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kids encyclopedia robot
ONS coding system facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
The ONS coding system is a system used in the United Kingdom for dealing with census and other statistical data. It is used by the Office for National Statistics as a way to label each area of England and Wales. It is also used for parts of Northern Ireland. The system uses a code for the larger census areas, counties and districts. It then breaks those areas down into smaller areas within the larger areas. Each of the smaller areas get a code that is based on the larger area. Areas are divided in this way until they get to the smallest size used for census data. An area must have at least 40 households, but they try to not divide an area into a size smaller than 100 households.
12 Cambridgeshire county
12UB Cambridge district
12UBGA Petersfield Ward
12UBGA0001 Gwydir Street (north of junction with Hooper St)
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ONS coding system Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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The Myth of the Punishment of Tantalus»Articles»Ancient World»Mythology»The Myth of the Punishment of Tantalus
The Myth of the Punishment of Tantalus
Tantalus Punishment
Ancient Greek Mythology is a rich source of phrases that today have their own meaning in modern spoken language. One of these with a specific meaning is the punishment of Tantalus. What was this punishment and what wrongs was it used to redeem? Who was Tantalus and by whose will was he punished? Here's what mythology says about this inhabitant of ancient Greece.
Origin of Tantalus and his place among the people of Earth
According to mythology, Tantalus was the son of the supreme god Zeus and the nymph Pluto. Like many other well-known personas, he was of semi-divine origin. According to the myths he ruled over the lands around Mount Sipylus and the city of Lydia in the region of the same name. The ancient Greek historian Strabo described him as King of Phrygia in Asia Minor.
Homer's Odyssey also speaks of him. The ancient Greek author was impressed by his tremendous wealth, including his gold mines, extensive fertile lands and countless herds of livestock. According to Strabo, the gold came from the Phrygian mines in Mount Sipylus. Tantalus also took advantage of the favor of the gods due to his semi-divine origin. He had everything in order to be the happiest and most carefree person on the Earth.
Way of life and behavior of Tantalus
As a descendant of god and man, Tantalus did however bear a purely human nature, which found expression in his attitude toward people and the gods. Immeasurable wealth received as a gift often make a person overly prideful, while excessive pride results in crimes. The same happened to Tantalus.
He was often host to and even a guest of the Olympian gods but he would steal from the divine ambrosia in order to give it to his fellow countrymen. This act was not meant to in any way speed up the development of his people, it was merely a reckless attitude, one belonging only to the gods.
Tantalus's attitude toward his father, the supreme Zeus, was also reckless in nature. Tantalus would often tell his father that his fate was more wonderful than even that of the gods and that he therefore did not need anyone or anything.
His actions would often test the patience of his all powerful father. Tantalus stole the golden dog of Pandareus, king of Ephesus. The dog was greatly loved by Zeus but Tantalus swore that he knew nothing about the theft.
Finally, the pet of the gods broke all boundaries with a horrible act, to check whether the gods were truly omniscient. He murdered his son Pelops and served him as food for the gods. They knew what Tantalus had served them and did not reach for the food.
Only the goddess Demeter, who was drowning in sorrow over her daughter Persephone, unwillingly ate the shoulder of the boy. The angered gods brought Pelops back to life, made him a new shoulder from ivory and decided to punish Tantalus for the terrible deed.
The punishment of Tantalus
Following the order of Zeus, Tantalus was thrown into the dark underworld of Hades, where he would suffer eternal torment - the so-called punishment of Tantalus. The punishment consisted of Tantalus being in a lake of clean water that rose up to his chin. Every time he bent down to drink, the water would recede. Above his head hung branches bearing all kinds of fruits - apples, succulent pears, figs and olives but every time Tantalus reached to take one, a strong wind blew them far from him.
In this way, Tantalus suffered endless thirst and hunger despite the abundance of food and water. There was another punishment for him: over his head hung a rock that barely balanced without falling on Tantalus. Fear was his constant companion.
With eternal hunger, thirst and fear, the gods had punished Tantalus for his countless sins. Tantalus felt constant hopelessness, powerlessness and dissatisfaction with what was just out of reach every single moment.
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Natural Selection Lab
Natural Selection Lab
Natural Selection Lab This hands-on laboratory exercise is a highly simplified model that attempts to simulate evolution by means of natural selection. Predators will act as agents of selection on their prey, a species whose members vary in color. We will assume that color is an inherited trait. Small squares of paper will represent the prey, which will be spread out of a piece of printed colored fabric that will serve as the habitat. The predators (you) will prey upon the population, with the surviving members reproducing and passing along the genes for color. Problem:
How does a population change as a result of natural selection? Materials: * 5 different colors of paper cut into 1 cm ? 1 cm squares (at least 100 squares of each color) * Multicolored fabric or newspaper, approximately 1 meter ? 1 meter * 1 or 2 partners (friends or family) Procedure: * The prey will be represented by the small 1 cm ? 1 cm squares of paper and the habitat is represented by the 1 meter ? 1 meter piece of fabric. Hypothesize which color prey you think is most likely to be captured by the predator and which color prey is most likely to survive, and then record your hypothesis.
Be sure that your hypothesis includes explanations for your predictions. * Have the two partners (prey) stand with their backs to the habitat while you scatter 20 squares of each color randomly on the fabric. Try to achieve a uniform distribution, and be sure to separate any that are clumped together. * Have the partner(s) randomly pick up the prey as fast as they can. Have them stop when they have collected a total of 75 prey, leaving the other 25 remaining in the habitat. * Count the number of survivors of each color. Each surviving prey has three offspring of the same color, bringing the total population back up to 100.
Record the number of each color in the next generation in your data table. * Count out the correct number of each colored prey and scatter them on the fabric. Repeat the process two more times, for a total of three generations. Hypothesis: I think the black color pieces are most likely to be captured because they are so easy to be identified. I think the blue color would most likely survive because of its color shade. Data and Observations: Color| 1. Blue| 2. Yellow| 3. Red| 4. Green| 5. Black| Generation 0| 20| 20| 20| 20| 20| Generation 1| 4| 1| 5| 10| 5|
Generation 2| 6| 3| 2| 11| 3| Generation 3| 3| 2| 4| 15| 1| Record any observations. Data Analysis: Conclusion: * The surviving amount of prey population was drastically different from the original. There was much less of each color in the end. Over half of each color prey I gone. * When my two partners had their backs turned and I was scattering around the color pieces, once I told them that it was okay to turn around and pick them up, I saw that they tended to pick up the brightest colors. So, in conclusion, the brighter the prey the more the predators attract to them and hunt them. The green pieces of paper barely even got touched, but the yellow seemed to stand out the most. * If I were to continue, the yellow would have been extinct in like Generation 4. But, the prey as a whole would have been very scarce within two generations. The green would be the last to go. * Whatever the brightest color was would have died off first. * 1) You can’t re-collect the same prey once it’s been picked off 2) There might not be 25 surviving prey all the time. There could be more or less. 1) A large number of predators can really decrease population in a species dramatically. ) It’s a prime example of survival of the fittest because there will be animals trying to eat other animals. * If the predator knew the habitats of his prey. Then, he could bring back some more predators and they could take out a whole area of prey. * Camouflage can really help you survive in times of need. Let’s say there is a predator behind you and it is ready to eat you. If you know the perfect places to hide then you are safe. Especially if the hiding spot matches with your body color. The predator probably won’t recognize you.
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☝️ Receptors
Two examples are given here to represent the general properties of receptors: the Pacinian corpuscle and the rods and cones in the eye.
1. The Pacinian corpuscle
Named by its Italian discoverer Filippo Pacini (si splendido uomo!*), it is a 1 mm diameter skin receptor which enables us to perceive pressure and vibration. This is the receptor responsible for our awareness off smooth vs rough surfaces, shallow vs intense tactile sensation, etc.
How does this seemingly magical process take place?
The central capsule is surrounded by lamellae. At the heart of the capsule lies the sensory nerve tube. Throughout the corpuscle you can see…
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Constellations of Words
Explore the etymology and symbolism of the constellations
the Crane
The Starlore Handbook
1. Clues to the meaning of this celestial feature
2. The fixed stars in this constellation
3. History_of_the_constellation
Clues to the meaning of this celestial feature
The constellation was added by Bayer in 1603.
Cranes are noted for their elaborate courtship dances; humans on stilts copied the dance. “Cranes are the exotic dancers of the bird kingdom. Their gyrations have been compared to the antics of fervent pioneer preachers leading their congregations” []. They are credited with great diligence, intelligence and vigilance; they are reported to post sentries while they sleep. They spend a long time preening their feathers and paint themselves with mud to camouflage themselves. Greek letters of the alphabet came from myths about cranes. The crane was used as a symbol of the astronomer by the Ancient Egyptians.
Grus is a genus of large birds in the crane family. The Latin word grus and English word crane are cognates as Klein explains: crane, from Middle English crane, crone, Middle High German krone, Old English cranoc, cornoc, German Kranich, ‘crane’, and cognate with Greek geranos, Cornish, Welsh, Breton garan, ‘crane’, Latin grus, ‘crane’, from the Indo-European imitative base gere-, ‘to utter a hoarse cry’. Related words: the first element in cranberry, geranium, Gruiformes (order Gruiformes, the coots, cranes, and rails), and the last element in pedigree. The name Pettigrew
“Cranes (grus) took their name from their particular call, for they whoop with such a sound. When they fly, they follow a leader in formation like a letter (i.e. Greek lambda, an upside down V shape). Concerning them Lucan says (CivilWar 5-716): And the letter-shape is disturbed and lost in their scattered flight. They seek the heights, from which they can more easily see which lands to make for. The one leading the flock chides with its voice, but, when it begins to grow hoarse, another crane takes its place. At night they divide up the watches, and alternate their vigils; they hold stones in their extended claws to let it be known if they fall asleep – the noise (i.e. of the stones dropping) indicates the need to be on the alert. Their color reveals their age, for they turn black as they grow old.” [The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, 7th century AD, p.264.]
The word ‘pedigree‘ comes from the Old French phrase, ‘pie (pied) de grue‘, which means ‘foot of a crane’. The pedigree diagram (symbol /|) resembles the branches coming out of a crane’s foot []; for the shape of the sign used in showing lines of descent in genealogical charts.
The Trojans were compared to migrating cranes. The Trojans were always at war with the Pygmies (might be adjacent Sculptor), the word gruesome might describe the savage battles:
“The Iliad compares the noisy Trojan warriors to shrieking cranes descending upon the silent Pygmy soldiers (the Greeks or Achaeans) in the following passage: “The Trojans came with cries and the din of war like wildfowl when the long hoarse cries of cranes sweep on against the sky and the great formations flee from winter’s grim ungodly storms, flying in force, shrieking south to the ocean gulfs, speeding blood and death to the Pygmy warriors, launching at daybreak savage battle down upon their heads” [].
In every land where they appear cranes have always been a symbol of longevity. For cranes living in the wild an age of up to 60 years has been cited, and there is one record of a captive Siberian crane living for 83 years and fathering chicks at age 78. By comparison swans only live to around thirty years. The partly gray feathers of cranes, and some species having predominantly gray feathers, might symbolically suggest aging. Geranos is the Greek for crane and geras, from where we get the word geriatrics, is old age, geron, ‘old man’, gerus, ‘old woman; wrinkled skin’, from Indo-European root *gere- ‘To grow old’. Derivatives: ageratum (a-, without; + geras, old age; a plant that is called ageless or everlasting), geriatrics (from Greek geras, old age), geronto– (from Greek geron, stem geront-, old man), progeria (aging disease). [Pokorny ger– 390. Watkins
Klein says the word Zoroaster from Avestic Zarathushtra, literally ‘whose camels are old’, from *zarant, ‘old’, and ushtra, ‘camel’, *zarant is cognate with Greek geron, ‘old man’.
“Horapollo, the grammarian of Alexandria, about A.D. 400, tells us that the crane was the symbol of a star-observer in Egypt, presumably from its high flight” [Allen, Star Names], or maybe from a habit of looking up at the sky as a number of pictures of cranes on this website show? The term ‘Magos‘ was used in the Hellenistic world rather loosely for astrologers, astronomers, and magicians (there was no distinction in the Hellenistic era drawn between astrology and astronomy) []. The magus were the Zoroastrian priestly caste of the Medes and Persians []. Magi is used in English for the three ‘Wise Men’ who visited the infant Christ.
“The first interpreters of the stars were called Magi (magus), as we read of those who made known the birth of Christ in the Gospels; afterwards they only had the name mathematicus.” [The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, 7th century AD, p.183.]
A crane, meaning also ‘a machine for raising weights’ is so called from the long neck of the instrument. People were struck with some kind of similarity between the long-legged bird picking up his food with his long beak and their rude engines for lifting weights. In Greek, too, geranos has both meanings [, p.386]. In Greek and Roman theatre, a crane was used as a stage prop to create the special effects of flying characters, it could lift actors into the air portraying the appearance of gods in flight, hence the Latin term deus ex machina (‘god from the machine’). It was usually known as the mechane (‘machine‘), but also known as the geranos (‘crane’) or krade (‘branch’) [] [see picture].
The words mechane, and magus, come from the Indo-European root *magh- ‘To be able, have power’. Derivatives: may¹ (from Old English mæg, to be strong, be able), dismay (to deprive of might or the power to act as a result of fear or anxiety), might¹ (power), almighty, main (most important, from Old English mægen), machine, mechanic, mechanism, mechano-, magic, magus, (these words from Old Persian magu, member of a priestly caste < ‘mighty one’). [Pokorny magh– 695. Watkins
The verb ‘crane‘, to extend the neck, is also related. Cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back like many other birds.
Cranes have elaborate courting displays or ‘dances’. In mythology the Crane Dance called Geranos, was performed by Theseus after his escape from the Labyrinth. Theseus had used a ball of thread to find his way out of the Labyrinth, and the dance he performed with the Athenians who escaped with him was an imitation of the windings of the Labyrinth. The ball of thread might relate to the chromosomes which carry the genes, they are coiled, threadlike structures of DNA? and why the word pedigree is related to ‘crane’ and ‘grus’. The Labyrinth (see Hercules) is also the term for a system of fluid passages in the inner ear, including both the cochlea which is part of the auditory system, and the vestibular system which provides the sense of balance. It is named by analogy with the mythical maze that imprisoned the Minotaur, because of its appearance []. [The word ear (auris) might be adjacent Pisces Australis and Grus was once part of that constellation.] There are Mechanoreceptors in the cochlea of the ear that detect sounds and the motion of the body. Sound is a mechanical wave, meaning it produces vibrational energy in the medium through which it moves, such as air. The crane standing on one leg might also suggest something to do with balance. [Hercules whose name might be resolved into ‘listening in the air’ performed twelve labors, and the word ‘labyrinth’ may be related to ‘labor’ as explained on Hercules’ page].
The phrase “the cranes of Ibycus” became a proverb among the Greeks for the discovery of crime through divine intervention. It relates to the story of Ibycus, a Greek lyric poet, of the 6th century BC. While in the neighbourhood of Corinth, the poet was mortally wounded by robbers. As he lay dying he saw a flock of cranes flying overhead, and swore “Those cranes will avenge me.” Shortly afterward the robbers were sitting in a theater in Corinth and saw a flock of cranes flying by. One joked to his friend “there go the avengers of Ibycus” []. The remark was overheard and the robbers were arrested. Cranes pointed to the killers by mysteriously circling over the head of one of the guilty. This old proverb has been referred to as “The Cranes of Ibycus” []. This legend is probably a play on the similarity between the poet’s name and the Ancient Greek word for ‘crane’ (ibyx) [].
The Ancient Greek word for was ‘crane’ (ibyx) []. It may be that the crane of Europe was equivalent to the similar wading bird, the ibis, of the Egyptians. “Abis, the Egyptian Crane … the Greeks expressed it Ibis” [A Mythological, Etymological, and Historical Dictionary, Bryant, Holwell, 1793, p.2]. The ibis-headed god, Thoth, was a scribe, whose pen repeatedly dipped in ink in a manner that the long beaks of the ibises dipped into the mud [10]. The word nib (n-ib, a bird’s beak, and the tip of a pen, might be related to this source; “nib meant an ibis” [Cleopatra’s Needle, p.58]. [Egyptian hib is the official translation for ‘ibis’]
© Anne Wright 2008.
Fixed stars in Grus
Star 1900 2000 R A Decl 1950 Lat Mag Sp
Alnair alpha 14AQU30 15AQU54 331 16 21 -47 12 15 -32 54 24 2.16 B5
gamma 16AQU02 17AQU25 327 43 36 -37 36 04 -23 02 44 3.16 B8
lambda 17AQU33 18AQU56 330 46 38 -39 47 08 -25 57 52 4.60 M0
mu 18AQU37 20AQU00 333 09 09 -41 35 47 -28 20 20 4.86 G2
epsilon 19AQU21 20AQU44 341 23 11 -51 34 49 -39 46 57 3.69 A2
delta 20AQU13 21AQU36 336 34 19 -43 45 06 -31 20 36 4.02 G2
zeta 20AQU33 21AQU56 344 29 04 -53 01 22 -41 58 55 4.18 G4
beta 20AQU56 22AQU19 339 55 21 -47 08 48 -35 25 39 2.24 M6
Hevelius,Firmamentum, 1690
History of the constellation
from Star Names 1889, Richard H. Allen
Grus, the Crane, is one of the so-called Bayer groups (Grus was named by Johann Bayer, as listed in his 1603 star atlas), laGrue of the French and Italians, derKranich of the Germans; and the title is appropriate, for Horapollo, the grammarian of Alexandria, about A.D. 400, tells us that the crane was the symbol of a star-observer in Egypt, presumably from its high flight as described in our motto.
Caesius, who carried his biblical symbols even to the new constellations, imagined this to be the Stork in the Heaven of Jeremiah viii, 7, although the Crane occurs in the same verse; but Julius Schiller combined it with Phoenix in a representation of AarontheHighPriest
The Arabians included its stars in the Southern Fish (Pisces Austrinus), Al Sufi giving its alpha, beta, delta, theta, iota, and lambda as unformed members of that constellation.
The components, with the exception of the lucida, form a gentle curve southwest from this Fish, and among them are stars noted in astronomy.
{Page 238} One hundred and seven are catalogued by Gould as being visible to the naked eye.
alpha (Al Nair), marking the body of the bird, is the conspicuous 2d-magnitude southwest from Fomalhaut when the latter culminates in autumn evenings, itself coming to the meridian on the 11th of October. It was Al Tizini’s Al Na’ir, the Bright One, i. e. of the Fish’s tail (Pisces Austrinus), when that constellation extended over the stars of our Grus. The Chinese knew it as Ke
beta, a 2.2-magnitude red star, was Al Tizini’s Rear One at the end of the tail of his Fish (Pisces Austrinus), thirty-five minutes of arc to the eastward from alpha. It is in the left wing of the Crane.
gamma, a 3d-magnitude,was the same author’s Al Dhanab, the Tail itself (of Pisces Austrinus), but now marks the eye in the bird’s figure.
pi, a 6.7-magnitude deep crimson star, and its somewhat brighter white companion, pi2, are like “little burnished discs of copper and silver, seen under strong illumination.”
{p.238} The alternative title for the stars of Grus;
the Flamingo,
is now seldom, if ever, used, nor can I find any record of its inventor, or date of its adoption as a constellation name. Chilmead’s Treatise contains this reference to it:
“The Phoenicopter we may call the Bittour [the old English word for Bittern]. The Spaniards call it Flamingo: and it is described with the wings spread abroad, and as it were striking with his bill at the South Fish (Pisces Austrinus), in that part where he boweth himselfe: This Asterisme consistith 13 Starres: of which, that of the second magnitude in his head is called, the Phoenicopters Eye: and it hath two other Stars also of the same magnitude, one in his backe, and the other in his left wing. And those two which are in the middle of his necke, Paulus Merula in his first booke of his Cosmography, calleth his Collar or Chaine.”
The absence of our titles in the foregoing description would show that the Bittern, or Flamingo, was the popular English figuring and title in the early part of the 17th century.
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How was individual identity expressed materially in Tudor England?
This essay will argue that different forms of material culture allowed the people of Tudor England to express different aspects of their individual identity. A persons ‘identity’ is influenced by several different affiliations. The people of Tudor England were associated with concepts such as heraldry and social standing, religion, and gender. Each of these different concepts were expressed through different material means. Firstly, this essay will examine how architecture allowed the Tudors to express their social identity. Secondly, the essay will discuss how books allows the Tudors to express their religious identity. Thirdly, the essay will recognise that activities, such as needlework, allowed people to assert their gender identity. By studying material culture, historians can understand the individual identities of the people of Tudor England.
It was the inclusion of heraldic imagery within architecture that allowed the Tudors to express their social identity. ‘Social identity’ refers to how people relate to different social groups within society. Examples of heraldic images can be seen in what Sir John Summerson calls ‘prodigy houses.’ This describes large houses that were built to house, and impress, Elizabeth I and her entourage when she toured the country on progresses. John Guy notes that, courtiers competed to build more impressive houses, with the aim of winning the favour of the queen. This is demonstrated by Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire, which was designed by Robert Smythson for Bess Hardwick, and was built between 1590 and 1597. The chimney piece boasts Bess of Hardwick’s coat of arms, which appears several times throughout the building. They also appear on the house’s exterior in stone. By including this image throughout the hall, Hardwick expresses her social identity, as she is clearly pointing out her familial heritage using visual imagery. Those who recognised the crest would have ascertained that Hardwick came from a rich and respected family. Due to this, Hardwick’s inclusion of her family crest allows her to express her social superiority to her contemporaries.
In the High Great Chamber, Hardwick included the royal coat of arms of Elizabeth I. The High Great Chamber was used to receive important guests, and the presence of the arms would have indicated to them that Hardwick herself was affiliated with the crown. This connection to the crown would have enhanced Hardwick’s social status further. As well as asserting her own authority amongst her peers through this royal connection, Hardwick’s inclusion of the royal arms also demonstrates her loyalty to Elizabeth I. Tara Hamling notes that displays of the royal coat of arms were common in urban areas, especially in gentry houses. This allowed members of the gentry to assert their higher social standing in contrast to others within the locality. The use of heraldic devices allowed Hardwick and members of the gentry to enhance their social authority within the community, as this was elevated by their connections to the crown.
A stained-glass window at Montacute House in Somerset also demonstrates that architecture was used to express social identity. The house was owned by Edward Phelips, designed by William Arnold and built in 1598. The window depicts the coats of arms of fourteen local families. This visual imagery allowed Phelips to demonstrate his multiple social connections, which he had acquired through numerous familial marriages. As well as displaying his connections, this window would have encouraged people to recognise the authority and influence that Phelips held within the community. The placing of the shields on a window meant that they were clearly visible to all who walked past, meaning that Phelip showcased his social identity. To understand which arms represented which families, people would have needed a book of heraldry. Inclusion in such a book would only enhance one’s social status within the community, as it would only validate the families’ respectability.
Books were used to express religious identity. An example of this is a Book of Hours, which was popular before the Henrician reformation. These decorative books would contain prayers and psalms, as well as instructions as to when these prayers should be recited during the day. Books of Hours were created for the purpose of private religious practises. They were usually owned by members of the elite, who would have them personalised. An example is Anne Boleyn’s Book of Hours, which was made in Paris in 1500 and is currently held in the British Library. The pages are parchment and are particularly notable due to the personal messages inscribed inside. On a page depicting Christ suffering from the wounds of his crucifixion, Henry VIII wrote in French ‘If you remember my love in your prayers as strongly as I adore you, I shall hardly be forgotten, for I am yours. Henry R forever.’ Henry implies that his yearning for Anne is of a similar pain to Christ’s afflictions. Anne Boleyn replies with ‘by daily proof you shall me find, To be to you both loving and kind.’ This is inscribed on an image of the angel Gabriel telling the Virgin Mary that she will birth the son of God. Anne is using this religious imagery to tell Henry VIII that she is loyal and faithful to him, and that she will deliver him a son. As well as facilitating her romance with Henry, this book allowed Anne to privately express her religious identity and piety.
Following the reformation, Puritans, such as Nehemiah Wallington used notebooks to express their religious identity. Wallington filled fifty notebooks from 1618 to 1684, and detailed sermon notes to divine judgements. ‘A Record of Gods Marcys, or a Thankfull Remembrance’ was written by Wallington during the 1620s and 1630s, and was part diary and part commonplace book. In it, Wallington writes that he has ‘lived in sinne all my childhood heitherto. Likwise I knew that these sinnes were against the expres commandment of God in Exodus 20.’ Jonathan Willis recognises that Wallington’s focus on the Decalogue speaks to the Puritan desire to follow the word of God, which Puritans believed should be considered in all aspects of life. Wallington’s writings uphold the Puritan belief that they should be introspective about the word of God and their own lives. Andrew Cambers recognises that keeping notebooks was a ‘key component’ of Puritanism, as notebooks facilitated their deep contemplation of faith, as they provided Puritans with a space to write their feelings down. Wallington’s activities validate this idea, and prove that material objects were essential to the construction of religious identity. Books facilitated the expression of peoples’ religious identity by allowing them to engage in private devotion.
Susan Frye recognises that undertaking of activities allowed individuals to express their gender identity. This is supported by a linen needlework sampler, sewn in 1598 by Jane Bostocke. It is held in the V&A, and measures 42.6cm by 36.2 cm. It was made to commemorate the birth of her cousin, Alice Lee, two years earlier, and contains imagery relating to the Lee and Bostocke family crests. There are also demonstrations of different stitches. The V&A recognises that originally, samplers were used as reference pieces, but during the seventeenth century, they were used as a way of recording the maker’s skill. Embroidery was an encouraged occupation for young girls in gentry families. They would begin with samplers, then progress to caskets and embroidered pictures. Frye notes that needlework was seen as an exclusively domestic pursuit, which allowed young women to express agency and identity. Such an activity inculcates gender roles, as the domesticity that this activity encouraged informed girls of their place within the home: as the housewife. Susan Dwyer Amussen recognises the family as the basis for political and social order, suggesting that this was the reason women were encouraged to undertake tasks that educated them in domesticity from a young age. Matthew Johnson argues that gender roles were performed through action, and this sampler examples this.
Johnson provides another example of how performative action allowed people to express their gender identity. Johnson describes a folk custom from the Yorkshire Dales in which women would clean the flagged stone floor of their threshold with sand. Wives would lay out the sand in different patterns, which would remain until they were cleared in the afternoon. Johnson argues that the preservation of these patterns establishes the integrity of the household and wife, which is made visible to the community. Even though these patterns do not survive, Johnson’s recounting of this activity provides an example in which women expressed their gender identity, and drew authority from their role as housewife.
I have demonstrated that different forms of material culture were essential to expressing different aspects of individual identity. Architecture, specifically heraldic imagery, was used to express peoples’ social identity and peoples’ authority within the community. Books, in facilitating people’s worship and contemplation, allowed people to express their religious identity. Certain activities, such as needlework allowed people to express their gender identity. This proves value of studying material culture, and how it can be used to improve current historians’ understanding of the people living within Tudor England.
Published by harpalkhambay
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Oscar Micheaux – Filmmaker Pioneer
Race films, mostly produced between 1915 and 1950 consisted of films produced for an all-black audience and featuring black casts. Micheaux produced both silent films and sound films when the industry changed to incorporate speaking actors.
Legal research animated 250 x 250
Micheaux was born on a farm in Metropolis, Illinois on January 2, 1884. He was the fifth child born to Calvin S. and Belle Micheaux, who had a total of 13 children. In his later years, Micheaux added an “e” to his last name. His father was born a slave in Kentucky. Because of its surname, his father's family appears to have been associated with French-descended settlers. French Huguenot refugees had settled in Virginia in 1700; their descendants took slaves west when they migrated into Kentucky after the American Revolutionary War.
In his later years, Micheaux wrote about the social oppression he experienced as a young boy. To give their children education, his parents relocated to the city for better schooling. Micheaux attended a well-established school for several years before the family eventually ran into money troubles and were forced to relocate to the farm. Unhappy, Micheaux became rebellious and discontented. His struggles caused internal problems within his family. His father was not happy with him and sent him away to do marketing within the city. Micheaux found pleasure in this job because he was able to speak to many new people and learned many social skills that he would later reflect within his films.
When Micheaux was 17 years old, he moved to Chicago, Illinois to live with his older brother, then working as a waiter. Micheaux became dissatisfied with what he viewed as his brother’s way of living “the good life.” He rented his own place and found a job in the stockyards, which he found difficult. He worked many different jobs, moving from the stockyards to the steel mills.
After being “swindled out of two dollars” by an employment agency, Micheaux decided to become his own boss. His first business was a shoeshine stand, which he set up at a white suburban barbershop, away from Chicago competition. He learned the basic strategies of business and started to save money. He became a Pullman porter on the major railroads, at that time considered prestigious employment for African Americans because it was relatively stable, well-paid, and secure, and it enabled travel and interaction with new people. This job was an informal education for Micheaux. He profited financially, and also gained contacts and knowledge about the world through traveling as well as a greater understanding for business. When he left the position, he had seen much of the United States, had a couple of thousand dollars saved in his bank account, and had made a number of connections with wealthy white people who helped his future endeavors.
Micheaux moved to Dallas, South Dakota, where he bought land and worked as a homesteader. This experience inspired his first novels and films. His neighbors on the frontier were all white. "Some recall that [Micheaux] rarely sat at a table with his white neighbors." Micheaux’s years as a homesteader allowed him to learn more about human relations and farming. While farming, Micheaux wrote articles and submitted them to the press. The Chicago Defender published one of his earliest articles.
Oscar Micheaux's South Dakota Homestead.
In South Dakota, Micheaux married Orlean McCracken. Her family proved to be complex and burdensome for Micheaux. Unhappy with their living arrangements, Orlean felt that Micheaux did not pay enough attention to her. She gave birth while he was away on business. She was reported to have emptied their bank accounts and fled. Orlean’s father sold Micheaux's property and took the money from the sale. After his return, Micheaux tried unsuccessfully to get Orlean and his property back.
Micheaux decided to concentrate on writing and, eventually, filmmaking, a new industry. He wrote seven novels. In 1913, 1,000 copies of his first book, The Conquest: The Story of a Negro Homesteader, were printed. He published the book anonymously, for unknown reasons. Based on his experiences as a homesteader and the failure of his first marriage, it was largely autobiographical. Although character names have been changed, the protagonist is named Oscar Devereaux. His theme was about African Americans realizing their potential and succeeding in areas where they had not felt they could.
The book outlines the difference between city lifestyles of Negroes and the life he decided to lead as a lone Negro out on the far West as a pioneer. He discusses the culture of doers who want to accomplish and those who see themselves as victims of injustice and hopelessness and who do not want to try to succeed, but instead like to pretend to be successful while living the city lifestyle in poverty.
He had become frustrated with getting members of his race to populate the frontier and make something of themselves, with real work and property investment. He wrote over 100 letters to fellow Negroes in the East beckoning them to come West, and only his older brother eventually came West. One of Micheaux's fundamental beliefs is that hard work and enterprise will make any person rise to respect and prominence no matter his or her race.
Micheaux’s first novel The Conquest was adapted to film and re-titled, The Homesteader. In 1918, his novel The Homesteader, dedicated to Booker T. Washington, attracted the attention of George Johnson, the manager of the Lincoln Motion Picture Company in Los Angeles. After Johnson offered to make The Homesteader into a new feature film, negotiations and paperwork became contentious between Micheaux and him. Micheaux wanted to be directly involved in the adaptation of his book as a movie, but Johnson resisted and never produced the film.
This film, was met with critical and commercial success. It revolves around a man named Jean Baptiste, called the Homesteader, who falls in love with many white women but resists marrying one out of his loyalty to his race. Baptiste sacrifices love to be a key symbol for his fellow African Americans. He looks for love among his own people and marries an African-American woman. Relations between them deteriorate. Eventually, Baptiste is not allowed to see his wife. She kills her father for keeping them apart and commits suicide. Baptiste is accused of the crime, but is ultimately cleared. An old love helps him through his troubles. After he learns that she is a mulatto and thus part African, they marry. This film deals extensively with race relationships.
Micheaux contacted wealthy white connections from his earlier career as a porter, and sold stock for his company at $75 to $100 a share. Micheaux hired actors and actresses and decided to have the premiere in Chicago. The film and Micheaux received high praise from film critics. One article credited Micheaux with “a historic breakthrough, a creditable, dignified achievement”. Some members of the Chicago clergy criticized the film as libelous. The Homesteader became known as Micheaux’s breakout film; it helped him become widely known as a writer and a filmmaker.
Micheaux’s second silent film was Within Our Gates, produced in 1920. Although sometimes considered his response to the film Birth of a Nation, Micheaux said that he created it independently as a response to the widespread social instability following World War I.
Within the film, Micheaux depicts educated and professional people in black society as light-skinned, representing the elite status of some of the mixed-race people who comprised the majority of African Americans free before the Civil War. Poor people are represented as dark-skinned and with more undiluted African ancestry. Mixed-race people also feature as some of the villains. The film is set within the Jim Crow era. It contrasted the experiences for African Americans who stayed in rural areas and others who had migrated to cities and become urbanized. Micheaux explored the suffering of African Americans in the present day, without explaining how the situation arose in history. Some feared that this film would cause even more unrest within society, and others believed it would open the public’s eyes to the unjust treatment by whites of blacks. Protests against the film continued until the day it was released. Because of its controversial status, the film was banned from some theaters.
Micheaux's 1925 Body and Soul starred Paul Robeson in his motion picture debut.
An escaped prisoner seeks refuge in the predominantly African-American town of Tatesville, Georgia, by passing himself off as the Rt. Reverend Isaiah T. Jenkins. He is joined in town by a fellow criminal, and the pair scheme to swindle the phony reverend's congregation of their offerings. Jenkins falls in love with a young member of his congregation, Isabelle Perkins, even though she is in love with a poor young man named Sylvester, who happens to be Jenkins’ long-estranged twin brother.
Jenkins steals money from Martha Jane, Isabelle's mother and convinces the young woman to take the blame for his crime. She flees to Atlanta and dies just as her mother locates her. Before dying, Isabelle reveals to her mother that Jenkins raped her and that he is the one who took her mother's money. She explains that she did not speak up before because she knew her mother would not believe her.
Micheaux adapted two works by Charles W. Chesnutt, which he released under their original titles: The Conjure Woman (1926) and The House Behind the Cedars (1927). The latter, which dealt with issues of mixed race and passing, created so much controversy when reviewed by the Film Board of Virginia that he was forced to make cuts to have it shown. He remade this story as a sound film in 1932, releasing it with the title Veiled Aristocrats. The silent version of the film is believed to have been lost.
Oscar Micheaux (center) with an actor and possibly a crew member appearing in an advertisement for the Micheaux Film Corporation.
The critic Lupack described Micheaux as pursuing moderation with his films and creating a “middle-class cinema”. His works were designed to appeal to both middle- and lower-class audiences.
Micheaux said,
List of Oscar Micheaux Films
The Homesteader (1919)
Within Our Gates (1920)
The Brute (1920)
The Symbol of the Unconquered (1920)
The Gunsaulus Mystery (1921)
The Dungeon (1922)
The Hypocrite (1922)
Uncle Jasper's Will (1922)
The Virgin of the Seminole (1922)
Deceit (1923)
Thirty Years Later (1928)
When Men Betray (1929)
Wages of Sin (1929)
Easy Street (1930)
A Daughter of the Congo (1930)
Darktown Revue (1931)
The Exile (1931)
Veiled Aristocrats (1932)
Ten Minutes to Live (1932)
Black Magic (1932)
The Girl From Chicago (1932)
Ten Minutes to Kill (1933)
Phantom of Kenwood (1933)
Harlem After Midnight (1934)
Murder in Harlem (1935)
Temptation (1936)
Underworld (1937)
God's Step Children (1938)
Swing! (1938)
Lying Lips (1939)
Birthright (1939)
The Notorious Elinor Lee (1940)
The Betrayal (1948)
Birthright (1924)
A Son of Satan (1924)
Body and Soul (1925)
Marcus Garland (1925)
The Conjure Woman (1926), adapted from novel by Charles W. Chesnutt
The Devil's Disciple (1926)
The Spider's Web (1926)
The Millionaire (1927)
The Broken Violin (1928)
The House Behind the Cedars (1927), adapted from novel by Charles W. Chesnutt
Part of the Court.rchp.com 2017 Black History Month Series
Much of the article text republished under license from Wikipedia
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Loft in OpenSCAD
Introduction: Loft in OpenSCAD
You probably want to watch the video first.
Step 1: What Is 'loft'?
In many CAD programs, a loft is a 3d object that is stretched out between two (or more) 2d-objects (sketches), that are located in 3d space. In the pictures you see a loft between a star and a triangle in FreeCAD, and in green circles the two sketches and the loft tool.
But there are no sketches in OpenSCAD, so what to do now?
Step 2: Hull in OpenSCAD
If both of your shapes are entirely convex, you can make a hull. I've included an example, the documentation is there:
Note though that both of your shapes are three dimensional (but only 0.1 mm thick).
Step 3: The Loft Module
The problem with the hull method though is that is it limited to convex shapes, the star and triangle model from FreeCAD is not going to work here. And that is why I made a loft module. Technically it is a polyhedron that is defined by code and you 'only' need to express your two shapes in points. The number of the points of the upper and lower shapes have to be identical. It works defining your points by code, for instance if you want a circle use sin and cos.
The last number in the loft module is the number of layers, adjust it to your liking (natural number).
Step 4: Troubleshooting
That's it. But for the case that something doesn't work, I added this 'debugging' file. If something is funny with your loft, add your points here and look at the colorful dots and the error messages.
If you have ideas how to make even better lofts in OpenSCAD, I'd be happy to hear from you.
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Sunday, December 4, 2011
Caesar’s Rhine Bridge – Rome Showcases its Technical Prowess
Obviously, there are gaps in our knowledge of Roman construction techniques and tools because we lack either written or physical evidence of these. Non-permanent materials have eroded away over two millennia and their characteristics elude us. Great structures like Hadrian’s Wall survive because of the use of stone or concrete.
There is, however, one clear example of a non-permanent structure which we know a lot about – Caesar’s first bridge over the Rhine. We know the story because Caesar tells us in volume four of The Conquest of Gaul. But construction techniques are only part of the story. Caesar built this bridge to show the Germans they were never safe from him because he had the skills to cross the river and attack them.
In 55 B.C, the German tribes Usipetes and Tenctheri crossed the Rhine to the Roman occupied west bank and plundered corn they found there. Crossing back over they joined forces with the Sugambri tribe. When Caesar sent an embassy to the Sugambri and asked that the culprits be returned to him, the response was that the Rhine was the limit of Roman authority. Simultaneously, the Ubii tribe, an ally of Rome, asked for help against the Suebi tribe who were harassing them.
Caesar, deciding he had enough reasons to cross the Rhine, planned an expedition to attack the Sugambri.
Downstream from Koblenz, there are two small towns named Andernach and Neuwied. Historical scholarship suggests Caesar planned to cross the Rhine in between these two locations. The distance between the shorelines in this area is 800 to 1000 feet. The average depth of the river is 16 feet.
Before we talk about the construction of the bridge, it will be useful to show a photograph of the model that sits in The Museo Della Civilta Romana in Rome.
Before starting construction, the Romans built a crane on a raft and floated it out into the river. You can see the framework of this apparatus on the left of the picture. The piers supporting the bridge were constructed of one and a half foot thick logs. These tigna bina were tied together in pairs with a two foot gap between them. They were then driven into the river bed at an oblique angle using a pile driver. This was apparently a large stone, attached to block and tackle on poles, that could be swung at the posts once they were tied into position. Once two sets of these posts were secure a large log (fibulae) was placed between them in the slot formed by the two foot gap. Angled supporting posts were tied to the tigna bina to provide additional support.
Caesar says the piles were positioned forty feet apart before they were driven into the riverbed.
Once the support structure was in place, logs were laid across the piers and then boards were used to form the roadway.
I estimate that the piers were about twenty feet apart so a thousand foot river span would have required 50 piers. The bridge was built in ten days which meant workers would have placed five piers per day assuming the roadway was built as a parallel process over piers already completed.
The Romans had a variety of familiar tools at their disposal, including adzes, hammers, saws for cutting boards, and block and tackle. They used 9 inch nails to fasten boards together.
Once the bridge was complete, the army crossed over the Rhine. They spent 18 days in the land of the Sugambri, burning abandoned villages because the enemy had fled their homeland in fear of the Roman juggernaut. After treating with the Ubii, Caesar crossed back over the Rhine and destroyed the bridge behind him. Ten days in the making, Caesar’s Rhine bridge lived for eighteen days.
A footnote to the story. There have been endless arguments about this event among scholars. Some reinterpret Caesar’s Latin and challenge the construction methods described. Others question the engineering saying that the bridge would not have held. As an engineer, I am comfortable with the construction methods described and think these debates are a waste of time. Scholars will be scholars, however, and they’ll debate any issue until each has had his say. How many engineer historians are there, anyway?
Anonymous said...
I'm an engineer, and a Classic PhD candidate, but my engineering was electrical, then computer science (where I worked all my working life), and I don't work in the area of ancient engineering. But its interesting to hear from other engineers in the field!
Geoff Carter said...
On the subject of credibility; it is inconceivable that Caesar would have made up any of his account, it was written for an audience, many of whom may have been there.
Those aspects of the account which pertain to the general facts of the campaigns I would consider as accurate, to be caught obviously fabricating or exaggerating recent history would surely amount to a serious loss of face among his peer group.
Clearly there is room for maneuver in his account of his own thoughts and motivations - but the bridge is unquestionable. Like aspects of this unique account, translation can be not straight forward, as translators are seldom engineers.
Scott McCulloch said...
I recently met a Chemical engineer who was completing PhD in ancient history.
So they are around :)
Anonymous said...
Your account was very informatve. I am a Civil Engineer and I design foundations. I find the bridge very feasible. One issue I found out about driving wood piles at a batter is that driving them vertical with a drop hammer as you described would be easy in soft mud. The trick to batter the piles is to drive vertical an bend them into position and secure them with wire rope. The Romans had rope and their nails could have been bent over like a stape we use today. The trick to making this bridge work is to spread out the troups while crossing so you don't overload it. I have designed and built three pile clusters that supported power poles with 25 mph currents. What they did not stand up to was tornados and barges running in to them.
Anonymous said...
Bolches yarboclos pa todos.
Anonymous said...
Hey I'm also Michael. Thanks for the blog looks great can't wait to read it!
Griff Rkt. said...
Were wedge shaped structures upstream of every pier used to divert the force of the current around the piers? It seems that those would have been just as important to the success of this bridge design as many of the details mentioned above but I have never heard anyone explain them. I would think that the diverting and redirecting of the current around the piles would take at least a third of the burden off the piers. Anyone know more about these breakwaters?
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3. Flour Riot of 1837
The Flour Riot of 1837 was a one-day food riot in which hungry workers protested rising flour and grain prices. The riot also foreshadowed the Panic of 1837, a financial crisis that heavily impacted the city and the American economy more broadly. President Andrew Jackson had passed an executive order called the Specie Circular, which required payment of land to be in hard money, typically gold or silver. As a result, over 400 banks closed entirely or partially failed, and prices began to rise drastically for products like flour, nearly doubling from around $6 to $12 per barrel.
On February 12, around 5,000 people gathered to protest the price of flour and grain, many poor Irishmen. A speaker of unknown identity supposedly rallied the crowd to protest Hart & Co. to lower the price of flour to its original $8. Workers at Hart & Co. closed all doors and windows except one, which allowed protesters to breach the facility. The mayor was pelted with stones and ice, and after the crowd stormed the warehouse of Herrick and Co., the National Guard was called. About 500 barrels of flour were destroyed, and around 40 people were arrested during the riots. In the end, flour prices did not come down, and the depression continued until 1843.
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A Pirate's Life for Me!
Yo ho, yo ho - students will use a web quest to discover a treasure of facts and information about pirates.
Students will participate in an inquiry-oriented activity to learn how to find information on the web. Students will practice reading informational texts with a purpose.
Ahoy mateys! Have you ever wondered if all the stories you have read and heard about pirates are true or do you think they are just made up adventures? AYE - you will embark on your own adventure by using a web quest to help you determine the facts vs. fiction about ye pirates of old! Arrrgh - stay on task or walk the plank!
Just as pirate captains kept their crew busy while at sea with work to do such as "swabbing" or mopping the deck, you have some tasks to do as well. While you seek a treasure of information, you have work or "quests" or that you must complete in order to find the loot!
Be sure to write down your answers in the Captain's Log (recording sheet).
First, check out the following website and look for answers to the following questions: https://www.tenfactsabout.com/0021pirates.htm
1. True or False - pirates ONLY existed in long ago history.
2. Believe it or not - Blackbeard was a true life pirate! What was his real name?
3. What was the name of Blackbeard's famous ship?
4. Although we often associate pirates with buried treasure, who was the only pirate known to have buried his loot?
5. Why did pirate ships fly the "Jolly Roger?"
6. Most of what we know about pirates does come from fictional stories. Name at least one famous pirate story and when it was written.
7. Why did pirates wear earrings?
Explore the following website for a treasure trove of information and finalize your Captain's log: http://www.the-pirate-ship.com/
8. What is a pirate's favorite pet and why?
9. What is the actual date of the "International Talk Like a Pirate Day?"
10. Write a fact about pirates that you enjoyed learning.
You have finished searching the Internet for TRUE pirate information and recorded your facts and answers for future pirates. You should be proud of the work you have accomplished. I hope you had a swashbuckling good time!
If you have ever seen the movie, "Pirates of the Caribbean," you might enjoy the following quiz:
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Search form
Langmuir Spirals Langmuir Ciculation
What causes parallel lines of bubbles to form on lakes?
Langmuir circulation, also known as Langmuir spirals, causes horizontal lines of bubbles or foam to form on the surface of lakes. Under the right wind conditions, the combination of wave action and shear stress causes spiraling horizontal currents to form near the lake surface. Adjacent cells rotate counter to one another, creating alternating areas of upwelling and downwelling. Air bubbles and other debris get caught in the downwelling areas, forming long lines that run parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Digging Deeper
Langmuir circulation was first observed by Irving Langmuir in 1927. As he sailed the Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic, he noticed parallel windrows of sargassum floating on the surface of the sea. In 1938 he described what was letter named Langmuir circulation in a paper published in Science titled Surface motion of water induced by wind. Langmuir was an American-born chemist and physicist that was recognized with a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1932 for his work on surface chemistry.
The exact mechanisms that lead to Langmuir circulation have taken decades to tease apart and at times are still subject to scientific debate. It appears as though a specific combination of wind and wave action is necessary to generate these circulation patterns. Sheer stress between the wind and water surface, combined with wave action, combine to generate organized helical circulation patterns. Circulation cells run parallel to the direction of the wind or us much as 20° off-axis. Each cell counter rotates relative to the adjacent cells, in other words, the cells alternate between clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation.
Diagramatic representation of Langmuir circulation.
The alternating direction of rotation in adjacent cells creates areas of upwelling and downwelling. The parallel bubbles seen on the surface are found at areas of downwelling or convergence. Air bubbles, floating plant material - such as the sargassum Langmuir observed in 1927, and other debris gets caught in the downwelling currents. In Lake George, New York, Langmuir documented the currents in great detail, finding that the downwelling currents are about three times the velocity of the upwelling currents. This has important implications for the distribution of non-mobile aquatic life forms, such as certain phytoplankton and zooplankton.
Langmuir circulation can occur whenever wind and wave conditions are right, but you won’t always see the telltale bubble lines. They will most often be seen with wind speeds of 4.5 to 7 miles per hour. The bubbles tend to get broken up at higher wind speeds, especially above 15 mph.
When on particularly large waterbodies or oceans, these circulation patterns can create temporary conditions that will attract much larger marine life such as large fish, whales, sharks, and birds as they feed on the smaller organisms caught in the currents. And the long parallel lines of bubbles can help recreational boaters understand the direction of prevailing winds.
Next time you are out on a lake on a windy day look for signs of Langmuir spirals. If you see them, it’s a great opportunity to share with your family and friends the physics of our beautiful lakes.
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RESEARCH: The bulging eyes of a stingray make it swim fast
The more streamlined an animal, the faster it is. To be streamlined means that the shape of the animal has smooth, flowing lines that enable it to reduce resistance to movement (called drag), such as through water or air.
Research scientists have found that the bulging eyes and mouth of a stingray makes it a faster swimmer. This seems impossible, because any part of a body that is protruding (sticking out) usually makes an animal slower.
Bluespotted Ribbontail Ray
A stingray has smooth flexible fins which makes it an efficient swimmer. However, its eyes and mouth stick out, which was thought to create drag and slow it down. Scientists have found that the bulging eyes actually makes it swim faster.
Scientists at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in South Korea conducted research on stingrays. They were studying the hydrodynamic actions of their swimming movements.
Hyung Jin Sung and his colleagues did computer simulations of the stingray body shape in three different ways: (1) bulging eyes and mouths (2) either bulging eyes and not a bulging mouth or not bulging eyes and a bulging mouth – i.e. only one or the other was bulging, and (3) completely smooth with no bulging eyes or mouth.
The scientists found that the bulges, or protrusions, created a set of vortices when the water moved over the stingrays. A vortex is a mass of water that spins very fast and pulls water into its centre. (Vortex is one and vortices is several of them.)
The scientists found that one vortex pushed water to the back of the stingray, leaving a zone of low pressure in front of it, and this zone allowed the simulated rays to swim faster. Another vortex pushed water to the sides of the stingray, increasing the pressure below its body and decreasing the pressure above its body. The made each stroke of the fins generate more thrust, which increased the efficiency and speed of the swimming motion.
When Hyung Jin Sung analysed the results, he said that the magnitude (great extent or great difference) was strong. The analysis showed that the stingray’s eye protrusions increased its propulsion efficiency (thrust through the water) by 20.5% more than a completely smooth stingray. Also, the stingray’s bulging mouth increased its propulsion efficiency by about 10.6% more than a completely smooth stingray.
Hyung Jin Sung says he was “very surprised” at the results.
The researchers say that the vortices – the masses of spinning water – occur because the stingray has a ‘bendy’ flexible body with rigid (stiff) eyes and mouth.
The research team at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology will now try to incorporate their knowledge of water propulsion into designs for efficient water vehicles that can mimic the motions of the stingrays.
Journal reference: Physics of FluidsDOI: 10.1063/5.0061287
Bluespotted Ribbontail Ray
Bluespotted Ribbontail Ray
Photographer: Martina Nicolls
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The American and French Revolution | Fördjupningsarbete
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The American and French Revolution | Fördjupningsarbete
Ett fördjupningsarbete på engelska om det amerikanska och det franska inbördeskriget (the American and French revolution). Arbetet redogör för de avgörande händelserna och faktorerna för bägge revolutioner och deras konsekvenser, samt en jämförelse mellan dem.
The American and French Revolutions
- Introduction
- The American Revolution 1775-1784
-- Background
-- Important Events
- The French Revolution 1789-1799
-- Background
-- Important Events
- Comparison between the revolutions
-- Similarities & Differences
-- Consequences for the rest of the world
- Bibliography
Both the American and French Revolutions have had a great influence on our modern democratic ideas, but what were the causes and consequences of the revolutions?
This essay will bring up background, important persons and events as well as a comparison between the both revolutions. It will also discuss some of the consequences that the revolution had on the individual countries and on the rest of the world both then and now.
The American Revolution 1775-1784
During the 17th century North America became colonized by several European countries1. In the east, the process of colonisation involved two great European rivals, Britain and France. Britain had thirteen colonies on the east side during 1624-1774, which later evolved to the United States.2 These thirteen original states were owned, ruled and taxed by England, but each state had its own government and military.3
In Europe, England and France were battling in the seven-year war, which continued in North America as the French and Indian War. The French lost and were forced to surrender their territory in North America, in the Treaty of Paris 1763, to Britain and Spain.4 But the war wasn't all good for Britain, it affected the British economy so King George III decided sent Redcoats to enforce acts in the colonies.5 To raise American money to England they... Köp tillgång för att läsa mer
The American and French Revolution | Fördjupningsarbete
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Podunk - Wôbanaki, circa 1618 - circa 1700
Chauk - Prologue | Trading at Springfield | Founding of Deerfield | Epilogue | About This Narrative |
image name: chauk.jpg
Chauk was a Podunk Indian man who developed a close relationship with English fur trader John Pynchon.
Illustration copyright Pamela Patrick White.
Chauk (1) was a young man of only 13 winters in 1631, when the Podunk sachems Waghinnicut, Arramament, and Natawanute chose to invite the English to Podunk (2). Not all of the sachems agreed with this decision — some believed that the English still carried the plague in their pockets. Stories had come to their ears of the troubles that the Wampanoag sachem Ousamequin (3) had in maintaining peaceful trade and alliance with the English strangers at Plymouth, after the plague had taken Patuxet. (4)
But Waghinnicut's good talking convinced the Podunk people that the English could serve as a buffer, and as allies, against the Pequot downriver. The English also had goods to sell in exchange for furs, so the Podunk could stop paying wampum to the Kanienkehaka (Mohawk) for the privilege of trading with the Dutch on the Mahicannituck (Hudson River). Instead, the English could ship their knives, cloth, and other trade goods directly up the Quinneticook (Connecticut) River to Podunk. Besides, the hunting here was so good that there would never be an end to the furs available to trade.
image name: canoe_building.jpg
As a child, Chauk witnessed a dramatic transition as Native canoes and Dutch and English boats brought fur trade and conflict up the river.
Illustration copyright Francis Back.
Chauk was eager to see the Bostoniak, but Waghinnicut chose others to carry the message to Massachusetts Bay Governor John Winthrop. Among them was Jack Straw, an Indian who had been taken captive by the English as a child; after years in London as a servant to Sir Walter Earle, he now spoke that language as well as any Englishman. Straw helped to explain the Podunk's offer to the Governor: a gift of 80 large beaver skins every year, and as much corn as they liked, if the English would only agree to start a settlement in Podunk territory. The Governor fed the messengers well, but he declined the offer, and refused the gifts. (5)
Trading at Springfield
Trade and Trouble Come to Podunk
The Dutch traders were not so shy. In 1632, the Pequot allowed a group of Dutch West Indian traders to settle at a place the Dutch named Kievit's Hook at the mouth of the river, in Quinnipiac territory. The following spring, Jacob Van Curler signed a treaty with the Pequot sachem Wapigwooit, who had claimed the southern parts of the river by conquest. Van Curler built a trading post at Hartford, and named it "House of Good Hope."
After the Dutch arrived, Waghinnicut and Natawanute renewed their request to the English, but the great governor Winthrop was so afraid of the Pequot that he had declared the Connecticut River to be "not fit for plantation, there being three or four thousand warlike Indians" living there. (6)
That year, Good Hope turned out to be just as dangerous as the southern parts of the river. The Pequot ambushed many of their enemies who came to trade there, and the Dutch, in retaliation, killed Wapigwooit. Tensions had been steadily increasing ever since the Mohegan, who were once one with the Pequot, had split to seek an alliance with the English. Wapigwooit's son, Sassacus, was now at war against his own cousin, the Mohegan sachem Uncas. (7)
The Podunk tried to ignore these troubles, while still reaching a hand out to the English. After the Governor of Massachusetts Bay refused the offer a second time, the men of Plymouth colony decided to expand their reach. In September of 1633, Chauk witnessed the arrival of the first English on the river, when William Holmes sailed right past the Dutch fort at Hartford to build an English trading post at Matianock, now Windsor. Waghinnicut, Arramament, Natawanute, and all of the Podunk sachems stepped forward to smoke the pipe with the English. William Bradford of Plymouth wrote that the Pequots "were much offended" when the English "brought home and restored the right sachem of the place, called Natawanute." (8)
Soon, English men, women, and children began traveling overland to settle in and around Podunk territory. The nearby Wangunk sachem Sequasson "was so taken in love with the coming of the English" that he sold a vast tract of land around Hartford and west into Tunxis territory. (9) William Holmes settled in the town of Wethersfield, founded in 1634 at the broad meadows of Pyquag.
The English seemed to be far safer neighbors and allies than the Dutch, at first. Chauk, as a strong young man of 15, offered his services as a runner for the traders, transporting furs and trade goods to both Indians and English settlers. Once they recognized how trustworthy he was, he was also allowed to transport slaves and horses. (10) The English often spoke to Chauk in broken phrases with wild gestures as though he was too stupid to understand. Even after he became a pretty good speaker, he would sometimes pretend to be ignorant, so they would talk more, and so he could learn more English words.
The first time Chauk received a cast-off article of clothing — an old linsey-woolsey waistcoat — as a gift from William Holmes, he was reminded of how fine Jack Straw had looked in his English clothes. Chauk soon acquired a checked linen shirt and patterned neckcloth, which he enjoyed wearing above his deerskin loincloth and leggings. Chauk also took a liking to English foods, particularly peas porridge, bread and cheese, but he found English houses, smelling of cattle and curds, to be miserable places compared with the open air of a wigwam. He took sick once, and his body was covered with oozing sores, after spending a fortnight sleeping in barns during a journey delivering furs to Boston. The cow pox left him in a fever for three nights but he soon recovered, with only a few scars left to tell the story. (11)
Chauk's relatives and neighbors, however, were not so lucky. In February of 1634, Dutch traders reported that a great plague of smallpox had taken nearly 1,000 Indians at Woronoco. The Dutch must have, indeed, carried the disease in their pockets, for the pox hit Podunk next, killing Natawanute and many others. Bradford wrote: "those Indians that lived about their trading house there [Windsor], fell sick of the small pox and died most miserably." (12) The disease followed the tracks of the traders across New England and into Mohican and Kanienkehaka lands in New York. Thousands of Native people died; those who survived were too weak to bury the dead, and shunned the places where the death had been the worst. Some of the Puritan English believed that "it pleased God to visit these Indians with a great sickness," thus clearing the land for Christian settlement. (13)
image name: campbell_farm.jpg
As English settlements moved into Native homelands, especially along the Quinneticook (Connecticut River), Native and English lifeways existed side by side. Some Native people made extra income by trading furs, and by ferrying people and trade goods on the river.
Courtesy of Yale University - Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
In the aftermath of that epidemic, more English poured into the valley from Watertown, Dorcester and Newtowne in eastern Massachusetts. Among the new settlers was a man named William Pynchon, from Roxbury, in Massachusetts Bay, who arrived in 1636, hoping to make his fortune in fur trade and land speculation. Pynchon and eight other families settled just 20 miles upriver, at Agawam, which was soon renamed Springfield. Within a few years time, fields of rye, oats, barley, and wheat, gardens of English root vegetables, and orchards of fruit trees were thriving, feeding English people, cattle, swine, and chickens. The English also planted seeds they got from Native people — indigenous maize, or corn, crops, along with beans and squash. (14) Pynchon encouraged a number of Agawam Indian families to continue living just across the river from the English town, believing that "friendly Indians" could serve as a buffer against hostile Indians.
Sachem of Podunk
Over the course of his young life, Chauk saw his people diminish from many thousands to a few handfuls, but he was determined not to leave his homelands. After hearing about William Pynchon's goals for trade in the valley, Chauk decided to travel north to meet him. Using the English language he had mastered, he boldly introduced himself, and offered his services as a friend to the English. When Pynchon asked if the young man was any relation to the late Natawanute, Chauk responded by touching his chest, saying "nisachem," meaning "my sachem." Pynchon brightened at the news, and, calling his companions round him, announced, "By faith, good fellows, we have among us a Podunk sachem, and a fine new one at that!"
Chauk carried trade goods and furs for Pynchon, just as he had for Holmes, and his calm, friendly manners endeared him to many of the English. During his visits at Springfield, Chauk developed a friendship with William Pynchon's son, John, a bright 10 year old who was as eager to learn Algonkian as Chauk was to learn English. John showed him the use of the quill pen, and taught Chauk to sign his name the way the English pronounced it — Chaque — instead of using the totem mark he been given as a child. (15) Chauk grew to be fluent in English, but John Pynchon never achieved perfect Algonkian. (16)
As a Native man fluent in both English and Algonkian languages, Chauk's service as a translator was often more useful than his work as a runner. He carried messages west to Tunxis, south to Quinnipiac, and north to Nonotuck. He reported on English talk for Arramement, one of the few surviving Podunk sachems. He even enjoyed visiting the Pequot, who had just concluded a new peace with the English. The Pequot sachem Sassacus denounced Chauk as an "Englishman's dog," and Uncas of the Mohegans praised him as the "Englishman's friend," but Chauk of Podunk thought himself a free man, answerable to no one.
Winter Hunting at Pocumtuck
After the deep losses during the plague years, Native hunters in southern New England began pooling their efforts, forming inter-tribal hunting parties to harvest deer, bear, beaver, and other animals for food and furs. Chauk had no uncles left to teach him hunting, and no sisters to make his moccasins, but he was determined to keep hold of traditional ways, and not depend too much on English goods. For two winters he had set out north, hoping to find men to teach him tracking, but his reputation as Pynchon's man did not endear him to the Nonotuck and Pocumtuck. He was, however, allowed to pass through their territory without concern, with whatever he could catch and carry.
In the winter of his 18th year, while returning from a hunt empty-handed, Chauk was caught in a blizzard as he struggled down the surface of the frozen Quinneticook near Pemawatchuwatunck (the Pocumtuck Range). The weaving of his pack was falling to pieces, his clothes were poorly fit, and to make his awkwardness worse, the young man's snowshoes had frozen solid to his feet after a partial fall through the ice.
image name: green_river.jpg
Rivers like the Pocumtuck and Quinneticook made for easy traveling in warm weather. The going was more dangerous in winter weather, however, when a fall through the ice could be deadly.
Photo copyright Allison Bell.
A young Pocumtuck woman, Keewatuway, was busy setting a snare beside the river when she heard heavy breathing, mixed with the sound of rawhide snapping against the icy crust. She half expected to see a wounded moose from the groaning noise, but was startled to see it was a man, dropping in his tracks from exhaustion. She ran across the frozen river to help him, throwing off her outer fur robes when she got there. Keewatuway wrapped the shivering Chauk in the warm furs, cut his snowshoe lacings off his feet, and then, making a sled of the snowshoes, lashed him aboard so she could drag him to a warmer place.
Chauk was so weak that Keewatuway's family took him in. The aunts found it very amusing that Keewatuway had gone out hunting rabbits and captured a man. Chauk proved to be good company, and helped with the work as he got stronger. Keewatuway's sisters spent the better part of that winter making new snowshoes and moccasins for this young man who clearly needed a woman to make his hunting gear. He had few of the skills that a young Native man should have been taught by his male relatives, but he was full of amusing stories from living with the English. (17) By spring, Keewatuway had agreed to travel south with Chauk, out of her own curiosity to see the English for herself. She promised her aunts that she would quickly return if any troubles came.
During the next full moon, when the ice was breaking up, Keewatuway's cousin, the Pocumtuck war sachem, Onapequin, returned home from his northern travels. He railed at the aunts for letting his young cousin go away with a stranger. "But listen," they told him, "this stranger is great friends with the English, who will send us good trade." Onapequin, who was well aware of the cost of dealing with the English, was not convinced, but he had no say over his cousin's choice of partners.
When they reached Podunk, Keewatuway and Chauk set right to work cutting saplings for a new wigwam. Chauk tried to help, but Keewatuway insisted that she preferred to work alone. Besides, any Wôbanaki woman knew that homes belonged to the women who built them. If Chauk ever mistreated Keewatuway, all she would have to do would be to put his moccasins — or his English shoes — outside the lodge, and that would be the end of it.
The Pequot War
To the south of Podunk, inter-tribal tensions were increasing. The Mohegans were now allied with the Narragansett and English against the Pequot. In April of 1637, the Pequot boldly killed 9 English, and captured several girls, from Wethersfield, right under the noses of the Podunk. In retaliation for these and other outrages, Captain John Mason orchestrated an attack on the Pequot Fort at Mystic. On May 26, 1637, 90 English soldiers, with more than 200 Native allies, burned the Pequot fort, killing hundreds and enslaving the survivors. (18)
In the aftermath of the attack, the colony of Connecticut outlawed the use of the name "Pequot." They forced 200 Pequot men and their families to move in with the Mohegan, Niantic and Narragansett tribes, and sent some Pequot to work as servants of the English. (19) The Connecticut colony then levied an annual fine against these tribes of a fathom of wampum, per year, for every Indian man living in their community. (20) The same wampum fine was levied against the Pocumtuck to cover the cost of the Pequot War, but there is no record that they ever paid it.
Around this time, William Pynchon began cultivating a friendship with the Kanienkehaka (Mohawk), in hopes of luring them away from the Dutch trade. The Connecticut colony leaders feared Pynchon's meddling, and charged him with stealing furs that were meant as gifts for Connecticut from the Kanienkehaka sachems responsible for murdering seven Pequot sachems. Pynchon claimed innocence, since it was "their ordinary time in the time of snow in the beginning of Winter to trade their skinns & a greate parte of this was such skins and not fitt for a gift to grate Sachims" such as the leaders of Connecticut. Furthermore, he said, "the Mohawks did much love the English: and would be in friendshipp with them, & destroy all Pequotts that came in their way." (21)
Famine in the English Colonies
After that long summer of war, English crops died in the fields for lack of water and loss of hands to harvest them. The following spring, famine hit the English settlements around Hartford and Windsor. Settlers and livestock were in such dire need of food that John Mason tried to threaten Indians to give corn to the colonists, but they barely had enough to feed themselves. (22) The Connecticut Court forbade any English settlers from going upriver to purchase corn from the Pocumtuck, fearing that those Indians might take advantage of this desperate need. (23)
On one of her many trips upriver to visit her family at Pocumtuck, Keewatuway brought the news of this famine to the ears of the sunksqua Mashalisk, who agreed to discuss it in council. A few weeks later, William Pynchon was able to negotiate a deal with the Pocumtuck Indians, who had corn to spare, and were willing to sell it at the low rate of 5 shillings a bushel. In the spring of 1638, 500 bushels of corn, loaded into 50 dugout canoes, was carried downriver to relieve the starving settlements in Connecticut. (24)
When the canoes passed by Podunk, Chauk and Keewatuway stood on the banks of the river to watch her female relatives paddle past. Keewatuway's sisters, aunts, and cousins had all agreed, along with the sunksqua Mashalisk, that feeding the enemy might be a good way to bring about peace.
image name: wob_woman.jpg
Wobanaki women constructed baskets, snowshoes, snares, and nets that were crucial tools for hunting and food gathering. English settlers came to depend upon these same tools, and also relied heavily on maize, grown by Native women, for survival.
Illustration copyright Francis Back.
On their way back north, Keewatuway's relatives stayed for several days at Podunk. They were pleased to hear that, not only was she happy with Chauk, but she was expecting a child to arrive soon. The sisters and the younger aunts went back to Pocumtuck, but the eldest aunt waited for the child to be born. Keewatuway's first child, a strong, long-legged boy, was given the name of Chauk's departed uncle, Nauwaton. Keewatuway's aunt claimed to be so frail that she couldn't travel; in truth she couldn't bear to leave her favorite relative. A few years later, age overtook her, and she passed over, just after Keewatuway's second child, a girl named Neesa, was born.
Trading with the English in Peacetime and Wartime
Over the next decade, Chauk often brought his children, Nauwaton and Neesa, along on his trips upriver. His friendship with William and John Pynchon, like his command of the English language, allowed him unique insights into the English ways. Every arrival of new goods at the trading house became an excuse for Native peoples from many different communities to meet and exchange news, in full sight of the English traders. The Engish might understand a few words of the Indian talk, but they rarely grasped all the subtleties of inter-tribal diplomacy.
The Podunk tried to maintain a neutral stance, with increasing English settlements and the threat of war all around them. In August of 1643, the four New England colonies — Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven — joined forces, forming "the United Colonies of New England" to deal with the Indians in peace and war. (25) The English Colonies were fickle allies to the Indians. They offered no assistance when their oldest friend, the Wangunk sachem, Sequasson, was beset by the Pequot. When the Narragansett sachem Miantinomo rose to Sequasson's defense, the United Colonies ordered Uncas to kill him. The Connecticut River valley Indians who had survived the plague now questioned the wisdom of those sachems who had first invited the English to settle on the river, two decades past.
By 1648, old Arramement of Podunk was white-haired and pock-marked from plague but still very much alive, and he had seen enough of English trade and Mohegan treachery. He and Tontonimo agreed to join the Pocumtuck sachem Onapequin in a new alliance with the Niantic and Narragansett against the Mohegan. That year, more than a thousand Native allies met at Pocumtuck to make plans. A fort was built at Pocumtuck for storage of food, trade goods, weapons and ammunition. Rumors spread that the Mohican and Kanienkehaka might even join the alliance. (26)
Chauk attended that war council with his Pocumtuck wife Keewatuway, but the more war talk he heard, the more he grew fearful that his friendship with the Pynchons might endanger his wife's kin. So, he and Keewatuway chose to walk away from the council. The Pocumtuck war sachem, Onapequin, quietly followed his cousin and her husband down to the Quinneticook; as they paddled away, he casually tossed a stone in the ripples following the canoe. Chauk never noticed, but that stone sent a shudder through Keewatuway, for she knew that Onapequin despised men who turned away from war.
image name: beaverpelt.jpg
During the 17th century, Europeans' demand for beaver pelts, and Native peoples' willingness to trade them, lured European colonists into Wobanaki territory. By mid-century, the depletion of the beaver population due to over-hunting left many Native people deep in debt with fur traders.
Copyright Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association, Deerfield, MA. All rights reserved.
Despite threats of inter-tribal warfare, William Pynchon and his son John, now 22 years old, continued a brisk business in the fur trade with Native peoples from communities throughout the valley. They were smart enough not to meddle with the Nonotuck and Pocumtuck, and advised the United Colonies to do the same, noting that "they must be esteemed as an Independant free people." (27) The Pynchons were also smart enough to notice that hunting had slowed due to dangers on the trails and competition in the north. So, they began extending credit to Indians who came in empty-handed, in exchange for the promise to deliver furs in the future. (28)
Mohegan Raid on Podunk
During the next decade, Onapequin's alliance was spread too thin to hold. The Mohican pulled back from their friends in the Connecticut River valley, staying close to their Kanienkehaka neighbors. Those Kanienkehaka sharpened their weapons, and sent warriors across the valley as far east as Pennacook and Penobscot. Uncas continued attacking Indians who refused to submit to the English, so Onapequin joined Ninigret of the Niantics in raiding the Mohegan and the Long Island tribes. (29)
With all these war parties crossing paths, the Podunk held their peace, hoping these troubles would pass. In 1652, old William Pychon went back to England, and John took over the Indian trade. The Pynchons had suggested to the United Colonies that friendly Indians should be identified by a piece of white cloth woven into their hair, so they could not be mistaken for enemy Indians. (30) When Keewatuway learned this, she sold a few fresh muskrats to John Pynchon in exchange for several yards of the whitest linen she could find. Pynchon's wife advised Kewatuway and the other Podunk women to leave this cloth in the sun to bleach even more for a few days, before tearing it into lengths to be woven into their familys' braids. (31)
In 1656, in defiance of the United Colonies' orders, Uncas's warriors hit Podunk, torching wigwams, stealing corn stores, and driving people off. Chauk was returning from a trip to Springfield, when he saw the smoke twisting around the bend in the river. When he reached the shore, he saw rows of canoes with their bottoms smashed out. His son, 17-year-old Nauwaton, was running towards him, trade axe in hand, ready to leap into Chauk's canoe to chase after Uncas' men. Nauwaton's strip of linen had been torn out of his hair, and was now knotted around the handle of his axe. Chauk tackled his bloodied, agitated son to the ground, holding him down while he asked, over and over, "Where are Keewatuway and Neesa?" By the time 15-year-old Neesa came to untangle the two men, Chauk knew the answer.
The Mohegan, like the English, couldn't tell one strange Indian from another, even with linen in their hair. He learned that during the attack, when several Podunk women were seen running from the burning wigwams with guns in hand, they were shot on the spot. In the aftermath of that attack, many Podunk people moved west, to Tunxis, but Chauk convinced Nauwaton and Neesa to stay with him, and build a new home, near the trading post, close to where Keewatuway was buried.
Pocumtuck Troubles with the Mohegan
The following year, the Pocumtuck sachems Onapequin and Massapetot, with the assistance of men from Woronoco and Narragansett, coordinated a massive attack on Uncas in his home territory, resulting in many deaths and captives. In May of 1657, the Massachusetts Bay Colony Commissioners wrote "we are apt to think Vncas may be in fault," so there was just cause for war, "but seing the Pacomtuck Indians haue had so great a victory ou him, & kild so many of his men, we think they may well rest satisfyed." (32)
The Massachusetts and Connecticut colonies ordered companies of armed Indians to avoid the English towns, and promised shelter to any Indians fleeing from their enemies. (33) Uncas pleaded to the United Colonies to help him make peace, and he was advised to send a large quantity of wampum to the Pocumtuck. Uncas sent some low-quality wampum north with some English emmissaries, but Onapequin was insulted by the small payment offered for the deaths at Podunk. An interpreter for the United Colonies reported that Onapequin was furious, "throwing an axe, horne and the wampam att him charging his men to kill theire horses; and afterwards endeauoring to strike one of the English Messengers with a gun." (34)
Onapequin then struck out at Uncas and everything in his path, fueling his rage with English rum. He raided an English house in Wethersfield, stealing bushels of corn from the same settlers whom the Pocumtuck had saved from starvation 20 years earlier. Onapequin then swung by Podunk, and took his late cousin Keewatuway's children captive, forcing them to go with him to Pocumtuck territory, where they would be safer. Nauwaton, who lusted after war, and Neesa, who missed her aunts, needed little persuading. When Chauk tried to stop them, Onapequin knocked him out with a swing of his canoe paddle.
On September 18, 1658, the Massachusetts and Connecticut colonial leaders met to discuss this series of events. They were willing to excuse Onapequin's refusal of Uncas's wampum, noting that he was drunk at the time. They knew the Pocumtuck and Mohegan were determined to fight each other, and were concerned that the English settlements not get entangled in inter-tribal disputes. They sent a message to "therfore lett the Pocomtucke Sachems vnderstand how ill wee Resent these Inquiriouse [injurious] passages as alsoe theire takeing away the Baskett of corne att Wethersfeild and the Children from Chawquatt." They asked the Pocumtuck to attend a meeting at Hartford, to settle the matter. (35) John Pynchon and others pleaded Chauk's case to the United Colonies, arguing he was "a peacable Indian liveing neare the English and hath not bine engaged in any warr or quarrells this twenty yeares." Furthermore, everyone knew the Podunk people had pledged neutrality, saying they only "desired to liue peacably without takeing pte with one or other." (36)
Onapequin and the other Pocumtuck sachems replied at length to the Commissioners' concerns, in a letter conveyed by John Pynchon. They asserted "that it was all theire desires that peace and frindship betwixt themselues and the English should still continew...if any of theire men had done them wrong they would make Satisfaction to the English." They saw no reason "to come to the meetings of the English Sachems," since "they doe not send for the English Sachems to theire meetings." (37) They apologized for the rash actions of "some of our men that are younge and follish." They explained that they had recently entered into a new alliance with the Kanienkehaka and Mohican, and would not go to war without them. Furthermore, they noted their mistrust of English translators, and requested "that if any Messengers bee sent to vs from the English they may bee such as are not lyares and tale carryers, but sober men." (38)
By 1659, the United Colonies Commissioners had persuaded most of the Podunk Indians to return to Windsor and Wethersfield. Chauk was among those who agreed to attend Mr. Pierson's religious meetings, and refrain from Native religious practices and labor on Sunday, which the English considered the Lord's Day. (39) For months, he continued sending messages to Pocumtuck, asking after his children, but the only answer he ever received was that they were in good health. A more traditional man might have understood that his children naturally belonged to their mother's kin, but Chauk felt bereft. (40)
Founding of Deerfield
The World Turned Upside Down
During the 1650s, Chauk had carried a dizzying array of messages, goods, and furs for John Pynchon, and watched the English settlements march their way up the Quinneticook. Springfield, settled in 1636, was the oldest; Longmeadow began in 1652, Northampton in 1654, Hatfield in 1658, and Hadley in 1659. Each had only a few hundred residents, so they did not yet outnumber the Indians.
Some of the most savvy of Pynchon's trading partners, like the Nonotuck sachem Umpanchela and the Pocumtuck sunksqua Mashalisk, however, were falling deeper into debt for beaver furs that were in increasingly short supply. They began to sign away parcels of land. Some of these deeds clearly reserved Native rights to hunt, fish, plant, and set up wigwams on the land that was transferred, but others seemed to be strategic choices to give up small areas near the river for limited English settlement. The sachems, living in the midst of a vast Indian territory, may have reasoned that there was still plenty of room to spare. (41)
Meanwhile, John Pynchon was maneuvering to establish a new trading post at Housatonic, halfway between the Connecticut and Hudson Rivers, hoping to lure the Mohican and Kanienkehaka fur trade away from the Dutch. In February of 1662, he hired three men to build the truck house, and Chauk helped to stock it with cloth, wampum, rum, shot and gunpowder. (42)
image name: truck_house.jpg
Native people from many different communities met at the truck houses where fur traders exchanged both goods and information. Traders like John Pynchon never hesitated to manipulate existing inter-tribal differences to ensure the best trade for the English.
Illustration copyright Francis Back.
Relations with the Kanienkehaka were a delicate matter, made more so in 1663 after a Sokoki attack devastated the easternmost of their villages. The Kanienkehaka threatended to retaliate against all the Connecticut River valley Indians, but John Pynchon volunteered to intercede. On July 28, 1663, he sent a letter to the Dutch Commissioners at Albany: "This is written to your Honors at the request of the Indians of Agawam, Pajassuck, Nalwetog, Pocumtuck, and the Wissatinnewag Housatonic, to inform their friends, the Dutch, that they are very much put out, because the Sowquackick Indians had killed and murdered some of the Maquaas [Kanienkehaka (Mohawks)]. . . As to the other Indians of the Caneticot [Connecticut] River. . . further down, they deplore it exceedingly, repudiate the deed, and swear at the Sowquackick; because they have killed the Maquas. . .the Southern Indians of Pacomtuck and Agawam and farther South assure, that they will remain friends with the Maquaas and hope, that they will live in peace with them. (44)
On October 22, 1663, the Kanienkehaka chief Cajadogo responded to this letter by sending a war party against the Sokoki. (45) Several hundred Kanienkehaka and Seneca died in the attack on the Sokoki fort. (46) The Dutch then tried to broker a peace, and suggested sending wampum to secure the release of Kanienkehaka prisoners. The Kanienkehaka agreed that "war is now inconvenient to them and they prefer to live in peace." The Mohican, however, feared that the Kanienkehaka might continue fighting. The Mohican said that a failed attempt at peace would "make us liars and deceivers; you must do no harm to the Northern savages, as you have threatened this day, but live like brothers in peace." (47)
On May 22, 1664, a small embassy of two Dutch, three Kanienkehaka and three Mohican men came to Pocumtuck sachems to discuss peace. The Pocumtuck convinced 36 Sokoki sachems to end their war with the Kanienkehaka. Wampum was given, tobacco was smoked, and the emmissaries were assured that the Kanienkehaka captives were "treated well, not as prisoners, but as visiting friends." (48) The Kanienkehaka promised to send the sachem Saheda over the mountains with wampum on their part to seal the peace. On June 21, however, Saheda was killed on his way to Pocumtuck. (49)
In July, Cajadogo reported to a Dutch court at Fort Orange (Albany) that "the English had told the Northern fight or kill the Dutch and Maquaes and the English have threatened, if you do not do as we tell you, we shall kill you." (50) He blamed Saheda's murder on two Englishmen, but John Pynchon denied this charge, claiming, "I heard Lieut. Wilton and Mr. Clarke of Hadley say they did persuade the Pocumtucks to accept of wampum and to make peace with the Mohawks [Kanienkehaka], but they refused to harken." (51)
Just two months later, on September 8, the Dutch capitulated to the English, and the colony of New Netherlands suddenly changed hands. On September 25, 1664, Col. George Cartwright signed a new treaty at Fort Albany with the Kanienkehaka (Mohawk) and Mohican, in which the English agreed to refuse all future assistance to Sokoki, Pennacook, Pocumtuck and other Eastern Indians. By way of explaining this sudden change, the treaty pointed to the fiasco at Pocumtuck, noting: "That the English do not assist the three Nations of the Ondiakes [Sokoki], Pinnehooks [Pennacook], and Pacamtohookes [Pocumtuck], who murdered one of the Princes of the Maquaas, when he brought ransomes & presents to them upon a treaty of peace." (52)
The following winter was exceptionally bitter, with freezing rain and heavy winds closing the passage over the mountains between Albany and Pocumtuck. In late January of 1665, during a clearing in the weather, a large war party of Kanienkehaka set out on the eastward trail. They destroyed the Pocumtuck fort, scattered the food stores on Pine Hill, and drove families living on the west side of Pemawatchuwatunck to run for their lives. Onapequin and his family were taken and killed. The Kanienkehaka later claimed those deaths were a mistake. Chauk's son, 27-year-old Nauwaton, died beside Onapequin.
John Pynchon notified Massachusetts Governor John Winthrop that the survivors were fleeing east and south, to Quaboag, Nonotuck and Agawam, or north, to Sokoki. Winthrop was pleased to have finally broken the power of the Pocumtuck, and mused "now they have revenged upon Onopequen," the Kanienkehaka "might hearken to peace...may be by the mediation of the English." (53)
Flight from Pocumtuck
Chauk's daughter, 26-year-old Neesa, was one of those who fled south after the Kanienkehaka attack on Pocumtuck. She and one of the aunts had thrown as much wampum as they could carry into the canoe, and went straight to Pynchon's truck house, hoping to purchase food for the other refugees. Pynchon was gone, but Chauk was there, tending the stores. Neesa barely recognized her father — he was only 48, but the years had carved deep furrows in his face and bent his frame. Keewatuway's sister turned her back on this man, having never forgiven him for taking her sister away. The insult hurt, but Chauk quietly filled baskets and bags with corn, peas, root vegetables, and salted meats. He loaned the women a cart to carry these goods, and did not enter this transaction into Pynchon's book.
Neesa spent several days distributing food to the Pocumtuck refugees. In the end, she insisted that Chauk pay Pynchon with the wampum they brought, so he could not be accused of theft. Then, she announced her intent to return to Pocumtuck, and invited her father to come with her. Chauk suddenly realized that Pynchon would soon be looking to purchase land, and that perhaps, through Neesa, he could arrange a deal that might protect them and the other Pocumtuck. His heart filled with pride at the wisdom of these thoughts.
Sachem of Pocumtuck
The Kanienkehaka attack was devastating, but it did not depopulate Pocumtuck. Those who survived recombined their families. Over time, many refugees returned. Chauk's trading abilities and his age enabled him to gain a fair measure of respect. He was the eldest member of a small family group that included his adopted brother Wapahoale, his daughter Neesa, his daughter's husband, Wequanock, and their children. It was in this role that he presented himself to his old friend John Pynchon as a "Sachem of Pacomtuck."
image name: chaukdeed.jpg
On February 24, 1667, a Native man named Chauk, or Chaque, signed the first deed for Native land in Deerfield. Although the deed identifies him as a "Pocumtuck sachem," the primary documents reveal that Chauk was a Podunk sachem and long-time friend of Pynchon, who may not have had original rights in the land. Click here for more information.
Copyright Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association. All rights reserved.
On Febrary 24, 1667, two years after the Kanienkehaka attack, Chauk signed over a large tract of land to Pynchon, for the use of the English settlers from Dedham. The deed included parts of present-day Deerfield, West Deerfield, and Cheapside, along "ye further side or upper side or North side of Pacomtuck River, & so a little way up Pukcommeag (Green) River, & then leaving Puckomeagon river, runs off to ye hill Sunsick (West Mountain) westward: All ye land fro the Hill Sunsick on ye westward & downe ye River Pacomtuck." (54)
Chauk explained the terms of the deed, since neither Wapahoale nor Wequanock were fluent in English. He had carefully reserved specific rights that would ensure their long-term residence and survival at Pocumtuck, including unlimited "Liberty of fishing for ye Indians in ye Rivers or waters & free Liberty to hunt deere or other wild creatures, & to gather walnuts chestnuts & other nuts things on ye Commons." (55) Many Indians were suspicious, fearing that the English would nonetheless cheat them for the price of their furs, take their land, and crowd them out. Chauk assured the Pocumtuck that he would protect them against any conflict with the English. Chauk made the same promise to Pynchon.
Chauk remained at Pocumtuck, and he was living near the Pocommegon River, around the place now called Petty Plain, when the first English settlers arrived. Although the Pocumtuck fort was long gone, from Petty Plain he could look to where it had been, near a place that came to be called Sachem's Head, near the confluence of the Pocumpetook and the Quinneticook, below the falls at Peskeompskut.
By the 1670s, the English settlement at Pocumtuck was thriving, and the fears of the Pocumtuck people increased. They no longer feared Kanienkehaka raids, but Native peoples all up and down the river had stories of English insults and abuses. The English settlements had taken the best lands along the river, and the settlers were multiplying like flies. Native people were being hauled into court for various offenses; some, like the Nonotuck sachem Chickwallope's son, were wrongly accused and executed. Some Native families started leaving the valley, seeking refuge with their sometimes allies, the Mohican, and their old enemies, the Kanienkehaka. (56) Others went north, among the Abenaki.
When Metacom's Rebellion, otherwise known as King Philip's War, swept through the valley, Chauk convinced his family to stay clear of the struggles, haunted as he was by the ghosts of past wars. Neesa dreamed a warning that kept them away from the falls during the fishing season, on May 19, 1676, when the massacre happened. (57) Neesa also dreamed of a westward journey. Just ten days later, Governor Andros of New York sent word that Native peoples from the valley could live safely under his protection at the refugee village of Schaghticoke. (58) So, when a large group of Pocumtuck people decided to move west, Chauk, Wapahoale, Wequanock, Neesa and the children went with them.
Fifteen years later, in December of 1691, as a frail man of 73, Chauk returned to Deerfield with his extended family. They set up their wigwams just to the south of the English settlement, beside the Pemawatchuwatunck, hoping to make use of the rights secured in the deed of 1667. (59)
Chauk crossed paths with his old friend John Pynchon only once, very near to the place where Keewatuway had rescued him from the river so many years past. The trader was riding in a canoe paddled by one of his servants, a young Native man from Agawam. Pynchon looked right at Chauk, standing on the shore of the Quinneticook in his blue English coat, but his eyesight must have failed him, for there was no show of recognition.
About This Narrative
The Connecticut River valley Indian named Chauk (also spelled Chawk, Chaque, Chaquatt, and Chawquatt) appears in the 17th century historical record only a few times. He was at Podunk when the first English settlers arrived, and was one of the few Podunk to survive the 1634 smallpox epidemic. In 1658, the Pocumtuck sachem Onapequin raided Podunk and took two of Chauk's children captive. Chauk unsuccessfully petitioned the colonial authorities for their return. Nine years later, in February of 1667, after Onapequin was killed in a Kanienkehaka attack, Chauk signed the first deed giving Pocumtuck land to John Pynchon, writing his name as "Chauque" (the original document is in Memorial Hall Museum). The historical events described in this narrative are real and are footnoted. The details of Chauk's life are fictionalized, except for the instances noted above. In the trading scene circa 1650, Chauk is shown in the background, with a raised hand, arguing over the price of some trade goods. This narrative was written by Marge Bruchac.
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The Stunning Truth About Colombia's River Of Five Colors
South America has been a source of mystery for centuries within the fields of biology and archaeology. The titanic Amazon rainforest holds within it all sorts of natural wonders in the way of plant and animal life. It also holds the remains of mysterious settlements that long predate the rise of the Incan empire — which was once thought to be the pinnacle of South American civilization. Meanwhile in Colombia, a river stands out as one of the most visually unique ecosystems in the world.
Caño Cristales, also known as the "River of Five Colors" and the "Liquid Rainbow," is a 62-mile-long body of water which can appear as any mix of colors including yellow, blue, green, orange, and a purplish red (via Travel + Leisure). While multiple colors appearing at once is a relatively rare occurrence, the river is nevertheless a spectacular sight whenever it bears any color. Although at first it may appear as though artificial dye was added to the water, this rainbow river is a completely natural phenomenon.
The river's defining colors are due to one plant
Caño Cristales' various colors are the result of Macarenia clavigera, a rare species of aquatic plant that spans the length of the river (via Gentside). The plants change color depending on how much sunlight they receive, which is determined by the height and speed of the water. It is therefore not uncommon for the plants to be completely colorless if sunlight is too inaccessible. Macarenia Clavigera is also an exceptionally delicate plant; its transparent leaves give the water an almost painted appearance (via the BBC).
This makes them easily damaged by major disturbances in the water and, unfortunately, human visitors initially tended to trample them while swimming. Once a tourist industry was established around the site, regulations were put in place that cut down the number of visitors, prohibited any chemicals such as bug spray, and limited how many people could swim at one time. Regardless, The River of Five Colors stands out as one of Colombia's most popular natural attractions, drawing thousands of tourists every year (via CNN).
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How do you get the ‘C’ out of a name?
You can tell the difference between an old car and a new one by looking at its name.
However, you might have noticed that a new car will always be called a “C” in the title of its manual, but it will always look like an old one.
The same is true of a manual from a decade ago, when the car was called a ‘C’.
The ‘C’s have always been used to describe an old manual.
That’s because the first letter of a letter in a name indicates what part of the name it refers to.
The letter C is used to identify a manual that is made before 1939.
If the car is called a C-type, then it’s likely that it was made before 1940.
A car from 1940 or earlier is a “c” (or “C”).
If a car from a different era has the letter ‘C’, it’s a “n” (which means “nearly”).
You might even see the letter “n”, which means “not yet”.
If you have a manual made in the 1940s or 1950s, you may have noticed the letter N in the name.
If you know the name of the car, you can also identify it by the letters A-Z.
For example, if the car name is “A”, the letter A is usually the letter to the right of the letter C. If there is no A, the car might be called “A-C”.
If there’s an A, there will usually be a letter “Z”.
If the letter Z doesn’t exist, then the car probably was made after the letter F (which is an A).
If you are looking for information on the letters that make up the names of cars, then you can look for the letter S in the letter K, for example.
The S in a car’s name indicates that the car originated from a factory somewhere in Europe.
Cars from Europe are often known as “European-spec”, “spec-car”, or “spec” (as in “spec car” from Europe).
Some cars, like the Ford Mustang, have a letter K in their name.
It’s not a standard letter; it’s used to indicate that the name was chosen by the manufacturer.
For the other letter combinations, you have to know the letter P. The letters “a”, “b”, “c”, and “d” (pronounced “dog”) are sometimes used as prefixes to names.
For instance, a Mustang might be “R-type”, and a Mustang X might be a “J-type”.
The letter “s” or “s”, which indicates a “speciality” or a “specific” car, can also be used to differentiate between a specific model and a “regular” model.
For a Mustang, the letters S and P are used to distinguish between the Mustang GT and the Mustang Shelby GT500.
Another letter combination, “a” or more, indicates the “pre-model”, or a specific car from the “first generation” of the Mustang.
If your car is from an era other than 1940 or later, it’s possible that the letter D in the car’s title may be a typo.
The term “standard” means that a car has been used by someone who is familiar with the car and its history.
A “regular-type” car will be an older car, or a car that has been built before 1940, but the letters in its name have not been changed.
The “spec”, or specification, of a car refers to the way the car has gone up to the point where it’s considered to be a special or unique car.
The number of letters in a word is the number of years that have passed since it was written.
The more letters there are in a given word, the more words that mean the same thing.
For an example, say you want to write “a Ford Mustang”, the number is 11, and the word “specification” refers to a car made in 1939.
The word “standard”, “regular”, and the letter Q refer to the same car.
A more detailed example is the car used by the show car in the AMC “The Walking Dead”.
It’s called a Walking Dead, because it’s shown in AMC’s popular zombie series.
The Walking Dead is a show where zombies can survive by cannibalism.
If a Walking D is used, it means the car may have been built around 1939 or earlier, and that it may be considered to have “regularity” (i.e., a car will have more letters than it would have in a different show).
In general, it is very difficult to tell the exact date a car was made.
The car will usually look older than it is, and it may have the same name as the show.
In a case where a car is named “C-
How to write an erotic book in three easy steps
A book about sex is an intimate book that you can’t read at home.
It’s a book that is written by a writer who is a sex therapist.
The writer is writing a book about being a sex writer, and you have to do the same.
So, how do you write a book you can actually read at the office?
To start, you need to have an idea of what you want your book to be.
For example, I wrote my book, My Lover’s Secret, because I wanted to write about my own life and not about a sex book.
So I went to a friend of mine and said, “If I’m going to do this, I want to write this book, and it’s going to be about me.”
He said, “‘What if I just write about what it’s like to be me?”
I said, ‘What if we just write it about sex?’
“You have to find that in yourself.
Then, you have a few things to think about: What’s your audience?
How do you want to get the book out?
What are the topics you’re going to cover?
What is the tone of the book?
And then, you can do the research.
The research is the part that’s really important.
For me, my first book was written in a vacuum.
I had no idea what I was writing about.
I didn’t know what my audience was, what my themes were.
And I didn the reader.
So then I thought, “OK, let’s write a novel.”
Then I read it.
And then I went back to it.
I went, “Okay, let me figure out the tone, what the tone is.”
And I had a great time writing it.
It was funny, I felt like a kid again.
I started thinking about sex.
I realized that if I wanted the book to go to the audience, I needed to think the sex thing through.
And so I was like, “Why not write a sex story?”
And that’s what I did.
And now, in addition to writing books about sex, I also write erotic fiction.
It used to be, erotic fiction was like poetry.
I wrote poetry.
Then I got a degree in literary theory, and I began writing erotic fiction, which is not a genre.
But I started writing erotic books, and the sex became part of the story.
So now, erotic romance is a genre and sex is a topic, and that’s the genre.
So what do you need your reader to know about sex to be able to write a good erotic novel?
First of all, you gotta find your audience.
You gotta find the readers.
And you gotta do it in the way you want them to be drawn to it in a certain way.
I was able to draw the reader in a way that I felt comfortable with, and then I wrote the story that was appropriate for that audience.
If I’m writing a sex novel, I like to write it in an erotic way, because sex is what makes me feel good.
And, I’m not a big fan of the straight male reader, so I’m trying to get a reader for the reader that feels comfortable with a gay man, and a woman.
I don’t want them thinking, “Oh, I don.t like gay men.
I’m gay.
“And if they do think that, then they’re not going to like the book.
I want the reader to think, “Well, I can’t really like this.
I can imagine what it would be like if this were a straight man.
“That’s where the romance comes in.
I wanted people to like what I wanted them to like.
I have a lot of gay men in my life, and they don’t like straight men, and so I wanted those gay men to feel like I was the writer, that I had an idea for this book and I knew what I had to write.
That’s what makes the romance work.
Thats why, for example, when I wrote The Last Man, I had all these gay men who I knew I could relate to.
The last book, The Last Lover, was a lesbian novel.
I tried to get all the lesbians in there, because we all have the same problems and we all live with the same issues, so we’re all the same sort of people.
The problem that I have is I don-want-them-to-think-that.
And what I’m hoping for, and what makes it so successful, is I want them not to think that I’m putting this on them, and instead, I just wanted to let them experience it.
So it’s a lot like the story of the last man, in that he can’t imagine what the last guy must have felt like.
He’s going through his own sexual experiences, and he’s just not going there.
And he has to put his own foot
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(Latin: within, inside, on the inside)
Borrowed from late Latin intra-; closely related to inter-, "between". The use of intra- is largely a product of modern times, occurring in words of common and technical vocabulary, where once it was generally a term used in science and the academic world.
While some words are borrowings from Medieval and even Late Latin, few if any come from Classical Latin.
—Based on information from Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology
Ab intra (Latin phrase)
Translation: "From within (oneself)."
The role of an insider is played out ab intra or "from within" an organization.
abdominohysterotomy (s) (noun), abdominohysterotomies (pl)
Discere si cupias intra: salvere iubemus.
If you wish to learn, enter: we welcome you.
Motto inscribed on the east facade of Brookings Hall; Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.
endopelvic, intrapelvic
Within the pelvis.
international, intranational
intra muros. (IN-trah MOO-rohs) (Latin phrase)
Translation: "Within the walls."
In ancient times, sturdy barriers were built on the perimeters of cities to protect their inhabitants against invasions, and the day-to-day lives of the cities were conducted intra muros.
intra vires
Within the powers.
A matter is intra vires when it is within the legal power, scope, or authority of an institution or individual to perform an action. The opposite term is ultra vires.
intra vitam
During life: "The biologists were busy staining tissues intra vitam."
intra-abdominal (adjective) (not comparable)
Concerning the section inside the abdomen: Because of the terrible accident, Frank suffered from an intra-abdominal bleeding which required an immediate operation.
intrabronchial electrocardiography
The recording of an electrocardiogram with an exploring electrode in a bronchus or a tube leading from the windpipe to a lung, which provides for the passage of air.
intracardiac electrocardiography
The recording of electrocardiograms by means of electrodes within the cardiac cavities.
1. Within an organ or body cavity.
2. Situated or occurring within a body cavity; especially, relating to, or being treatment (as of cancer) characterized by the insertion of radioactive substances in a cavity.
Cross references of word families related directly, or indirectly, to: "internal organs, entrails, inside": ent-; enter-; fistul-; incret-; inter-; splanchn-; viscer-.
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GC1 6. Wild for Life, lesson 1
1 / 17
Slide 1: Tekstslide
Global CitizenshipMiddelbare schoolvwoLeerjaar 1
In deze les zitten 17 slides, met interactieve quiz, tekstslides en 2 videos.
time-iconLesduur is: 50 min
Onderdelen in deze les
Slide 1 - Tekstslide
Slide 2 - Tekstslide
Goals of this lesson
At the end of this lesson you can...
• Understand the framework of the Global
Goals for Sustainable Development
• Create an understanding on one global
topic, the plight of endangered species.
• Explain the impact of technological
development and growth in the human
population on the living and non-living
• Explain how individual choices and actions
can contribute to improving the environment
• Describe the range of interrelationships of
humans with the living and non-living
Slide 3 - Tekstslide
Slide 4 - Video
What do you know about Goals
14 and 15?
Slide 5 - Woordweb
The Global Goals are:
The Global Goals for Sustainable Development are a plan developed by the United Nations and
agreed upon by all countries to work towards 2030 to:
i. Fight global inequality.
ii. End extreme poverty.
iii. And respect our planet.
Slide 6 - Tekstslide
Global Goal #14 – Life Below Water - Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development
Slide 7 - Tekstslide
Global Goal #15 – Life on Land - Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
Slide 8 - Tekstslide
Group work
Form a small group, max. 4 students
Discuss the following questions:
Do you think animals are being killed illegally?
Can you give an example that demonstrates
this point?
• For example:
- Even though it is illegal, elephants are poached each year for their tusks.
- Sea turtles are poached for their meat. Their shells are used to make
Slide 9 - Tekstslide
1. What would the World be like if it was legal to kill all animals?
2. What difference do you think it might make to the World?
3. What difference do you think it might make to you?
4. Are there any reasons why killing animals would be beneficial?
5. Do you feel you can make a change in the World for more Wildlife Conservation?
6. Can you think of someone who is a role model for Wildlife Conservation?
Slide 10 - Tekstslide
Kindred animals
Look at the pictures on the following slide:
Slide 11 - Tekstslide
Slide 12 - Link
What do you know?
What do you know about these animals?
Slide 13 - Tekstslide
Pair work
Matching game
The teacher will hand out a card game.
Slide 14 - Tekstslide
Do the quiz on slide 18 at home and write a paragraph of a minimum of 100 words about
what WildForLife is and name the 4 UN Organisations (groups within the UN that have a
specific focus ) for this.
Record your information on the worksheet you have received.
Upload to Simulise.
Slide 15 - Tekstslide
Quiz site
See next slide!
Slide 16 - Tekstslide
Slide 17 - Video
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Egyptian History
Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa
Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa
This cemetery is also known as “the Catacomb”. It is located in Kom El-Shoqafa area at Karmous district, to the west of Alexandria. It dates back to the 1st or 2nd Centuries A.D. It was discovered in 1900 by chance when the legs of a donkey fell in the mouth of the shaft of this tomb. Then, when they pulled the donkey out, they discovered the tomb after the archaeologists had been looking for it for 12 years but in vain.
This tomb was completely cut under the ground, and it consists of three floors under the ground. The third and bottom floor is drowned with water since the time of discovery until now. This tomb is famous for its scenes which show mixed iconography between Egyptian and Graeco-Roman arts.
Description of the Cemetery:
The entrance leads to a spiral staircase of 91 steps around the main shaft of the tomb. This shaft has several openings around its main body. The mouth of the shaft and its openings were used for lowering the mummies into the tomb. It should be mentioned that during the Graeco-Roman Period, the quality of the mummification decreased while the number of mummies increased.
The spiral staircase leads to the 1st floor, which begins with a small corridor with a niche on either side. The upper part of each niche is decorated with an imitation of a shell while the lower part of each niche is occupied by a semi-circular seat, cut in the native rock. This semi-circular seat was used as a resting place for some visitors of the tomb, especially the old people.
The small corridor leads to the ‘Rotunda’ at the middle of which there is another shaft which directly leads to the third floor. Around the mouth of this shaft, there is a ‘parapet’ سور صغير with 6 pillars projecting from its upper surface, carrying a dome cut in the native rock. The pillars and the dome are used for decorative purpose.
On the left-hand side of the Rotunda, there is a rectangular room called ‘the Triclinium’, also known as ‘the banquet room’. Its roof is supported by 4 pillars connected together by benches or mastabas taking the U-shape. The walls of this room are still in rough condition. This room was used by the visitors of this tomb to have their meals. The ancient Greeks were pessimistic to use tools or plates which had been used in tombs. Therefore, they used to break the pottery plates after they had had their meal. Pottery was cheap material at that time. The plates were broken into ostraca. At the end of the day, the servants of the tomb used to throw the ostraca outside the tomb. As a result, a heap of ostraca was formed in this area. Therefore, the whole area became known as ‘Kom el-Shoqafa’.
Opposite the entrance of the Rotunda, there is a staircase which leads down to the 2nd floor. It consists of a vestibule at the middle of which there are two composite floral capital columns carrying a pediment top shape representing the façade of the Greek temple. This pediment top is decorated with a sun-disk with two pendent uraei. On either side of the pediment top, there are two hawk figures representing god Horus. It should be mentioned that the composite floral columns, the sun-disk, the two hawks are of Egyptian style while the pediment top is of Greek art. They show mixed iconography. It should be also mentioned that the composite floral capital columns originally date back to the 26th Dynasty, but the oldest examples survived date back to the 30th Dynasty.
Near the end of the vestibule, there is a staircase leading to the 3rd floor. On either side of the end of this vestibule, there is a recess which contains a statue, cut in the native rock. The left recess contains a standing figure of a man with step left-leg forward, wearing a Shendyt kilt. He is shown with curly hair and facial features of Greek style; also the style of carving the statue is of Greek art. The right recess contains a standing statue for a woman with step right-leg forward. She is dressed in a long tight-fitting transparent robe of Egyptian style. She is depicted with curly hair and facial features of Greek style like the style of carving the statue. The man and woman are perhaps the original owners of this tomb.
At the end of the vestibule and on either side of the entrance of the burial chamber on the outside, there are representations of two serpents. Each one of them is placed on a small shrine. The two serpents are Agathadimons (the good gods). They represent god Hermes and god Dionysos, if we understand them in the Greek context, but they represent god ‘Serapis agathadimon’ and his wife ‘Isis Thermouthis’, if we understand them in the Egyptian context.
The Greek word ‘Thermouthis’ was derived from the ancient Egyptian word ta-rnnt which means ‘the Nurse’. Isis ‘Thermouthis’ was worshipped at an area called Taranah to the north of the Delta. It should be mentioned that if the Greek deities took the form of human beings, they would play their original roles whatever this role is, but if they took the form of serpents, they became or were converted into good deities.
Above the head of each serpent, there is a round shield at the middle of which there is a face of ‘Medouza‘, who was the protective goddess of the tomb in the Greek mythology. She is represented as a woman with ugly face and the locks of her hair are small serpents. She was once a woman with a very beautiful face, but when goddess Athena felt that Medouza was more beautiful than her, she converted her into a woman with ugly face. Many legends were connected with Medouza. One of them is that the ancient Greeks believed that if anyone looked at the face of the Medouza and he had bad intention, he would be immediately converted into a stone.
The vestibule leads to the burial chamber which has 3 recesses (A, B and C). On the inner side of the entrance of this burial chamber, there are representations of god Hermanubis. On the left-hand side, he is depicted as a male figure with a jackal head, and dressed in a Greek military uniform. On the right-hand side, Hermanubis is depicted with the upper part as a male figure with a jackal head while his lower part takes the shape of a tail of a dragon.
The Burial Chamber:
The burial chamber contains three recesses and each recess contains a sarcophagus, cut in the native rock.
The sarcophagus seems to be consisting of two parts: the lid and the coffer, but in fact it consists of one piece. Therefore, the mummy was placed in this sarcophagus by cutting a hole at the back of it, then after placing the mummy, they closed the hole.
Above each sarcophagus, there are three scenes. In other words, the burial chamber contains 9 scenes. Scenes in recesses A & B are identical.
The central scene in A & B represents the Roman emperor in the guise of an Egyptian pharaoh presenting the golden necklace to god Serapis as a bull, standing on a platform. Behind Serapis stands Isis with outstretching arms as if protecting him.
Scenes in the lateral sides of A & B are identical. The scene on the right depicts a mummy with a sun disc on its head and holding a W3s-sceptre in front of a jackal headed deity with a solar disc on his head. He holds a long scepter. Between them there is an offering table, surmounted by a vase.
The scene on the left depicts the pharaoh standing and wearing a crown decorated with a solar disc and two uraei. He presents the feather of m3ct to god Ptah who is crowned with the solar disc and holding a sceptre.
The central scene in recess C depicts the deceased as a mummy lying on a lion funerary bed with up-curved tail. God Anubis is shown attending to the mummy placing one arm on it as if completing its wrapping and holding a jar of liquid in the other hand. Most probably this jar contained water because they used to spread water on the deceased because they wished that the water returns to the deceased in order to revive him as the water was the source of fertility. On either side of the funerary bed stands Horus, wearing the double crown, and god Thoth. Each god holds the W3s scepter in his hand. Beneath the funerary bed, there are three canopic jars and the legs of Anubis took the place of the fourth jar.
The lateral scene on the left represents a lector priest holding a papyrus roll as if reading from it some spells in front of the deceased. Between them there is an offering table, decorated with a Lotus flower.
The other scene on the right depicts a female deceased with a solar disc on her head, standing before an Egyptian priest with two plumes on his head. She raises her two arms in adoration.
The Three Galleries:
There are three galleries around the burial chamber containing 300 loculi in two rows. In one of these loculi, a mummy of a priestess of goddess ‘Nemsis‘ with her jewellery were found. They are now in the Graeco-Roman Museum in Alexandria. Around the loculus of the priestess of goddess Nemsis, other loculi contained some of the followers of goddess Nemsis. This may indicate that there was a temple for goddess Nemsis in this area. Goddess Nemsis was goddess of sports and revenge in the Greek mythology.
This cemetery is also known as the ‘Catacomb’ because it contains these three galleries which are very similar to the galleries and passages which were cut under the ground in ancient Rome where the dead people were buried. Therefore, this tomb is called ‘catacomb’.
The Hall of Caracalla:
It is a separate tomb, but it is approached from a break in the walls of the Rotunda. It consists of an entrance, which leads to a staircase descending down to a court, at the middle of which, there is an altar. Large quantities of bones were found around this altar at the time of discovery. At first scholars believed that these bones were the remains of the famous massacre which was carried out by Caracalla among the youths of Alexandria. Careful examination of these bones revealed that the majority of these bones belong to horses.
In light of the discovery of the mummy of the priestess of goddess Nemsis and her followers, it is believed that this cemetery was used for burying some horses in order to honour them, perhaps because they won some races. Thus, the name of the hall of Caracalla is a misnomer.
N.B In the burial chamber: It should be mentioned that the subject matter of the scenes of the burial chamber is of Egyptian style while the style of carving these scenes is of Greek tradition.
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why the character dee was chosen by the authpr
By the late 1900s, most African-Americans were reaping the benefits of civil rights campaigns, when many of them were offered chances to obtain an education. Many African Americans, especially the younger generation, started to transform the bigotry and shame associated with racism into something positive. As an example, consider Dee’s greeting, Asalamalakim. 81 (Kennedy and Gioia) Indeed, many African Americans started to incorporate African influences into diverse areas such as music and fashion. For example, Dee says, I can use the churn top as a centerpiece for the alcove table, (Kennedy and Gioia 82), demonstrating an obvious link between African fusion and modernism. Additionally, the new generation felt that having been educated the only way to take pride in their African nature was to acquire African names in place of their Westernized ones (Gale 10). So Dee refuses and says, No, Mama, Not Dee, Wangero Leewanika Kamanjo! (Kennedy and Gioia 81) While to someone, especially the mature African Americans, who experienced racism, such behaviors held a lot of meaning, to the younger generation it was more of a show. This is the reason why Alice Walker developed the character Dee in the short story Everyday Use (Wangero 56). The character acts as a symbol of the significant difference between the uneducated old generation African Americans and the educated new one, just after the period of civil rights reforms in the United States. The second and equally important reason why the character Dee was created by the author, was because of the period had seen the growth of a movement called the Museum Studies movement which had most of the members going back to the achieves to collect precious traditional items preserved them which led to another conflict of perception between Dee and her mother, the narrator. This discourse reveals Dee as a character arousing and showing the conflict between new educated and the old illiterate African American generation.
The presence of Dee as a character who is playing almost a central role in the story since she is the one spoken of mainly, helps scholars understand the setting under which the story was written and perhaps the perception of the author of the society at the time. So that at a time when women are educated like Dee, the narrator is not educated because she says, I have man-working hands. I can kill and clean the hog as a man, (Kennedy and Gioia 78) which is an indication of a house wife. Consequently, Dee represents two fundamental conflicts in the story; the first is the generational conflict that further is reflected in illiteracy of the old generation versus the literacy of the new generation. The importance of this character and her role to the author is to satisfy for a bright illumination of the African American society towards the end of the 20th century after the periods ending discrimination (Gale 05). When the narrator states that, I dream that Dee and I are brought in a TV program, (Kennedy and Gioia 78) showing that Africans began having opportunities even to be featured on T.V. For authors like Walker, being a person from the minority background, appreciating the opportunity for education among the African Americans was significant and had to be expressed through their literature works (Gale 02). However, still, the impact that the education had on the new generation must have been something that Walker desired to reveal. That is why, in her story, the character; Dee is represented as a character that has had the privilege to be educated. She is educated because the mother asks her, Ream it out again? (Kennedy and Gioia 82) Showing she is not fluent in English like her daughter. Something that her sister nor her mother did not have, but the effects of education has not made her appreciate her roots, and hence she is arrogant to her mother and sister. Moreover, Dee is chosen by the author to show that education only gave the new generation a plastic feeling of patriotism to their cultures, but the real patriotism was left with those that were uneducated and chose to live a traditional African life. The narrator is presented as an African-American woman who wanted to live a regular life in the Deep South. Moreover, the generational conflict comes where Dee with her education does not appreciate cultural heritage such as respectful salutations and honor to parents which have been noted as common African cultural practices. To her, heritage is about changing her name and owning traditional artifacts. In contrast, her mother the narrator hold family ties as dear and respect and important behaviors that an African child must hang on to and pass to the next generation. That is why she says (the narrator), “[Her hair] stands straight up like the wool on a sheep, And let’s not forget how she eschews Hello for the African Wa-us-zo-Team-o when she greets her mother and sister (Kennedy and Gioia 80). This is an indication that to the narrator, Dee is faking her African behavior.
The second conflict that the author intends to show is the ideological conflict as to how to perceive cultural artifacts and heritage. As aforementioned, the time frame when the author wrote the book was a period when there was a lot of appreciation of African culture. Most Africans took pride in their-their heritage, and the development of revolutions like the Museum Studies strengthened the love and appreciation for African artifacts (Gale 11). To confirm this, Dees love for African items can be seen when she says, I never knew how lovely these benches are, (Kennedy and Gioia 82) she refers to the home made benches at her mothers place. People who were part of this movement collected the traditional African items and put them in the museum for people to see. The character Dee is, therefore, important because she brings in the contrast between appreciating culture by sightseeing and enjoying culture through having it as a part of ones life, for everyday use (Kennedy and Gioia 83) The character Dee represents the African Americans who were the elites that appreciated African heritage just by sightseeing as she appreciates her grandmothers work saying, she did all this stitching (quilts) by hand, imagine! (Kennedy and Gioia 83) but not by behavior as Mama, the narrator did.
Take for instance when Dee comes home, and requests for the African made quilts that she had earlier rejected. To her, she feels they will be good to see in her house just to emphasize her new found African nature which again is considered to be untrue, the narrator refuses. She instead claims that she has kept them for her sister, for everyday use (Kennedy and Gioia 83). Meaning, they are more useful to they that see their significance and usefulness as opposed to Dee who loves them on a surface because she says, and Ill think of something artistic to do with the dasher. (82). Meaning that to her they are just decorations. In a nutshell, to an authentic African, admiring artifacts is not enough but having it for a day to day use, makes more sense.
The characters of Dee
While Dee plays a very significant role in the development of the history, context, and setting of the story, her character can be perceived from two contrasting perspectives. It is possible to interpret Dees character as strong willed and unwavering, even the narrator says, at sixteen she had a style of her own: and knew what style was. (Kennedy and Gioia 78). Also looking at the way she rejects her name, I couldnt bear it any longer, being named after people who oppressed me. (Kennedy and Gioia 81) However, Dee can also be considered to be arrogant and without respect for her next of keen who as seen must have sacrificed a lot to let her study. The reason why Dees character is considered as strong is that she had always shown the would have the power to go for what she wants, right from her childhood. Then narrator in her memories recalls that Dee disliked her background and never wanted to identify with herself or her family. While this may have been a negative way to react like a child, but as an adult, it is evident that she has changed her perspective and she is determined to be who she is (Kennedy and Gioia 79). She defends her position so strongly that even when convinced by her mother that her name Dee is from her aunts name Dici, she is not easily convinced and Dee intends even to go through her history to find the truth behind the name. Hence she asks, Who was she named after?( Kennedy and Gioia 81)
She is also strong enough to accept and change her name. While many young people would not have wanted to make a radical move such as that which she made, Dee is seen to be ready to change her name as the conversation with the narrator goes, What happened to Dee? narrator asks, She is dead, I could not bear it any longer being named after people that oppressed me (Kennedy and Gioia 81). It must be noted that the period within the setting of the story is still a time when the African Americans were enjoying a lot of freedoms that had been brought by civil rights movements, but by and large, they were still facing discrimination in some ways. Therefore she is strong because as mentioned by Gale that, to be an African-American woman taking studies at her period and time, it must have been challenging (08). The narrator herself was not educated, and she says, I never had an education myself. (Kennedy and Gioia 79) Additionally, standing and claiming her identity could have made it even harder. However, it is seen as the story portrays, that she is studying and she seems to be doing well in school because there is nowhere mentioned that she is a failure. Moreover, she reflects an intelligent young woman.
Again her strength is not just seen in her interest in her tradition roots or her change of name, but also in her ability to stands for what she believes in, even when her mother and sister seem not to understand her. For instance, they do not know why she has changed her name to Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo (Walker 27). Her reply to them is that I couldn’t bear it named after my oppressors” (Kennedy and Gioia 81). Even though this explanation is very clear and makes sense even to her mother, but the narrator refuses to understand or even to listen. The way she has her hair made may be criticized by the narrator, but it is a means of communicating her African beauty. It is even ironical that the narrator considers that, Dee should have straightened her hair like the whites do, to blend with her beauty.
The negative perspective of Dee comes in her character that is seen to be negative towards her mother and sister Maggie. Right from the start of her life, Dee has been rejecting her family. This can be interpreted as arrogant. What makes Dees character to be considered very grievous at this point is because, at this age and historical moment, such kind of disrespect and misbehavior was not expected of children. From the story this is how Dee behaves, as her mother says, Take one or two of the other, But she turned without a word (Kennedy and Gioia 84). In the 21st century where there is a lot of freedom, rights, and liberalism, children can choose to live their lives as they want and it is not strange. However, at the time of the story, which is late 20th century, such attitude as portrayed by Dee was not familiar and hence unwelcomes (Kennedy and Gioia 82 – 84). It is, therefore, clear that Dee revealed arrogance as her evil character as an actor.
Again Dees pride is seen in her character when she gets home. She does not spend a time to greet her parents and even know about their conditions. She seems to be in a hurry because all that she does is shout some salutations and walk away. This is a show of arrogance (Kennedy and Gioia 84). It even becomes pronounced because from the narrators story, they have been apart for too long and she is even wondering what kind of reunion she expected to have with her daughter. Hence from her expectation, even though she does not say it, but it is felt from her thoughts that she expected a better reunion. Then finally, her arrogance is also seen when she has been denied the quilts, and she is departing, the story reveals that she makes some patronizing comments to her mother, she says, You ought to try and make something of yourself (Kennedy and Gioia 84)and her sister then drives away with her boyfriend. That departure shows that she is arrogant.
Dee as a character, therefore, has been selected specially by the author to make the storys message within the time frame understood. This is because she causes conflict between the young, educated generations after the changes emerging from the civil rights movement in the U.S. (Kennedy and Gioia 77) and the old illiterate generation that faced racial discrimination. Again, she is important because she reveals the different ideologies on cultural heritage at the time. The cultural heritage she represents if for the elites who just admire and praise African artifacts but beyond that has no meaning in their lives while the narrator her mother represents the cultural heritage of a real African American who appreciates African artifact and put them to everyday use
Works Cited
Gale, Cengage L. Study Guide to Alice Walker’s Everyday Use. Gale: Cengage Learning, 2015.Print.
Kennedy X. J and Gioia. Dana Backpack Literature 5th edition An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. London: Pearson. ISBN-13:9780134582498. 2016, Print
Walker, Alice. “Everyday Use.” The Story and Its Writer. Ed. Anna Charters. Compact 8th ed. Boston: Bedfor/St. Martin’s, 2011. 852-858. Print. 77- 84
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Image for National Flitch Day
National Flitch Day
A flitch is a measurement for bacon. It is half or one side of a pig and is now known as a slab in the United States. Flitch Day is based on and dedicated to an old English custom which goes back to at least the thirteenth or fourteenth century, and by some accounts to 1104. The custom was also mentioned in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, which was published in the late fourteenth century.
The custom mainly took place in two locations: Whichnoure (now Wychnor Hall), Staffordshire, and Little Dunmow in the Uttlesford district of Essex, England. In Little Dunmow, married couples would prove that neither one of them had had any thoughts over the previous year and a day in which they wished that they hadn't been married. The couple would kneel in the churchyard on two hard, pointed stones while taking an oath in front of monks and the rest of the town. If it was believed that they hadn't had any thoughts of regret, they were given a flitch of bacon and were paraded around town. It was quite rare for a couple to actually be given a slab of bacon. The custom lasted until the mid-eighteenth century. It was also brought to America by English colonists but was not long practiced there.
William Harrison Ainsworth published the novel The Flitch of Bacon in 1854, which became popular in Britain and helped revive the custom. Regular events started being held in Great Dunmow, just a few miles from Little Dunmow. They are still held there every four years on leap year. Couples are cross-examined by a counsel and then have to convince a jury made up of six bachelors and six maidens that during a year and a day of being together they never once wished they weren't wed. The jury tries to disprove their claim so that the bacon can be saved for the days' sponsors. Successful couples are paraded through High Street and then get a flitch of bacon.
How to Observe National Flitch Day
The day is meant to remind us of the tradition, but that doesn't mean you can't have a little fun with it as well. Pick up a slab of bacon and give it to a married couple whom you believe is dedicated to each other. Or just buy it for yourself—today sounds like a pretty good excuse to buy a lot of bacon. You could also read William Harrison Ainsworth's The Flitch of Bacon. If it is a leap year, you could attend the Dunmow Flitch Trials, which usually take place the same month as National Flitch Day.
Something Wrong or Missing?
Observation Notifications
Also on this date…
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Readers ask: How To Make A Wooden Jacobs Ladder?
How do you make a Jacob’s ladder with cardboard?
Place a piece of cardboard over the top and glue it down or stick it along the sides. Fold the ribbons and run them over the top of the cardboard. Put down another square of cardboard. Fold the ribbons over and repeat all the steps until you have used all the cardboard.
How do Jacob’s ladders work?
When the Jacob’s Ladder is turned on, electrons are fed into one of the wires. These electrons want to get away from each other, so they jump across to the other wire, which is connected to the ground. When they jump, we see a bright spark in the air. The spark then climbs up the ladder as it heats the air around it.
How many steps is Jacob’s ladder?
While the market gardens are long gone, Jacob’s Ladder is a popular place for exercise, and busy with people running up and down the 242 steps.
What is the Jacob’s Ladder experiment?
The Jacob’s Ladder experiment uses a high-voltage power source to send an electric arc shooting up two wires, according to Cleveland 19 News. The result looks like some futuristic alien antennae. Only attempt this if you know what you’re doing with high voltage equipment.”
You might be interested: FAQ: How To Make A Compost Bin With Wood Pallets?
What is Jacob’s Ladder electricity?
Jacob’s ladder, more formally known as a high-voltage travelling arc, iswella high-voltage travelling arc. When the voltage difference between two electrodes exceeds the breakdown voltage, a spark forms. The arc heats and ionizes the air in its immediate vicinity.
How do you cut a ladder out of paper?
How to Make a Paper Ladder
1. Place the paper flat on a table with the short side nearest you.
2. Make a half-inch fold on the side nearest you.
3. Roll the remainder of the paper loosely in the same direction around the creased section until you have a tube.
4. Cut the tube twice about three inches from each end.
How do you make a ladder out of cardboard?
Cut two pieces of cardboard to the desired length for the ladder and cut out as many steps as needed. Cut a slit in the ladder for each step and cut a slit on each side of the steps for the pieces to fit together. Assemble the cardboard ladder and consider painting or decorating the new toy.
Why is it called Jacobs ladder?
When the ladder is held at one end, blocks appear to cascade down the strings. Its name Jacob’s Ladder comes from the biblical ladder to heaven, mentioned in Genesis 28:12.
Is Jacobs ladder in the Bible?
Jacob’s Ladder (Hebrew: סֻלָּם יַעֲקֹב Sūllām Ya’aqōv) is a ladder leading to heaven that was featured in a dream the biblical Patriarch Jacob had during his flight from his brother Esau in the Book of Genesis (chapter 28).
What does a ladder symbolize in the Bible?
The ladder (or staircase) is symbolic of the connection between HEAVEN and EARTH. It represents progress, ascenscion, and spiritual passage through the levels of initiation. In the Bible, Jacob’s ladder established contact between man and God, and there are seven rungs on the ladder of virtue.
You might be interested: Readers ask: How To Make Wood Look Old?
How long does it take to walk up Jacob’s Ladder?
It takes 4-5 hours depending on your fitness level and walking speed. What terrain is the Kinder Scout and Jacob’s Ladder walk? The route is a combination of grass (which can become boggy after rainfall), gravel, steps, mud, tarmac and rocks.
Do you have to pay for Jacob’s Ladder?
DO NOT PAY TO WALK UP THE GORGE – Gorge is beautiful but there is no need to pay to walk up the Gorge via Jacobs Ladder, or for the Gorge experience ticket (hence why I say 1/5 for the ‘attraction’ tickets. You can then continue your walk right to the top of the gorge as do all the fee paying tourists.
Is Jacob’s Ladder open?
The long-awaited ‘Jacob’s Ladder of the North’ is now open to the public. The 21m fitness staircase was constructed as part of a $2.14 million health and wellbeing hub at Whitfords Nodes Park in Hillarys, which was officially opened on Saturday morning. The staircase has 145 steps plus landings and is about 2.2m-wide.
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Excavators are heavy construction equipment, including a boom, dipper, bucket, and cab, known as a “house” on a rotating platform and the house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels. They are a natural progression from steam shovels are often mistakenly called power shovels.
This differentiates excavators other than earth moving machines, such as bulldozers and other equipment used for digging & loading with forwarding movements.
Here we will learn about excavator, types of excavator & its components.
Introduction to excavator:
An excavator is a self-propelled vehicle, that is capable of moving material from one place to another and its working position remains unchanged.
An excavator is constituted by one or more spoons, a suitable structure that designs the necessary force, and a movable frame on rails or equipped with caterpillars, wheels, or other means that allow their displacement.
When an excavator is mounted on a boat, it is called a dredger.
When an excavators are not self-propelled, the lifting system is usually formed by a chain of buckets that carry out the different operations successively without interruptions.
Types of excavator:
Crawler Excavators:
Crawler excavators are also called crawlers or standard excavators because it runs on two rotating tracks instead of wheels, in the same way, a tank does sometimes by fixing it on the ground.
The crawler uses hydraulic power is slower than a wheeled excavator and its tracked chassis makes it more stable.
This makes crawler excavation a perfect choice for a steep, bumpy, or mud-filled landscape- the chain wheel system allows it to balance better on uneven terrain.
Wheel excavator:
The wheel excavator is similar to a crawler, but it has wheels rather than tracks, it has less grip than standard, best used on asphalt or concrete.
While the wheel excavators are not suited for the sites with the soft soil, hills and slopes, it is faster than a crawler when on a smooth, hard surface and more comfortable for movement.
Suction excavator:
These diggers include a suction pipe that acts as a high pressure-vacuum.
Working with a built-in water jet, the suction system quickly sucks up the soil and debris at speed up to 200 mph.
Construction companies’ use this excavator for works that require careful and precise excavation.
Long Reach Excavator:
Long-reach excavator have a long arm and boom; its expandable arm has a range of 40 to 100 feet, making it possible to reach areas that are 100 feet away horizontally.
It is used where the construction site prevents the machine and operator from getting too close, such as demolition projects over a river or lake.
Hydraulic shovels:
The hydraulic shovel is the most powerful excavators.
It is mostly used for mining projects, as well as for handling any work that requires lifting and moving massive rocks, minerals and other heavy materials.
Dragline Excavation:
Dragline digging is more extensive than a standard excavators.
It consists of a hoist rope system and a dragline to move the bucket up and down, also to pull it towards the driver.
This dragline system makes this excavation ideal for underwater excavation.
Skid steer:
The difference between a skid steer and excavator is the skid steer, away from the driver and the face of the bucket.
Skid steers are used for small schemes and residential works.
External parts of an excavator:
Buckets are the most common digging attachment, they are steel bodies and sides of the teeth make them ideal for digging and scooping.
The auger is an accessory which is used to drill into the ground.
Breakers are similar to the jackhammer, they are ideally used for hammering through stone, rocks, and concrete.
Thumbs are used for the materials that are too big for the bucket such as a tree stump or concrete slab.
If the job needs regular attachment variations, a coupler can help save time, money, and human resources.
Also read: Backhoe, Bulldozer & Sheepsfoot Rollers
An excavator is a large vehicle used for excavation and demolition, dig trenches, load trucks, lift pipe, and handle attachments such as hydraulic breakers, shears, etc.
Hello, I'm Rahul Patil founder of Constructionor.com, I had studied B.E. Civil. This blog provides authentic information regarding civil structures, equipment, materials, tests & much more.
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What does the word raft mean?
Part of speech: verb transitive, verb intransitive
• To transport or travel by raft.
• Part of speech: noun
• A float of logs or planks fastened together.
• Part of speech: noun
• Raftsman.
Usage examples for raft
1. Or did he build the raft to get to the wreck? – The Master-Knot of Human Fate by Ellis Meredith
2. But hardly had the raft regained her way when the horizon was lighted up, and he perceived that the pirates had set fire to the vessel. – The Pirate by Frederick Marryat
3. The raft was, after all, for them a messenger of preservation, for it induced a search for the builders. – Nooks and Corners of the New England Coast by Samuel Adams Drake
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"language_score": 0.939556360244751,
"url": "http://www.funkandwagnalls.com/raft"
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© 2014 Shmoop University, Inc. All rights reserved.
Study Questions
Break, Break, Break Questions
1. Why doesn't the speaker name the dead friend?
2. Why is the dead friend only described in terms of absences (the "vanish'd hand," the "voice that is still")?
3. Why does the speaker address the sea, and not his dead friend?
4. What's up with all the repetition in this poem? The first line is a repetition of the same word three times, and that line is repeated in the last stanza. The same sentence structure is repeated several times in the second stanza. Why? What is the effect of all this repetition?
5. Why is the poem set at the seaside? Why is the sea a useful symbol? Does the sea comfort the speaker?
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FROM: http://www.church-of-the-lukumi.org
CLBA Journal 2000-05
“Yoruba Vocabulary Known As Lukumi in Cuba”
ã Oba Ernesto Pichardo 1998
Yoruba is the mother tongue of millions who live in the Western Region of Nigeria and adjoining areas. Their language was first written by Christian missionaries in the early part of the nineteenth century. Yoruba has certain regional dialects but a generally accepted “Standard Yoruba” is being taught in schools and is found in books. There are two slightly different forms of Standard Yoruba; one that corresponds to the Oyo province and the other is associated with Lagos.
Yoruba is a tone language. It has three tones similar to the Chinese language: high, mid tone, low. There is no grammatical gender in traditional Yoruba (ó=he/she/it). Yoruba language known as Lukumi language in Cuba presents a different challenge.Yoruba slaves in Cuba had no possible access to colonial schools and books from Christian missionaries. The language inherited in Cuba is the traditional oral speech and its regional variables from the homeland.
The documentation of the spoken Yoruba in Cuba reflects the difficult task of writing a vocabulary from oral Yoruba to written Spanish language. The following illustrates how this was accomplished.
The Yoruba alphabet has the letters: a, b, d, e, e, f, g, gb, h, I, j, k, l, m, n, o, o, p, r, s, s, t, u, w, y
Our technology does not allow to place Yoruba language symbols. The following repeated letters carry a period under each:
E = (.) O = (.) S = (.)
Yoruba in comparison to Spanish does not have the letters: c, ch, ll, ñ, q, v, x, z.
Spanish in comparison to Yoruba does not have the letters: e(.), gb, o(.), s(.).
Yoruba alphabet is divided into 7 vowels and 18 consonants. The seven vowels are: A, E, E(.), I, O, O(.), U. In Spanish they are pronounced; A = alabar, E = similar to tenéis, E(.) = similar to remo, I = similar to litro, O = sounds like ou, O(.) = loma, U = similar to luna.
The consonants have the sounds; B (bi) = similar to boca, D (di) = similar to diente, F (fi) = like fuego, G (guí) = similar to garganta, GB (gbíi) = does not exist so the g is low and the b is extended, J (LL) = similar to lluvia, H (ji) = similar to jefe, K (ki) = similar to k, C and q in kilate, casa and querida, L (li) = like luna, M (mi) = like mira, N (ni) = similar to nada, P (pkuí) = similar to kuáa, R (ri) = similar the soft R in artillero, S (si) similar to sabio, S (shi) = similar to the CH in chiva, T (ti) = like tipo, W (ui) = similar to guira, Y (yi) = similar to yema (iema).
Examples of how the words may found written in Spanish:
Kan = kan, or can
Okan = okan or ocan
Nigbàyi = nibàyi
Ohundie = ojundie, ohundie, oundie
Onje = ounye, onye
S(.) E = che, she
Ijoko = iyoko, iyoco, illoco, illoko
Kigbe = quibe, kibe
Following the above can make it possible to restore the words in Spanish writing back to Standard Yoruba. On the other hand, trying to reconstruct the vocabulary would be a long-term task, especially in sentence composition. Standard Yoruba is also modern and presents new language features compared to the old.
|Journal Home |art-culture |
1. Mandy Says:
What does Bawa Ni Kan mean in Yoruba? Is there a book or website which will help me speak Yoruba?
2. Yeye Akilimali Funua Olade Says:
Mandy, Check out all the articles in this Category Yoruba which give you sites and dictionaries on Yoruba etc.
Bawo ni kan means How are things?
3. fornetti Says:
I do not believe this
4. beeyee Says:
Mandy: “Bawa ni kan” sounds very similar to “bawo ni nkan” which means “how are things?” “what’s up”, etc in Yoruba. Hope that helps.
5. Oshun Fosupo Says:
¿Bàwo ni?.
Significa ¿Còmo tatàn las cosas?.
6. Adebowale Adeyinka Says:
I am Yoruba from south west Nigeria and I am also a Spanish language student. The closet sentence to “Bawa ni Kan” in Yoruba is “Bawo ni nkan?” It translate literally to ¿Cómo son cosas? Which in English is “How are things”. It is a sentence frequently used between familiar people to ask after each other’s welfare.
7. paul Says:
to adebowale adeyinka.
nleo ore mi,te escribo desde canarias porque estoy aprendiendo édè yorubá por mi cuenta,lo que lo hace más dificil.y te escribo para preguntarte como hacer el genitivo en yoruba por ejemplo:peter´s house o tambien ” pata de gallina” como ejemplos.de verdad que si me pudieras ayudar te lo agredeceria mucho.
sin más un saludo desde canarias.
8. Belkis (hija de Oshun) Says:
Please how do I say in Yoruba (lucumi) APOLOGY ACCEPTED, thank you.
• Adebowale Adeyinka Says:
The Yoruba alphabet does not include the letter “C”. The letter “K” will be the equivalent (at least phonetically) as used in lucumi. So it will be lukumi and letter “k” here will sound as the letter “k” in the English word “look”. The closest match in the Yoruba language is the word “olukumi” which stands for “My Friend” in a dialect of the Yoruba language. But “Ore mi” is the translation of “My Friend” in the Yoruba orthography. Yoruba language has several dialects or “Flavors”.
• Dotun nuga Says:
You cannot really say ‘Apology accepted’ in yoruba, what you will say instead is ”i forgive you ‘ which is ” mo dariji’ee” or ‘i accept your apology’ can be ”mo gbó èbè è”
9. Carmen Julia Says:
What does the name given to me on my kariosha ita means? Baba Daloyu?
I was told is padre de firmeza. but later I found out it is incorrect. it is:padre que ve mas alla.
• Dotun nuga Says:
The nearest in meaning to your name is ‘ father is beautiful’ or ‘ father is pleasant to the eye’ or ‘ assurance of the father’ which real spelling is ”baba da loju” if you want to learn more find my name on facebook
10. Sam-Olusegun Monebi Says:
I am so excited to find this, I am a nigerian from south west Nigeria. I speak yoruba as well and I live in the US…I am so interested in the yoruba culture in Cuba, Brazil and other parts of South America. Could you help with more information or resource on this.. Thank you
11. Sam-Olusegun Monebi Says:
Infac t you can read about my interest on my blog
12. Jinadu ahmed lyday Says:
I like to come to cuba to see how my grandfather live as slave in cuba. And more about cuba life and culture
13. Mariana Says:
Alguien me podria decir que significa ibu ocawoñi??? gracias
14. Aedeyemi Adejuwon Says:
I miss u an please dont stress me cause u given me cool shulder
15. jle Says:
what dose ” Ire” mean ?
16. Adenike Says:
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On the Origin of Really Shiny Species
by Ed Yong
If you talk about a starling, most people in Europe and North America will picture a small bird with glossy black plumage. But that’s the common starling. It’s just one of 113 starling species, many of which have far more spectacular feathers. Just take a look at the selection above.
These resplendent plumes don’t just catch the eye. They may also explain why these birds are so diverse. According to a new study from Rafael Maia at the University of Akron, the starlings’ colours have made them more evolvable, accelerating their split into more and more species.
Many birds produce beautiful feathers using pigments that selectively absorb and reflect different colours of light. But starlings owe their most stunning colours to the structures of the feathers themselves.
As light hits the feathers, it encounters several layers. At each one, some light gets reflected and the rest passes through. If the layers are evenly spaced, the reflected beams amplify each other to produce exceptionally strong colours, which can easily change depending on the distance between the layers or the angle they’re viewed from. This effect is called iridescence. You can see it on the vivid throats of hummingbirds, the tail feathers of peacocks and the plumage of many starlings…
(read more: Not exactly Rocket Science)
(images: Starlings. From left to right and top to bottom: Common starling by Pierre Selim; Iris glossy starling by Doug Janson; Golden-breasted starling by Perry Quan; Superb starling by Sumeet Moghe; Violet-backed starling by Doug Janson; and Long-tailed glossy starling by Thom Haslam)
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"url": "http://rhamphotheca.tumblr.com/post/52973415715/on-the-origin-of-really-shiny-species-by-ed-yong"
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A highly polished early 16th-century Welsh buckler shield.
Investigating a sixteenth century Welsh buckler
The question
Centuries of cleaning had left this small shield in a highly polished state. Could XRF provide clues to its original appearance?
Results of analysis
XRF analysis was used to examine many parts of the surface. The raised rings were shown to have originally been tinned, whilst the backing was found to be painted with a (red) lead based compound. The brass rivet heads, despite being of two different shapes were all of low zinc brass, consistent with the date of the shield.
Analysis helped show that the buckler’s original appearance would have been significantly different from what is seen today, with alternate bands of bright tin and deep red paint.
This work not only enabled a more accurate description of the object to be recorded, but has used in a number of presentations as an example of everyday analytical investigations of objects in the Science Lab.
Did you know?
The first Luger pistol
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"url": "http://www.royalarmouries.org/what-we-do/research/analytical-projects/investigating-a-sixteenth-century-welsh-buckler"
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São Tomé shrew
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from São Tomé Shrew)
Jump to: navigation, search
São Tomé shrew[1]
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Soricomorpha
Family: Soricidae
Genus: Crocidura
Species: C. thomensis
Binomial name
Crocidura thomensis
(Bocage, 1887)
Sao Tome Shrew area.png
Sao Tome shrew range
The São Tomé shrew (Crocidura thomensis) is a white-toothed shrew approximately three inches long found only on São Tomé Island, São Tomé and Príncipe. It is listed as a critically endangered species due to habitat loss and a restricted range. It was discovered in 1886. The population continues to decrease, making these animals rare. It is found only on São Tomé Island, a small island that is actually a shield volcano that rises out of the Atlantic Ocean.
Cited by many research studies, deforestation is the primary cause of endangerment of the São Tomé shrew. Deforestation results in loss of their primary habitat which affects the São Tomé Shrew because of their small size and thus limited range. Unintentional and intentional introduction of other invasive species has taken a toll on their existence because of the increased competition for food with the other invasive species.
Conservation efforts[edit]
Conservation efforts have largely failed due to very little information on the São Tomé shrew. They are listed as “insufficiently known” by the environmental agencies. They have been located in 10 different spots only. The lack of knowledge of these shrews may lead to them being closer to extinction than previously thought.
• Dutton, J.; Haft, J. (1996). "Distribution, ecology and status of an endemic shrew, Crocidura thomensis, from Sao Tome". Oryx 30 (3): 195–201. doi:10.1017/s0030605300021633.
• Dallimaer, M.; King T. and Atkinson, R.J. "Pervasive threats within a protected area:conserving the endemic birds of Sao Tome, West Africa.". Animal Conservation 12 (3): 209–219. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00240.x.
• Dutton, J. (1994). "Introduced mammals in Sao Tome and Principe: possible threats to biodiversity.". Biodiversity and Conservation 3 (9): 927–938. doi:10.1007/bf00129667.
1. ^ Hutterer, R. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M, eds. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
2. ^ Hutterer, R. (2004). Crocidura thomensis. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 2006-05-11. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is critically endangered and the criteria used
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Coral's Strange Home
Offshore oil rigs are not the most environmentally friendly of places. As they take oil or gas from the depths, they also spew chemicals, mud and other contaminants into the water.
So it may come as a surprise to learn that some older rigs in the North Sea have been found with colonies of an endangered coral growing on their concrete structures some 100 to 200 feet below the surface. It is the first appearance in the North Sea of the coral, Lophelia pertusa, which has been considered by some scientists to be susceptible to just the kind of contamination found around oil rigs.
The coral was also found on the Brent Spar, a huge cylindrical oil storage and loading buoy that was taken out of service and dismantled after 15 years in the North Sea. The Brent Spar had been the focus of major environmental protests in Europe because the original plan was to dump the buoy, with its six contaminated storage tanks, in deep water in the North Atlantic. (Instead, it was cut up into sections, cleaned, and used to help build a dock extension in Norway.)
The finding of the coral, reported by scientists with an environmental consulting firm in the journal Nature, raises questions about future dismantling of obsolete oil platforms. The authors suggest that an option might be to leave some parts of the structures -- huge concrete footings, for example -- in place to preserve existing colonies of the coral and help it gain more of a foothold in the North Sea.
World's Tiniest Tweezers
Got a splinter? A really tiny splinter? Two Harvard scientists may have just the thing to help: a pair of ''nanotweezers'' capable of manipulating objects as small as one-50,000th of an inch wide.
To make the tweezers, the scientists attached nanotubes -- cylindrical molecules of carbon atoms -- to metal electrodes deposited on the end of a tapered glass pipette that had been pulled to a very fine tip. The tweezing action was created by applying a voltage to the electrodes, which caused the nanotube arms (which themselves are only about one-500,000th of an inch in diameter) to close on each other.
The scientists, describing their work in the journal Science, used the tweezers to grab and pull clusters of polystyrene molecules. These clusters are about the size of structures within cells, so the tweezers may eventually find a use in manipulating and modifying biological structures.
Since electricity is used to make the tweezers work, they could also be used to study the electrical properties of the tiny structures and molecules they grasp.
Birth of Giant Planets
Astrophysicists have a pretty good idea about how the solar system's two gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, came to be. Rocky cores formed out of the nebular disk of gas and dust swirling around the young Sun, and then the cores attracted the helium and hydrogen that form the bulk of the planets' masses.
But when it comes to explaining how the solar system's other two giant planets, Uranus and Neptune, were formed, this model has some flaws. For one thing, the two planets are much farther from the Sun, and the gas and dust in that part of the nebular disk was not very dense. So formation of these planets' rocky cores would probably have taken longer than the age of the solar system.
Researchers from Canada and the United States, using computer modeling, have come up with an alternative explanation: that Uranus and Neptune were formed in the vicinity of Jupiter and Saturn, and were later kicked out of the neighborhood by the gravitational interactions of these two planets.
According to the theory, described in Nature, Uranus and Neptune would have been left in highly chaotic, irregular orbits for a few hundred thousand years until friction with the nebular disk produced their final circular orbits.
Drawing (Nurit Karlin)
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<urn:uuid:1bedfdd8-327f-4327-99eb-63f1c639024a>
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"fasttext_score": 0.07104617357254028,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9609385132789612,
"url": "http://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/14/science/observatory.html?ref=uranusplanet"
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Reference > Brewer’s Dictionary > Xan’thos [reddish yellow].
XXantip’pe or Xanthip’pe (3 syl.).
Xan’thos [reddish yellow].
Achilles’ wonderful horse. Being chid by his master for leaving Patroclos on the field of battle, the horse turned his head reproachfully, and told Achilles that he also would soon be numbered with the dead, not from any fault of his horse, but by the decree of inexorable destiny. (Iliad, xix.) (Compare Numbers xxii. 28–30.) 1
Xanthos and Balios (swift as the wind) were the offspring of Podarg the harpy and Zephyros. (See HORSE.) 2
Xanthos, the river of Troas. Elian and Pliny say that Homer called the Scamander “Xanthos” or the “Goldred river,” because it coloured with such a tinge the fleeces of sheep washed in its waters. Others maintain that it was so called because a hero named Xanthos defeated a body of Trojans on its banks, and pushed half of them into the stream, as in the battle of Blenheim the Duke of Marlborough drove the French into the Danube. 3
XXantip’pe or Xanthip’pe (3 syl.).
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<urn:uuid:160abecb-359d-4523-80c8-85e9dfb4ef4a>
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{
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"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.02542954683303833,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8798954486846924,
"url": "http://www.bartleby.com/81/17648.html"
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Daubenton's bat is found throughout Eurasia, its habitat stretching from the United Kingdom to Japan. But as one northern English population reveals, these bats divide their space along strict gender lines, with males living up the bachelor existence at high altitudes while females raise their young at low altitudes... except when a few bats are able to find a middle path.
That's the finding of University of Leeds biologist John Altringham, who examined the distribution of the bat populations throughout the Yorkshire Dales. He found that females tended to make their roosts in the lowland areas of this hilly region, meaning the males have to look for homes at higher altitudes. According to Professor Altringham, the females' territoriality is probably due to the huge amount of food required to provide milk for their young.
The one exception is near the town of Grassington, which sits at an altitude somewhere between the lowland female roosts and the uphill male ones. There, and seemingly only there, male and female bats lives together. Professor Altringham offers one possible explanation as to why males and females might set aside their usual gender barriers, despite it seemingly being against both of their best interest:
The researchers have found that the male bats cohabiting with females around Grassington enjoy a definite reproductive advantage over their bachelor counterparts. Altringham explains this phenomenon with the help of an extended clubbing metaphor — basically, the Grassington bats are settling down early and avoiding all the sweat and hard work of trying to win a mate on the bat equivalent of the dance floor, all while cutting down on their travel costs:
"In and around these caves the bats gather in huge numbers to mate, in a behavior known as swarming. This is clubbing for bats, with males displaying to females in lengthy acrobatic chases. As winter closes in, these caves will ultimately be their hibernation sites. There are nearly 2,000 cave entrances and hundreds of kilometers of cave passages in the Dales and these attract bats from all over Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumbria and beyond for mating and hibernation. The males in Grassington may be giving themselves the opportunity to mate with the females late in the summer before they even get to the caves."
Check out the original paper at PLoS ONE.
Quotes via the University of Leeds. Image of young Daubenton's Bat by Gilles San Martin on Flickr. Map courtesy of University of Leeds.
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<urn:uuid:b7796e34-c170-4387-b661-29736f8d523a>
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"edu_score": 4.0625,
"fasttext_score": 0.030857205390930176,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9589514136314392,
"url": "http://io9.com/5979397/why-male-bats-take-the-high-road-and-female-bats-take-the-low-road?tag=science"
}
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Explore / Articles
Japanese armour
Complete body armour called the ōyoroi ('great harness') was designed in the Heian period (794-1185) to protect mounted samurai warriors against arrows shot from the long-bow. The helmet was made of rivetted iron plates to repel sword blows. Much of the armour was designed to be very flexible to offer protection during battle. The hanging neck-guard (shikoro) and large side-flaps (fukigaeshi) protected neck, face and throat. The trunk and front of the body were covered by a cuirass and a split apron of lacquered iron plates. Large rectangular shoulder-pieces could rise and shield the exposed side when the bow arm was stretched out. Two similar flaps hung in front of the breast. Armour was often richly decorated with gilt-copper fittings and coloured silk braids. Leather, textile and lacquer was also used. During the period of continuous civil wars (sengoku jidai, 1467-1568) helmets became particularly fearsome.
The first big changes to the traditional 'harness' came with the arrival of fire-arms in the sixteenth century. Bullet-proof iron breastplates were introduced, copied from western models, and the fukigaeshi became obsolete, used only to display the mon or family crest.
During the peaceful centuries of the Edo period in Japan (1600-1868) armour became much lighter and was only worn for show when the daimyō processed to and from the capital. The short civil war at the time of the Meiji Restoration (1867-68) was the last occasion in Japan when armour was worn in battle. However, there is an ongoing programme in Japan for the preservation and reproduction of fine ancient armours which ensures that the manufacturing technology is not lost.
Shop Online
Discover Ancient Egypt , £20.00
Discover Ancient Egypt , £20.00
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<urn:uuid:3e2f9aa6-37f8-46e4-a216-cf1380690255>
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"fasttext_score": 0.045282721519470215,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9636682271957397,
"url": "http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/articles/j/japanese_armour.aspx"
}
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IUCN threat status:
Near Threatened (NT)
Brief Summary
Read full entry
Burrowing bettongs are strictly nocturnal and use scent to locate food, which they then dig out of the ground using their muscular limbs. This species feeds on tubers, bulbs, seed nuts, plants and fungi, termites and marine refuse (4). Burrowing bettongs have also been observed eating carrion and raiding vegetable gardens (4). Social groups consist of one male and several females. They dig and occupy a simple burrow which may have a short tunnel and 1-2 entrances or a large warren with more than 100 entrances. One of these warrens may house more than 50 individuals from several groups. Males are aggressive towards other males and defend the females in their group (4). Females produce up to three litters each year with one offspring per litter, though twins are occasionally born. Females will mate again shortly after giving birth. However, the second offspring is not born for around four months as embryonic development is delayed. This allows the first-born to be nurtured by the mother and gives it a better chance of survival (4). If the first young dies, embryonic development of the following offspring begins. Gestation lasts for only 21 days, and sexual maturity is attained within one year (4).
© Wildscreen
Source: ARKive
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<urn:uuid:f512600f-202e-42b9-8aad-05ae3c83161f>
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{
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"fasttext_score": 0.018362343311309814,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9328920245170593,
"url": "http://eol.org/pages/128422/overview/"
}
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Bring Great Ideas into Your Classroom.
The New Explorers
Mystery Through the Lens
This episode of The New Explorers joins scientist Walter McKane as he searches for answers to some modern and ancient mysteries under the microscope. The microscope reveals a world not seen by the naked eye, and can solve some of the world's most celebrated mysteries, such as the authenticity of the most famous religious relic -- the Shroud of Turin. Mystery Through the Lens would be useful for classes on Science, Criminal Justice and Religion. It is appropriate for middle school and high school.
Vocabulary Discussion Questions
1. Galileo was a physicist and astronomer in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. How did Galileo change the world? What were his contributions? What price did he pay for his science?
2. A microscope is a device that magnifies objects. How does a compound microscope work?
3. Walter McKane is a workaholic. What is a workaholic? Why do some people work so many hours?
4. Walter McKane is a microanalyst. What is a microanalyst? What does he or she do?
5. The Shroud of Turin is one of Christianity's most revered relics. What is the history of the Shroud of Turin?
6. The imprint of an adult male appears on the Shroud of Turin. Why have scholars and Christians believed that this was the imprint of Jesus Christ?
7. Compound microscopes can be used to solve criminal mysteries. How did Larry Peterson prove that Wayne Williams was the murderer of young boys in Atlanta?
8. Walter McKrane discredited the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin. How did he do this?
9. What is carbon dating? How did carbon dating verify Walter McKane's findings?
Extended Activities
1. Take an ordinary everyday object, such as a grain of sugar, and examine it under a microscope. How is its appearance different under the microscope? Make an illustration of the differences.
2. Research the compound microscope and create a poster which illustrates how the compound microscope works.
Related Videos
Classroom Materials
A&E The Biography Channel The History Channel History Channel International History Channel en Español
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<urn:uuid:46da45d5-4793-4839-9f1a-ddd7a7c1e9a7>
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"fasttext_score": 0.9999927282333374,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9442173838615417,
"url": "http://www.aetv.com/class/admin/study_guide/archives/aetv_guide.0537.html"
}
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Home - Teaching Resources - NDT Tips
Backscatter Radiation
Backscatter radiation can have a significant effect on the quality of a radiograph. Backscatter radiation is radiation that is scattered from an object on the film side of the specimen. This exercise can be used to develop an appreciation for just how significantly backscatter radiation can affect radiograph quality.
1. Load a film cassette that does not have lead foil screens built-in with a piece of film.
2. Place a lead letter "B" on the back side of the cassette.
3. Locate a piece of aluminum plate or similar material of uniform thickness and place it on the film for the exposure.
4. Place a piece of corrugated cardboard on the backside of the film.
5. Expose the film to produce a density of 2.0 to 3.0.
6. Process the film
7. Evaluate the film to determine if the letter "B" and features of the cardboard are visible.
Teaching Tips
Signal Interpretation
DAC Curve
Eddy Current
Depth of Penetration
Lenz Law
Backscatter Radiation
Film Handling Artifacts
Focal Spot Size
Lead Screens
Source/Object Orientation
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<urn:uuid:f2474dbc-12c8-43c4-95b1-5cd36ad8b4de>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.125,
"fasttext_score": 0.5627402067184448,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8620686531066895,
"url": "http://www.ndt-ed.org/TeachingResources/NDT_Tips/X-rayBackscatter.htm"
}
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The Heritage Grain Alliance divides wheat into three major categories corresponding to the three major chromosome changes it endured in its 14,000 year evolution as a food source, diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid.
The diploid wheats (2n=14 chromosomes) are the original and oldest wheats. They are known generally as the “Einkorns” and are basically improved or selected wild grasses.
After a cross with a wild goat grass sometime later in history, wheat varieties emerged as tetraploid (4n=28 chromosomes). Tetraploids were seemingly adaptable to more locations and evidence of their use is found more widely than Einkorn. Emmer, Durum, Polish, Khorasan, Turdigum and Zanduri wheats are all considered tetraploid.
Somewhere along the line, maybe as early as 8,000 years ago, tetraploids crossed with Aegilops and hexaploid wheat was born (6n=42 chromosomes). Even though the hexaploids have been around for thousands of years, they are often called “the modern wheats” because most modern varieties in use today are indeed hexaploid. Before industrial agriculture became widespread tens of thousands of distinct hexaploid varieties were being grown around the world. Our original Heritage Grain Trials Program, begun at Rocky Mountain Seed Alliance and now with the Heritage Grain Alliance, continues to find, grow, and increase the seed for the most successful varieties in use in our region before chemicals and modern irrigation.
Showing 1–9 of 23 results
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<urn:uuid:cb502d70-b313-4fe1-9d09-c548f2b054a7>
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"fasttext_score": 0.46503543853759766,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9630640745162964,
"url": "https://www.seedsave.org/product-category/anche/wheat/"
}
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Samson and the temple of Dagon (Judges 16)
Bilderesultat for dagon ancient
Illustration: The Mesopotamian fish god Dagon
Only limited excavation has been undertaken at Gaza, so we have little idea of what the city of Samson’s day was like. However, grinding houses (Judges 16:21) and a temple (Judges 16:23-30) similar to those referred to in Judges 16 have been unearthed at other sites. Grinding houses, known both from ancient texts and excavated examples, were places where prisoners would grind grain for their masters. The tools were simple, hand grinding stones – a loaf-shaped upper stone and larger, slightly concave, lower stone called a saddle quern. Samson spent his days kneeling in front of quern, pushing an upper stone back and forth, grinding grain into meal.
Samson’s greatest feat was the destruction of the temple of Dagon. The only definite Philistine temples found to date are those at Tell Qasile, on the outskirts of modern Tel Aviv. Three temples, each larger than the previous, were built on the same spot over a period of 150 years. The latest, from the eleventh century B.C., approximately the time of Samson, measured 7,8 m by 14,6 m. Two pillars supported the roof, just as in the temple of Dagon described in Judges 16. They were made of cedar wood approximately 30,5 cm in diameter and rested on stone bases set in the floor. It would have been possible to dislodge the centre pillar in the Tell Qasile temple, since it was held in place on the stone base only by the weight of the roof. A larg man with his arms extended could have spanned the 2,1 m distance between the two pillars. Also, it is conceivable that the pillars of Dagon’s temple were closer together than those of the Tell Qasile temple.
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<urn:uuid:b6163c11-adb0-4fad-8565-fb47e86b5b79>
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"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.03453409671783447,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.966873824596405,
"url": "https://larshaukeland.com/bits-pieces/archeology/judges/samson-and-the-temple-of-dagon-judges-16/"
}
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Grade Range: K-12
Resource Type(s): Artifacts
Date Posted: 12/30/2020
A New Havel Motor brand pocket watch with black faceplate and radium painted numbers and clock hands. The watch case is made of plated metal and has a ridged winding mechanism at the top. "New Haven Motor" and "Radium" are printed in white lettering on the watch face.In the 1910s–1920s, radium was all the rage. A glowing radium watch was a must-have item. In factories, young women painted face dials with radioactive material. Unaware that the paint was harmful, they would place the brush tip on their lips to achieve a fine point.After suffering from radium poisoning, several young women sued their employers and brought national attention to the safety of workers. These young women helped create new laws to protect all workers.
Instructional Strategies
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<urn:uuid:15919f77-6bbb-4316-861d-881044e4ac8b>
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"fasttext_score": 0.018615782260894775,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9590636491775513,
"url": "https://historyexplorer.si.edu/resource/watch"
}
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As time progressed, the daimyō gained power, and the samurai class came into its own in the Sengoku Period, mon became more universally used for identification among samurai, and the variety of mon used increased. While other forms of identification heraldry were used, including a wide variety of giant objects on poles, mon had the advantage that they could be replicated quickly, used on a wide variety of items (banners, curtains, armor, shields, and personal items), and could be varied easily in color1, background, or placement to represent different divisions of an army.(SH:24) Because of the widespread use of mon and the greater number of surviving records, we have evidence, both written and pictorial, for more mon in the Sengoku and Momoyama periods.
Even as the Edo period approached and mon became more stylistically consistent, they still weren’t as uniform as they later became. For example, while the modern image of mon generally has them about as tall as they are wide, today’s mon doesn’t follow that at all. Then again, it makes sense for a ladder to be tall. Ladders made good mon for several reasons: a simple design, ability to vary rung numbers to create variations, and a shape that mirrored the tall banners often used in battle. It may have also had auspicious connotations of rising in the world.(Dower:118) The ladder mon was used by Makino Tadanari (who used 7 and 10-runged ladders) at the Battle of Osaka in 1614–15 and by Matsudaira (Okochi) Nobutsua (who used an 8-runged ladder) in the Shimbara Rebellion in 1638.2 This latter ladder is shown here.
Here is a modern-style, more square version of the ladder mon. While tall ladders are still in use, they often use a more three-dimensional design than earlier ladders.
Footnotes »
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<urn:uuid:27dbfaf4-d374-4696-aea9-ef26d3f5e677>
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"fasttext_score": 0.08042401075363159,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9619293808937073,
"url": "http://fireflies.xavid.us/tag/ladder/"
}
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The Candy Bowl
2.NBT.6 2.NBT.7 2.NBT.9
Act 1
Watch the Video
Ask students what they notice. Write down their observations.
Possible questions:
How many Snickers were in the bowl?
How many Milky Ways are there in the bowl?
How many Whoppers are in the bowl?
How much candy was there all together?
How much candy was in the bowl in the beginning?
Write an estimate.
Act 2
Answer student questions (as they come up) about the task:
In the beginning, there were 48 Snickers and Whoppers in the bowl.
26 Milky Ways were added after the teachers ate all of the Snickers.
Now there are 54 pieces of candy.
Act 3
Share solutions and strategies. Compare strategies and results.
How reasonable was your estimate?
What might you do differently next time?
What worked well for you this time?
1. Hi Debra!
Thanks for the comment. I purposely didn’t mention the whoppers to nudge students to think more critically about the inform they have been provided. Students often ask for the number of whoppers and get “stuck” momentarily. Once students dive into the problem and begin to construct representations of the candies they realize that they don’t need to know about the whoppers and can work with what they know. Thanks, again, for the comment.
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<urn:uuid:1ac2c3de-e867-4077-a334-01772acda0ee>
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"fasttext_score": 0.03619617223739624,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9389330744743347,
"url": "https://mikewiernicki.com/the-candy-bowl/?replytocom=7525"
}
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Taper, Top, Shear and Dimple
You have already come a long way in learning how to edit and change basic prim shapes. Now things are about to get really interesting. Different shapes can react much differently to the same control. Two of those controls are Taper and Top Shear.
When you taper something, you usually make it smaller at one end. When you shear something, it usually looks a little lopsided – like it’s leaning over a bit. However, how Taper and Top Shear look with different basic shapes can be very different! For this mission, your job is to really experiment with all the different basic shapes to see what happens. Note: As you follow along, you will notice that different shapes show Taper and Top Shear in different places in the Object tab of the Edit window.
Step 1: Taper
When a prim is tapered, the top end usually becomes smaller. A prim can be tapered from 0.00 to 1.00 percent on both the X (red) and Y (green) axes. If you can choose negative taper values, such as -0.01 to -1.00, [for a prim, the bottom end will be tapered.
Rez a cube and a cylinder. For both, use the Taper control up/down arrows to taper both the X and Y axes to 1.00. Did you get a pyramid and a cone? Experiment to see what happens if you use smaller taper values.
[image – intro2build.08.a]
Step 2: Tapering other shapes
While a sphere cannot be tapered, the other shapes can. The results can be really surprising!
Rez all the other shapes (except for the sphere and half sphere). Really experiment with the amounts of X and Y taper. What is the most surprising shape you have discovered so far?
Step 3: Dimple
Spheres and half spheres cannot be tapered. Instead, they can be dimpled Just like the dimples on someone’s chin, a dimple on a sphere makes a small dent, just at the end.
[image – intro2build.08.b]
Rez a sphere. Change the numbers in the Dimple Begin and End control to see what happens. What might you make if you also hollowed that sphere?
Step 4: Top Shear
For some prims, such as cubes and cylinders, the Top Shear control will make them look like they are leaning to one side. For other prims, such as toruses, or rings, Top Shear will distort them in unexpected ways! You can use Top Shear on the X (red) or Y (green) axis – or both!
[image intro2build.08.c]
Rez each basic prim shape and experiment with the Top Shear control. Change the settings for both the X an Y axes and see what happens.
Are you beginning to see how much you can change those basic prims? It can really be fascinating to play with shapes. At this point, you are probably surrounded by your strangely-shaped objects. Take a moment to clean up. Name and save shapes you really like and delete the rest.
Now travel around the OpenSimulator Hypergrid, and R-click (Cmd-click) on objects you see and choose Edit. The prims will be outlined and you can see what kinds of shapes are being used in some of your favorite builds!
If you are using the PRIMLAND Tutorial game, stop here and continue on the path!
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<urn:uuid:c0f4856e-0b26-4ba5-a70c-63de52534174>
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"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.04906541109085083,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9290878772735596,
"url": "https://www.avacon.org/blog/introduction-to-building-in-open-simulator/taper-top-shear-and-dimple/"
}
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Money. Sadly, it does make the world go around. There are around 180 different types of currency in the world, including the Albanian lek, the Haitian gourde, the Moroccan dirham, and the Zambian kwacha. But you are more likely to know the slang terms for the US dollar and the British pound than any of those. Do you know where those terms actually came from? Let's take a look.
We use it so often, most of us don't stop to think that the word buck has very little to do with the word dollar. There doesn't seem to be any correlation, anyway. Why do we use bucks, when dollars works just as well? It seems there are many theories surrounding the origin of buck. The most popular is that is derives from the word "buckskins," which were a valuable form of currency when colonials were trading goods with Native Americans. For instance, a cask of whiskey would be worth five buckskins. Perhaps the terms "bucks" just stayed with us, even when deerskins have long since stopped being used as currency.
The natives of Britain commonly refer to the English pound as "quid." Only someone trying to appear very formal would say "pounds," when "that'll be 20 quid" is so much more acceptable. Where did quid come from though? Again, there is not one specific and definitive source, but two popular theories keep appearing in research documents. We know the word quid has been around since the 1600s. The Latin term quid pro quo (something for something... remember Hannibal Lecter?) was widely used back then, and it could have easily been coupled with a monetary exchange. However, the fact that a site of the Royal Mint was in Quidhampton, Wiltshire, is also floated as a possible source.
Bread or Dough
We've all heard these terms, and they're especially popular in the UK. Many people suspect that the term came from the fact that bread is one of the most basic forms of food, and something we often used to rely upon for nutrition. "Give us this day, our daily bread," from the Lord's prayer, for instance, could be taken literally or figuratively. The term breadwinner, used commonly from the 1940s onwards, took this idea and ran with it. The term bread was directly tied with someone who earned money. From there, it's easy to see how bread, and subsequently dough, came into common usage. Then there's Cockney rhyming slang. The term "bread and honey" was used instead of money. But there's enough evidence to suggest that bread was used as a term for money before the Cockney's adopted it.
If something is going to set you back 75 clams, you know what you're going to be paying. A clam is one dollar. How on earth did that connection become established? The most popular answer to this question is that clamshells were once used as currency in different parts of the world. There is also evidence that Native Americans from the California region (the Miwok people) dealt in strings of clamshells as currency, or for barter and trade.
Cheddar or Cheese
Although not related to any specific amount, people often refer to money as cheddar, or cheese. Ever wonder why? It appears to date back to the 1960s, when welfare and food stamp recipients were provided with a product called government cheese. It sounds about as appetizing as it probably was, as this processed product was made from surplus milk and different types of cheeses, blended with emulsifiers. Terms like "you get your cheese yet?" started to become synonymous with getting money from the government, not just processed cheese.
Of all the terms on this list, the sawbuck is the easiest to explain. A sawbuck is another name for a sawhorse, which was originally fashioned by lashing two pieces of wood together to form an "X." Some of the first US $10 bills had a large Roman numeral X (10) printed on one side. It was from this simple visual cue that the sawbuck nickname was born.
We know the term greenback as a generic term for dollars, but back in the mid-1800s, it was not a term of endearment. During the American Civil War, over $400 million in legal tender was printed to finance the conflict. But this money, printed green on one side, did not have the secure backing of gold and silver. Because of this, banks were reluctant to give customers the full value of the greenback dollar. Remember that next time you ask for 100 greenbacks; a history buff may just shortchange you. (By the way, our British readers may know the term from a very popular show from the eighties. Baron Greenback was the master villain that Danger Mouse often tried to overcome.)
Know any other slang terms for US Dollars? Please share a few in comments!
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As someone who has actually eaten Government Cheese, I feel compelled to defend it. It is delicious and makes THE BEST grilled cheese sandwiches. Seriously, other processed cheeses like Kraft Singles and Velveeta have nothing on Government Cheese.
It's also still available through some USDA food programs for those who qualify:
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Aviation Historian 29
Aviation Historian 29
J.-C.Carbonel - Super-Caravelle atomique!
The original 1958 dyeline for the conventional turbojet-powered “Super-Caravelle”, on which it was proposed to base a version fitted with turbojets powered by an onboard nuclear reactor.
Sud Aviation’s March 1958 brochure for a "Super-Caravelle" included an illustration for a nuclear-powered turbojet unit fitted to the tail powerplant mounting of a standard Caravelle, redrawn here by JUANITA FRANZI. The nuclear reactor or "pile" would replace the need for conventional fuel and provide power for the otherwise-conventional turbojet powerplant arrangement.
LEFT Sud provided illustrations for both direct-flow (open-circuit) and indirect-flow (closed-circuit) propulsion systems for the nuclear Super-Caravelle. This drawing shows the indirect method, which, it was thought, would emit less radiation and therefore require less protective armour, and was thus favoured for development.
RIGHT The drawing for the direct-flow (open-circuit) method, which would eject radioactive air in its exhaust, deemed unacceptable for obvious reasons! The entire concept would throw up problems that would be difficult to solve, and ultimately the nuclear power idea was discreetly dropped.
Three views of the cockpit as provided in the brochure for the nuclear airliner; how its layout may have differed was not specified.
This original three-view from the nuclear-powered Super-Caravelle brochure shows some of the proposed version’s salient features, including, RIGHT, the strengthened four-wheel bogie main undercarriage and the nuclear pile located aft of the stowed mainwheels, BELOW.
Detail drawings showing, from furthest right, front and side views of the beefed-up mainwheel units with four wheels, and the twin nosewheel arrangement. All of them were designed to offer extra strength on the basis that, on a nuclear-powered variant with little conventional fuel aboard, landing weights would be much the same as those for take-off.
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Why do bugs die on their back?
When we see a bug or insect lying upside down, we have probably asked ourselves two questions. First, have the bug died because it could not lift itself, or second, whether the insect flipped and lay on its back after it died? The answer to these questions can be controversial sometimes, even among entomologists, with each group favoring their point of view.
Normally cockroaches, palmetto bugs, or other insects will die on their backs.
Bugs die on their backs because a dying bug with its weak leg and abdominal muscles cannot counteract the push of the center of gravity, the bugs and insects die on their back in a specific posture known as the position of flexion. In short, the center of gravity always tries to flip the bug on its back, whereas the bug’s muscles oppose it.
Many factors can influence the position of insects upon their demise and it definitely raises the question of why do bugs flip over when they die?
The parameters which affect a bug position after death are the cause of death, weight, surface friction, neurotoxin poisoning, and available side support.
I had a personal interest in getting the answers to the above questions. Therefore I tested and concluded some facts that I shared in the blog below. I think you will enjoy knowing them.
Basic Reasons for bugs and cockroaches to die on their back
Dead or dying bugs or roaches usually lie on their back in a familiar pose with legs extended in the air and abdomen facing the sky. This particular position has drawn particular interest among physicists and entomologists alike. I will be trying to explain the reasons for this pose as simply as possible.
1. Center of gravity
The center of gravity is an imaginary point around which the force of gravity acts. This is the area/point which balances the body on a plane. Disturbances in the center of gravity change the body to a new position to balance it.
Unlike other organisms, insects, including roaches, have exoskeletons to support their bodies and protect internal organs. Therefore, the majority of their body weight is disproportionally distributed externally. This creates an imbalance where the center of gravity always tries to flip the bug.
To answer the question: How do bugs end up on their back?.
Two scenarios need to be explained
1. When the bug flips accidently on its back it can not lift its self up because the centre of gravity in this particular position is very stable ( has made the bug stable). The bug tries but usually fails until the force of friction and the pull of bug are more than the centre of gravity.
2. When a bug dies the pull of muscles of abdomen and legs decrease, favoring the centre of gravity. The bug flips on its own.
Related Read: Do palmetto bugs fly?
2. Long Legs
The second possible explanation to the position of a dead bug lying on its back can be matched to the bug’s legs. We all know that bugs usually have long legs in proportion to the size of the body.
When a bug dies, the blood supply to the legs decreases, which flexes the legs. The flexion of the legs pushes the bug into a newer position, also called the position of flexion. This newer position is a bug on its back.
3. Concious Loss
A third explanation is that a dying bug, usually intoxicated with a chemical neurotoxin, cannot pull itself up. With its weak muscular and fluttering nervous system, the bug cannot counteract the pull of gravity. The bug dies and stays in this particular position.
Do all bugs die on their back?
When we see dead cockroaches and other bugs, a question pops into our minds: Do all bugs die on their backs? No! not all bugs die on their backs, but the majority do. Some bugs usually die in their usual or a lateral position, e.g. grasshoppers, centipedes, etc.
Another interesting question that keeps arising in our minds is: Why do insects’ legs fold when they die? This is because the folded legs are the position of rest, when a bug dies the blood flow to the legs stops, which causes them to contract (attaining the position of rest).
Also, note that roaches do not sleep on their back, rather they will sleep in a straight normal state.
1. Advion Cockroach Gel Bait (Review)
2. Gentrol IGR Point Source (Review)
Other Products to try:
1. Combat Roach Traps (Easy than gel baits)
3. Pet Safe Killers (Uses Essential Oils)
4. Ortho Defence Outdoor Roach Killer (Prevent Roaches)
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Featured Image for the medieval glossary page "The Golden Gloss" - a golden turnip tilted to the left.
The Golden Gloss
The medieval glossary of English (old/middle/modern) words as used in the middle ages. Of highlight are words misunderstood or unknown to the general public (or newer participants.)
UPDATED 10/05/2022
All | A B C D E F G H I J K L M O P Q R S T V W | Submit a term
There are currently 2 terms in this directory beginning with the letter Q.
The short arrow like projectile used in crossbows.
Quillion or Quillon
Referring to the arms of a cross guard on a sword. While this word is used frequently in modern medieval conversations, the term itself appears around the middle of the 1500s.
Submit a term
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Molecules - 500 Ways
We tend to think of molecules as sub-microscopic little things, and most are. However, with a process known as cross-linking, some molecules are quite large. Cross-linking is used to make plastic, paint, and synthetic rubber stronger. In the same way you can separate pieces of gravel, yet separating a large boulder is much more difficult, cross-linked materials resist separation.
If you are old enough, you may remember when most plastic items were fragile. If you dropped a camera or remote control on the floor, it would shatter. Modern plastics are usually cross-linked so shattering is much less common.
Now, your phone’s casing is made from a single cross-linked molecule. The rubber part of the tires on your car are one molecule each. In fact, the paint on your car is one giant molecule.
The picture above shows that a board was pushed right through a tire in the Alaska earthquake of 1964. The point, however, is that all the rubber of a modern tire is a single molecule. This is an old tire from before cross-linking technology. You can see the extent to which the rubber is coming apart. The paint on your car is also a single molecule.
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Articles of Confederation
In a paper, explain how the Articles of Confederation were/are different than the Constitution. Explain the reasons the founders wanted a weak federal government like they had in the Articles and explain the problems with a federal government that was too weak. Also explain how the Constitution provided for a stronger federal government while still protecting the rights of the people.
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The Characteristics of Ribbed Moraine and Assessment of Theories for Their Genesis
Research output: Contribution to conferenceAbstract
49 Downloads (Pure)
Ribbed (Rogen) moraines are large subglacially formed transverse ridges that cover extensive areas of the beds of the former Laurentide. Fennoscandian and Irish ice sheets. Since the flow speeds and stability of ice sheets are known to be sensitive to conditions operating at the bed. a full understanding of the processes of ribbed moraine genesis are critical if we are to appreciate their role in ice sheet dynamics. Numerous hypotheses exist that seek to explain how ribbed moraine are formed: by shearing and stacking of subglacial sediments (e.g. Aylsworth and Shilts. 1989: Bouchard. 1989): as a consequence of subglacial megafloods (Fisher and Shaw. 1992): by fracturing and extension of frozen till sheets (Hattestrand. 1997) or by sediment deformation (Boulton. 1987: Hindmarsh. 1998a.b. 1999). However, given that their formation has never been observed, advances in knowledge have to rely on abduction. That is. hypotheses, theories or models are generated that seek to best explain their characteristics (pattern, size, shape, internal composition etc). The most successful hypothesis will be the one that provides the most complete explanation of ribbed moraine characteristics. This approach is problematic given that ribbed moraine characteristics are poorly known. Scrutiny of the literature reveals that detailed observations are limited to small areas (normally < 1500 km2) and with small sample sizes (i.e. probably <50 ridges). Generalisations drawn from this base cannot be regarded as being representative and thus remain an inadequate data source for testing the various hypotheses. This paper addresses this deficit by producing the first representative data set on ribbed moraine characteristics.Various remote sensing and GIS techniques were used to record the morphological, morphometric and spatial characteristics of ribbed moraines in Ireland, Canada and Sweden, over a combined area of 81.000 km2. This database of 36.000 individually mapped landforms demonstrates that many published accounts are somewhat misleading and unrepresentative, and that ribbed moraine morphology is more complex than was hitherto reported. For example it is shown that ribbed moraines often form independent of topographic influences, are not always curved down-ice. do not have accordant summits, can have both steep proximal and distal sides, have undulating crests and resemble waves, are not always anastomosing and do not necessarily fit neatly together like a jigsaw. Our database of ribbed moraine ridge length, width, height and wavelength is also presented and reveals they exist over a much larger scale range than was previously thought. These new data were used to test the various ribbed moraine theories. This led to the rejection of the topographic model of shear and stack and undermined the credibility of all other shear and stack hypotheses, the two-step hypothesis, the megaflood hypothesis and the thermal fracturing model of formation. Given that ribbed formation is not due to localised factors such as topography and on the basis that their patterns are repetitive, organised into dominant wavelength and are widespread it is strongly argued they are most likely the product of an instability mechanism that operates in the subglacial environment.
Original languageEnglish
Number of pages1
Publication statusPublished (in print/issue) - 5 Apr 2005
EventIrish Quaternary Association : Spring Meeting - Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Duration: 5 Apr 20059 Apr 2005
ConferenceIrish Quaternary Association
Abbreviated titleIQUA
Bibliographical note
ISSN 0790-4096
• Ribbed Moraine
• Instability theory
• Numerical modelling
• geomorphology
Dive into the research topics of 'The Characteristics of Ribbed Moraine and Assessment of Theories for Their Genesis'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
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The Spanish-Comanche War (CEC)
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The Spanish-Comanche War
The war between the Spanish and Comanches erupted in the middle of the 1750s when Indian raiders began to plunder ranches and settlements in New Mexico. Their raids spread to Texas, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo León prompting Spanish authorities to search for an appropriate response. Suspicions of Comanche culpability in the attack on the San Sabá complex only inflamed relations. One Comanche war leader, Tabivo Naritgant (“Dangerous Man” in Comanche) proved so nettlesome that a Spanish expedition hunted him down and killed him near Ojo Caliente, New Mexico. His name, and his distinctive green-horned headdress passed to his son, who soon came to be known as Cuerno Verde.
He, too, fell to Spanish frontier troops. In 1779, Governor Juan Bautista de Anza campaigned into Comancheria until intercepting the Comanche and his band in present-day southern Colorado on their way home from raiding south of the Rio Grande.
Other Comanche leaders took his place, and the war continued to flare until the 1780s with Spain effectively losing control of the hinterland around Santa Fe and San Antonio de Béxar. Only a small pox epidemic which ravaged the natives forced them to accept a peace treaty with the Spanish—a peace which remained in place for nearly half a century.
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Eleventh Amendment (1795)
What It Says
By Comparison: The Preamble to the Declaration of Independence
During the Revolutionary War, the British took Gideon Olmstead and four other American seamen prisoner. While onboard a British ship carrying a cargo of arms, Olmstead and the others seized their British captors and gained control of the ship. Later, stopped by a ship belonging to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Olmstead and the British ship were brought to Philadelphia. Both Olmstead and Pennsylvania claimed they should get the British ship and its cargo. These conflicting claims sparked a dispute over which court—a state admiralty court or a federal appeals court— should decide the case.
A state admiralty court, after a jury trial, awarded the cargo to Pennsylvania. But a federal appeals court ordered that the cargo be sold and the money given to Olmstead. The state admiralty judge then ordered that the cargo be sold, but refused to give the money to Olmsted. Instead, the judge gave some of the money to David Rittenhouse, as treasurer of the state of Pennsylvania, who pledged to repay the money to the state court if ordered to do so when the dispute was settled.
After Rittenhouse died, Olmstead sued his estate. In a federal admiralty court, Judge Richard Peters found in favor of Olmstead. But then the state of Pennsylvania passed a law that claimed the money for itself and declared the federal ruling invalid. The state argued that the federal court could not rule on the case as the state was immune from suit under the Eleventh Amendment. Olmstead then sought a court order to carry out Judge Peters’s ruling. In the case of United States v. Peters, the Supreme Court disagreed. Writing for the Court, Chief Justice John Marshall (above right) held that a state statute could not override the federal order. He ruled that the federal lawsuit, between Olmstead and Rittenhouse’s heirs, did not involve the state and that the Eleventh Amendment did not bar the result.
But Marshall’s decision did not end the matter. The ruling sparked an armed confrontation between Pennsylvania and the federal government. Pennsylvania governor Simon Snyder ordered the Pennsylvania militia to protect the Rittenhouse heirs and prevent the federal marshals from enforcing the Supreme Court’s order to seize the money. When the federal marshal saw the guards in front of the heirs’ home (known locally as Fort Rittenhouse) he climbed a back fence, entered the house from the rear, and seized the money. The general of the Pennsylvania militia was later indicted and convicted of obstructing justice (though President James Madison soon pardoned him) and Olmstead, at long last, received his money.
What It Means
After the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1793 that two South Carolina men could sue and collect debts from the state of Georgia, states’-rights advocates in Congress proposed what became the Eleventh Amendment. This amendment specifically prohibits federal courts from hearing cases in which a state is sued by individuals from another state or country. Protecting states from certain types of legal liability is known as “sovereign immunity.”
As initially interpreted, the Eleventh Amendment did not bar suits against the states when a matter of federal law was at issue, nor did it-prevent suits against a state by its own citizens. Over time, the Supreme Court has expanded its interpretation of the amendment to reflect a broader view that states were immune from all suits in federal courts without their agreement, which seemed unlikely.
The Eleventh Amendment refers to suits “in law or equity.” In those cases where neither party in the suit has broken the law they can seek resolution through equity, by which the courts measure the fairness and justice of their claims.
The sooner the limits which separate the two governments [federal and state] are marked by those authorities [the courts], which can define and establish them, the less danger there will be of serious, if not fatal collisions hereafter.
Justice Bushrod Washington, Golden v. Prince (1814)
Eleventh Amendment TIMELINE
1821 – Federal courts have jurisdiction where state and federal laws conflict
Two brothers from Norfolk, Virginia, sell tickets in their hometown for a lottery in Washington, D.C. Congress had set up the lottery only for people in Washington, and Virginia had a law banning some gaming. The Virginia Supreme Court rules that the Cohen brothers violated Virginia law by selling the tickets. When the brothers appeal and the case goes before the U.S. Supreme Court, Virginia argues that the federal courts have no power to review the conviction. The high court disagrees on the grounds that state laws or actions can violate federal laws or U.S. constitutional provisions and therefore can be reviewed in federal courts, but rules that the Virginia court decision was correct.
1824 – Eleventh Amendment does not protect state officials
The state of Ohio passes a law that taxes the Bank of the United States when it does business within the state, but the U.S. Supreme Court finds that the tax is unconstitutional and orders that it cannot be enforced. A persistent state auditor, Ralph Osborn, goes ahead and collects the tax by seizing $100,000 from the federal bank. In Osborn v. Bank of the United States, the U.S. Supreme Court holds that Osborn can be ordered to return the money to the federal bank and that public officials acting on behalf of the state who knowingly committing an illegal act do not have the same constitutional protection enjoyed by states under the Eleventh Amendment.
1828 – Federal court cannot decide ownership of seized slaves
A Spanish slave vessel, the Isabelita, owned by Juan Madrazo, is captured by a pirate ship and carried to Amelia Island off the Georgia coast. William Bowen buys the slaves and intends to take them to East Florida, then a province of Spain. But Georgia officials seize the slaves on the grounds that the law prohibits the importation of slaves. The governor of Georgia asks the federal district court for permission to sell the slaves, but the court of appeals rules against Georgia. Before the Supreme Court, Georgia argues that the federal court cannot award the money and slaves to Madrazo because the Eleventh Amendment bars the federal court from deciding a case in which a state is a party. The Supreme Court agrees and Georgia keeps the money and slaves and Madrazo keeps his ship.
1890 – Citizens cannot take cases against their own states to federal court
A Louisiana man buys bonds issued by the State of Louisiana in 1874. Six years later, when he goes to collect payments that are owed to him, the state refuses to pay. Louisiana officials argue that a state law passed in the interim has nullified the state’s obligation to pay the debt. In Hans v. Louisiana, the bondholder takes the case to federal court. The U.S. Supreme Court rules that a lawsuit against a state by one of its own citizens cannot be heard in federal court.
1892 – The Supreme Court can resolve cases involving the federal government
A 1892 treaty between the United States and Spain sets the boundary between the U.S. and Spanish territories. In 1845, Congress accepts Texas as a state if it meets certain conditions, including the designation of specific boundary lines. The Texas legislature and a federal land commission disagree over approximately 1.5 million acres on the southern border. The U.S. government brings suit against Texas in federal court. Texas argues that the Eleventh Amendment bars the U.S. courts from resolving the dispute. In United States v. Texas, the Supreme Court holds that the deferral courts have jurisdiction in cases in which the U.S. government is a party.
1908 – States can be sued in federal courts over constitutional principles
The Minnesota legislature passes laws that reduce the rates that railroad companies can charge to carry passengers and cargo. Stockholders of the railroads file nine lawsuits in federal court against Minnesota officials, challenging the new rate schedules. In one of these cases, Ex Parte Young, the Supreme Court holds that it is proper to hear the case in federal court because it involves a federal question: whether the high fines deny the railroad stockholders due process of law (for taking property without a fair procedure in place). In such circumstances, the state is not immune from suit.
1934 – A foreign country cannot sue a state in federal courts
In the early 1830s, a number of Mississippi citizens purchase bonds from their home state. The heirs of the original bondholders, who are unable to collect on the bonds, give them, as a gift, to the Principality of Monaco. Although worthless to the Mississippi residents, they think that Monaco, as a foreign country, might be able to go to federal court to collect on the long overdue debt. Mississippi refuses to pay and argues that under the Eleventh Amendment the federal courts have no jurisdiction to hear the case. In Principality of Monaco v. Mississippi, the Court finds that the doctrine of sovereign immunity protects Mississippi from suits by foreign countries unless the state specifically consents to such a suit. No such consent is given.
1974 – States retain sovereign immunity when participating in welfare programs
A group of people eligible for a welfare program administered by both the federal and state governments ask a federal court to order Illinois to comply with federal time limits in handing out grants. The lower courts ordered Illinois to comply with the federal time limits and to pay out grants that have been wrongfully withheld from recipients. Illinois appeals, claiming that its sovereign immunity under the Eleventh Amendment means that the federal courts cannot order it to pay the grants. In Edelman v. Jordan, the Supreme Court agrees that the state has not waived its immunity by participating in the joint federal-state welfare program.
1982 – State officials are ordered to turn over sunken treasure
In 1622 the Nuestra Senora de Atocha sank forty nautical miles west of Key West, Florida. When a salvage company locates the wreck in the spring of 1971, Florida claims that the ship belongs to the state under Florida law. The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the boundary of Florida does not extend as far as the state asserts, and the federal government claims ownership of the salvaged property. The state argues that it cannot be sued for it due to the Eleventh Amendment. In Florida Department of State v. Treasure Salvors, the U.S. Supreme Court disagrees that the Eleventh Amendment prevents a direct action against the state, because the suit is directed only at state officials, who have no rightful ownership of the salvaged property.
1987 – Residents may not sue their own state unless the state agrees to be sued
Texas highway worker Jean Welch is injured while working on a ferry dock. She sues her employer, the state of Texas, in federal court. The U.S. Supreme Court rules, in Welch v. Texas Department of Highways and Public Transportation, that citizens cannot sue their own states in federal courts unless the state has passed a law allowing for citizens to sue. As no specific state law grants consent to sue, the worker’s case is dismissed.
2002 – States are immune from charges filed with federal administrative agencies
A gambling cruise asks South Carolina authorities for permission to dock in the state. South Carolina denies the request and the ship’s owners file a complaint with the Federal Maritime Commission, which finds that states have immunity from prosecution in federal courts, but not executive branch agencies. Upon appeal, in Federal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina State Ports Authority, the U.S. Supreme Court reverses the commission’s ruling. The Court holds that federal administrative agencies face the same restraints as the federal courts under the Eleventh Amendment.
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The Battle of Gorgopotamos Brits and Greeks in World War II
The Battle of Gorgopotamos
The blowing up of the Gorgopotamos railway bridge on November 25, 1942
The Battle of Gorgopotamos, also known as Operation Harling, was a crucial event in World War II. It was one of the first major sabotage acts in Axis–occupied Europe and the beginning of a permanent British involvement with the Greek resistance.
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Greek and British Troops preparing for the operation
Operation Harling was a result of collaborative action between the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) in cooperation with the Greek resistance groups EDES and ELAS.
The groups met in late summer 1942, to discuss their tactical plan. The plan consisted of blowing up one of the three bridges Papadia, Asopou and Gorgopotamos (all three are located in the mountain range of Brallo), over which passes the railway line from Thessaloniki to Athens.
The strategic benefits of destroying the railway lines which connect Thessaloniki to Athens would immensely help both Greek and British operations, as it would cause the supply of Rommel’s German army to be cut off in North Africa.
In the following days, British officers Colonel Eddie Myers and Captain Hamson spotted all three possible sabotage areas and deemed the Gorgopotamos bridge to be the easiest target.
The Mission
In the few days leading up to the operation, all party leaders arrived and the area was inspected by a joint guerrilla group. By November 22nd, the final plan was drawn up and the operation was set for the night of November 25th.
The Gorgopotamos Bridge was guarded by over 100 Italian and German soldiers who each held heavy machine guns. Little did they know, they had over 150 SOE, EDES and ELAS soldiers coming their way. The plan was to neutralize or harass the guard by the guerrillas, while the commandos would place the explosives to blow up the bridge.
Finally, at 11:07 pm on November 25th, the attacks took place and everything went according to plan. By the next morning, two sections of the bridge had been blown up, putting the railway out of operation.
The victory for Britain and Greece in the Battle of Gorgopotamos was a great reward to the tried Greek people and turned out to be one of the largest, successful acts of sabotage in World War II.
Out of the 150 men who undertook the operation, only four soldiers were injured. However, a few days later, in retaliation, 9 Greek patriots were executed in the area of the damaged bridge. Whilst Operation Harling was an extremely successful operation, its impact was sadly limited, as it was carried after a holiday, causing its two-month delay.
By this point, Rommel’s forces had already moved further west, and thus the supply through Greece played no role.
In 1964, thousands of people gathered in Gorgopotamos to celebrate the 22nd anniversary of the bombing of the bridge.
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Tag Archives: Caudillismo
Caudillos: A definition
A wealthy, land-owning regional leader that can exercise power through patronage, military prowess, economic pull, and charisma who formed the central authority figures in Latin America during and after separation from European powers. Caudillos were men who often epitomized masculinity, often being war heroes, who sought to maintain order and ensure property rights of landowners. They were often ineffective in immediately applying the liberal ideals that motivated revolution to their fledgling countries. Many caudillos did not hold official political power, but still had authority over their areas of influence.
Written by Andrew Berta, crafted by the students of 21H.171. Sept 25th, 2017.
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Subscribe to Archaeology
Aztec Itemized Returns
May/June 2021
Taxes Mexico Aztec Tribute CodexBefore the Spanish arrived in 1519, the highest officials of the Aztec Empire could count on the provinces they ruled for an annual yield of 40 jaguar skins, 70 gold bars, 2,200 pots of bee honey, 4,000 loaves of salt, 16,000 rubber balls, and two live eagles, among many, many other items. One province alone was responsible for supplying 128,000 textiles. This expansive inventory is enumerated in a lavishly illustrated codex known as the Matrícula de Tributos, a pictographic narrative that details which goods each province owed to the empire. Scholars have traditionally regarded these as a kind of tribute paid by conquered states rather than as taxes, but Arizona State University archaeologist Michael E. Smith disagrees. “Tribute is booty,” he says. “That’s what a pirate takes. What the Aztecs were doing was definitely taxation.” Smith has identified a bewilderingly complex system of at least 11 different types of taxes levied at the Aztec imperial and city-state level.
Taxes paid at the city-state level were probably much more significant to the average Aztec citizen than those recorded in the colorful record seen in the codex. “The empire worked almost like a mafia protection racket between the various city-states,” says Smith, “and the average person would have seen almost no return on imperial taxes.” On the other hand, local land and market taxes, which were often paid in cacao beans or cotton, funded canals and dams, on which all Aztecs relied. The local system was so efficient and entrenched that in 1532, a Spanish official wrote of the Aztecs that “the activity of paying taxes is so well understood, that I expect they will be paying taxes in gold and silver in no time.”
Spoils of War
Render Unto Pharaoh
Royal Food Fund
Filling the Coffers
Flexible Tax Brackets
The Kings’ Dues
Aztec Itemized Returns
Rice Farmer Rebellions
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Marine and Oceanographic Instruments
Instruments measure or sample various physical, chemical and biological quantities in the water column, such as Nansen bottle which is a device for obtaining samples of seawater at a specific depth. It was designed in 1894 by the early 19th to 20th-century explorer and oceanographer Fridtjof Nansen and further developed by Shale Niskin in 1910. The bottle, more precisely a metal or plastic cylinder, is lowered on a cable into the ocean, and when it has reached the required depth, a brass weight called a "messenger" is dropped down the cable. When the weight reaches the bottle, the impact tips the bottle upside down and trips a spring-loaded valve at the end, trapping the water sample inside. The bottle and sample are then retrieved by hauling in the cable. A second messenger can be arranged to be released by the inverting mechanism, and slide down the cable until it reaches another Nansen bottle. By fixing a sequence of bottles and messengers at intervals along the cable, a series of samples at increasing depth can be taken from a single action.
High Impact List of Articles
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The neocortex, also called the neopallium, isocortex, or the six-layered cortex, is a set of layers of the mammalian cerebral cortex involved in higher-order brain functions such as sensory perception, cognition, generation of motor commands,[1] spatial reasoning and language.[2] The neocortex is further subdivided into the true isocortex and the proisocortex.[3]
NeuroLex IDbirnlex_2547
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
In the human brain, the neocortex is the largest part of the cerebral cortex, which is the outer layer of the cerebrum, with the allocortex making up the rest. The neocortex is made up of six layers, labelled from the outermost inwards, I to VI. Of all the mammals studied to date (including humans), a species of oceanic dolphin known as the long-finned pilot whale has been found to have the most neocortical neurons.[4]
The term is from cortex, Latin, “bark” or “rind”, combined with neo-, Greek, “new”. Neopallium is a similar hybrid, from Latin pallium, “cloak”. Isocortex and allocortex are hybrids with Greek isos, “same”, and allos, “other”.
The neocortex is the most developed in its organisation and number of layers, of the cerebral tissues.[5] The neocortex consists of the grey matter, or neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers, surrounding the deeper white matter (myelinated axons) in the cerebrum. This is a very thin layer though, about 2–4 mm thick.[6] There are two types of cortex in the neocortex, the proisocortex and the true isocortex. The pro-isocortex is a transitional area between the true isocortex and the periallocortex (part of the allocortex). It is found in the cingulate cortex (part of the limbic system), in Brodmann's areas 24, 25, 30 and 32, the insula and the parahippocampal gyrus.
The neocortex is smooth in rodents and other small mammals, whereas in primates and other larger mammals it has deep grooves (sulci) and ridges (gyri). These folds allow the surface area of the neocortex to be greatly increased. All human brains have the same overall pattern of main gyri and sulci, although they differ in detail from one person to another.[7] The mechanism by which the gyri form during embryogenesis is not entirely clear, and there are several competing hypotheses that explain gyrification, such as axonal tension,[8] cortical buckling[9] or differences in cellular proliferation rates in different areas of the cortex.[10]
The neocortex contains both excitatory (~80%) and inhibitory (~20%) neurons, named for their effect on other neurons.[11] The structure of the neocortex is relatively uniform (hence the alternative names "iso-" and "homotypic" cortex), consisting of six horizontal layers segregated principally by cell type and neuronal connections.[12] However, there are many exceptions to this uniformity; for example, layer IV is small or missing in the primary motor cortex. There is some canonical circuitry within the cortex; for example, pyramidal neurons in the upper layers II and III project their axons to other areas of neocortex, while those in the deeper layers V and VI often project out of the cortex, e.g. to the thalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord. Neurons in layer IV receive the majority of the synaptic connections from outside the cortex (mostly from thalamus), and themselves make short-range, local connections to other cortical layers.[11] Thus, layer IV is the main recipient of incoming sensory information and distributes it to the other layers for further processing.
Cortical columnsEdit
The neocortex has also been shown to play an influential role in sleep, memory and learning processes. Semantic memories appear to be stored in the neocortex, specifically the anterolateral temporal lobe of the neocortex.[14] It is also involved in instrumental conditioning; responsible for transmitting sensory information and information about plans for movement to the basal ganglia.[14] The firing rate of neurons in the neocortex also has an effect on slow-wave sleep. When the neurons are at rest and are hyperpolarizing, a period of inhibition occurs during a slow oscillation, called the down state. When the neurons of the neocortex are in the excitatory depolarizing phase and are firing briefly at a high rate, a period of excitation occurs during a slow oscillation, called the up state.[14]
Clinical significanceEdit
The neocortex is the newest part of the cerebral cortex to evolve (hence the prefix neo meaning new); the other part of the cerebral cortex is the allocortex. The cellular organization of the allocortex is different from the six-layered neocortex. In humans, 90% of the cerebral cortex and 76% of the entire brain is neocortex.[11][17]
For a species to develop a larger neocortex, the brain must evolve in size so that it is large enough to support the region. Body size, basal metabolic rate and life history are factors affecting brain evolution and the coevolution of neocortex size and group size.[18] The neocortex increased in size in response to pressures for greater cooperation and competition in early ancestors. With the size increase, there was greater voluntary inhibitory control of social behaviors resulting in increased social harmony.[19]
The six-layer cortex appears to be a distinguishing feature of mammals; it has been found in the brains of all mammals, but not in any other animals.[2] There is some debate,[20][21] however, as to the cross-species nomenclature for neocortex. In avians, for instance, there are clear examples of cognitive processes that are thought to be neocortical in nature, despite the lack of the distinctive six-layer neocortical structure.[22] In a similar manner, reptiles, such as turtles, have primary sensory cortices. A consistent, alternative name has yet to be agreed upon.
Neocortex ratioEdit
The neocortex ratio of a species is the ratio of the size of the neocortex to the rest of the brain. A high neocortex ratio is thought to correlate with a number of social variables such as group size and the complexity of social mating behaviors.[23] (See Dunbar's number) Humans have a large neocortex as a percentage of total brain matter when compared with other mammals. For example, there is only a 30:1 ratio of neocortical gray matter to the size of the medulla in the brainstem of chimpanzees, while the ratio is 60:1 in humans.[24]
See alsoEdit
1. ^ Lodato S, Arlotta P (2015-11-13). "Generating neuronal diversity in the mammalian cerebral cortex". Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology. 31 (1): 699–720. doi:10.1146/annurev-cellbio-100814-125353. PMC 4778709. PMID 26359774. The neocortex is the part of the brain responsible for execution of higher-order brain functions, including cognition, sensory perception, and sophisticated motor control.
3. ^ "BrainInfo".
4. ^ Mortensen HS, Pakkenberg B, Dam M, Dietz R, Sonne C, Mikkelsen B, Eriksen N (2014). "Quantitative relationships in delphinid neocortex". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 8: 132. doi:10.3389/fnana.2014.00132. PMC 4244864. PMID 25505387.
5. ^ Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (32nd ed.). Elsevier Saunders. 2012. p. 1238. ISBN 978-1-4160-6257-8.
6. ^ Kandel E (2006). Principles of neural science (5th ed.). Appleton and Lange: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0071390118.
7. ^ Moerel M, De Martino F, Formisano E (2006). "An anatomical and functional topography of human auditory cortical areas". Front. Neurosci. 8 (225): 225. doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00225. PMC 4114190. PMID 25120426. For example, in the human brain, the auditory cortex presents an expansion of cortical surface, with additional gyri and with a much larger inter-individual variability...
8. ^ Van Essen DC (January 1997). "A tension-based theory of morphogenesis and compact wiring in the central nervous system" (PDF). Nature. 385 (6614): 313–8. doi:10.1038/385313a0. PMID 9002514. S2CID 4355025.
9. ^ Richman DP, Stewart RM, Hutchinson JW, Caviness VS (July 1975). "Mechanical model of brain convolutional development". Science. 189 (4196): 18–21. doi:10.1126/science.1135626. PMID 1135626.
10. ^ Ronan L, Voets N, Rua C, Alexander-Bloch A, Hough M, Mackay C, Crow TJ, James A, Giedd JN, Fletcher PC (August 2014). "Differential tangential expansion as a mechanism for cortical gyrification". Cerebral Cortex. 24 (8): 2219–28. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht082. PMC 4089386. PMID 23542881.
11. ^ a b c d Noback CR, Strominger NL, Demarest RJ, Ruggiero DA (2005). The Human Nervous System: Structure and Function (Sixth ed.). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. ISBN 1-59259-730-0.
12. ^ Kurzweil R (2012). How to Create a Mind: The Secret of Human Thought Revealed. New York: Viking Penguin. p. 36. ISBN 978-0670025299.
13. ^ Horton JC, Adams DL (April 2005). "The cortical column: a structure without a function". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 360 (1456): 837–62. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1623. PMC 1569491. PMID 15937015.
14. ^ a b c Carlson N (2013). Physiology of Psychology (Eleventh ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-205-239481.
15. ^ Braak H, Del-Tredici K, Bohl J, Bratzke H, Braak E (2000). Annals of the New York academy of sciences, Vol. 911. New York, NY, US: New York Academy of Sciences. ISBN 1-57331-263-0.
16. ^ Carlson N (2013). Physiology of Behavior. Pearson. ISBN 978-0-205-23948-1.
17. ^ "Neocortex (brain)". ScienceDaily.
18. ^ Dunbar RI, Shultz S (April 2007). "Understanding primate brain evolution". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 362 (1480): 649–58. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.2001. PMC 2346523. PMID 17301028.
19. ^ Bjorklund D, Kipp K (2002). Social cognition, inhibition, and theory of mind: The evolution of human intelligence. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate Publishers. ISBN 0-8058-3267-X.
20. ^ Jarvis ED, Güntürkün O, Bruce L, Csillag A, Karten H, Kuenzel W, et al. (February 2005). "Avian brains and a new understanding of vertebrate brain evolution". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 6 (2): 151–9. doi:10.1038/nrn1606. PMC 2507884. PMID 15685220.
21. ^ Reiner A, Perkel DJ, Bruce LL, Butler AB, Csillag A, Kuenzel W, et al. (May 2004). "Revised nomenclature for avian telencephalon and some related brainstem nuclei". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 473 (3): 377–414. doi:10.1002/cne.20118. PMC 2518311. PMID 15116397.
22. ^ Prior H, Schwarz A, Güntürkün O (August 2008). De Waal F (ed.). "Mirror-induced behavior in the magpie (Pica pica): evidence of self-recognition". PLOS Biology. 6 (8): e202. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202. PMC 2517622. PMID 18715117. Lay summaryNew Scientist (August 19, 2008).
23. ^ Dunbar RI (1995). "Neocortex size and group size in primates: A test of the hypothesis". Journal of Human Evolution. 28 (3): 287–96. doi:10.1006/jhev.1995.1021.
External linksEdit
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History of the Indian Contract Act 1872
Info: 5375 words (22 pages) Essay
Published: 23rd Sep 2021
Reference this
Jurisdiction / Tag(s): Indian law
The Indian Contract Act brings within its ambit the contractual rights that have been granted to the citizens of India. It endows rights, duties and obligations on the contracting parties to help them to successfully conclude business- from everyday life transactions to evidencing the businesses of multi-national companies. The Indian Contract Act, 1872 was enacted on 25th April, 1872 [Act 9 of 1872] and subsequently came into force on the first day of September 1872. The essence of the India Contract Act has been modelled on that of the English Common Law. [1]
The extent of modifications made in the Act as per the Indian conditions and its adaptability to the Indian economy is an important area of research. In this regard it is pertinent to note that since the enactment of the Act there have been no amendments and thus the Law that was made in 1872 still stands good. However, these are questions of interpretation that not only depend on the text of the Act, but also on the English authorities that framed the law and before it, the subsequent development of law. [2]
The history of the Act brings to light the very origin of the economic processes and in this regard, the importance of contracting in order to conduct one’s business in everyday life. The prevalent system in the ancient times was barter and it was based on the mutual principle of give and take. This was confined to commodities as there was no medium of exchange as is seen in the form of money today and this system can be traced back in time to the Indus Valley Civilization (the earliest human civilization). The system still finds relevance in the contemporary world, where it can be found in commercially and economically underdeveloped areas.
However, the relevancy of such a system in modern times is questioned as the complexity in the nature of the economic systems as well as the increasing demand and supply systems due to the change in the wants and needs of the human beings came to the fore. Also, money had evolved as the medium of exchange such that the value of every commodity could now be quantified. Thus, in such an era of greater economic transaction one finds the existence of Contract Laws and with it, their relevance.
The Indian Contract Act codifies the way we enter into a contract, execute a contract and implement provisions of a contract and effects of breach of a contract. The contractual capacity is restricted in certain situations otherwise it is the prerogative of the individual to contract. There are specific areas which deal with property, movable gods and specific performance such as the Transfer of Property Act, The Sale of Goods Act and The Specific Relief Act. Some of these acts, were originally a part of the Indian Contract Act enacted in 1872 but were later codified as separate laws. Moreover the Act is not retrospective in nature. Hence a contract entered into prior to 1st September 1872, even though to be performed after passing of this Act is not hit by this Act. [3] Hence, we arrive of the conclusion that the basic framework of contracting is covered in the Indian Contract Act and it is an important area of law, with roots deep in the history of civilization- and thus forms the subject matter of this project of this course of Legal History.
For this project titled, ‘History of the Indian Contract Act, 1872’ the doctrinal method was judged to be most appropriate. Primary resources referred to in the course of research include books, journals, law reports and cases, most of them accessed from the NALSAR law library. Other sources like articles, and the like were accessed online through the use of online databases. All direct quotations have been properly footnoted.
The aim of the project is to trace the history of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 and analyse the developments that led to its enactment in 1872. The project also ventures to seek the history of ‘Law of Contracts’ in general and present a brief view on the changing notions about the contract law.
The project covers the development of the ‘Law of Contracts’ right from the early stages of human civilization, making its way through Roman and English notions that eventually led to the formation of the Indian Contract Act. The project also shows the relevance of such legislation, codifying the principles of contract making.
The research is limited to the resources available at the NALSAR Library. Books related to the topic are available at the library. Also, the sources available on the internet helped a considerable deal. Suggestions from the course-instructor and fellow students have been incorporated wherever necessary.
During the entire ancient and medieval periods of human history in India, there was no general code covering contracts. Principles were thus derived from numerous references- the sources of Hindu law, namely the Vedas, the Dhramshatras, Smritis, and the Shrutis give a vivid description of the law similar to contracts in those times. The rules governing contracts form a part of the law called Vyavaharmayukha. [4]
Studies of the smritis reveal that the concept of contract originated in the Vedic period itself. Topics, as we know them today like debt deposit and pledges sale without ownership, mortgage and gifts, which are all contracts in nature, are mentioned therein. [5] The general rules of contract bear a striking resemblance to the modern law of contract. For e.g. as mentioned in the Manusmriti, the first and the foremost requirement for a contract process to start is the competence of the persons who are willing to enter into a contract. This norm laid down for competence corresponds with the provisions of the present law (Section 11, Indian Contract Act), namely, dependents, minors, sanyasis, persons devoid of limbs, those addicted to vices were incompetent to contract. [6] The Narad smriti categorizes competent persons into three; the king, the Vedic teacher and the head of the household. [7]
The concept of liability in contract law finds its birth in the Vedic period too. Spiritual debts were referred as ‘wrin’ and it was constantly reinforced by the srmitis that failure to pay back the debts meant re-birth as a slave, servant, woman or beast in the house of creditor. [8] So, the son was liable to pay of his father’s debts even if he did not inherit any property from him.
Towards the end of the medieval age, the law of contracts was pretty much being governed by two factors; the moral factor and the economic factor. Activities like transfer of property, performance of services etc. required rules for agreements and promises, which covered not just business and commercial transactions, but also personal relationships in all walks of life. This takes us to the next source, i.e. the Arthashastra by Kautilya, which is considered to be the only existing secular treatise on politics and governments.
During Chandragupta’s reign, contract existed in the form of “bilateral transactions” between two individuals of group of individuals. The essential elements of these transactions were free consent and consensus on all the terms and conditions involved. It was an open contract openly arrived at. It was laid down that the following contracts were void:
• Contracts formed during the night.
• Contracts entered into the interior compartment of the house.
• Contracts made in a forest
• Contracts made in any other secret place [9] .
• There were certain exceptions to clandestine contracts such as:
• Contracts made to ward off violence, attack and affray
• Contracts made in celebration of marriage
• Contracts made under orders of government
• Contracts made by traders, hunters, spies and others who would roam in the forest frequently.
The contract would be rendered void if there was any undue influence or if the contract was entered into a fit of anger or under influence of intoxication etc. [10] In general, women could not make contracts binding on their husbands or against family properties. It was possible for a competent person to authorise a dependent to enter into transactions. [11] The dependents in such case included a son whose father was living, a father whose son managed the affairs, a woman whose husband was alive, a slave or hired servant. [12]
It has to be noted that money lending was seen as an occupation. Usury was a sin only when the usurer cheated the debtor, for e.g., when he lent goods of a lower quality, but received goods of a higher quality in return or if he extracted fourfold or eightfold return from a distressed debtor. The interest would be fixed with reference to the article pledged or surety given. Although, all commentaries are not in agreement with the amount of interest to be charged, they all agree that it was sinful to take exorbitant interest and such interest would not be enforceable in court. The Yajnavalkya smriti provided that in case of cattle being loaned, their progeny was to be taken as profit. [13]
Also, the rights and duties (of a Bailee) in a Bailment, as we know it today in the form of sections 151 and 152 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, has its root to the Katyaynasmriti containing a special provision called the ‘silpinyasa’ dealing with the deposit of raw materials with an artisan- talking about the degree of care attached. The text laid down that “if an artisan does not return the things deposited with him during the stipulated time, he should be made to pay its price even in the cases, where the loss is due to acts of God or King. The artisan, however, is not responsible for the loss of an article which was defective at the very time of bailment, unless the loss is due to his own fault.” [14]
It is also interesting to note that there was no ‘limitation’ for bringing a suit for money lent. This was because of the rule of ‘damdupat’ which laid down that ‘the amount of principle and interest recoverable at one time in a lump sum cannot be more than double the money lent.’ It took into consideration the fact that debts were not necessarily recoverable from a man himself, his descendents were also liable. Thus there was no concept of a ‘limitation period’ for filing a suit. [15] The rule of ‘damdupat’ is still prevalent in Calcutta and Bombay as it has been upheld to be a valid custom and thus enjoys enforceability under the savings clause, Section 1. [16]
During the Muslim rule in India, all matters relating to contract were governed under the Mohammedan Law of Contract. The word contract in Arabic is Aqd meaning a conjunction. It connotes conjunction of proposal (Ijab) and acceptance which is Qabul. A contract requires that there should be two parties to it one party should make a proposal and the other accept it, the minds of both must agree that is there declaration must relate to the same matter and the object of contract must be to produce a legal result [17] .
It also supplied rules to govern specific contracts to commercial, mercantile and proprietary nature like agency (vakalat), guarantee and indemnity (zamaanat and tamin), partnership (shirkat), one person’s money and another’s work (muzarabat), bailment (kafalat). All transactions were treated as secular contracts and rules were provided for settlement of all types of disputes even relating to property and succession.
Another thing to be noted is that under Islamic Law even marriages (Nikah) were treated as contracts and till date the situation remains the same. Either of the parties to the marriage makes a proposal to the other party and if the other party accepts, it becomes a contract and the husband either at the time of marriage or after it has to pay an amount to the wife as a symbol of respect known as Mahr. Also the Mahommedans were the firsts to recognize the concept of divorce. This way, a party to marriage could absolve itself of the contractual obligations under marriage. Muslim marriages are thus considered contracts for these reasons.
In early Rome, the law of contracts developed with the recognition of a number of categories of promises to be enforced rather than creation of any general criteria for enforcing promises. Thus, the notion that promise itself may give rise to an enforceable duty was an achievement of Roman law. [18] A promise might be morally binding but it was not legally enforceable until it fell within the specified categories viz. “stipulation”, “real” contracts and “consensual” contracts.
STIPULATION: (stipulatio) It put into force formalities and dates from a very early time in Roman law. A party could make a binding promise called “stipulation” in which the party observed a prescribed form of question and answer. Though the participation of both parties was required, only one party was bound. [19]
REAL CONTRACTS: These were those that suited to executory exchange of promises. For example, the contract of loan, in which the recipient’s promise to restore the subject matter was binding. [20]
CONSENSUAL CONTRACTS: These were more flexible and did not hold a legal basis for enforcing purely executory exchanges of promises. They deviated from the formalities in “stipulation” and in agreement alone, without delivery, sufficed to make the promises binding. Although they were limited to four important types of contracts- sale, hire, partnership and mandate.
These three categories of enforceable promises met the Roman needs through the classical period (500 BC – 300 BC). Later on a fourth category of enforceable promise was recognized as “innominate” contracts.
INNOMINATE CONTRACTS: These were agreements under which one party was promised to give or do something in exchange for a similar promise by the other party. Unlike both real and consensual contracts they were not limited to specified classes of transactions and were therefore called “innominate”. The enforceability of the promise required some performance given in exchange and was called quid pro quo (i.e. the modern concept of ‘consideration’ of the contract). But these contracts were limited because they were binding only when one of the parties had completed performance and until that happened either party could escape liability.
Roman law always had the tendency of primitive societies to view each type of transaction as a distinct complex of rights and it never fully rid itself of this proclivity. [21] Thus the development of a general theory of contracts was left to the modern legal systems that arose in Europe during the Middle Ages, the common law system that arose in England and the civil law systems of the European continent.
Though Roman notions of contract law have not been directly included under the Indian law of contracts. However, the framers of the Indian Contract Act, the English, were aware of the developments in the field of law of contracts in Rome. Thus, Roman Contract notions have helped in the development of English law, thus affecting the Indian Contract Act. The introduction to the next chapter deals with the same discussion.
As stated earlier, the Roman law notions of contract were known to the English but their influence faded with the break-up of the Roman political system. English Courts therefore, had to reconstruct law in the Middle Ages. The courts succeeded in a remarkable way keeping in the view the fact that when they started, the English law of contracts was little more advanced than that of many primitive societies. [22]
Now, since no system can afford to make all promises enforceable, the English tried out two assumptions:
One, the assumption that promises are generally enforceable, and then create exceptions for promises considered undesirable to enforce.
Secondly the assumption that promises are generally unenforceable, and then create exceptions for promises thought desirable to enforce.
The common law Courts chose the latter assumption, the same as Roman law i.e. “mere promise doses not give rise to an action.” This decision accorded well with the procedural niceties of the common law courts, where the plaintiff did not have the recovery until his claim could be fitted with one of the established forms of action. It also suited the status-oriented society of the Middle Ages where no great pressure existed for enforcing promises as contracts were not yet a significant part of the business of the common law courts.
The challenge faced by the common law Courts in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was to develop a general criterion for enforcing promises within the framework of the forms of action. [23] And by the end of the 15th century, two forms of action for enforcing rights, which included some of those which we now call contractual, had taken a fairly definite shape. These were action on ‘debt’ and the action on ‘convenant’.
The word ‘convenant’ is the nearest medieval equivalent to current definition of ‘contract’. The action of convenant mainly concerned breaches of agreement for services like building or for sales or leases of land. The primary claim was for performance, and in royal courts the action was begun by the praecipe writ ordering the defendant to keep the agreement; but judgements ceased to order specific performance and damages were awarded instead. But the action of convenant soon fell out of use, not because it was ineffective but because the other action of ‘debt’ proved more effective. [24]
4.1.2 DEBT
The action on debt covered the claims for the price of goods sold and delivered. The essential feature of it was that the claim was for money compensation for benefit received. [25] The defendant’s liability in debt was not based on a mere promise but on the debtor’s receipt of what the debtor had asked for, called quid pro quo like the Romans in the form of loan. It was therefore thought to be unjust to allow the debtor to retain it without paying for it. The debtor’s wrong was more in misfeasance than nonfeasance. [26] Following this rationale the courts finally broadened the action of debt to allow recovery by anyone who had conferred a substantial benefit. However, the lacuna in this system was that the defendant might avoid liability by a procedure known as “wager of law”, in which the defendant denied the debt under oath accompanied by a number (usually 11) of oath-helpers, who swore that defendant was telling the truth.
Now, at this point the main question that confronted the courts as that how the common law would break out of this mould of “wager of law”. The courts finally found answer to this question in the law of torts. They had already developed a liability in tort, where if a person undertook to perform a duty and while performing it he caused harm to the obligee; the obligee could sue on the common law action of “trespass on the case” and this principle came to be known as ‘assumpsit’ (from the Latin assumere, meaning that the defendant undertook).
‘Assumpsit’ was an action for the recovery of damages by reason of the breach or non-performance of a simple contract, either express or implied, and whether made orally or in writing. It was the word always used in pleadings by the plaintiff to set forth the defendant’s undertaking or promise, hence the name of the action. Claims in actions of assumpsit were ordinarily divided into (a) common assumpsit brought usually on an implied promise, and (b) special assumpsit, founded on an express promise. [27]
As an example it was explained that “if a carpenter makes a promise to me to make me a good house and strong and of certain form, and he makes me a house which is weak and bad and of another form; I shall have an action of trespass on my case.” Justice could be done by requiring the promisor to pay compensation to the promisee in an amount sufficient to restore the promisee in the same position as the promise would have been, had the promise never been made. [28]
Also, a case in point is the case of a ferry- man who was sued. He had undertaken to ferry a horse across the Humber, but he mismanaged the whole affair in such a way that the horse was drowned. [29] The defendant knowing that there was no sealed document about the deal argued that the proper action would be ‘convenant’. However, the action was held rightly brought in tort because the plaintiff complained about the killing of the horse and not the failure to transport it. Such claims of ‘misfeasance’ regularly succeeded.
The principle of ‘assumpsit’ was originally limited to cases of ‘misfeasance’ but later on cases of ‘nonfeasance’ were also dealt with under the same principle. Thus the claim for the action of assumpsit lay whenever the defendant had given an undertaking and had either fulfilled it improperly or failed to fulfil it at all. [30]
It was during this period itself that the word ‘consideration’ of a contract, which had earlier been used without technical significance, came to be used as a word of art to express the conditions necessary for an action in assumpsit to lie. It was therefore a tautology that a promise, at least if not under seal, was enforceable only if there was a ‘consideration’.
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw the recognition of the transferability of contract rights as kind of property, the enactment of legislation requiring writing for some kind of contracts [31] , and the shaping of the concept of the dependency of promises. But the movement was slow during this period.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, things had dramatically changed. A modern legal historian wrote that in America years from 1800-1875 were, “above all else, the years of contract.” Contract expressed, “energetic self-interest,” and the law it governed it expressed “the nature of contract by insisting that men assert their interests, push them, and fight for them, if they were to have the help of the state.” [32] It is also generally supposed that it was during this period that Adam Smith had proclaimed that freedom of contract, freedom to make enforceable bargains would encourage individual entrepreneurial activity. [33] Also from the utilitarian point of view, freedom to contract maximizes the welfare of the parties and therefore works for the good of the society.
The English common and statute law in force at that time came into India by the Charters of the eighteenth century which established the Courts of justice [34] in the three presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, so far it was applicable to Indian circumstances. It is a matter of controversy whether English law was introduced by the Charter of 1726 by which the statutes up to that date would be enforced in India with the same amount of force as in England, or subsequently by the Charters of 1753-74 so as to embrace statutes up to 1774.
Anyways, since there was an indiscriminate application of English law to Hindus and Mahommedans within the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court it led to many inconveniences. To obviate this, the statute of 1781 empowered the Supreme Court at Calcutta and the statute of 1797 empowered the Courts of Madras and Bombay (recorders courts), to determine all actions and suits of contractual nature against the natives of the said towns in the case of Mahommedans by the laws and the usages of the Mahommedans and in the case of Hindus (called ‘Code of Gentoo Laws’ in the Statutes) by the laws and usages of the Hindus, and where only one of the parties was Mahommedan or Hindus, by the laws and the usages of the defendant. The result was that in a suit of contract between Hindus, the Hindu law of contract was applied and in case of Mahommedans the law of Mahommedans applied. And this continued until the enactment of the Indian contract act.
The year 1862 saw the introduction of High Courts in the presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. The courts established under the statutes of 1781 and 1797 were abolished. The charters of these new High courts contained the same provisions about the law to be applied i.e. the High Court continued to administer the personal law of contracts to Hindus and Mahommedans in the same manner. But this was made subject to the legislative powers of the ‘Governor General in Council’ under clause 44 of Charter of 1865. [35]
By this time, the Indian legislature had got the power to alter the provisions of clause 19 of the Charter of 1865. The Indian Contract Act was enacted in the exercise of this power by the Indian legislature to govern matters of contract. Still subject to any law made by the Governor General in Council, the High Courts were still bound, in the exercise of ordinary civil jurisdiction, to apply the personal laws of contract to Hindus and Mohammedans as being comprised in the expression ‘law and equity’ in clause 19.
The Bengal Regulation 3 of 1793 (Section 21) and Madras Regulation 2 of 1802 (Section 17) directed the judges in the zilla (district) and city courts to act according to justice, equity and good conscience in cases where no specific rule existed. These regulations were repealed, but the direction to act in the absence of any specific rule according to justice, equity and good conscience found place in the Bengal Civil Courts Act 1887 (Section 37) and the Madras Civil Courts Act 1873 (Section 16) . The Bombay Regulation 4 of 1827 (Section 26), which is still in force, provided that the law to be observed in the trial of suits be the Acts of Parliament and regulations of government applicable to the case, and in the absence of such acts and regulations; the usage of the country in which suit arose; and if none such appeared-the law of the defendant, and in the absence of specific law and usage, equity and good conscience. [36]
The expression ‘justice, equity and good conscience’ was interpreted to mean the rules of English law so far as applicable to the Indian society and circumstances. [37] It has been observed that in practice, the application of English law did not raise difficulty because on many points there were no differences between the English and the personal law, and there was no rule of personal law in many cases, moreover because many Indian businessmen acquired experience from their relations with Britons. [38] The law of England, so far as consistent with the principles of equity and good conscience, generally prevailed in the country unless it came in conflict with Hindu or Mahommedan law.
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Children's book cover
It’s London in 1836 and 10-year-old George is caught with a goose drumstick in one pocket and a silver spoon in the other. His sister Hannah hears about her brother’s fate when she is told by Mrs Dimple, the owner of the pub where she works, that he has been arrested.
George is sentenced to transportation to the colonies and is sent to the prison hulks to await his departure. He soon meets a forger, Will Nugent, who is busy creating a design on an old penny. He explains that it is a love token to be given to his wife so she has something to remember him by. As luck would have it, George’s only possession is a penny given to him by Hannah when he was first imprisoned. George sets to work creating his own token for Hannah. He is able to pass it to her just prior to his departure.
Hannah continues to work for the Dimples for some years, keeping the penny with her at all times. She misses her brother terribly and is saddened when she learns that most convicts never return from the colonies. George, meanwhile, is sent to Point Puer in Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania) where he vows to keep out of trouble and survive.
Eventually the Dimples decide to move to Van Diemen’s Land themselves. They hope to make good in the new colony, where Mr Dimple’s brother is a successful publican. Hannah begs to go to although she has had no word of her brother’s fate. As she disembarks she is met by George, now a free young man. After an emotional reunion the two plan for their future together and say farewell to the convict stain from their past.
Discussion questions
• Why did George steal? Did he deserve the punishment he received?
• Why were the Dimples so kind to Hannah? Why was she surprised by this?
• Why do you think Will Nugent helped George create a love token?
• Many love tokens from the convict era survive to this day in museums and private collections. Why do you think so many were made and why do you think they have survived?
• Why do you think so many convicts never returned to England after they had served their sentences?
• What was a ticket of leave? How and why do you think George managed to get his ticket of leave early?
• Why did George make Hannah stop wearing her penny?
• How do you think Hannah and George’s lives in Van Diemen’s Land would have compared to their lives in England? Where do you think they would be better off living? Why?
Classroom activities
1. Use the Police report worksheet (PDF 692kb) to engage students in writing about George’s crime. Students are asked to take on the role of a policeman and report details about the crime.
2. Ask students to create a story map to plot the events in A Penny to Remember. Students should identify the major events and use illustrations and/or words to map the story, using lines to make connections between events as appropriate.
3. At the end of chapter 8 Hannah leaves the cobbler’s shop, upset by his comments. The next chapter begins with Hannah’s arrival in Van Diemen’s Land. Challenge students to create an extra chapter for the book that would fit between these two and explore the process that leads to Hannah joining the Dimples on their trip to the new colony. Remind students to use the writing style of Kirsty Murray when creating their chapter.
4. Ask students to imagine that a sequel to A Penny to Remember is to be written. Distribute The sequel worksheet (PDF 1mb) which asks students to create a plot, cover illustration, blurb and title for the next book, which focuses on Hannah and George’s new life in Van Diemen’s Land.
5. Cut out penny-sized pieces of cardboard and invite students to design their own love tokens. Students should imagine they are a convict with a loved one that they are leaving behind. They should design and then create a token using pinpricks in cardboard.
Book details
A Penny to Remember by Kirsty Murray
illustrated by Peter Bray
ISBN 978 1876944 53 7
198mm x 130mm, 64pp
black and white illustrations
RRP $11.95
Published September 2007; re-released 2014. This book can be ordered through good bookshops and educational suppliers.
Collection record — convict love tokens
Find out more about Kirsty Murray
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Mary Clapham
(1798 – 1863)
In the 19th century, women were expected to marry. If they remained spinsters, there were not many socially acceptable ways to make a living to avoid being a ‘financial burden’. Some were spinners, or worked in domestic service. Mary ran a lodging house.
Mary Clapham (1798—1863) and her two unmarried brothers, John and William, had been farmers in Horton in Ribblesdale before retiring to Settle. They lived at The Folly in the 1860s. The brothers worked as agricultural labourers and Mary ran a lodging house business.
At the time of the 1861 census, Mary’s 13 lodgers were all working class labourers, which you would expect in a lodging house — lodging houses were cheap and crowded. If you could afford it, you would stay at one of the inns.
There were strict regulations for lodging houses as they were often the source of crime, prostitution and disease. The Lodging House Act of 1851 insisted on basic moral and sanitary standards — separation of sexes, designation of sleeping areas, adequate chamber pots and privy arrangements, and cleaning arrangements. Lodging houses had to be vacated from 10am until late afternoon to encourage people to go out and work. Mary would have had to be strict to keep her lodgers in order. It would not have been an easy job.
In 1856, Mary was caught out by the rather officious Mr Cockshott, inspector of lodging houses, for allowing someone to sleep in the wrong part of the house.
Mary, John and William died within two years of each other, still at The Folly. When Mary died in 1863, aged 65, the executor of her will was a fellow resident and ‘well respected’ Henry Snell, who Betty Buck can tell you more about.
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During the end of the Iron Age the people in Satakunta got their livelihood from farming fields, slash-and-burn agriculture, caring for livestock and by fishing. Fishing and hunting were limited to plots designated for each household. These plots were usually quite far from each person's home. Men set off on hunting and fishing expeditions a few times a year to get more food for their family. Hunter also got furs to trade and pay taxes with from their catches.
Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) stands on a tree trunk on the ground.
In olden times the journeys were usually travelled over water by rowboat in summer and on skis in winter. The ridges formed by the Ice Age were also natural travel routes.
Hämeenkankaantie Road
A road which used to be the area's most important travel route leads through Hämeenkangas. It was known as Hämeenkankaantie road or Kyrönkankaantie road. It was one of the Swedish Empires main travel routes and the only road between Hämeenlinna and Vaasa during summer. In winter there was a shorter winter road over Lake Kyrösjärvi.
The first people to wander in the region are believed to have been there during the Stone Age as the ridge backs have always been easy to travel and thus natural routes. The road across the region was only formed during the Middle Ages as hunting in the region increased. Hunters and settlers in the area started to travel more in the area and paths formed quickly on the ridge tops and so all travellers naturally fell into step along the paths. As time passed the path became a road as people used horse carriage and wheel-less transport devices to travel along it.
In the 1600s when Sweden was an empire Hämeenkankaantie road was repaired so that the King's bidding could be done and his needs could be met. The post and the taxes were carried along it and officials of the crown travelled along it from Turku and Hämeenlinna to Vaasa. Roads were also needed during wartime. Hämeenkankaantie road was used during the Club War, the Great Northern War as well as during Finland's wars. Hämeenkankaantie road was at its busiest from the 1630s to the 1680s.
The spring in the middle of the forest.The distances between places were long so roadside lodges were needed for weary travellers to rest at and for finding a carriage ride to their next stop. Uhrilähde and Kuninkaanlähde as well as Niinisalo Tavern are known sights and stop points along the road.
The two most famous travellers along this road have been Sweden's King Gustav II Adolf who travelled along the Kyrönkankaantie winter road in 1626 when returning to Sweden from Narva and Sweden's King Adolf Frederick who travelled along the summer road in 1752 when visiting Finland after his coronation. King Adolf Frederick stopped to rest by a spring in the area which was thus named Kuninkaanlähde, "the King's spring".
The significance of Hämeenkankaantie road lessened as the areas network of roads grew. One of the reasons is thought to be that the shoreline road between Pori and Vaasa was repaired and rerouted to be shorter at the change of 18th and 19th centuries. The old Hämeenkankaantie road is however still in use today. The Vatula - Kuninkaanlähde - Viidentienristeys section is now its busiest part.
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CBSE Class 7 History Chapter 2 Notes - New Kings and Kingdoms
New Kings and Kingdoms Class 7 Notes History Chapter 2 - PDF Download
There were a lot of new dynasties that existed right after the seventh century came to an end. By the time this century came by, there were more warrior chiefs and landlords who ruled the various regions which were a part of the subcontinent. With the help of the Class 7 History Chapter 2 Notes, there is no doubt that students will be able to learn more about the new kingdoms and the kings that came after these kingdoms.
Access Class 7 Social Science (History) Chapter 2 – New Kings and Kingdoms part-1
Access Class 7 Social Science (History) Chapter 2 – New Kings and Kingdoms Notes
The Emergence of New Dynasties
• In the seventh century, there were large landowners or warrior leaders in different regions of the sub-continent. The kings at the time often recognized them as their subordinates or samantas.
• An example is the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially, these were subordinated to the Karnataka Chalukyas.In the middle of the eighth century, Dantidurga, a leader of Rashtrakuta, overthrew his overlord of Chalukya and performed a ritual known as hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden belly). When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
• In other cases, enterprising family members used their military skills to create kingdoms. For example, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the GurjaraPratihara Harichandra were Brahmana who deserted their traditional professions and took up arms successfully.
Administration in the Kingdoms
• Many of these new kings have adopted resounding titles like maharaja-adhiraja (big king, lord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on.
• In each of these states, resources were obtained from producers that is, farmers, herders, craftsmen who were often persuaded or forced to give up some of their production.
• Sometimes these have been claimed as "rent" because of a lord who claimed he owned the land. Revenues also came from merchants.
• These resources were used to finance the king's settlement, and for the construction of temples and forts. They were also used to fight wars, which were in turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.
• Officials in charge of collecting income were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. That was true for the military, too. In many cases, the king's relatives performed these functions.
Prashastis and Land Grants
• Prashastis contain particulars which may not be literally true. But they tell us how the leaders wanted to present themselves as courageous victorious warriors, for instance. These were composed by scholarly Brahmanas, who sometimes assisted in the administration.
• A long Sanskrit poem with the story of the kings that ruled Kashmir. It was created by a writer named Kalhana. He used various sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitnesses and previous stories, to write his story.
Warfare for Wealth
One of the most prominent of these leaders is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to 1030, and expanded control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the northwest part of the sub-continent. He attacked the subcontinent almost annually his targets were wealthy temples, including Somnath in Gujarat. A large part of the wealth taken by Mahmud served to create a magnificent capital in Ghazni.
Sultan Mahmud was also interested in learning more about the people he conquered, and had a scholar named Al-Biruni write a review of the subcontinent. This Arab work, known under the name of Kitab ul-Hind, remains an important source for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholars in preparing this narration.
The most famous sovereign of Chahamana was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan sovereign named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost him the following year, in 1192.
A Closer Look: The Cholas
From Uraiyur to Thanjavur
• A minor family known mainly under the name of Muttaraiyar was in power in the Kaveri Delta. They served under the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the old family mainly of the Uraiyur Cholas, captured the Muttaraiyar delta in the middle of the ninth century. Here he constructed the city of Thanjavur and a temple for the goddess Nishumbhasudini.
• The successors of Vijayalaya conquered the neighboring regions and the kingdom grew in size and strength. The territories of Pandyan and Pallava to the south and north were integrated into this realm.
• Rajaraja I, believed to be Chola's most powerful leader, became king in 985 and extended control over most of these areas. The administration of the empire was also reorganized. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.
Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture
• The great temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, constructed by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculpture wonders.
• Chola temples have often become the cores of establishments that have developed around them. These were centres of craft production. The temples were also provided with land by the leaders as well as by others.
• The temples were not merely places of worship; they were also the centre of economic, social and cultural life.
• The bronze images of Chola are regarded as among the most beautiful in the world. While most of the pictures were gods, sometimes pictures were made of devotees as well.
Agriculture and Irrigation
• Many of the accomplishments of the Cholas have been enabled by new developments in agriculture.
• The Kaveri River branched out into several small channels and drained into the Bay of Bengal. These canals often overflow, laying fertile soils on their shores. The water in the canals also provides the moisture needed for agriculture, including rice production.
• Although agriculture developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only in the fifth or sixth century that the area was opened up to large-scale cultivation. Forests needed to be deforested in some areas; lands needed to be cleared in other areas.
• Various methods were used for irrigation purposes. There are some areas where wells have been drilled. In other areas enormous reservoirs were built to collect rainwater.
The Administration of the Empire
• Peasant settlements, known as ur, flourished with the expansion of irrigation agriculture. Groups of these villages formed larger units referred to as nadu. The Village Council and Nadu have performed several administrative functions, including delivering justice and collecting taxes.
• The wealthy peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of nadu under the direction of the central government of Chola.
• The Chola kings granted some wealthy landowners titles such as muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and gave them significant government offices at the centre.
• Each brahmadeya was cared for by a gathering or sabha of prominent Brahmana landowners. These assemblies functioned extremely effectively. Their decisions were documented in detail in inscriptions, frequently on the stone walls of temples.
• The inscriptions from the Uttaramerur in the Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details on how the sabha was organized. The sabha had separate committees concerned with irrigation work, gardens, temples, etc.
• Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf; these tickets were put into an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one for each committee.
The Rise of New Dynasties
When the 7th Century came around, there were a lot of different regions situated right here on the subcontinent which had warrior chiefs and big landlords as rules. These people were known as the Samantas or the Rulers. For those who want to know who were Samantas Class 7, this summary might be able to help them out. These Samantas or Subordinates had to provide the overlords and kings with certain gifts that were to be present at the courts. Also, they were responsible for providing more military support to the kings. But with the gain of power by the Samantas, they started their own independent rule and called themselves maha-samantas, roughly translated to the “great lord of the region”.
One of the very few examples of such a case is given by Rashtrakutas who were present in the Deccan regions and were Samantas in the Karnataka area to the Chalukyas. By the time the 8th century came by, one of the Samanta overthrew his king. Students can know more about who was Samantas Class 7 from the notes provided below.
Administration of New Kingdoms
The administration in the new kingdoms happened a bit differently than in earlier times. The kings of the New Kingdoms would have such high-sounding titles added to their names such as Tribhuvana-Chakravartin or Maharaja-Adhiraj. But, these kings had to share their power along with the Samantas. Apart from that, the new kings were also answerable to the different associations made by Brahmans, Traders, and peasants. In these particular states, the resources produced were obtained mostly from these associations and along with some artisans, cattle-keepers, and others.
Hence, they were coerced or persuaded to provide a part of their produce to the kingdom as “rent”. Then these resources would be further used for financing the kingdom and administration of the establishment. Furthermore, these resources would help in the construction of forts and temples and provide support during wars. This resulted in the acquisition of more wealth through plunder and provided the kingdoms with more land as well. More details are available for the students with New Kings and Kingdoms Class 7 notes.
Land Grants Provided to Prashastis
Learned Brahmans would form a group known as the Prashstis. The group was responsible for helping the kingdom’s administration. These people provide certain details to the kings which helped them in depicting themselves as warriors who were victorious and valiant. The details might not be true in the literal sense. As a result of these details, the kings would reward the Prashastis with certain grants of land.
These lands were properly recorded on some copper plates. Now, these plates would be provided to the certain Brahman who had received the reward of the land. In the 12th century, an author by the name of Kalhana wrote a Sanskrit poem about certain rulers of Kashmir criticizing the policies followed by the rulers. More details are provided in the New Kings and Kingdoms notes.
Wealth Accumulated From Warfare
Some of the ruling dynasties were based mostly in one specific region. However, they did try to control the other areas. Hence, there were wars regarding the control of the land. One such city known as Kanauj situated in the Ganga Valley was a centre for control and there were wars between the Pala, Rashtrakuta, and the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasties. With the involvement of 3 different parties, the conflict was a long one and often described by historians as the “tripartite struggle”.
One of the main sources for the rulers to exhibit their power was through building different temples of varying sizes. Hence, during the times of war, one of the main targets of the opposing kings would be to destroy the temples of the area. Students can find more details in the Class 7 History Chapter 2 notes.
An example of this can be provided by naming Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030). The Sultan managed to gain control in areas such as Iran, Central Asia, and also the North-Western Subcontinent. While targeting the subcontinent, he made it a point to attack the wealthy temples, one of which was the Somnath Temple situated in Gujarat.
FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions)
1. Who were the 3 Parties that Became Involved in the Well-Known “Tripartite Struggle”.
The parties or dynasties that were involved in the well-known Tripartite Struggle were the Rashtrakuta, the Gurjar-Pratihara, and the Pala Dynasties. They were constantly under conflict deciding the rule over the City of Kanauj which is located in the Ganga Valley. Look for the New Kings and Kingdoms Class 7 notes for more information.
2. Who were the Samantas?
During the 7th Century, the Subcontinent was divided into various regions that had certain warrior chiefs and landlords. These people were known as the Samantas and they had the responsibility of funding the administration of the kingdom by providing resources and military support. However, with time the Samantas began overthrowing the kings.
Working of the sabha in the Chola Empire as recorded in the Uttaramerur inscription is as follows:
• The members of a sabha must be the owners of taxable land.
• Should possess own house.
• Have to be aged between 35 to 70 years.
• Must know the Vedas.
• Have to know administrative matters thoroughly and be honest.
• Members of committees within the past 3 years, cannot be a member of the committee again.
• Those who don't submit their accounts, cannot contest in the elections.
4. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?
The Rashtrakutas became powerful because:
Rashtrakutas were under the rule of the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
• In the mid-700s, a Rashtrakuta chief named Dantidurga overthrew the Chalukyan overlord.
• He carried out a ritual, Hiranya-garbha by taking help from the Brahmans.
• This then went on to become the rebirth of the person as a Kshatriya, if he was not born as a Kshatriya.
5. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?
The new kingdoms grew in power and wealth. Then, they proclaimed themselves as mahamandaleshwar or maha-samantas. Several of these kings gave themselves high sounding titles such as tribhuvana-chakravartin and maharaja-adhiraja. At the same time, they employed learned brahmins to legitimise themselves as valiant warriors. These activities are recorded in the Prashastis. They showcased their pomp and wealth by erecting huge monuments and temples.
6. How was the financial position-controlled in these states?
These states used to be intricately associated with the workers, merchants, and Brahmins. These resources were therefore usually obtained from the workers, cattle-keepers, or artisans who produced goods. They were forced to give away part of their produce to the state. These traders were compelled to pay taxes. The functionaries responsible for the collection of revenue were typically from influential families or were in close relation with the rulers.
7. What was the role of temples during the Chola kingdom?
The Chola kings such as Rajaraja I and Rajendra built the famous temples of Brihadeshwara and Ganaikonda-Chola Puram. Temples made up the nucleus of the settlements that came up in this period. They became the core of the production of crafts and controlled the economic aspects associated with them as well. Therefore, they ended up as not only religious centres but also as the centre of social, economic, and cultural activities as well.
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"url": "https://www.vedantu.com/revision-notes/cbse-class-7-social-science-history-chapter-2-notes"
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The leader of the Wampanoags, known as King Philip by the British, plays a large but ambiguous role in Mary Rowlandson’s narrative. Though as a leader he has power and status, Philip often seems removed from the politics and violence of his people and seems distant even from the war that bears his name. When he first meets Rowlandson, he is courteous, offering her some of his tobacco in a gesture of friendship. Far from being a demanding ruler with a sense of entitlement, Philip engages Rowlandson in his culture on an economic level by offering her money or food for her services as a seamstress. This exchange, however small it may be, suggests Philip’s decency and humanity. Rowlandson may be a captive of his tribe, but she is still a person, and she is not a slave.
Despite this basic decency and kindness, Philip does not set Rowlandson free, though as a leader, he might have had the power to do so. When the General Court of the Indians meets to discuss freeing her, Philip refuses to attend, prolonging Rowlandson’s captivity through his petty, immature action. He offers Rowlandson her freedom in exchange for clothing, money, and food, but Rowlandson distrusts him, fearing he’ll go back on his word. This mention of Philip’s possibly false offer, and his childish sulking, is the last Rowlandson says of him in her story.
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Bio Genetics question
<p>my PR book showed a simple punnet square, 2 boys 2 girls. one boy was affected one girl was carrier. PR said what was the possiblity of a SON to be affected.</p>
<p>at first i viewed it as a conditional. oh, so it has to be a boy so 1/2=50%</p>
<p>the answer was 25% so i was like....???</p>
<p>a friend told me because the odds of having a boy are 50% and on top of that you 50% chance to be affected if you're a boy, so 50% of 50%= 25%?</p>
<p>whats the correct way/answer?</p>
<p>Your friend is right. Say x is the recessive, or, in your words, "affected" allele, and X is the dominant normal allele, then you have xY crossing Xx. If you set up a punnet square, you get four individuals of Xx, xx, XY, and xY. A boy that is "affected" is xY, which is one out of the four.</p>
<p>The key is to look at the percentage of males affected.</p>
<p>its easier to write it down and do the problem. </p>
<p>Apparently here's the question [X1 represents the affected allele]</p>
<p>....|...X1 ..|...Y </p>
<h2>X1.|.X1X1.|..X1Y </h2>
<p>X...|.X1X..|...XY </p>
<p>so if you look at this "punnet square", there is a 50% chance of having a CHILD who is affected, and a 25% chance there is a SON who is affected.</p>
<p>Just incase I read the problem wrong:</p>
<p>....|...X ..|...Y </p>
<h2>X1.|.X1X.|..X1Y </h2>
<p>X...|.XX..|...XY </p>
<p>XY * X1X = X1X, X1Y, XX, XY</p>
<p>There is still a 25% chance that a MALE will have the trait. I always make mistakes reading like that, but thats the beauty of practice -- hopefully you/me/we won't make the same mistake again</p>
<p>YAY for poorly drawn punnet squares! (sorry it's on a computer, but hopefully it cleared things up)</p>
<p>OP: That's strange, I was looking at the same problem a minute ago, and thinking the same thing, but then I remembered that you have the consider the probability of getting a son (50%) and then determine the probability of the son(s) being affected based on the Punnett Square. </p>
<p>So basically - it's 1/2 X 1/2 = 1/4 = 25%</p>
<p>It's correct.</p>
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HOOVER DAM-American Civil War-transcontinental airplane-The Soviet Union-Poland
In 1787, The Constitution of the United States of America was signed. As dictated by Article 7, the document would not become binding until it was ratified by nine of the 13 states. The U.S. Constitution has 4,400 words and It is the oldest and shortest written Constitution of any major government in the world. Currently, all four pages are displayed behind protective glass framed with titanium. The cases in which the pages are kept, contain argon gas at 67 degrees Fahrenheit with a relative humidity of 40 percent. According to the first signed constitution, only male property-owners could vote and African Americans were not considered citizens. Women were excluded from the electoral process and native Americans were not given the right to vote. When the Constitution was signed, the United States population was 4 million. Slavery was abolished through The Thirteenth amendment, one of the 27 amendments that the constitution has.
In 1862, The Bloodiest Single Day of the American Civil War takes place.
The Battle of Antietam was fought in Maryland. Thought to be the deadliest single day of the American Civil War – at least 4000 soldiers on both sides died. The battle lasted about 12 hours, while the front line of fighting did not move.
In 1911, The first transcontinental airplane flight started. Pilot Cal Rodgers tries to win the equivalent 1.1 million USD prize for flying coast to coast in an airplane in less than 30 days. The plane was a modified Wright Flyer B and the pilot only had 90 minutes of flight time, no instruments and no gauges, but only a 4,000-plus–mile flight in front of him. It took 70 stops , 15 crash landings and numerous hospital visits during the trip. The plane had been repaired and rebuilt many times during the trip and it took 82 hours to fly from New York City to Pasadena. It reached destination on November 5 so Rodgers had missed the deadline by 19 days.
In 1930, Construction of Hoover Dam began in Black Canyon, near Las Vegas. Hoover Dam has a height of 221 meters and impounds Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the United States by volume. An entire city was created for people working on the once Earth’s tallest dam. It used about 4.5 million cubic yards of concrete , enough to build 3000 miles of highway from one end of the United States to the other. There is so much concrete that it would have taken it 125 years to cool if a refrigerating system wouldn’t have been built. Hoover Dam’s power plant was the world’s largest hydroelectric station, with installed capacity of 2,080 megawatts and powers homes and business in Nevada, Arizona and California.
In 1939, The Soviet Union invaded Poland without a formal declaration of war. Joseph Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Adolf Hitler on 23 August. German forces invaded Poland from the west, north, and south on the 1st of September. The Soviet government propaganda stated that their actions were to protect the Ukrainians and Belarusians who lived in the eastern part of Poland.
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"url": "https://wizemy.com/uncategorized/2020/09/30/hoover-dam-american-civil-war-transcontinental-airplane-the-soviet-union-poland/"
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Bedfont Primary School
Primary School
week 14
Task 5: This is a task that will require you to use your imagination!
For centuries, people have discussed and imagined how the great pyramids were built. Different people have suggested that they could have been constructed by giants, while others believe the Egyptians possessed a technology that has been lost through the ages.
Your task is to write 1-2 paragraphs explaining how you believe the pyramids were built. Remember to use your imagination!
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"url": "https://www.bedfontprimary.co.uk/page/?title=week+14&pid=322"
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The Kingdom of Pontos, conquered by the Roman General Pompey, became a Roman province
in 63 B.C. The Romans allowed the Greek cities to retain their autonomy, so Pontos was able to
keep its ethnic character and culture. General Pompey gave the Tauris Peninsula (the
Cimmerian Bosporos with the Crimea and the straits of Kerch), as a gift to Pharnaces II (63-47
B.C.), son of Mithridates VI.
Pompey restructured the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. He divided Asia Minor into
four provinces: Asia, Cilicia, Bithynia, and Pontos. Pontos was subdivided into Cappadocia
Pontos, Polenion Pontos (Eastern Pontos), and Galatia Pontos (Western Pontos.) The Eastern
Pontos was named in honour of the King Polemon, who ruled from 36 to 8 B.C.
The Roman Emperor Trajan (98-117 A.D.) joined Pontos with Cappadocia. Later, two provinces
were formed: Pontos province and Bauhinia province.
Pontos flourished as a Roman province, especially under the rule of Emperor Adrian (117-13c8
A.D.), who was a great admirer of Greek culture. He visited Trapezounta in 124 A.D. and built a
harbour to protect ships from dangerous winter storms. This allowed Trapezounta to develop
into an important center of commerce in the East.
Three major Roman roadways linked the City of Trapezounta with other cities of the eastern
provinces. One of these roads led west along the shores of the Euxeinos Pontos. Another led
east across the Phasis River towards the Caspian Sea and the Caucasos mountains. The third
road led south over the high mountains towards Armenia and the river banks of the Euphrates
River. There, the third road divided and headed in two directions; one to the valley of Araxi and
Persia, the other towards the Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Syria.
During the times of the Emperor Diocletian (284-305 A.D.) and his successors, Pontos was
divided into 3 provinces: (1) Diospontos, which Constantine the Great (324-337 A.D.) renamed
Elenopontos after his mother Eleni.
Elenopontos included the western part of Pontos, up to the river Thermodon, with .the city of
Amasya as its capital, and the cities of Zela, Slnope and Amlsos, (2) the Polemon Pontos,
which included the eastern plains of the Thennodon River, with Neocaesarea as the capital,
and included the cities of Komana, Polemon, Kerasounta, and Trapezounta, (3) Armenia Minor,
which included the lands of the upper Euphrates all the way to Sevastea (Sivas) and Nikopolis
(the capital was Sevastea) and included the cities of Nikopolis and Kolonia.
These were the political divisions that Pontos underwent until 535 A.D., during the rule of
Emperor Justinian.
During the rule of the Roman Empire, Christianity spread throughout Pontos, at first because of
Andreas the Apostle, who is believed to have been the first teacher of Christianity in Pontos.
Thus, with the baptismal tub and baptism, a new Christian-Greek nation began. Baptism
introduced many non-Greeks into Christianity and Greek civilization.
During the years of the Roman conquests, at about the beginning of the 4th century A.D., Pontos
enjoyed its greatest years of progress and glory and a long period of peace.
The harbour of Trapezounta was used as a port for the naval vessels of the Roman war fleet,
from the ruling years of Nero (54-68 A.D.) until the rule of Adrian (117-138 A.D.). The Emperor
Adrian then transferred the naval base from the Euxeinos Pontos to Cyzicos at the Marmara
Denizi (Propontis).
Zela is located about 50 km. south of Amasya and 70 km. west of Tokat. At Zela of Pontos, in 47
B.C., Julius Caesar won a decisive victory over King Farnaces II, King of the Cimmerian
Bosporos. King Farnaces was the son of Mithridates VI, who attempted to restore the Kingdom
of Pontos.
Here, Julius Caesar, after his decisive victory over Farnaces II, sent a message to the Roman
Senate with the following famous words: "Veni, vidi, vici." Translated into English, it is, "I came, I
saw, I conquered."
Constantine Hionides, M.D.
(Trapezus 1988)
Pontian Association of Montreal, "Efxinos Pontos" - Σύλλογος Ποντίων Μόντρεαλ, "Έυξεινος Πόντος" - 5879 Park Avenue, Montreal, H2V 4H4, 514 271-0709
Ιστορία του Πόντου - History of Pontos
Cities, Areas, Names, People
and more! Try it.
Short Synopsis of the
Pontian-Greek History
Dr. Konstantinos Fotiadis
Professor of History at the
University of Thessaloniki and the
Pedagogic College Florina
Pontian Chronicle
A brief timetable of events that
Shaped Pontian History
Page 181 - "The Pontian
Question in the United Nations"
Michalis Charalambidis
Published by Pontian Society of
Thessaloniki <<Euxinos Leschi>>
από τον Θεοφάνη Μαλκίδη
Μέρος της ομιλίας του Θ. Μαλκίδη
στην εκδήλωση του Συλλόγου
Ποντίων Νταχάου για την ημέρα
μνήμης της γενοκτονίας του
Ποντιακού Ελληνισμού. Γερμανία
19 Μαΐου 2002.
Σύντομο Ιστορικό
για τον Πόντο
Σίμος Λιανίδης
Η Δημοκρατία του Πόντου
Ο μονοκέφαλος αετός
Κωνσταντίνος Χιονίδης
Καθηγητής ιατρικής
Πανεπιστημίου Βοστόνης Η.Π.Α.
Τεύχος 49, Μάρτιος - Απρίλιος
Treaty of Laussane
The explanation of the treaty that
made a significant impact on the
Hellenic People of Asia Minor.
Original treaty can be read
through the link provided.
Black Sea (Pontus
Geografical and Historical
"Black Sea," Microsoft® Encarta®
Online Encyclopedia 2005
Γενικές Πλυροφορίες
Ονομασία, έκταση, πληθυσμός
Λοιπά γεωγραφικά στοιχεία.
Δημογραφικά στοιχεία.
Ιστορικά στοιχεία.
The Roman Times
During the times of Roman
Trapezous Newsletter 1988
Constantine Hionides, M.D.
©2006 Pontian Association of Montreal, "Efxinos Pontos" - Σύλλογος Ποντίων Μόντρεαλ, "Έυξεινος Πόντος".
©1999-2006 Lefter. All rights reserved.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7239971160888672,
"url": "http://www.efxinospontos.org/pontoshistory/roman_times.html"
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What Does Deceleration During Labor Mean?
When a person is in labor, their healthcare provider will use different methods to keep track of the fetal heart rate (FHR). Deceleration occurs when the FHR temporarily slows during labor.
Fetal heart rate monitoring looks at patterns of deceleration and acceleration.
The devices used to monitor fetal heart rate during labor can be internal or external. For example, an external method would be an ultrasound device. An internal option is attached to the fetus's scalp and provides more accurate heart rate readings.
Changes in fetal heart rate during labor can be normal, but they can also indicate a problem for the fetus or the pregnant person. Specific patterns of deceleration, such as late deceleration, can be signs of fetal distress, which may require emergency interventions, such as a cesarean section delivery (C-section).
Guido Mieth/Getty Images
Accelerations vs. Decelerations
Accelerations are short-term increases in fetal heart rate by at least 15 beats per minute (bpm) that last at least 15 seconds. These accelerations occur at different times throughout labor and delivery and are a sign that the fetus has an adequate supply of oxygen.
Accelerations and decelerations can both occur during labor. While accelerations indicate that the fetus is doing OK, decelerations can be a sign of a problem.
Types of Deceleration
There are three types of deceleration that may occur during labor. Each type is categorized by the timing of the deceleration during uterine contractions.
Late Deceleration
Late deceleration is a gradual decrease in fetal heart rate after a uterine contraction. It is caused by a decrease in placental blood flow.
Late decelerations may indicate that a fetus has high levels of acid in the blood (a condition called impending fetal academia), which is often caused by a lack of oxygen.
Early Deceleration
Early deceleration describes the symmetrical decreases and return-to-normal of the fetal heart rate that is linked to uterine contractions. The decrease in heart rate occurs gradually.
With early decelerations, the point when the fetal heart rate is at its slowest (called the nadir) and the peak of the uterine contraction happen at the same time. Therefore, the fetal heart rate is recorded at its lowest rate for 30 seconds (or longer) at the beginning of the early deceleration cycle.
Usually, the onset of low fetal heart rate, the nadir, and the recovery coincide with the contraction’s onset, peak, and end.
Variable Deceleration
A variable deceleration is a very quick decrease in fetal heart rate of 15 bpm or more, that lasts at least 15 seconds (but may last up to two minutes) before the heart rate returns to baseline.
The onset of fetal slow heart rate, as well as the duration of the decelerations, varies with uterine contractions.
What Causes Deceleration?
The cause of deceleration varies depending on the type. For example, early decelerations are caused by the compression of the baby’s head during uterine contractions. The compression causes vagal stimulation, which slows the fetal heart rate.
The vagal response occurs when there is stimulation of the vagus nerve. The stimulation can lead to physical symptoms in the body, such as:
• A decrease in blood flow to the brain
• A low heart rate
• Low blood pressure
The Benefits and Risks of Fetal Monitoring
Electronic fetal heart rate monitoring can be used to evaluate the overall health of the fetus during labor. The primary benefit of monitoring is early detection of fetal distress, but there is also a risk of false-positive interpretations of the readings (also called tracings).
The fetal heart rate undergoes continuous stimuli adjustments (such as from contractions). The outcome of the readings are categorized in one of three ways:
• Reassuring: No potential problems are detected.
• Nonreassuring: This term is often used in place of "fetal distress" and suggests that there is a problem, such as a fetus not getting enough oxygen.
• Ominous: Patterns of readings (such as late decelerations) that indicate emergency intervention is required.
However, the inconsistent interpretation of the FHR readings can cause false-positive ominous readings, which could lead to unnecessary emergency interventions, such as a C-section.
Frequently Asked Questions
What causes late deceleration?
Deceleration has various causes, depending on the type. For example, late decelerations (a drop in the fetal heart rate after uterine contractions) are caused by a decrease in the placental blood flow. This results in insufficient oxygen supply to the fetus (uteroplacental insufficiency).
What causes early deceleration?
Early decelerations are caused by compression of the fetal head during uterine contractions. This results in vagal response (a response that occurs when the vagus nerve is stimulated). The vagal response causes a drop in the fetal heart rate.
What is a normal fetal heart rate?
Fetal heart rate (FHR) can be detected from approximately 6 weeks gestation. There is some variation in what experts consider the "normal" baseline for FHR, but it's generally accepted to range from 110 bpm to 160 bpm. FHR generally decreases as the pregnancy goes on.
When does fetal heart rate slow down?
The FHR begins to slow by midterm. By about 10 weeks of pregnancy, the FHR beings to slow to approximately twice the normal adult heart rate (which is about 60 to 100 bpm). The FHR can also slow down when the fetus is asleep.
However, a slow FHR at 7 weeks gestation or less is linked with a high risk of fetal death during the first trimester.
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Article Sources
1. Sholapurkar SL. Categorization of fetal heart rate decelerations in American and European practice: importance and imperative of avoiding framing and confirmation biases. J Clin Med Res. 2015;7(9):672-680. doi: 10.14740/jocmr2166w
2. Freeman RK. Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012:92-93.
3. Oxford Academic Health Science Network Maternity. Oxford AHSN Cardiotocograph (CTG) Interpretation Tool Definitions. Updated November 2017.
4. Gravett C, Eckert LO, Gravett MG, et al. Non-reassuring fetal status: Case definition & guidelines for data collection, analysis, and presentation of immunization safety dataVaccine. 2016;34(49):6084-6092. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.03.043
5. Pildner von Steinburg S, Boulesteix AL, Lederer C, et al. What is the "normal" fetal heart rate?PeerJ. 2013;1:e82. Published 2013 Jun 4. doi:10.7717/peerj.82
6. Doubilet PM, Benson CB, Chow JS. Long-term prognosis of pregnancies complicated by slow embryonic heart rates in the early first trimester. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 1999;18(8):537-541. doi: 10.7863/jum.1999.18.8.537
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Social Research Glossary
A fast-paced novel of conjecture and surprises
core definition
Milieu is a term used to refer to a social context, social surroundings or environment.
explanatory context
For example, cultural norms, economic constraints, historical trends and social expectations might all contribute to the milieu within which a group might live.
analytical review
Gramarist (undated) explains:
In English, milieu refers to a social environment, or sometimes more generally to any environment or location. It's often used to refer to social environments that are remote to the speaker and her presumed readers. The social worlds of artists and the wealthy, for instance, are often referred to as milieus, as are social worlds of bygone eras. But the word doesn't necessarily bear these connotations, and it's sometimes used in reference to more ordinary, accessible environments.
Milieu came to English from French in the 19th century. The Chambers Dictionary of Etymology traces the word's use in English to J.A. Symond's 1877 book Renaissance in Italy, but the OED finds one in an 1854 letter written by George Eliot. Google Books uncovers a few instances from earlier, but most are in the phrase juste milieu, an art term (referring to a middle way between opposing movements) in which milieu has a different sense.
The French plural of milieu is milieux. In English, both milieux and milieus are used, though milieux is more common in British English while milieus is more common in American English.
associated issues
related areas
See also
Gramarist, nd, 'Milieu', available at, accessed 10 June 2019.
copyright Lee Harvey 2012–2020
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"url": "https://qualityresearchinternational.com/socialresearch/milieu.htm"
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by Sunil Dutta
The History
Dhrupad is the oldest existing form of North Indian classical music. The dhrupad tradition is a major heritage of Indian culture. The origin of this music is linked to the recitation of Sama Veda, the sacred Sanskrit text. Dhrupad is the oldest vocal and instrumental style, and the form from which Indian classical music originated. The continuity of dhrupad, a contemplative and meditative form, has been sustained by traditions of devotional music and worship. Indeed, the leading dhrupad maestros remark that rather than to entertain the audience, dhrupad's purpose is aradhana (worship). The nature of dhrupad music is spiritual, seeking not to entertain but to induce deep feelings of peace and contemplation in the listener.
The word dhrupad is derived from dhruva (fixed, steadfast) and pada (word, composition). Dhrupad probably evolved from the earlier chanting of om, the sacred syllable which is claimed in Hindu canon to be the source of all creation. Om is said to have a spiritually purifying effect on the person chanting it. Later, the rhythmic chanting of the Vedic scriptures evolved into singing of chhanda and prabandha, some time in the first millennium AD. Dhrupad is said to have emerged from prabandha. One significant characteristic of dhrupad is the emphasis on maintaining purity of the ragas and the swaras (notes). According to some accounts, dhrupad was sung in temples, the singer facing the divinity. The compositions were prayers addressed to Hindu gods. Later, dhrupad evolved into a highly sophisticated and complex musical form, while still retaining its sacred character. The language of composition also changed from Sanskrit to Brijbhasha, over the period between the 12th and the 16th centuries. A major part of the compositions being sung nowadays were written in the 16th century and later. About six centuries ago, dhrupad music came to be patronized by the royal courts and its complex rendering was directed to highly sophisticated royal audiences. Among other topics, a number of compositions were written in praise of emperors. However, the sacred nature of dhrupad survived and even in the 20th century we are fortunate enough to hear this majestic form of music as performed more than 500 years ago in the royal courts of the emperors and kings of India.
The Music
Dhrupad music has two major parts (each of the two parts is further subdivided into several), alap and dhrupad. Alap is sung without words and dhrupad (also called bandeesh, the fixed composition part) is sung with the accompaniment of a pakhawaj, a two-headed barrel-shaped drum. A vocal dhrupad performance begins with a meditative alap in which the artist develops the raga, note-by-note, without any instrumental accompaniment except the drone of the tanpura. The emphasis is on developing each note with purity and clarity. To quote Ustad Zia Fariduddin Dagar: "Alap entails the search to get the most perfect pitch of every note. It takes you into a sort of meditation in which you are lost in the waves of sound and forget everything. There remains only sound."
The alap begins very slowly and the tempo gradually increases. The alap comprises the major part of the performance. It uncovers the personality of the raga. The contemplative music surrounds and absorbs the audience. The alap evokes a mood in the audience that coincides with the mood of the raga that is chosen.The singer uses certain syllables (om, num, re, ri, na, ta, tom) that have a peaceful and meditative effect. These syllables are taken from a mantra and denote various Hindu gods. The philosophy behind not using words is that words may distract and thus lessen the chance of floating in a spiritual plane. Without the distraction caused by words, what one hears in the alap is the sound of pure music, ideally leading to divine fusion. The artist concludes the alap after exploring the three octaves and the limits of the raga being sung through improvisation. Then follows the bandeesh, a traditional composition set to a Brijbhasha text followed by composed and improvised variations, accompanied by pakhawaj.
Generally the dhrupad compositions are sung in chautal (a 12 beat rhythm cycle). Other tala cycles that are used are sula tala (10) and tivra tala (7 beats), and dhamar (14 beats). The meaning of text in composition is very important and the artists must pay careful attention to the enunciation of words. Even during improvisation, care is taken not to mispronounce the words. The singer and pakhawaj player engage in a lively dialogue, but do not attempt to compete with each other.
The Guru-Shishya Parampara of Oral Teaching
The teaching of dhrupad is very closely tied to the ancient system of guru-shishya parampara (the teacher-disciple tradition). This is an oral tradition that dates back thousands of years. The students lived in the home of their guru and devoted themselves to riyaz (practice) of music. The lives of students were focused on learning music and helping with the household chores of their teacher. The teacher could supervise the students all the time and provide guidance. The music was taught orally, with teacher singing a phrase and students repeating it until they perfected it. The learning of dhrupad music does not involve transcribing the teaching. The leading dhrupad teachers strongly believe, as did their ancestors, that learning of music is not possible through text books.
Due to its strict adherence to purity, learning dhrupad is very difficult. It takes years of rigorous and painstaking practice, involving many hours (8 to 12) of singing every day, before a dhrupad student can reach a stage when he will be ready to perform competently. These early years of total devotion to learning also mean total financial dependence, as the student does not have the time to earn a living. In the past, the teacher took care of the needs of students, so that they could commit themselves completely to the study of music. The guru, in turn, was provided for by the royal court. This royal patronage led to the preservation of guru-shishya parampara for centuries, until the abolition of the princely states in India in 1947. In effect, the disappearance of the royal system also led to a decline in the support for dhrupad music. Great artists were suddenly faced with financial hardship and were left with no support. The guru-shishya parampara was severely impacted by this turn of events. The central and state governments in India are belatedly making limited efforts to revive this tradition. The Dhrupad Kendra in Bhopal, based on this ancient tradition, has produced several outstanding vocalists. However, much additional work needs to be done to ensure the survival of this ancient tradition, an intrinsic part of the culture of India. As the guru-shisya parampara depends upon oral transmission of information, if there is no one to transfer the information, the musical tradition, that is thousands of years old, might simply disappear.
The Banis
During the seventh century, five geetis (styles of singing) were mentioned by Matang. These geetis, called Shuddha, Bhinna, Gauri, Vegswara, and Sadharani were supposed to have developed later into the four banis (or vani) of dhrupad: Gauhar, Khandar, Nauhar, and Dagarvani. Historians have not bee able to resolve the questions related to the genesis or even the existence of the banis, due to a lack of documentation.
The style of singing by Darbhanga and Talwandi Gharanas is said to be derived from khandar vani. Asad Ali Khan, the rudra vina maestro, states that his family practices Khandar vani. The family of Indra Kishore Mishra claims to be the practitioner of Nauhar and Khandar vani. The Dagar family practices Dagarvani bani.
Prominent Dhrupad Gharanas Today: The Dagar Family
The Dagar family claims lineage through Swami Haridas (fifteenth century), a renowned singer of that time. Besides Swami Haridas, Behram Khan (1753-1878) was the most renowned dhrupad artist in the Dagar clan. He was associated with the royal court of Jaipur. Other famous artists were Ustad Zakiruddin Khan (1840-1926) and Allabande Khan (1845-1927), well known for their jugalbandi (duet) performances. The famous Dagar brothers are the grandsons of Allabande Khan, whereas Ustad Zia Fariduddin Dagar and Ustad Zia Mohiuddin Dagar are the grandsons of Zakiruddin Khan. The Dagarbani dhrupad rendition is characterized by meditative and leisurely development of alap. The purity of a raga is never compromised for the sake of showmanship, often observed in many other Hindustani music concerts in recent times. Even during the singing of the composition, with intricate rhythmic patterns, the music maintains its spiritual character.
The biographical details of the musicians of the past are very sketchy, partly due to the oral tradition of passing information. The available information is largely anecdotal and unauthenticated, especially when it comes to tracing the genealogy of the gharana (musical tradition) systems. The history of the Dagar family (Dagar Gharana, or tradition) can be authentically traced to the 1800s, although contemporary historians believe that Dagar family has been associated with Dhrupad for twenty unbroken generations. It is accepted universally that the Dagar family has contributed significantly to preservation and spreading of Dhrupad. They have helped keep this art alive, even though this music was losing popularity in a time of changing tastes. A unique and interesting fact about the Dagar Gharana is that unlike most of the gharanas of North Indian classical music, it claims no connection with the legendary Tansen.
Talwandi Gharana
The Talwandi tradition is associated with the western parts of India, specifically, Punjab. Presently, the tradition has very few singers, all living in Pakistan. Prominent singers of the tradition include Muhammad Hafiz Khan and Muhammad Afzal Khan. Hafiz Khan claims that the Talwandi gharana represents Khandar bani. Dilip Chandra Vedi, who learnt from Talwandi Gharana members in the 1920s, claimed that Nayak Chand Khan and Suraj Khan were the founders of Talwandi Gharana. Contrary to other opinions regarding dhrupad, Hafiz Khan places Islam at the center of dhrupad philosophy. The mantra sung by him during the alap is "nita tarana tarana Allah (Almighty in Islam) tero nam." The Talwandi Gharana appears to have similarities to the Darbhanga Gharana described below. A few recordings exist that show extremely fast concluding portions of the alap. The compositions display highly complex rhythmic variations.
Darbhanga Gharana
Darbhanga tradition is one of the two main living Dhrupad gharanas, besides the Dagar tradition. The Mallik family represents Darbhanga Gharana of dhrupad. Radha Krishna and Karta Ram, the court musicians for the Nawab of Darbhanga, are considered the founders of the tradition. A link to the musical line of Tansen is traced through Bhupat Khan, the teacher of the founders of the family. The performance of the Darbhanga Gharana of dhrupad singers can be distinguished mainly by the way compositions are sung after the alap. A major emphasis is placed on the rhythmic aspect of the singing. According to Abhaya Narayan Mallik, the Darbhanga tradition is associated with Gauhar Bani. The family has a rich stock of compositions to draw upon. Prominent singers include the late Ram Chatur Mallik, Vidur Mallik, Abhaya Narayan Mallik, and Prem Kumar Mallik.
Bettiah Gharana
According to Falguni Mitra, the main proponent of Bettiah Gharana, Bettiah Gharana has compositions available from all the Vanis, though more emphasis is placed on Khandar Vani. The ornamentations and rhythmic variations are strictly applied during the rendition of dhrupad. He states that the gharana originated in the royal state of Bettiah in Bihar. Pyar Khan of Seni Gharana and Haider Khan are considered to be the major influence on this gharana.
Dhrupad Music in the 20th Century and Beyond
During the early part of the 20th century, there was a loss of popularity for Dhrupad, and it appeared that this musical tradition and the part of Indian culture that it represents might die very soon. One of the reasons was the loss of royal patronage and the subsequent financial hardships faced by the artists. The alap singing and the improvisation involved in dhrupad requires enormous training, talent, imagination and creativity. This in turn requires dedication and focus on the part of the learner if he or she wants to become an accomplished artist. The great dhrupad singers emphasize that their arduous training lasting decades before they could master the art and its intricacies.
Dhrupad music has survived so far, due to the persistence and dedication of the masters who have not given up, despite financial hardships and adversity. This persistence seems to be coming to fruition now, as we see a new generation of dhrupad artists such as Wasifuddin Dagar, Bahauddin Dagar, Gundecha Brothers, Nancy Lesh, Uday Bhawalkar, Prem Kumar Mallik, and others. - © 1999 Sunil Dutta
Moinuddin and Aminuddin Dagar on Raga Records: Rag Todi, Calcutta 1957 \\||// Malkosh, Bihag, Kamboji Calcutta 1955
Wasifuddin Dagar at Washington Square Church, New York, May 2000. Bihag. Raga 223
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"url": "http://raga.com/text/221dhrupad_text.html"
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Feast your eyes on the first image of a neuron, created by a scientist in 1875.
Using a stain of his own devising—potassium dichromate and silver nitrate—Italian physician Camillo Golgi made neurons’ dendrites and axons visible in the nervous tissue of dogs and other animals in the lab, allowing him to draw neural structures for the first time.
The first drawing of neurons depicted a dog’s olfactory bulb, a structure in the forebrain involved in the sense of smell. It featured axons and dendrites, blood vessels, gray matter, and other structures found in nervous tissue. The black-and-white illustration first appeared in an 1875 edition of Rivista Sperimentale di Freniatria e Medicina Legale, and appeared in color in reprints.
Golgi would later go on to identify an organelle found in most animal cells, eventually named the Golgi apparatus
[h/t: Boing Boing]
Image courtesy of Paolo Mazzarello, Sistema Museale di Ateneo, Pavia, Italy via The Scientist
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"url": "https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/70392/first-illustration-neurons"
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Friday 3rd April
Follow this link to listen to the story ‘Tallest Towers’
Draw a picture of a giant. Can you think of some words to describe him and his features e.g. tall, giant, beady eyes, long hair. Can you write a sentence to describe your giant? Don’t forget to use your sound mat to sound out any unknown words. Remember to use a capital letters, full stops and finger spaces.
Use some objects in your house to build different towers. You could use duplo, lego, wooden bricks or even stones. Which is the tallest? Which is the shortest? Can you explain how you know this.
Don’t forget to complete and afternoon activity from the grid in your pack and send us some photos.
Keep safe
Mrs Clark and Mrs Farley
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"url": "http://boundary-backup.schoolspider.co.uk/friday-3rd-april/"
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Core Virtues
2nd and 3rd Grade Social Studies
The 2nd and 3rd grade Social Studies class held mayoral elections as the culmination for the government unit. After studying about government at all levels, including a visit to Ukiah’s city hall to hold a mock city council meeting, the students chose a character from a novel they read in class that they felt embodied the qualities of a good mayor.
They came up with slogans, created a campaign poster, and visited classrooms at Instilling Goodness School, answering questions about their candidate. Each student and faculty member at the elementary school had an opportunity to vote in the election before the students tabulated the results on a bar graph. The students walked away from this unit learning about what it takes to be a good citizen.img_core_4img_core_1img_core_2img_core_5
Categories: Core Virtues
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"language_score": 0.9694789052009583,
"url": "https://igdvs.org/2015/10/15/2nd-and-3rd-grade-social-studies/"
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A train schedule informs travelers of the trains going to various locations, and indicates the times of departure. A schedule or a timetable, as a basic time-management tool, consists of a list of times at which possible tasks, events, or actions are intended to take place, or of a sequence of events in the chronological order in which such things are intended to take place. The process of creating a schedule — deciding how to order these tasks and how to commit resources between the variety of possible tasks — is called scheduling,Ofer Zwikael, John Smyrk, ''Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value'' (2011), p. 196: "The process is called scheduling, the output from which is a timetable of some form". and a person responsible for making a particular schedule may be called a scheduler. Making and following schedules is an ancient human activity. Some scenarios associate "this kind of planning" with learning "life skills". Schedules are necessary, or at least useful, in situations where individuals need to know what time they must be at a specific location to receive a specific service, and where people need to accomplish a set of goals within a set time period. Schedules can usefully span both short periods, such as a daily or weekly schedule, and long-term planning with respect to periods of several months or years. They are often made using a calendar, where the person making the schedule can note the dates and times at which various events are planned to occur. Schedules that do not set forth specific times for events to occur may instead list algorithmically an expected order in which events either can or must take place. In some situations, schedules can be uncertain, such as where the conduct of daily life relies on environmental factors outside human control. People who are vacationing or otherwise seeking to reduce stress and achieve relaxation may intentionally avoid having a schedule for a certain period of time.
Kinds of schedules
Publicly available schedules
Certain kinds of schedules reflect information that is generally made available to the public, so that members of the public can plan certain activities around them. These may include things like: * Hours of operation of businesses, tourist attractions, and government offices, which allow consumers of these services to know when they can obtain them. * Transportation schedules, such as airline timetables, train schedules, bus schedules, and various public transport timetables are published to allow commuters to plan their travels. From the perspective of the organization responsible for making transportation available, schedules must provide for the possibility of schedule delay, a term in transport modeling which refers to a difference between a desired time of arrival or departure and the actual time. Despite the use of "delay", it can refer to a difference in either the early or late direction. * In broadcast programming, the minute planning of the content of a radio or television broadcast channel, the result of that activity is the generation of a list of shows to be broadcast at regular times or at specific times, which is then distributed to the public so that the potential audience for the show will know when it will be available to them. * Concerts and sporting events are typically scheduled so that fans can plan to buy tickets and attend the events.
Internal schedules
Project management scheduling
A schedule may also involve the completion of a project with which the public has no interaction public prior to its completion. In project management, a formal schedule will often be created as an initial step in carrying out a specific project, such as the construction of a building, development of a product, or launch of a program. Establishing a project management schedule involves listing milestones, activities, and deliverables with intended start and finish dates, of which the scheduling of employees may be an element. A production process schedule is used for the planning of the production or the operation, while a resource schedule aids in the logistical planning for sharing resources among several entities. In such cases, a schedule "is obtained by estimating the duration of each task and noting any dependencies amongst those tasks". Dependencies, in turn, are tasks that must be completed in order to make other tasks possible, such as renting a truck before loading materials on the truck (since nothing can be loaded until the truck is available for things to be loaded on). Scheduling of projects, therefore, requires the identification of all of the tasks necessary to complete the project, and the earliest time at which each task can be completed. In creating a schedule, a certain amount of time is usually set aside as a contingency against unforeseen days. This time is called scheduling variance, or float, and is a core concept for the critical path method.
In computing
Scheduling is important as an internal process in computer science, wherein a schedule is a list of actions from a set of transactions in databases, and scheduling is the way various processes are assigned in computer multitasking and multiprocessing operating system design. This kind of scheduling is incorporated into the computer program, and the user may be completely unaware of what tasks are being carried out and when. Scheduling operations and issues in computing may include: * The operation of a network scheduler or packet scheduler, an arbiter program that manages the movement of certain pieces of information in the computer. * Open-shop scheduling, Job Shop Scheduling, Flow Shop Scheduling Problem, optimization problems in computer science. * I/O scheduling, the order in which I/O requests are submitted to a block device in operating systems. * Job scheduler, an enterprise software application in charge of unattended background executions.
In wireless communications
Wireless networks should have a flexible service architecture to integrate different types of services on a single air-interface because terminals have different service requirements. On top of the flexible service architecture, effective quality of service (QoS) management schemes are also needed. Therefore, wireless resources need to be shared among all terminals carefully and it is desirable to schedule the usage of wireless resources as efficiently as possible, while maximizing the overall network performance.
In operations research
In transportation planning
Scheduling is useful in transportation planning. The important components of transportation improvement proposals include (a) comprehensive evaluations of the scope of work to be completed, (b) reasonably accurate cost estimates for finishing the task, and (c) a feasible project schedule. If any of these factors are not accurately defined, then there is a strong possibility of unexpected difficulties. Poor scoping and/or scheduling may result in serious budget problems, delays and cancellations of transportation improvements, and sometimes even a domino effect that can negatively impact the entire area's transportation planning.
In education
In an educational institution, a timetable must be established that refers students and teachers to classrooms each hour. The challenge of constructing this schedule for larger institutions was addressed by Gunther Schmidt and Thomas Ströhlein in 1976.Gunther Schmidt and Thomas Ströhlein (1976) "A Boolean matrix iteration in timetable construction", Linear Algebra and Its Applications 15(1):27–51 They formalized the timetable construction problem, and indicated an iterative process using logical matrices and hypergraphs to obtain a solution.
See also
* Automated planning and scheduling * Calendaring software * Employee scheduling software * Notation for theoretic scheduling problems * Timeblocking
{{Reflist Category:Time management Category:Scheduling (computing)
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The creation of a Vaccination Guide
Updated: Jun 3
Around the 1800s, smallpox was one of the worst diseases you could contract. Your body would be full of small ulcers and blisters filled with a thick fluid. If you were lucky, they would fall off and create scars, but for approximately 30% of the infected, it would lead to death.
Oil painting of Edward Jenner
Edward Jenner
In 1796, the British doctor Edward Jenner figured out that people getting infected with the disease originating from cows would only get a small reaction, and later be immune to the disease. This is how the first vaccine was created.
Today we are worried how the COVID-19 vaccine will be transported and distributed, but back in the 1800s, this seemed like an impossible task. Edward Jenner was only able to infect people situated near other infected people. Once a person developed a blister, he would extract a bit of its fluid. On the next patient he would make a small incision in the skin and expose them to this fluid. When transporting the fluid over distance and time, the virus died, it lost its capabilities and therefore did not work.
Bust of Francisco Javier Balmis in the Faculty of Medicine of the UMH in San Juan de Alicante
Francisco Javier Balmis
In 1803, a Spanish doctor, Francisco Javier Balmis found the solution to the problem. He wanted to bring the “vaccine” to the Spanish colonies in Latin America. His solution was to use 22 orphan kids to carry the disease on the journey across the ocean. As a reward, they were promised plenty of food during the crossing, and a new adoptive family upon arrival. The strategy was to infect two of the kids before leaving, and subsequently transfer the disease from kid to kid during the journey. It almost failed, and on arrival, only one kid had one blister. As soon as they arrived, they started vaccinating, and withing two months, over 12000 persons had gotten the vaccine. With the same method they continued the journey throughout Latin America, and later to the Philippines (See map further down in the post or click here).
Francisco Javier Balmis would later write the book “Instrucción sobre la introducción y conservación de la vacuna” (Instructions for the introduction and conservation of the vaccine) where he explained his findings and experiences of the expedition.
The Translation
Bookpage from the book Tratado histórico-práctico
"Tratado histórico-práctico"
Before leaving on the expedition in 1803, Francisco Javier Balmis worked on translating the French “Traité historique et pratique de la vaccine” (Tratado histórico-práctico) by Jacques-Louis Moreau de la Sarthe. This was to be used as an official manual for vaccination and handed out where they started vaccinating. Balmis started the work on the translation in 1801 and from submission until final review it took approximately 16 months to finish it.
During the first review of the text, Balmis gets massive critique, as the translation contains various, and serious errors. Names and places, even whole procedures are omitted, or wrongly translated. Balmis had also taken the freedom to add or remove whole paragraphs in the text.
Errors in translation Balmis
Some of the errors in the translation
Five months later he presents his second edition for review. The second review is accepted, but still with criticism. The reviewer wrote: “I do not judge it to detract from the translation, but if you look at the original work it is not one of those that are unique in its genre or of outstanding and outstanding merit.”
Balmis had a wish of dedicating the book to the Queen but based on the reviewer’s findings the King did not allow the use of the Queens name, stating: "the King has been granted permission to have the two parts printed, but His Majesty has not seen fit to agree that the work bears the name of the Queen”. The book was finally dedicated to “the mothers of his family”.
This goes on to show the importance of independent review of translated documents and books.
Journey made on the Balmis Expedition
The "Balmis Expedition"
The book was later printed in several thousand copies and distributed throughout the Spanish colonies.
Parche distintivo que se entregó a algunas unidades que participan en la Operación Balmis
"Operation Balmis"
Francisco Javier Balmis has lived on in history as an important figure for the distribution and use of vaccines, and his work is still honoured today. In 2020, the Spanish Ministry of Defence named their military deployment in the fight against COVID-19 “Operation Balmis”.
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Resource 1: A homework list of local artefacts
Example of pupils' work
Jabali 6B
Names of Artefacts
1. DrumP
2. GuitarIs this the guitar that you made?
3. Wooden spoonP
4. BottleThink about this again. Was the bottle really made in your community?
5. Clay potsPVery good
6. Tingatinga paintingWhat is this?
7. Car toyIs it one of the toys made in your village?
8. Handwoven matP
Well done Jabali. You have collected a good list of artefacts here. Make sure you understand which of them are made in your community.
This was the homework list that Jabali handed in, as marked by Mrs Kabalimu.
3. Creating an informative exhibition
Resource 2: Categories for organising types of artworks and artefacts
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CPM Homework Banner
Home > CC2 > Chapter 5 > Lesson 5.2.6 > Problem 5-91
Jerry bought some pears at the store. He paid for pounds of pears. What is the unit price of the pears?
The unit price will be in terms of dollars per pound.
Divide the total cost of the pears by the number of pounds he bought.
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"url": "https://homework.cpm.org/category/CC/textbook/cc2/chapter/5/lesson/5.2.6/problem/5-91"
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Teachers, save “Eucharist Activity” to assign it to your class.
Silvana Kufner
Student Instructions
Eucharist Activity
The Mystery of the Eucharist Please complete each part of the Eucharist activity and include all the details to make your responses thoughtful and completed. 1. What happened at the Last Supper? 2. How do people celebrate the memory of the Last Supper? 3. Why do people continue to celebrate the memory of the Last Supper in the community? 4. Include an illustration of how remember Jesus during Mass. 5. What does it mean when Father says “Do this in memory of me.” Use a new page as you need it and leave room for a picture or image that matches your answers.
3rd Grade, Religion
74 teachers like this
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The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
What where the effects of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment?
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6. What where the effects of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment?
Following Doctors' Orders
It takes little imagination to ascribe racist attitudes to the white government officials who ran the experiment, but what can one make of the numerous African Americans who collaborated with them? The experiment's name comes from the Tuskegee Institute, the black university founded by famous African American Booker T. Washington. Its affiliated hospital lent the government its medical facilities for the study, and other predominantly black institutions as well as local black doctors also participated. A black nurse, Eunice Rivers, was a central figure in the experiment for most of its forty years.
7. What is the purpose of the above paragraph? Why is this information important?
One of the most chilling aspects of the experiment was how the government kept these men from receiving treatment. When several nationwide campaigns that were created to inform citizens about venereal disease came to Macon County, the men were prevented from participating. Even when penicillin —the first real cure for syphilis— was discovered in the 1940s, the Tuskegee men were deliberately denied the medication.
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"url": "https://essaydocs.org/the-tuskegee-syphilis-experiment.html?page=5"
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CPM Homework Banner
Home > MC1 > Chapter 2 > Lesson 2.3.2 > Problem 2-122
Amanda and Jimmy have jobs as dog walkers. Examine the graph at right and answer the following questions.
1. Who has more hours of dog walking? How do you know?
• Focus on their dots' placement on the horizontal axis, since this indicates hours of dog walking.
• Amanda. Her point is farther to the right on the graph, indicating a greater number of hours.
1. Who has earned the least amount of money? How do you know?
Like in part (a), you will need to compare the dots' placement on the graph. However, this time you should focus on the vertical axis, since this indicates dollars earned.
2. Are both students earning the same amount of money per hour? Show your work to justify your answer.
Esther is also a dog walker. She worked for hours and earned dollars. That means she earned dollars per hour, since
Use this example to solve for the amount Amanda and Jimmy each make per hour. Then compare them to see if they make the same amount. Do not forget to show your work!
A first quadrant graph, with the x axis labeled, Hours of Dog Walking, scaled in ones, from 0 to 6. y axis labeled, Dollars Earned, scaled in tens, from 0 to 40. The point "Jimmy" is at (2, comma 12). The point "Amanda" is at (3, comma 22).
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10 IA ideas using a ruler
IB Physics: 10 IA ideas using a ruler
1. Twanging (1)Clamp the ruler to the edge of a table and twang it (pull it down and release it).What is the relationship between the frequency and length?Assuming the ruler behaves like an oscillating spring leads to a predicted relationship. As the ruler gets shorter it"s "spring constant" gets bigger but its mass gets smaller. The frequency could be measured from the sound it emits or by using a guitar pick up. Can...
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"url": "https://www.thinkib.net/physics/page/36053/10-ia-ideas-using-a-ruler"
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Spherical Law of Sines
Initializing live version
Download to Desktop
Requires a Wolfram Notebook System
Draw a spherical triangle on the surface of the unit sphere with center at the origin . Let the sides (arcs) opposite the vertices have lengths , and , and let , and be the angles at the vertices , and . The spherical law of sines states that .
Contributed by: Izidor Hafner (February 2017)
Open content licensed under CC BY-NC-SA
Let be the orthogonal projection of onto the plane . Let and be the orthogonal projections of onto the lines and , respectively. Then , , , and , so .
[1] Wikipedia. "Spherical Law of Cosines." (Feb 22, 2017) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_law_of _cosines.
[2] Wikipedia. "Spherical Trigonometry." (Feb 22, 2017) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry.
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Wander With Water Snails- Water Snails Structure
Print Lesson
Students will identify the major parts of a fresh water snail and communicate this with a diagram.
Big Idea
What body parts does a water snail use to survive?
5 minutes
I ring my chime to get the class’s attention. I ask them to return to the carpet squares and ‘Show Five’. Once seated, I announce that we were about to begin the study on our second kind of snail. I share “The three type of water animal that we studied in this unit were………..” I wait for answers from the class. As expected, they answer “Guppies! Goldfish. Tadpoles.”. I continue, “We observed them and noticed there are some important ways they are different from each other. Is there another water animal that lives in our class? “ I set a timer and announce, “You have one minute to walk backwards around the class and look for this other water animal.” I want to give them an opportunity to identify the water snail on their own. Rather than watching them run around, I include the “backward” part of the direction because it helps them slow down. After one minute, I ring the chime to bring them back to their carpet squares.
Large Group Instruction
20 minutes
I ask for their observations, “What animals that live in water did you see in our class?”. “Fish”, “Snails in the fish tank”. “Today, we get to learn more about those water snails in the fish tank.” I show them a detailed image from the internet. My goal is to help the students focus the unique features of this snail so they could see characteristics that were different from the land snail (a more in depth compare/contrast will come in a later lesson). Since they already studied the basic body of a snail, they had some background knowledge that could immediately be applied.
I draw a KWL chart about water snails and ask “Based on some observations and experience with the land snails, what do we know about water snails?”. I record the responses- “They crawl the same” “They have shells”. Then I ask, “What do we think will be different? What do we want to learn?”. I add the question about ‘different’ as a jumping off point to the ‘want to know’. Otherwise, it can be difficult to get them to come up with questions that reflect real wonder and deeper level thinking.
To keep the attention on the material in one place, I model how to quick draw an aquatic snail on the bottom of the KWL chart. While I am drawing, I tell the students the names for the structures they have observed. “Most of the parts of the water snail are same as the land snail. Can you help me label them?” As I draw lines to the location of foot, shell, mouth, and tentacles, I explain that naturalists label their drawings so they can remember what they learned about the animals they observed. I call on for volunteers to come up and identify each part before I label it. While I call them 'volunteers', I often will strategically choose certain students who need extra practice in oral communication and presentation. As long as you don't do what I call 'cherry pick' (e.g. always choose the high learners), this is a good strategy to spread the wealth and give everyone an opportunity to speak in front of their peers.
I then introduce two differences. “One part that a land snail does not have is something called an operculum. It’s on the bottom of the foot and looks like an oval trap door. It allows the sea snail close off it’s inside so it protects the moisture and doesn’t dry out. The water snail also does not have the lower tentacles. Does anyone have any idea why?” I wondered if anyone would make a connection to the ‘hearing’ function we learned about for the Land Snail. When no answers came, I said, “The water snails don’t have any need to hear, so they use their one set of tentacles to ‘see’- feel their way around their environment.”.
Small Group Instruction
10 minutes
After we finished the whole class anatomy and quick draw activity, I told them “It’s time to be Naturalists. We’re going to continue this lesson with your table groups. I need you to record your own version of a water snail.”. I used the chime to dismiss the students back to their tables. Once they were seated, I said “Remember a few unique aspects of the water snail. Think about shape, features, and color..or anything else you and your group remember.” To extend their observation experience and help with the drawing, I put out a small container with a few water snails on each table, as well as a picture. I also invited the students to observe the water snails in our tanks.
I passed out half sheets of paper for their drawing, with a simple label of “Water Snail”. I announced they had about ten minutes to come up their record (tracking the passage of time can be difficult at this age. To help this along, I use a ‘Time Timer’ to give a visual representation of this concept.). Since we had studied the two snails for a few lessons, the class had an adequate knowledge base so this independent activity could act as a summative assessment.
After five minutes, I gave them a three-minute warning with the chime. Once they completed their drawing, they had another minute to have a brief discussion at their table to share ideas. As that wound down, I again rang the chime. I asked the students to bring their drawing when they return to their carpet squares to talk about our lesson and share their observations.
Wrap Up
5 minutes
I asked the class to share their ideas, “Who noticed something that was different in this snail?” (“No tentacles near the mouth” “The shell was smaller and pointier than the land snail.”. As each idea was shared, I added it to the KWL chart under 'learned'. After all ideas were recorded, we reviewed the contributions before it was posted near the Science area so the students could refer to it during future Science lessons or drawing/writing activities. I dismissed students by table group to put away their drawings and return to their carpet squares.
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Nairobi, Kenya » City Info » History
Today, the place where Nairobi is was originally a part swamp occupied by the Masaai, a nomadic tribe, and the Kikuyu people. On the arrival of the Uganda Railway, this site was selected for store depot, shunting ground and camping ground for the Indian labourers.
In 1900 it was rebuilt due to an outbreak of plague. Later in 1907, Nairobi turned into a commercial centre and became the capital of British East Africa by replacing Mombasa. Nairobi flourished under British rule and also became a home for many Britons. In 1919, it was declared a municipality. In 1921, Harry Thuku established the Young Kikuyu Association and began organising protests against the British; he was arrested on 14th March 1922. There was a general strike by thousands of Africans in Nairobi, and the British government started shooting the Protestants. The Massacre shocked people worldwide, along with the British.
Towards the end of World War II, the strife resulted in a Mau Mau Uprising. There was pressure on the British from the local people that led to Kenyan Independence in 1963. Nairobi became the capital of the new republic.
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1. Facultative endosymbiotic bacteria of insects are known to affect life-history traits of their hosts, and can provide important fitness benefits under certain environmental conditions. While several distinct endosymbiont-induced effects have been reported, there is no data on whether heritable facultative endosymbionts in any species affect their hosts' performance at low temperatures, something that could have a major effect on insect physiology and survival, and thus population structure and distribution. 2. The original facultative endosymbionts were experimentally removed from five clonal genotypes of the grain aphid, Sitobion avenae Fab., which were then exposed to frost. 3. Aphid genotypes differed considerably in survival following the exposure and in fecundity of the survivors. However, the presence of the facultative symbionts had no overall effect on the studied traits. 4. The results suggest that the facultative symbionts have limited effects on the cold hardiness of their grain aphid hosts. © 2011 The Authors. Ecological Entomology © 2011 The Royal Entomological Society.
Original publication
Journal article
Ecological Entomology
Publication Date
790 - 793
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What Is The Japanese State Of “Mushin”?
Mushin is a Japanese form of meditation that is crucial part of some Japanese martial art forms.
Mushin is a Japanese form of mediation that influences the way a person lives and carries out his life. The word was derived from the kanji characters 無 (mu) “nothingness” and 心 (shin) “mind.” It is a state where the mind becomes empty of all desires, thoughts, and assumptions. During this state, a person is free from all forms of ego and is capable of acting spontaneously and rationally without emotional interference. Mushin is an essential aspect of Japanese art, including martial arts, ikebana (calming by arranging flowers), and shodo (calligraphy ). Mushin is pure enlightenment and cannot be grasped by any intellectual means. It has to be experienced to be understood.
The Origin Of Mushin
The earliest description of mushin was by Takuan Soho, an accomplished swordsman, and a Zen Buddhist monk. In his publication, The Unfettered Mind, Soho connects martial arts to Zen Buddhism by suggesting that during a fight, a swordsman should not focus on himself or the opponent, but he should allow his subconscious to take over. The technique was criticized since a swordsman could not win a fight using his mind without learning combat techniques. However, this was not the intention of mushin since the art involves both intensely physical and mental training. Once mastered, one could easily defeat an opponent by letting his mind control his body movements. It is similar to the complex process of learning how to ride a bike, but once mastered, it becomes an easy task.
Experiencing Mushin
Mushin is a crucial part of Aikido, a martial art technique developed by Morihei Ueshiba (O-Sensei). Ueshiba explains that if someone tries to punch a martial artist on the face, there is no time to gather consciousness, but instead, the person drifts into an unconscious state, and the mind instantaneously initiates a defensive move. The secret of mushin is dedicated practice as one needs to train his mind to react spontaneously. One of the ways to achieve this is by learning the basics of Aikido, which emphasizes on building muscle memory by performing basic body movements. After several steps of learning, one can perform the movements subconsciously by letting the mind move their body. Practicing against an opponent is also an essential part of Mushin since the mind should be able to react without expectations and assumptions. In addition to the mental and physical practice, tools such as mediation help clear the mind in preparation for the vigorous training.
Mushin Expanded
Mushin is not limited to martial arts, but it extends to other arts where discipline and awareness are required. Practitioners can achieve high sensitivity and mindfulness since clear minds are capable of performing duties subconsciously. Although the technique was initially tied to Zen Buddhism, it is experienced in different disciplines. Professional cyclists can pedal for long hours without realizing they are doing so while athletes can subconsciously run long distances. It allows actors to improvise whenever they get lost in character without the audience noticing. Regardless of the discipline, one can achieve mushin through dedicated practice and a mindful attitude without ego.
More in World Facts
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"url": "https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-japanese-state-of-mushin.html"
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You need to understand what an arpent is. Here’s what to know.
What is an arpent?
An arpent is an area equal to about 0.845 acres, traditionally used in the state of Louisiana, in France and in Quebec in Canada. Now, hectares and acres are more commonly used measurements of area.
Deeper definition
The arpent (pronounced with a silent “T”) is an old measurement and is no longer in use anywhere in the world outside of France and some former French colonies. It’s primarily for conversion purposes when referencing old property divisions and documentation.
An arpent is roughly equivalent to 190 feet in length. The square arpent is also referred to as an arpent, as we would consider a measurement similar to the acre or hectare.
An arpent is equivalent to 0.845 acres or 0.4 hectares. Conversions are helpful for modern surveyors to understand how to interpret land boundaries and divisions in places like some Louisiana parishes. Proper modern land measurements are critical for municipalities establishing property values and levying proper taxes from landowners.
Arpent example
In Louisiana, understanding the arpent is important for survey studies. French settlers designated some land parcels as arpent sections, along navigable streams and waterways in southern Louisiana and elsewhere.
These arpent sections were often two to four arpents long against the riverfront and extended to 40 or 60 arpents wide, creating long, narrow land blocks.
Arpent sections were designed to give landowners riverfront property along one of the narrow ends of the property. The length gave the property owners space for cultivation and building homes.
You can imagine the arpent sections along waterfronts as a row of narrow rectangular blocks, as opposed to the more typical square land plots of today. Not only did these sections provide a uniform land division, but also they gave each landowner equal access to different desirable natural features.
Instead of having some homes along the riverfront with no access to farmland and others with ample land and no river access, generally all land sections had the same physical features.
Want a mortgage to buy your own property? Run the numbers and see how much property you can afford.
More From Bankrate
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"url": "https://www.bankrate.com/glossary/a/arpent/"
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How important is the setting of the novel and what impact does the setting have on your interpretation of events?
Expert Answers
An illustration of the letter 'A' in a speech bubbles
A Farewell to Arms is based on Ernest Hemingway’s own experiences in the Italian army in World War I. The primary setting for the book is Italy. The setting is important in an autobiographical sense because it’s historically accurate; it’s where Hemingway actually served.
It’s also crucial that the book not be set in the home country of the protagonist, Frederic Henry. Part of the plot involves Henry’s desertion from the army, as he chooses to run away to Switzerland with his love interest Catherine Barkley. If Henry deserted the army of his own country he would be perceived quite differently, probably as a coward. Since he is an American deserting the Italian army, it’s less likely to offend the sensibilities of an American audience. Hemingway needed that American audience.
The fact that the Italians appear to be doing a pretty lousy job of fighting a war also helps color Henry’s desertion as something more reasonable than we might usually expect.
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The state of Chiapas, in southeastern Mexico, is home to the last remaining stands of rainforest in the nation — and also to almost half a million impoverished people, many of them living on the brink of starvation. In the past, the forest has been ravaged by monied interests, such as foreign companies looking to cut down the region’s mahogany and cedar trees; now, the region’s people and its trees are both dying, and sadly, the struggle often pits one against the other as peasants try to scratch a living from the land. The 1,278 square miles now known as the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve officially became a protected area in 1978, but that protection has been compromised by pressures from poverty, population growth, and political upheaval. The Zapatista rebel movement has said that conservation efforts in Montes Azules serve “large multinational companies dedicated to exploiting biogenetic resources,” not the region’s natural resources, much less its people. But the central conflict in the area is perhaps best summed up by one of its residents, Manuel Lopez Gomez, who said, “It’s difficult to maintain a nature preserve in places where people want to live.”
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"url": "https://grist.org/article/forest7/"
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An Urstromtal (plural: Urstromtäler) is a type of broad glacial valley, for example, in northern Central Europe, that appeared during the ice ages, or individual glacial periods of an ice age, at the edge of the Scandinavian ice sheet and was formed by meltwaters that flowed more or less parallel to the ice margin. Urstromtäler are an element of the glacial series. The term is German and means "ancient stream valley". Although often translated as "glacial valley", it should not be confused with a valley carved out by a glacier. More accurately some sources call them "meltwater valleys"[1][2] or "ice-marginal valleys".[3]
Emergence and structure
Section through an Urstromtal
Important for the emergence of the Urstromtäler is the fact that the general lie of the land on the North German Plain and in Poland slopes down from south to north. Thus the ice sheet that advanced from Scandinavia flowed into a rising terrain. The meltwaters could therefore only flow for a short distance southwards over the sandurs (outwash plains) before having to find a way to the North Sea basin that was parallel to the ice margin. At that time, the area that is now the North Sea was dry as a result of the low level of the sea.
As elements of the glacial series, Urstromtäler are intermeshed with sandur areas for long stretches along their northern perimeters. It was over these outwash plains that the meltwaters poured into them. Urstromtäler are relatively uniformly composed of sands and gravels; the grain size can vary considerably, however. Fine sand dominates especially in the upper sections of the Urstromtal sediments. The thickness of the Urstromtal sediments also varies a great deal, but is mostly well over ten metres.
Urstromtäler have a wide and very flat valley bottom that is between 1.5 and 20 kilometres wide. The valley sides, by contrast are only a few to a few dozen metres high. The bottom and the edges of an Urstromtal may have been significantly altered by younger processes, especially the thawing of dead ice blocks or the accumulation of sand dunes. In the post-glacial period, many Urstromtäler became bogs due to their low lying situation and the high water table.
Urstromtäler in Central Europe
Weichselian Urstromtäler in Brandenburg
In Central Europe there are several Urstromtäler from various periods.
Some sections of the aforementioned main valleys have been given their own names. The Lusatian Urstromtal and the Aller Urstromtal are parts of the Breslau-Magdeburg-Bremen Urstromtal. The Baruth, Berlin and Eberswalde Urstromtäler are common short names for the associated sections of the Urstromtal in Brandenburg.
In addition to the large main valleys there are also numerous smaller meltwater valleys (Urstromtalungen). Their appearances is similar to that of the great Urstromtäler, but they are considerably shorter. They are also not linked to a sandur and a terminal moraine.
It is interesting to note that urstromtals of Central Europe (Poland, Germany and Denmark especially) were directly connected to the North Atlantic Ocean, via the Channel River, during Pleistocene maximum glaciations, i.e. at time of confluence of the British and Fennoscandian ice-sheets in the intervening North Sea.[4][5]
Urstromtäler should not be confused with tunnel valleys. The latter are formed beneath, not in front of, the ice mass. In addition most tunnel valleys run from north to south. The principal direction of Urstromtäler is from east to west. Today Urstromtäler are only partly used by rivers, because the majority have found shorter routes to the sea (like the Oder and Vistula). The straight troughs of the Urstromtäler between the rivers were used for canal routes due to their low gradient, for example for the Elbe–Havel Canal or the Oder–Havel Canal.
Because the land in North America and on the Russian Plain tilts towards the south, the formation of Urstromtäler there during the ice age did not take place. The Mississippi River and its tributaries carried the meltwaters of the North American ice sheet away. In Eastern Europe the meltwaters flowed down the river basins of the Dnieper, Don and Volga.
Urstromtäler, whether sandy or boggy, posed considerable obstacles to movement in the Middle Ages. As a result, the trade routes converged on points where the valley could be crossed comparatively easily. These hubs thus became favourite sites for the founding of towns or castles. Examples from the German state of Brandenburg include Berlin, Fürstenwalde, Luckenwalde and Baruth/Mark, and from Lower Saxony the town of Vorsfelde and Wolfsburg Castle.
See also
1. Böse, Margot (2005). The Last Glaciation and Geomorphology in: Koster, E. (ed.): The Physical Geography of Western Europe, Oxford University Press, p. 61
2. Selected Soil Associations, Berlin Digital Environmental Atlas, accessed on 23 Dec 2011
3. Jürgen Ehlers, Philip Leonard Gibbard (ed.) (2004). Quaternary glaciations: extent and chronology, Part 3, Elsevier, London, Oxford, San Diego, Amsterdam. p. 139. ISBN 0-444-51462-7
4. Toucanne, S.; Zaragosi, S.; Bourillet, J.F.; Cremer, M.; Eynaud, F.; Van Vliet-Lanöe, B.; Penaud, A.; Fontanier, C.; Turon, J.L.; Cortijo, E.; Gibbard, P.L. (2009). "Timing of massive 'Fleuve Manche' discharges over the last 350 kyr: Insights into the European ice sheet oscillations and the European drainage network from MIS 10 to 2". Quaternary Science Reviews. 28: 1238–1256. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.01.006.
5. Toucanne, S.; Zaragosi, S.; Bourillet, J.F.; Marieu, M.; Cremer, M.; Kageyama, M.; Van Vliet-Lanöe, B.; Eynaud, F.; Turon, J.L.; Gibbard, P.L. (2010). "The first estimation of Fleuve Manche palaeoriver discharge during the last deglaciation: Evidence for Fennoscandian ice sheet meltwater flow in the English Channel ca 20-18 ka ago". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 290: 459–473. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.290..459T. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.050.
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Evolutionary Roots of Language
In this video excerpt from NOVA scienceNOW, learn about an area of the brain that is involved with both language processing and the creation of stone tools. Correspondent and New York Times technology columnist David Pogue explores how tool-making (an ancient human skill that requires complex, sequential thought) may have evolved together with language. He speaks with scientist Cynthia Thompson who studies the parts of the brain that are active when computing sentences. Pogue also meets with scientists Dietrich Stout and Thierry Chaminade who research whether Broca's area, which is associated with sentence processing, is active when the brain is engaged in stone tool-making. Their findings are consistent with the idea that language and tool-making coevolved, known as the "tool-to-language hypothesis." This video is available in both English and Spanish audio, along with corresponding closed captions. CREDITS: https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/credits/nvsn6.sci.bio.language/ LICENSE: https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/help/full-license-for-section-3c-of-terms-of-use-download-and-share/
LicenseCustom License
More videos by this producer
The Coriolis Effect Due to Earth's Rotation
Personal DNA Testing
How DNA Replicates
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Ethnology of Tongareva
The Tongarevan language is a distinct dialect of the Polynesian tongue. Reading and writing have been taught by native pastors, who have been trained by the London Missionary Society in Rarotonga. The Bible has been translated into the Rarotongan dialect, and the alphabet taught is that compiled for Rarotonga. This alphabet is quite inadequate for the recording of the Tongarevan speech, for not only has the h sound been omitted from Rarotongan, but it has no l, s, or w, all of which are present in Tongarevan speech. The vowels consist of the usual Polynesian five, a, e, i, o, and u. The Rarotongan consonants used consist of seven, k, r, m, n, p, v, and ng. The early missionaries who drafted the alphabets for the various Polynesian dialects had extreme difficulty in distinguishing between the sounds of l and r and of v and w. These and other doubtful sounds were settled for the usage of the Hawaiian alphabet by a committee which, as recorded by Spaulding (25, pp. 32, 33), took the votes of nine missionaries. Though the English language contained all the letters, the missionaries have standardized the Polynesian dialects by restricting them to one sound of a doubtful pair, though both sounds were evidently in use. Some of the difficulty arose because subdialectical differences occurred in different localities of the same group of islands and standardization was felt to be necessary for page 11 printing the Bible and other religious literature. Thus in Hawaii the original k sound had been dropped and was represented in speech by the glottal closure. Later, the k sound began to displace the original t sound, but the process was by no means complete. The committee settled the matter by adopting k and discarding t and thus arbitrarily completing the transition. The difficulty with the l and r and also with v and w is that probably the original sounds were intermediate.
In time the tendency was to go in one or the other direction. Thus, in New Zealand the l-r sound became definitely r and the v-w sound became w, so that the dialect became standardized in the sounds by the Maoris themselves. In Samoa, the l-r sound became definitely l and the v-w sound became v, so that the dialect also standardized itself in these two sounds. In the Cook Islands, however, and probably other areas such as Hawaii the process of the sharper definition of the uncertain sounds went in both directions. With regard to the assumed l-r sound, in some words the tongue reached the palate with more pressure and produced the distinct l sound, and in others the tongue was kept away from the palate and produced the r sound. Similarly, in the v-w sound in some words the lips contracted in and produced the w sound, whereas in others the closure of the buccal orifice was produced by the upper teeth touching the lower lip so that a v sound resulted.
The proper method of exact study would have been to watch and inquire as to the movements of the mouth and tongue in order to supplement the sense of hearing. Each word should then have been recorded phonetically and an alphabet compiled to meet the needs of the dialect. As it was, the compilers of the alphabets, with few exceptions, did not adequately represent the sounds of the Polynesian dialects. Table 1 gives the alphabets and sounds of some dialects for comparison with those of Tongareva.
If the s, which I doubt, l-r, v-w, and f-wh are treated as original consonant sounds, the total number of original consonant sounds is eleven. Of these Tongareva has maintained ten, but the f-wh sound is represented by h. There are thus no dropped sounds or glottal closures in the dialect. Furthermore, by duplicating the original l-r and v-w sounds into distinct l, r, v, and w, the dialect has added two more consonants and thus totals twelve consonant sounds. In the number of consonants it is only equalled by Manihiki. Tongarevan is more nearly allied with Rarotongan in consonant sounds, however, for, though Tongareva has the s, both are without the f-wh sound, and there is thus but one positive difference. Manihiki, by not having the s and having the wh sound, has two points of difference. In Tahiti the absence of the ng increases the difference from Tongareva. The presence page 12 of the s in Samoa is offset by the presence of the f and the dropping of the k and the standardization of l-r and v-w into l and v, which is opposite to the tendency in Tongareva. Tongarevan has also the distinct sibilant sound of ch which will be dealt with under the letter t.
Table 1. Polynesian Consonants
Original sound Tongareva Manihiki Rarotonga Society Islands New Zealand Hawaii Samoa
1. H h h h H H H (sorf)
2. K K K K ' K ' '
3. L l l L
R R R r
4. M M M M M M M M
5. N N N N N N N N
6. P P P P P P P P
7. T T T T T T (K) T
8. V V V V V v
W w w w W
9. Ng Ng Ng Ng ' Ng (N) Ng
10. F Wh (as F)
(h) wh (h) F (h) F
Wh Wh
11. S(?) S (h) (h) (h) (h) (h) S
11 12 12 10 8 11 9 9
Capital letter = Present in alphabet.
Small letter = Present in speech but not in alphabet.
( ) = Sound absent, but represented by letter in brackets.
Hamzah' = Sound dropped, but represented by glottal closure.
Rarotongan h, probably more correctly represented by the hamzah, is inserted for comparative purposes.
The h sound in Tongarevan is distinct. In a few words Tongareva follows the same usage as Rarotonga and New Zealand. In the following tables the h is inserted in Rarotongan words, though it is not included in the alphabet. The Samoan h is replaced by s or f.
Tongareva Rarotonga New Zealand Samoa Meaning
Tahuhu Tahuhu Tahuhu ('au'au) ridgepole
Aroha Aroha Aroha Alofa love
Hakiri ? Hakiri Sa'ili (to seek) to throw away
This h also appears in hanga, which forms the noun ending to verbs as surahanga (the turning over) from sura (to turn).
In most words, however, the h represents the wh of New Zealand and the f of Tahiti and Samoa. In this, it follows the Rarotongan usage.
page 13
Tongareva Rarotonga New Zealand Tahiti Samoa Meaning
Hare Hare Whare Fare Fale House
Hara Hara Whara (Astelia) Fara Fala Pandanus
Haka- Haka- Whaka- Fa'a Causative Prefix
Hari Hari Whiri Firi Fili To braind
Hariki ? Whariki Fari'i To place under
The Tongarevan k resembles that of Manihiki, the Cook Islands, and New Zealand and distinguishes the dialect from Tahitian, Hawaiian, and Samoan, in which the k has been dropped and is represented by the glottal stop (').
The distinct l is present in such words as talanga (story), talolo (messenger between lovers), and alelo (tongue).
The presence of the r was noted in such words as waru (to scrape), roro (coconut cream) and Rangi-saruru (an ancestor). Lamont (15) uses the r in several native words and never the l. It is probable that some words are in the intermediate stage, but on the whole the r is more common than the l.
The m, n, and p require little comment, except that n generally replaces ng in na for nga, the plural of the definite article, “the.”
The s, except in a few words, takes the place of the pure h of the Cook Islands and New Zealand and in this usage resembles Samoa. The following are examples.
Tongareva Rarotonga New Zealand Samoa Meaning
Saruru Haruru Haruru Salulu (to blow) to sound
Sape Hape Hape Sape mistake, club foot
Sere Here Here Sele to tie, to snare
Vavasi Vavahi Wawahi to break
Songi Hongi Hongi Songi to press noses
Sosore Hohore Hohore to peel off
Kaso Kaho Kaho 'aso part of house frame
Asu Ahu Ahu Asu to heap up, to bail out
Lamont (15) seems to have heard and sh sound, for he writes sarasara (to wave the hands) as “sharashara” and Hakasusa as “Haka Shusha.”
The t sound has undergone a curious modification in the sibilant sound of tch. The tip of the tongue is not so far forward against the incisor teeth as it is when producing the usual Polynesian t sound. The sibilant sound is more marked before the vowels i and e. Thus the line of the song, “Titia mai to titi maire” (Gird on your sweet-scented kilt) sounds like “Tchitchia mai to tchitchi maire.” The phrase “Taku ate” (my liver), used as a cry of alarm or anger, is sounded as “Taku atchě.” In the phrase quoted the t before e becomes sibilant, but the t before a is sounded as an ordinary t. Before o the t sound is unchanged, as in to (a spear), pro- page 14 nounced to. Before u there seems to be a tendency to use the sibilant, for, though in all the island names commencing with “Motu” the t seemed to be distinctly sounded, Mr. Wilson, the resident government Agent, held that Motukohiti was pronounced “Motchukohitchy.” Lamont, on the other hand, who wrote the sibilant t as ch wrote the same word as “Mutagohichy.”
The sibilant t does not occur in Samoa, but in Niue the t before i and e is sounded as s, which shows a similar tendency in sibilant change. Williams (32, p. 418) quotes the method in Tonga of variously representing the pronunciation of t when it is followed by i, j, or s. The nearest approach to the Tongarevan t appears to be in the Chatham Islands where the t undergoes a change in sound before all the vowels except o. As quoted by Williams (32, p. 418), Shand represented the sound by writing tch, tchi, tche or tc for t. The peculiar pronunciation also occurred with k before a and with h before a or o. Williams remarks that in producing the sound “the tongue appears to be somewhat arched into the palate and the letter uttered with a slight emission of breath which not infrequently produces the effect of a suppressed I, or sometimes E, sound before the proper vowel of the word.” Handy (8, p. 9) points out that in the Marquesan dialect, “In combination with different vowels there is a variation from a simple h sound to a distinct German ch, through sch to s, with a w sound often included.” The resemblance of the Marquesan treatment of h to that of the Chatham Islands further supports the contention of Williams (32, p. 420) that of the affinities he discovered between the Chatham Islands dialect and other Polynesian dialects that with the Marquesan dialect figures most frequently.
The v sound is present in such words as velo (canoe stern) and mataki-vikivi (to turn aside); the w sound in such words as wananga (teaching), waka (canoe), wahine (woman). In spelling native words Lamont uses oa as in oaka (canoe) and niu oara (grated coconut). The word for canoe must be either waka or vaka. If oaka, waka, and vaka are carefully pronounced, and the position of the mouth, lips, and teeth noted for each, it will be evident that Lamont's oa was meant to represent wa and could not represent va. The same applies to niu oara which was meant for niu waru, the oa again representing the w sound. In recording Polynesian words for the first time I have often failed to distinguish between the sounds oa and wa and have had to repeat the word slowly to get the correct sound. Lamont uses other words such as “oahine” (wahine), showing that before the advent of the Rarotongan alphabet the sound that he heard was w. Lamont did not use the letter v in any native word. This does not signify that the v was not present in the dialect, but only it was not present in the few words that Lamont used. Thus, the tendency with the v-w sound was more toward the w than the v, just as the l-r sound was more inclined toward the r.
page 15
The ng sound is present as in the Cook Islands, New Zealand, and Samoa as contrasted with Tahiti, where it is represented by the glottal stop, and with Hawaii, where it is represented by n.
The affinities in dialect given above are based entirely on the sounds. My impression from the vocabulary acquired during my brief stay was that there was more affinity with Rarotonga and New Zealand than with Samoa. The compilation of a complete vocabulary for the Tongarevan dialect may disclose other closer affinities. With a knowledge of the Maori and Rarotongan dialects I had no difficulty in speaking and understanding Tongarevan, whereas I experienced much more trouble with Samoan and Tahitian.
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back to the overview
Heinrich Heine monument
Heinrich Heine monument on Rathausplatz.
Heinrich Heine monument in front of the town hall.
The city of Hamburg has a long and not terribly illustrious history of commemorating Heinrich Heine. Heine (1797–1856) attracted the hostility of nationalists due to his Jewish heritage and works such as Deutschland, ein Wintermärchen (Germany, a Winter’s Tale), which were considered examples of literary ‘nest-fouling’. The Nazi regime branded Heine a ‘Jewish degenerate’, and his books were burned and monuments to him were torn down. A monument in the Stadtpark created by Hugo Lederer (1871–1940) was melted down, and another that originally stood on Spitalerstrasse was saved by the daughter of Heine’s publisher, Julius Campe, and taken to Toulon in southern France, where it stands to this day.
The first new Heine monument in Hamburg was not unveiled until 11 May 1982. The initiative for the monument came from the Heine-Gesellschaft, a literary society founded in 1977, and from the Jewish writer Arie Goral. 3,000 Hamburg residents responded to the call for donations by Wolfgang Tarnowski, Hamburg’s culture senator at the time, who proposed that the monument be placed on the Rathausmarkt. The resulting bronze statue created by Waldemar Otto (born 1929) was thus financed by public and private means. The statue shows a contemplative Heinrich Heine standing on a granite pedestal decorated with four bronze relief sculptures. Text panels explain the book-burning and the Nazis’ destruction of the old Heine monument.
Heinrich Heine monument
Bezirksamt Hamburg-Mitte
Caffamacherreihe 1–3
20355 Hamburg
Phone: 040-428543471
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Tannin was born to protect the plants from the assault of fungi and bacteria. But today it can also protect them from deforestation and overexploitation. A positive effect that also extends to communities living near forests.
The possibility to extract tannin from the trees or from their fruits has promoted a flourishing local microeconomy has been generated which has allowed to prevent the extinction of rural communities and has helped to keep alive the local traditions. Here follow three successful case-histories.
Argentina: forest management and reforestation
The provinces of Chaco and Formosa in Argentina are the regions with the highest density of Quebracho colorado (Schinopsis lorentzii and balansae). In 2007 the Ley de Bosque Nativo (26.331) established the guidelines for a responsible management of the forest, classifying the territory in the following areas: exploitable areas, mixed areas and protected areas.
For exploitable and mixed areas, it has been established the maximum quantity of quebracho plants that can be cut down to extract tannin per year and per hectare, and also the minimum diameter of the trunks, implementing a traceability system that allows to monitor the origin of the collected wood.
This allows an active forest management and encourages the economic development of these rural areas. Furthermore, the local tannin industry has developed a nursery of 200,000 Quebracho seedlings that are transplanted each year to further enrich the forest.
The investment in Research and Development and the respect for raw materials are the essential prerequisites for a sustainable forest management.
Quebracho in Numbers
the hectares of Quebracho forests in Chaco, Argentina
the tons of Quebracho lumber available
the tons of Quebracho wood deriving from the vegetative growth every year
the tons of Quebracho lumber used by tannin producers (25% of annual growth)
Source: Dirección Provincial de Bosques (Argentina)
Italy, the Protection of the Bread Tree
For centuries, the Chestnut has been one of the greatest food resources of the mountain areas in Italy, so much to be renamed the “Bread Tree”.
The first laws to protect the Chestnut groves date back to the sixteenth century and set considerable fines for offenders. Even the production of Chestnut tannin had to deal with these limitations.
With the twentieth century and the improvement of economic conditions, the social importance of Chestnut trees has dropped. As a result, a gradual abandonment of these areas has started.
But without the care of man, the Chestnut trees have become prey to parasites and diseases, which in recent decades have caused a gradual weakening of the forests and a drastic decline in the harvesting of chestnuts.
Responsible forest management helps to keep it healthy. In fact, the Chestnut is able to regenerate itself, cutting a trunk at ground level allows the birth of new “shoots” that quickly turn into plants.
Also in this case, the wood cutting is regulated by strict Italian forestry regulations: the origin of each trunk is traced and must meet certain requirements (age, size of diameter etc.).
Some Data about Chestnut
the hectares of the Chestnut woods in Italy
the tons of Chestnut wood that grow spontaneously in 1 year between Piedmont and Liguria regions in northern Italy
the percentage of chestnut lumber that is used by the tannin industry
Source: Giorgio Colombo, “Environmental Sustainability Survey of ‘Tannin’ from Chestnut Wood”. Italy, 2015
The Pickers of Tara in Peru
Unlike the Quebracho and the ChestnutTara tannin is not extracted from the wood but from the pods, which are collected and taken to the storage centers by local farmers, the campesinos, and from here are transferred to the producers.
The collection of Tara pods has become an additional means of livelihood for the population, mostly made up of small farmers and breeders. They can attend to special training courses about the best practices of production and collection. In addition, tannin producers are involved in social responsibility programs and micro credit.
Employees receive healthcare and administrative assistance. During business hours, parents can leave the children in a corporate recreation center and get them back at their exit.
A concrete commitment that stopped the abandonment of the villages allowing the new generations to look to the future with confidence.
Tara in Numbers
the hectares of Tara plantations in Peru
the percentage of Tara that comes from spontaneous growth
the kilograms of the average production of Tara pods per plant
the families involved in the production cycle of Tara
Source: Servicio Nacional Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre. “El aprovechamiento de la especie Tara or Taya en el Marco de la Legislación forestal vigente”. Peru, 2017.
The Extraction of Tannin
The collection of vegetable sources is the first step, from which the real production process of tannin can begin. The Tara pods are reduced to powder. The Galls and the wood of the trees are crushed and macerated in warm water. A process of infusion extremely similar to that of the tea you prepare at home. Find out all the steps.
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In the years leading up to World War 2, the Japanese empire became a formidable force to be reckoned with. The unfair treatment of the Japanese by the Allied powers played a formative role in Japan’s imperialism.
The word ‘formidable’ is used for anything or anyone that inspires awe or is challenging to subdue. The word ‘formative’ is used for the things that had an impact on something’s formation.
Albeit the words have emerged from the same mother language-Latin, they apparently mean something very different. Read the article till the very end to learn more about their definitions, examples via sentences, and much more!
Formidable vs formative – definitions, uses, and example sentences
Definition of formidable
Formidable is pronounced in four syllables as ‘faw-mi-duh-bl’. It is an adjective and represents the quality of being awed or revered owing to a respectable trait. It can be used to qualify something as a real or virtual enemy that is deemed difficult to overcome or something that is intimidating and commanding respect. For instance, depression can be a formidable disease in the sense that it is a disease, a figurative enemy, which is difficult to battle. Whereas, a castle can be formidable owing to its sizeable estate and magnificence that may inspire awe and wonder. The synonyms of formidable include ‘redoubtable’ and ‘daunting’.
Example sentences of formidable
• The Shahi Qila, a citadel in the city of Lahore constructed by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, still stands today as a formidable sight to witness.
In the first sentence, the word ‘formidable’ is used in the sense of ‘awe inducing’ or ‘inspiring wonder’ owing to the fortress’s grandeur.
• Commandoes are strenuously trained for years in harsh ways and cruel circumstances to make them the formidable warriors they turn out to be.
Here, the word ‘formidable’ is used for the commandoes in the sense of a foe that is hard to overcome.
• It is remarkable that the Rashidun Caliphate was able to defeat and capture most of the formidable Sassanian empire and that too in a short span of twenty-four years.
In the last sentence, ‘formidable’ is used in the same sense as in the previous sentence that is, for an enemy that is considered mighty and improbable to subdue.
Definition of formative
The word formative is pronounced as ‘faw-muh-tuhv’. It is also an adjective and represents the ability to influence something’s formation or growth. It can be used to qualify something as having a hand in the growth or development of someone or something. For instance, school years and nutrition are the formative years of a child owing to the fact that they affect the child’s mental, social, and physical development. Similarly, war can have a formative role in the development of a nation as wars can have an impact on a country’s future. Synonyms of ‘formative’ include ‘influential’ and ‘determining’.
Example sentences of formative
• Studies show the short span of four to five years after birth is the most formative time for a child’s mental and intellectual development.
In the first sentence, the word ‘formative’ is used to qualify the noun ‘time’. Thus, ‘formative time’ in this sentence refers to a time that has a significant impact on a child’s development.
• The internship at the surgical ward proved to be a very formative experience for Ali as he is now more inclined to pursue a surgical fellowship.
Here, the adjective ‘formative’ qualifies the noun ‘experience’ meaning the experience had an impactful effect on the subject as he decided to become a surgeon.
• The story and monument of Johannes Phillip, a patriotic author who wrote against the French and was shot for it, had a formative effect on young Hitler.
In the last sentence, ‘formative’ qualifies the noun ‘effect’ referencing the effect of the statue of a German patriot who was shot by the French. This means that the ‘effect’ was ‘significant in the growth’ of Adolf Hitler when he was young.
In a nutshell, formidable is used for foes, enemies, and things that make you go “Wow!” or “Whoa”. ‘Formative’, on the other hand, is used for things that form you or things that have a significant impression or impact on your future. So while the legacy of your university or the size of its campus may be formidable, its influence on you is formative! Remember, things that are ABLE to impress or dare you are ‘formidABLE’. Whereas, things that can influence the FORMAT of your personality are ‘FORMATive’.
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the etymology of hapa
Language continually changes, evolves, and innovates. Since the millennium, terms such as selfie, photobomb, crowdfund, and dab entered the modern lexicon; nouns like friend, unlike and workshop became verbs (even as verbs such as like became nouns); semantic shifts of the words surfing, flame, bad, sick, tool, and literally assigned new and sometimes opposite meanings to existing words - all examples of what linguists call the etymological process of conversion.
The word hapa is the Hawaiian interpretation of the English word half. Much of its current usage derives from the phrase hapa haole, meaning half white. The phrase was originally coined by native Hawaiians to describe the mixed offspring resulting from encounters between islanders and White settlers. As migration continued between the islands and mainland, the word was brought back to the continent and re-borrowed into conventional English. In subsequent years, hapa (or Hapa) has come into popular usage away from the islands, most frequently embraced by Asian/Pacific Islander Americans of mixed descent.
Most people learned the word hapa through their respective communities and regional vernaculars, and some prefer to retain or even argue for the validity of their accustomed definition. Some individuals feel hapa refers to anyone who is mixed. Others feel it refers only to those who are part Kanaka Maoli (Hawaiian). Still others believe it refers specifically to people who are part Japanese and part White. Many simply consider it an acronym for Half Asian Pacific American. As language continually shifts, can each or perhaps all of these be valid? That is up to each individual.
The Hapa Project is first and foremost a project about identity, and identity is a unique and personal process. The Hapa Project defined hapa as being of partial Asian/Pacific Islander descent, but whether someone fit into a particular definition of hapa or not wasn't the point. Anyone who wanted to participate in the project was welcome. Because how each individual chooses to define a term - or define themselves - is a decision that is completely theirs. And for hundreds of thousands of multiracial API Americans, defining themselves as Hapa has meant recognition and inclusion for the first time.
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<urn:uuid:d79e10b9-fbb1-4096-9455-a8f4516945f7>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.7127184867858887,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9585031270980835,
"url": "https://kipfulbeck.com/hapa-me/the-etymology-of-hapa/"
}
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The U.K. has its own Internet outage data, and it appears to be a big contributor to the U,S.
The country is seeing a significant amount of the damage caused by the solar flares.
Here’s how it all works: A flare is a sudden, powerful burst of charged particles, which can be felt in the atmosphere and in the earth.
That energy can cause a power outage or even a blackout.
The United Kingdom was hit with a flare on September 17th.
The first of those bursts caused an electrical storm and some of the most intense power outages were recorded across the country, but the Ural region, which is the Uvalde province of northern Russia, was particularly affected.
The storm was expected to last about a day.
That’s when the British government issued a national outage warning and put out the red alert for the Urean region, a place that has been hit by many flare events in recent years.
The U.A.E. has had the most severe power outage.
According to data from the National Grid, there have been about 40,000 outages across the region.
That is up from 20,000 during the same time period in 2016.
The Ureans have been hit hardest, with about 6,700 outages.
It’s not clear how much of the Uarean region was hit during the first flare event, but at least three of the five U.B.
Es that have reported this have reported that their power was affected.
The second flare was reported in the Uremes region on August 18th.
At least five Uremesian power outAGES were recorded, and the UB.
E., which is in northern Russia and not directly hit by the flares, reported at least 7,000 of them.
This is about twice as many outages as in the UK.
The next flare was on August 24th.
There were reports that there were between 3,000 and 5,000 Uremistes outages in the region, but it’s not known if that was the actual number.
The third flare was expected, but did not happen, so that area has been left out of the outage map.
It wasn’t until the end of August that the British Energy and Climate Change Authority (BECCA) published its National Outages Map, a list of outages caused by solar flares, and that list has been updated and updated by other BECCA agencies.
That map shows the flare events that have been reported, and includes the UREAN region as well as other parts of Russia and Belarus.
The fourth flare was likely caused by a weather event in the Russian Far East.
There was a large solar flare in the area, and some outages started in August, so it’s possible that some of those flares have been caused by weather.
We don’t know if the flares were directly responsible for any outages, but there have also been reports of outage caused by other weather events.
The fifth flare was caused by an electrical failure in an electrical distribution system in Russia.
That outage has been in place for about a week.
That incident was a failure of a line in an energy-efficient electrical distribution plant in the Far East that connects to the grid.
That failure is not expected to affect Urememes outage in any way.
후원 수준 및 혜택
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<urn:uuid:2e8e923b-0544-4f1d-bc3e-6a705d357dc3>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.043886542320251465,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9374435544013977,
"url": "https://shahreabi.com/2021/10/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-u-s-internet-outage-map/"
}
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Red gurnard
Red gurnard
Red gurnard ©Bernard Picton
Red gurnard
Scientific name: Chelidonichthys cuculus
This brightly coloured and easily recognizable fish is one of three gurnard species found in UK seas. Collectively, gurnards are known as sea robins.
Species information
Length: up to 50cm
Conservation status
Common, classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
When to see
January to December
Red gurnards are bottom-dwelling fish to be found on gravelly, sandy, or rocky seabeds around the UK. They feed on worms and crustaceans.
The lowest three spines of the pectoral fin are separated and used to probe the seabed for hidden prey - they look a bit like legs and can give the impression that the red gurnard is 'walking'!
How to identify
Red gurnards have long bodies and a large head with a steep forehead and big eyes. Their colouring is a distinctive bright red mottled with pink. They have one fin along the spine, which is used for swimming. A key characteristic is their individual spiny fin rays on each side of the body, which act as 'fingers' in searching for food on the seafloor. The larger tub gurnard is normally yellow-ish but can be red or pink - you can identify if a fish is a tub or red gurnard by its large pectoral fins - they are bright blue in tub gurnards. The grey gurnard is, unsurprisingly, grey in colour.
Red gurnards are benthic fishes, which means they live on the seabed. They are widely distributed in UK waters.
Did you know?
Red gurnards are good vocalists, and are known for making a croaking sound, like a frog!
How people can help
Locally caught red gurnard is a sustainable choice, so long as they are not caught during the breeding season (May - July) nor are immature fish (less than 24cm). The Wildlife Trusts are working with fishermen, scientists, politicians and local people towards a vision of 'Living Seas', where marine wildlife thrives. Do your bit for our Living Seas by supporting your local Wildlife Trust or checking out our Action Pages.
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<urn:uuid:ce33d00a-bc1d-46fc-9acc-796c0c48f362>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.609375,
"fasttext_score": 0.03087019920349121,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9409355521202087,
"url": "https://www.lincstrust.org.uk/wildlife-explorer/marine/fish-sharks-skates-and-rays/red-gurnard"
}
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Reading Questions for Session 6
Please be prepared to discuss these questions in class.
1. What did Mao think that the function of literature and art should be?
2. Whom did he think art and literature should serve?
3. What do Mao's ideas about the relationship of art and action have in common with Nie Er's?
4. How did Mao define "the masses"?
5. What did he think specialists in music should do to further revolutionary aims?
6. What kinds of music-making were forbidden during the Cultural Revolution? Why?
7. What were the eight "model works"?
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<urn:uuid:57cbf413-d15d-4b55-8e0d-224a96e4212d>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.9869231581687927,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9786326289176941,
"url": "http://mit.usiu.ac.ke/courses/music-and-theater-arts/21m-s53-chinese-popular-musics-in-dialogue-spring-2014/reading-viewing-and-listening/reading-questions-for-session-6/"
}
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People have always been fascinated with beings and devices that can mimic human form, structure and function. At first these devices, so-called simulacra, only displayed some human likeness, but required real human intervention to make them “work”. A famous example is the 18th century “Turk”, a (fake) mechanical chess-playing machine, that required a hidden human chess master to operate the machine.
Others, called automata, were devices that had some independence. I.e. self-operating, mechanical, moving machines. Especially those that resembled human actions, such as The Flute Player, invented by French engineer Jacques de Vaucanson in 1737, considered to be the world’s first successfully-built biomechanical automaton.
And, although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for a machine, this fascination in developing “robots” and, eventually, “androids” that can mimic us, was assimilated from the above two concepts of devices that exhibit human likeness, and machines that display independence.
This website deals with these autonomous machines that look and act like humans but, first, we have to consider a few, sometimes confusing, terms in this field…
A humanoid is any being whose body structure resembles that of a human, but usually refers to anything with uniquely human characteristics and/or adaptations.
In general, a robot is a computer-controlled electro-mechanical machine that has a degree of autonomy.
This is 'Jules', a very life-like android that only has part of an upper torso and head
It follows that a humanoid robot is a computerized machine that “looks” human. Its overall appearance is based on the general structure and functions of a human body. Humanoid robots usually has an upper torso with a head, two arms and two legs, although some may have only part of the body, like just the upper “body”. Although some humanoid robots may also have a human-like “face”, with ‘eyes’ and ‘mouth’, they do not necessarily look convincingly like a real person.
The word “android” is from the Ancient Greek andros and -oid, which means “in the form of a man”. Thus, an android (male) or gynoid (female) is a humanoid robot (or “synthetic being”) designed to look and act exactly like a human. Although android is often used to refer to a humanoid, or humanoid robot, there are technical differences, as an android can also be a “synthetic organism”. In addition, the feminine form, “gynoid” is rarely used, and “android” is applied almost universally to both “sexes”.
Until very recently, robots, humanoid robots, and androids have largely remained within the domain of science fiction, usually only seen in film and television. But some real humanoid robots have been developed since the 1990s, and some real human-looking android robots have been developed since 2002.
[Sources and More Information]
Comments are closed.
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<urn:uuid:bbb3cad5-93bc-4662-a3b6-f3dc6918b7e9>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.6875,
"fasttext_score": 0.15243804454803467,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.955647885799408,
"url": "https://androidhumanoid.com/about-android-humanoids/"
}
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