gathered enough land and wealth to remain in comfort the rest of his days. He also took care of the next generation, ensuring his children had support and would not suffer the same desperation he had faced. James Adams planted the seed of many prosperous generations in America, which would eventually make up Jon Cryer’s impressive legacy.
Tips from AncestryProGenealogists: When looking for deeds, ask these questions-
• Who made them? Determine the jurisdiction administrating land records for the location and time period you are interested in. For the Colonial period it could have been a local governmental body or a private business or person given land rights through the British Crown for example. Later they were most often kept at the county level, but remember county boundaries often changed over time. County histories and maps are very helpful for this.
• Where were they kept? The answer to this question is usually a county courthouse, but not always. A jurisdiction shift or threat to the records for whatever reason may have caused a repository change. Again, check your historical resources.
• What survived? Unfortunately, not all US land records have survived over time. Courthouses burn, blow away or just blow up. Clerks decide to clean house and water pipes burst. Things happen. Fortunately, land was a hot commodity and you had to prove that you owned it before you could sell or bequeath it. Because of this, deed records were very often recreated after a disaster, sometimes years after so give yourself a wide date range when looking for them.
• How do I access them? The Family History Library in Salt Lake City has the largest collection of US land records on film and many have been digitized and are accessible on line. Local genealogical societies, states, and counties are also working to make their information more accessible. Ancestry has digitized many books containing indexes and abstracts as well as actual land records which are searchable by location.
Watch Jon Cryer’s full journey, download the TLC GO app or watch on Binge full episodes of Who Do You Think You Are? on, and discover more celebrities uncovering their family history on all-new episodes Mondays 9|8c on TLC.
1. joseph schaffstall
I paid the money and saw the regions where my dna came from, now for extra $ to link here and more $ to connect there seems yer really playing on peoples “want to know”, why not just do it right and charge the fair amount and give people the info you know they want, really leaving a bad taste in my mouth, like everything else,, more $ more $, thought u guys were cool for setting this up, now,,, GREEEEEEEEEEED LIKE THE REST OF THIS CORRUPT WORLD.
• Sokolee
You got exactly what was advertised; an ethnicity estimate and a regularly updated list of DNA matches. Did you bother to look in to what you would get or just assume there was more to it?
• Lois Cook
Whew. I understand your answer to this query, but your tone lacks a customer service attitude. Just omitting the word “bother” makes it sound like you at least are trying to help.
• Karl O Mesander
I’m pretty sure that if, in fact, you’re any part of the team at any level, at the very least, a Customer Service Representative, that you would’ve been taught to be much more professional in your responses towards any client, ESPECIALLY, in a public forum setting. This is absolutely one of the best examples of unprofessional conduct by someone in a corporate environment and I’ll be registering a complaint against you with your Human Resources, believe that. I can’t believe that would support this type of blatant disrespect towards a customer. I’m appalled at the sheer audacity that you have. EVERY client is allowed to state an opinion about the practices of ANY business, no matter what that opinion may be! And IF wishes to fully support you blatant disrespect of their clientele, I can promise them that I will definitely pass on, to many current clients, this conversation and the responses from, which will lose this company thousands of dollars. This is definitely not the last time anyone will hear of this. Thank you for being kind enough to publicize your disregard for the clientele of your company. Good day.
2. Jane Killeen
I tend to do research for family individuals within my Ancestry ‘comfort zone’ ~ searching mainly by names of indviduals. This article is a great reminder to use other Ancestry or Family Search tools, such as HISTORICAL DEEDS! Thank you for these search tips!
3. Janice
I enjoyed his story – especially as I have connection to Saugus Iron Works. My 8th and 9th great-grandfathers (both named Joseph Jenckes) founded/operated it. (I hope they treated men well.) I also have Scot ancestry and could appreciate the English/Scot troubles. The second episode was a major disappointment and I couldn’t finish watching it.
• Denise
So, sorry to let you know I thought Jon Cryer’s story was a little to boring for me and it seem to drag on to long … I love watching Who Do You Think You Are each season? Glad the story was helpful to your family history. I did think the second story of Who Do You Think You Are? was great! Seeing her being able to find the slave records on each stop was amazing because not everyone will find such records on their slave ancestors. She was very lucky to follow his paper trail. Seeing the records of very early voters in USA was great. Can wait till Monday for the new episode.
4. Linda E
Loved the article and you are so correct once you get passed your Civil War era ancestors making connections or finding information gets smaller and smaller. Tax and land records are your next choice if you don’t have a will to help in your search. But I must say I am finding it more and more expensive to keep all of these subscriptions in order to continue my family research. For many of us who were the early subscribers to, our expenses for keeping our subscription has done nothing but increase, with no benefit for our continued subscription and only minimal reduction in the subscription for adding our sites Fold3 and Speaking for myself who lives on disability this becomes harder and harder to work into my budget. I just wish you as a company would take loyalty into consideration when making your increases in subscriptions. I provide a workshop here in my area for family researchers as to how to get the most out of all your research subscriptions. Thanks for taking the time to listen to my concerns.
5. Dale Reed
My DNA shows no difference between Ireland and Scotland. I was classed 49% Irish however, and understanding the wars and changes in rulers over the history of the region it is not surprising. I just returned from a visit to Ireland and was able to get some web sites and other sources by visiting the Library of Ireland in Dublin. They will not do your research, but are helpful as to where to look. In your article you did not tell how you were able to connect the Adams to the more recent ancestors. Did you work forward following the report that x Scots were sold to a iron works or did you find by going back in chronological order? I took pictures of areas that people with my last name left for America thanks to lucky hits on Ancestry searches. I visited Larne N. Ireland where a ship left for Charleston SC in about 1772-3 carrying a Robert Reed. Now I am looking at land records and Revolutionary war pensioners in an attempt to connect. Forward is better than Backward in my case.
6. Robert BJ Railton
It was unusual for any rebels who were transported to America (or Virginia as the East coast of America was then known) to be indentured as servants hence the absence of James Adams’s indenture document. Most English, Irish and Scottish rebels were sent to the sugar plantations in the Caribbean. Research of the assizes after the Battle of Dunbar may reveal James’s status to be a rebel convict and therefore not have indenture papers. As a convict he and his fellow countrymen would have been either purchased by the Saugus Ironworks prior to their transportation from England or sold on the block in Massachusetts without indenture papers as convicts were not indentured. Indentures were made out in two copies; one was kept by the person to whom the servant was indentured, in James’s case the Saugus Ironworks and the other copy, kept by the servant. To prevent forgery, the indentures were printed on one sheet of paper and then cut in two with an irregular cut so that authenticity could be proved by matching both indentures along the unique cut line. Perhaps research may find James’s matching indenture copy if in fact he was an indentured servant and not one of the over 50,000 convicts transported to America during the period 1607-1776. I would be only too pleased to provide further information about this very interesting phase of Colonial American history to anyone who may be interested.
• Laura Short
Indeed. My (adopted) Father’s ancestor was transported to Barbados sometimes in the mid-to-late 1600s. From there, he and his three daughters were then transported to Maryland Colony around 1680 and upon their arrival 1) had their “conviction” communted and 2) given citizenship of the colony by an act of the “Generall Assembly”. All very interesting. Never once, was this ancestor described as indentured; he was a convict, transported for using his ship to aid those working against the Crown.
7. Sue Williams
What a shock to watch this episode and see my ancestor, Simon Wheeler, on Jon Cryer’s family tree. It turns out that James Adams is my 7th great grandfather. I never dreamed I would see my ancestor on your show. What a thrill. Thanks for the interesting shows you produce.
8. Lois Hayden
I upgraded to include Newspapers and am very disappointed. I have yet to be able to click anywhere to find any of it. Also I hate the new format. I liked it when an ancestor came up and showed his family with dates of children, wives etc. if that was available. I no longer can find that data. I have paid for now about 20 years and find nothing except redundant stuff. It seems like the census for a person is duplicated most of the time and uses so much space. I used to have newspaper articles come up but no longer, I had to pay extra and I get nothing and no instructions on how to find that. I have someone adding onto my tree and don’t know how to stop that either. I now have a mess with his whole family added on to mine. I dont even find a place to click on for customer service. I am on Ancestry most every day as I am a retired 86 year old lady and that is my hobby; however, it has gotten to be frustrating to have to keep going back to get the search item at the top of a page. Please send me instructions about the added Newspaper etc and ssince I have not been able to get on, please extend my membership for the expanded cost I paid.
9. I would like to join you website for all the information and comments that are made here. I love to learn about my ancestors. This produces stories that can be shared from family to family. That keeps the families in contact & preserves their history.
Irene Wade Belcher
10. Kelly
Florence Ellen Jacobs wed’s Fred E. Mullins in San Angelo Tx. they have two children, a girl Kelly Allison Mullins. a boy Kevin Daniel Mullins. Kelly has 2 boy’s Casey and Jake.
11. Kelly
Caton Jacobs,and Thelma Maggie Farrington the parents of Daughter Florence Ellen Jacobs and grandparents of Kelly A. Mullins.
12. Time to say thank you for all informations and comments on your website. Not easy to understand everything but most times very helpful. Especially the discuss abou dna concentration helps me a lot for university
13. Rhondadaugherty
On Homer Lee Daugherty I his grandaughter there is no Raymond s Daugherty just grand daughter
Comments are closed.
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