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Given the information in the passage, to which one of the following would lichenometry likely be most applicable?
on June 1, 2018
Why is D right?
1 Reply
Christopher on June 3, 2018
Questions like this are often best approached through process of elimination. Lichenometry requires a number of boulders over a large area to remain in a set position for a length of time to gauge the speed of growth. Conditions like rain and shade also impact the growth rate, so the application of lichenometry is fairly specific and must be fairly large scale.
(A) looks at river flooding, but a flood would only move certain rocks in a small space and would also introduce many variables that would throw off the accuracy of lichenometry. So lichenometry wouldn't be useful.
(B) looks at a fossil, but lichenometry can only determine how long a particular surface has been exposed to sunlight. Lichenometry, then, could tell you how long the fossil had been uncovered but not when it was living. So it would not be useful.
(C) nothing suggests that lichenometry is feasible underwater.
(D) a receding glacier would expose new rocks to sunlight every year that it receded. Therefore, lichenometry could give scientists an idea of when stones all along the valley had first been exposed to sunlight, giving an estimate of the rate of recession of the glacier.
(E) nothing in the passage indicates that rainfall affects lichen growth or is detectable in the way lichen grows. Therefore, examining lichen would not help scientists identify anything about rainfall patterns.
I hope this helps.
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Tutorial >Concordance and Key-Word-In-Context
In publishing, a concordance is an alphabetical list of the words used in a book or body of work, listing each instance of each word with its immediate surrounding context1. In the precomputing era, when search was unavailable, a concordance offered the reader an easy way to search for words they might want to look up.
In programming, when we mention a concordance, we usually refer to an object that stores the words, and corresponding counts, for a given text. For example, if my text is
Summer is hot. It is hot today.
the corresponding concordance would be:
. 2
hot 2
is 2
it 1
summer 1
today 1
In RiTa, we can generate the above concordance with the RiTa.concordance() function.
let args = { ignoreCase: true };
let c = RiTa.concordance("Summer is hot. It is hot today.", args);
Here is nice example from Dan Shiffman where you can see how a concordance would look for your own text.
Key Words In Context
A common format for a concordance is Key-Word-In-Context or KWIC model. It sorts and aligns the words in a way that allows each to be searchable in the index. The search result for the word 'window' in an example KWIC model looks like this:
In RiTa, we can achieve this with the RiTa.kwic() function, as follows:
let args = {
ignoreCase: false,
ignorePunctuation: true,
wordCount: 6
let lines = RiTa.kwic(text, keyword, args);
Here is an interactive example of a KWIC model in RiTa.
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"fasttext_score": 0.9258697032928467,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8502081036567688,
"url": "https://rednoise.org/rita/tutorials/concordance.html"
}
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Preserving the Sacred
Historical Perspectives on the Ojibwa Midewiwin
Preserving the Sacred
The Midewiwin is the traditional religious belief system central to the world view of Ojibwa in Canada and the US. It is a highly complex and rich series of sacred teachings and narratives whose preservation enabled the Ojibwa to withstand severe challenges to their entire social fabric throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. It remains an important living and spiritual tradition for many Aboriginal people today.The rituals of the Midewiwin were observed by many 19th century Euro-Americans, most of whom approached these ceremonies with hostility and suspicion. As a result, although there were many accounts of the Midewiwin published in the 19th century, they were often riddled with misinterpretations and inaccuracies.Historian Michael Angel compares the early texts written about the Midewiwin, and identifies major, common misconceptions in these accounts. In his explanation of the historical role played by the Midewiwin, he provides alternative viewpoints and explanations of the significance of the ceremonies, while respecting the sacred and symbolic nature of the Midewiwin rituals, songs, and scrolls.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Cover 1
Contents 6
List of Maps and Illustrations 7
Preface 8
Acknowledgements 14
1. In Search of the Midewiwin 18
2. Anishinaabe Religion and Society in the Pre- and Early Contact Period 32
3. Midewiwin Origins: Anishinaabe and Euro-American Perspectives 62
4. Midewiwin Ceremonies: Documentary Fragments from Euro-American Observers 92
5. Midewiwin Ceremonies: Ethnographic Records of a Society under Siege 134
6. Toward a New Understanding of the Midewiwin 192
Endnotes 202
Glossary 246
A 246
G 246
D 246
B 246
I 246
J 247
M 247
N 248
O 248
Z 248
W 248
Bibliography 250
B 278
Index 278
A 278
C 279
D 280
E 280
H 281
G 281
F 281
J 282
I 282
K 283
L 283
M 283
O 286
N 286
P 287
Q 287
R 287
S 288
T 288
U 289
V 289
W 289
Y 289
Z 289
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View all activities
Dissolving ‘coral’ and ‘shells’ in vinegar
This activity demonstrates the ability of an acidic substance (in this case, vinegar) to ‘dissolve’ coral reefs and shells which protect ocean life. Although corals and shells are not dissolving as fast as demonstrated in this experiment, it is possible to reach these levels in the future.
Ages 10+
10 minutes
1. Carefully half fill a clear cup or container with clear vinegar.
2. Add a piece of chalk to the container. Some chalk is made with a protective cover to stop chalk rubbing off on hands. It may help to break a piece of chalk into smaller pieces to better see effects of the vinegar.
3. Observe what is happening. Older children and adults can try to guess the chemical reaction that is taking place.
More ideas
You can also try this activity using sea shells instead of chalk. If you do not live near the sea, these could be collected from a local restaurant that serves sea food. Shells with rough or ridged surfaces will react more quickly than those with smooth surfaces.
Safety guidance
• Check that there are no allergy issues to chalk or vinegar.
Brought to you by
Coral Oceans Science 11 14 Thumb
Science | Ages 11-14
Coral Oceans
These resources for ages 11-14 are based on the journeys undertaken by science teams taking part in the XL Catlin Seaview Survey expeditions. Starting with the Great Barrier Reef in 2012, these expeditions seek to create a baseline survey of the world's reefs as well as more in-depth research on the deep reef lying between 30m and 100m.
Frozen Oceans Science 11 14 Thumb
Science | Ages 11-14
Frozen Oceans
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"language_score": 0.8784402012825012,
"url": "https://encounteredu.com/steam-activities/dissolving-coral-and-shells-in-vinegar"
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A sheriff or Constable/Marshal Badge has a long history in american policing.
But where did it start and what did it mean?
In early societies the star was believed to have magical powers and anyone who wore it could protect others and ward off evil forces. This continued after the rise of Christianity and the use of the star was given high importance. In most armies we see the use of the star for generals which signifies power.
The earliest uses were found in the east coast based on British members of the Chivalric Order of Justice. This group was akin to a Knight and members were to defend the Christian faith and care for the suffering.
In the early colonies Chief Constables and High Court Judges wore these badges. Colonist adopted these star shaped badges as a symbol of justice. They were used in the eastern states at first with no requirement to wear them.
After America became a country the star shaped badges were adopted by only large departments that could afford them. In the smaller departments everyone knew each other so there was no need to wear a special uniform or badge. This changed as immigrants increased and social migration occurred.
Out west officers began to use metal from tin cans and made badges. Star badges were easier to make than circles or shields. Over time municipal departments starting using the shield as they could afford it and wanted to adopt a symbol of protection. Badges started including the name of the department in the center of the badge but this was expensive.
In Texas, Rangers adopted their flag with one star and made a badge with it including a circle around the star. Most sheriff’s departments and town constables continued to use the star badge including the U.S. Marshals.
Today star badges are either 5, 6, or 7 points.
Dr. Kuch has a PhD, MA, and MS in Criminal Justice. He is a former Deputy Sheriff and has taught for over twenty years. He is on the adjunct faculty at Galatasaray University.
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Sea squirts, sea tulips and other ascidians
Sea squirts and sea tulips are collectively known as ascidians (Ancient Greek: askidion = wineskin), characterised by a tough outer “tunic” made of cellulose.
Ascidians are the evolutionary link between invertebrates and vertebrates. They are an invertebrate with some primitive vertebrate features, such as a primitive backbone during a stage in their life cycle.
Adult ascidians are “sessile” (unable to move around): they attach themselves to rocks or shells. Adult ascidians filter food particles from the water by pumping water in one siphon and out the other. This filter feeding habit allows adult ascidians to accumulate pollutants, so by observing ascidian populations, we can get a good indication of pollution levels of the environment.
Sydney has over 80 species of ascidians. They are usually found in shallow water environments. Their common name of sea squirt arises from their habit of squirting a jet of water when you stand on or near them when they are uncovered at low tide. And sea tulips are named for their flower-like appearance and stalked bodies.
Learn where the name "Cunjevoi" comes from and what this sea squirt is being used for in today's society. Discover the unique relationship between the sea tulip and a sponge and learn why they grow together.
Marvel at the Dark Ascidians' range of colours, sizes and shapes that even scientists in the past assumed they were all different species.
Sea squirts & sea tulips factsheets
6 Fact Sheets in this section
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UNCRC Series
9, Jan 2020
Rare disease and drug treatment
Children with rare disease often need drug treatment as part of their care. Drugs to treat rare disease can be rare ‘orphan drugs’ and many are still in their trial phase when they are used to try and treat people with rare diseases. Sometimes this means that not all of the harms and benefits are known while the drugs are being used in the trial phase. As many rare diseases are progressive, it is especially important that children have timely access to these drugs as they can lead to improvements for people living with rare disease. It is critical that the use of orphan drugs is governed by strong laws and oversight to make sure that the benefits can be harnessed and any potential harm is limited.
https://www.unicef.org.au/Upload/UNICEF/Media/Our%20work/childfriendlycrc.pdf – Article 33
Share This
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"url": "https://gardn.org.au/news/uncrc-series-27/"
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A Counter-Narrative: Otoe-Missourias
Courtesy of the Otoe & Missouria tribe at http://www.omtribe.org/
Five Hundred Years of History
The Otoes also call themselves Jiwere (jee-WEH-ray) and the Missourias who call themselves Nutachi (noo-TAH-chi) were related to each other in language and customs, but they were still two distinct people.
The state of Nebraska gets its name to the Otoe-Missourias. It is from two Otoe-Missouria words “Ni Brathge” (nee BRAHTH-gay) which means “water flat." This name came from the Platt River which flows through the state and at some places moves so slowly and calmly that it is flat.
The state of Missouri and the Missouri River are both named after the Missouria Tribe, which once lived in the region and controlled traffic and trade along the Missouri River and its tributaries. Trade was a vital part of Otoe and Missouria life for centuries. They traded with the Spanish, French and Americans for various goods. All three nations courted the Otoes and Missourias for exclusive trading agreements.
In 1881 they were moved to Red Rock, Oklahoma, where the tribe is currently located. Otoe and Missouria children were taken away from their parents and sent to government boarding schools to be “civilized”. The children had to learn English. Tribal elders remember being punished for speaking their native language at school. The stigma of speaking the traditional language passed into the home. Some tribal members did not teach their children their language because they did not want them to be punished in school or because they thought it would be better for them to learn “white ways."
In 1834, a missionary named Reverend Moses Merrill created a system of writing the Otoe language. He published a book of Otoe church hymns called Wdtwhtl Wdwdklha Tva Eva Wdhonetl. The title of the book translates to “Otoe book their song sacred”. This book is considered to be the first book ever published in Nebraska.
Otoe-Missouria land was again taken from the tribe in 1887 when the U.S. government passed the Dawes Act. The act provided for the distribution of tribally held lands in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) into individually-owned parcels. This broke up the Otoe-Missouria reservation and opened land deemed as "surplus" to settlement by non-Indians and development by railroads. It was not long before one-half of the allotted lands were lost from Indian possession due to arbitrary and exploitive practices of so-called guardians. The Otoe-Missourias fought in court for justice and received judgment on their land claims case in the 1960s.
Today most of the nearly 3,000 tribal members still live in the state of Oklahoma, but there are members who live throughout the United States including New Jersey, California, Hawaii and Alaska. The tribe is still one of the smaller tribes in Oklahoma, but led by a progressive Tribal Council, they have parlayed their gaming revenue into long-term investment in other sustainable industries including retail ventures, loan companies, agriculture, natural resource development, hospitality, entertainment and several other projects still in development. Tribal members perpetuate tribal traditions with feasts, dances, an annual powwow and song leaders continue lineage, clan and tribal ties.
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"url": "https://peacestudies.missouri.edu/di/tribes?q=di/counter"
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Hakai Magazine
Coastal science and societies
A tile mosaic of fishermen from Utica. Photo by Nico Tondini/Robert Harding World Imagery/Corbis
Finding Utica’s Hidden Harbor
Archaeologists are honing in on the ancient Phoenician city’s long lost harbor.
Authored by
by Zach Zorich
Article body copy
In 1101 BCE, a group of Phoenician settlers stood atop a promontory on Tunisia’s north shore, looking out to the site that would become one of their first African colonies. Down below, the Mejerda River flowed into the Mediterranean Sea, carving a fertile valley fit for farming wheat and raising cattle. But for this culture of sea traders and sailors, it was likely the nearby natural harbor that made this the perfect place to set down roots. And so, the city of Utica was founded.
Utica was one of the earliest colonies in the Western Mediterranean, and the harbor kept the city connected—economically and culturally—to the rest of the ancient world. But the river, the one that provided water for the fields and carried boats full of grain to far off markets, also provided a constant flow of silt into the harbor. Over time, Utica’s harbor became shallower and more difficult to navigate and in the fifth century CE, the once prosperous port city was cut off from the sea.
Today, so much silt and sediment has built up at the mouth of the Mejerda that the remains of ancient Utica now sit ten kilometers inland. And the location of the city’s harbor, now filled in with earth, has remained a mystery—until now.
While conducting a geological survey of the land that was once the Tunisian shoreline, a group of researchers discovered what they think is the exact location of Utica’s ancient harbor. The researchers analyzed a series of sediment cores taken from across the area. Looking at how the sediment in the cores changed over time allowed the researchers to recreate the geological history of the shoreline and to see how the Mejerda River silt was changing the depth of the harbor as well as the location of the coastline.
Columns and stone blocks stand in the ruins of ancient Utica. Photo by Roger Wood/Corbis
In the ancient world, Utica was the second most important city in North Africa, trailing only Carthage. For the past 100 years, the city’s ruins have been of intense interest to archaeologists.
Throughout its long history, Utica sided with, at times, both the rising Roman Republic and the Carthaginians in a series of wars for supremacy over the Mediterranean. From 149 to 146 BCE, Utica sided with Rome in a war that ended with the Roman army razing Carthage. In the post-war period, Rome made Utica the capital of their new province of Africa.
Nearly 100 years later, Utica became embroiled in the Roman civil war. The city became a base for some of the legions opposed to Julius Caesar. In 46 BCE, the Utican opposition suffered a decisive defeat at the battle of Thapsus. One of Caesar’s opponents, the respected political leader and philosopher Cato the Younger, committed suicide in Utica rather than live under Caesar’s rule.
Despite the political turmoil, Utica continued to prosper for another 500 years or so, growing to a peak population of 15,000 to 30,000. Yet all through its history, the delta of the Mejerda River was expanding out to sea, filling the harbor with silt. As the new geological research shows, by the middle of the sixth century CE a peat bog had developed on the northern side of the promontory atop which the settlers had once stood—a murky, thick landscape that cut the city off from its harbor. Eventually, the harbor became impassable and the city’s fate was sealed.
“The harbor was a vital lifeline,” says Elizabeth Fentress, an archaeologist who worked on the project. “Its final silting up in the late-Roman period caused the abandonment of the town.”
The new geological research shows the location of the harbor—on the northwest side of the city—but doesn’t provide much other new information. But that should change now that archaeologists know where to look.
“Knowledge of the port system [will be] fundamental to determining the nature of the city during the Phoenician and Roman civilizations,” says geologist Hugo Delile. The team has finished their planned excavations, but they will continue to explore the harbor by taking more sediment cores in the hope that they will be able to find out more about the harbor that connected Utica to the world.
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Step 4: Gem Grading
Lesson 1
The Diamond Four Cs Standard
Until the 1930s, no standards for gemstone grading existed. When the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) instituted the Four Cs method for grading diamonds, it revolutionized the industry. This method became the standard we still use today. Prior to this, individual dealers set their own standards. One might grade diamonds as A, B, and C, while another would grade them AAA, AA, and A. In this case, the second dealer’s A grade equaled the first’s C grade. You can imagine the confusion. Standardization was a boon to both the public and professionals.
Colored Gemstone Grading
On the other hand, colored stones still don’t have a gemstone grading standard. It’s unlikely they will in the near future, too. Too many gems and too many variables just make a simplified system like the diamond method impossible. So, rather than assigning a grade to a gem, gemologists describe its Four “C qualities:” color, clarity, cut, and carat or weight. For example, an amethyst’s color could be described as medium purple or very deep purple with clearly visible red flashes. Gemologists would note any inclusions present,…
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We enjoyed our practical science lesson; finding out how blood circulates around the body. First we got into our house teams then we were given parts of the body that we had to arrange in the correct area on the floor. This took lots of discussion and listening skills to end up with the labels in the right order.
Then half of the class stood by the labels and became that body part. The rest of the class became blood. The children collected red blood cells (red card) from the lungs; they then went to the right side of the heart who told them where in the body to go. They travelled to the named body part and gave over their red blood cells in exchange for deoxygenated blood cells (blue card). They travelled to the heart which then pumped them up to the lungs; here they exchanged their deoxygenated blood for oxygenated blood.
It took us a few goes before everyone understood exactly where to go and how to exchange the gases in their blood but we got there and everyone learnt lots about how blood is circulated around the body.
The next thing we did was the children got into their house teams and then split into two groups. One child was the scribe and the others had to run around the hall one at a time to find a statement. They had to memorize the statement and then tell it back to the scribe who wrote it down. While the scribe was writing; the next runner found a different statement to memorize. When all the statements were written down the group had to decide which order the statements should appear as they happen in the body. Lara, Bella, Zara were the first to finish!
Teamwork was essential! Everyone had to listen to each other and help each other to succeed.
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About Seesaw Sign Up
Teachers, save “Stellaluna and Animal Adaptations” to assign it to your class.
Sandy Kendell
Student Instructions
Stellaluna and Animal Adaptations
1. Click on the picture of the woman holding the Stellaluna book to listen to her read the story of Stellaluna. The video will open in a new tab in your web browser or a new app on your tablet. As you listen to Stellaluna, think about how animal adaptations play a role in the story. What are the adaptations and are they always used the way they're meant to be used? 2. When the story is finished, return to Seesaw. Then click on add 3. On the first pages page, type your answer to the questions about Stellaluna and adaptations. Elaborate by typing three or more sentences. You can add another pages page if you need more room to type. 4. Go to the next pages page and use the pencil pencil, pen pen, and other drawing tools to draw a scene from the story of Stellaluna where animal adaptations are being used, even if they are being used in ways they aren't meant to be. (If you would rather draw the scene on paper, you can use the photo photo tool to take a picture of your drawing and upload it.) 5. Use the label label tool to label the places in your scene where the adaptations are being used. 6. Use the mic mic tool to record yourself explaining how animal adaptations are being used in your drawing. If they are being used in ways they aren't meant to be, how are they meant to be used? 7. When you are finished with your recording, check over all of your work, and then post your work to your Seesaw journal.
3rd Grade, 5th Grade, 4th Grade, Science, English Language Arts, Writing
2 teachers like this
Students will edit this template:
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The Massachusett Then
We are Still Here – A Survivors’ Story by The Massachusett
Before the arrival of European Traders or the English settlers to the coasts of Massachusetts, The Confederation of Indigenous Massachusett lived and thrived in the now State of Massachusetts for years beyond counting. Indigenous Massachusett Villages spanned from Salem to Cape Cod along the coast, and inland as far west as Worcester. The Massachusett People, led by their Sac’hems, hunted, fished, worked the quarries and created their tools. They planted vast fields of corn, squash and beans, harvested, stored, celebrated, practiced their religion, built their homes, raised their families and enjoyed prosperity. One of the Massachusett Tribes was the Neponset and their Sac’hem was Chickataubut, Principal Chief of the Massachusett when the English came into his territory to settle. Sac’hem Chickataubut had many residences throughout his territory. His principal seat was at Passanageset. He buried his Mother there. This suggests that this was his mother’s village and perhaps the birthplace of Chickataubut.
Long before 1620, European Traders traveled throughout New England trading goods with the indigenous tribes of New England. With them they brought diseases that were deadly to the indigenous people who had no immunity to these new diseases. Plagues traveled throughout the region devastating the tribes and dramatically reducing their numbers. The Massachusett Tribes and villages were greatly affected. Their defenses against rival tribes were reduced.
Beginning with the Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 by the grace of King Charles of England and his claiming of “New England, America and everything in it,”* the Indigenous Massachusett were officially a targeted people. Having already suffered through devastating plagues (through contacts with foreign traders and invaders) that had drastically reduced their numbers, the order from King Charles was “to reduce or convert to submission the indigenous people of New England.”*
The Massachusetts Bay Colony stood dead in the center of the territory of the Neponset Band of the Indigenous Massachusett People led by their Sac’hem, Chickataubut. Some of the Masssachusett summer camps were close by to Boston, Quincy, and Hingham Harbors including Passanagesett and Moswetusett Hummuck. They have come to be called Sac’hem Seats. Inland, the Neponset Territory included what is now called the Blue Hills, but in the time before now was called Massawachuset (the place of many great hills) and from where the Massachusett People took their name.
Although Chickataubut traveled to Plymouth as early as 1621 to treaty with the newcomers and offer areas of his territory for their camp, he expected tribute from them, just as he would from any group settling in his territory. Some of the earliest disputes between the settlers and the Massachusett arose as a result of the settlers mistaking their tributes to the Sac’hems to be sales of the land.
Along with the pilgrims at Plymouth, Chickataubut also had to deal with the leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony who had settled in the midst of Chickataubut’s Neponset Territory and who were mandated to “reduce or convert to submission” his people. Chickataubut was not to be converted to submission. He controlled a territory rich in resources, from plentiful whaling /fishing waters and hunting grounds, which produced meat and skins, to large and fertile fields of corn, beans, and squash, which, along with the fish and meat that fed his people in summer, were dried and stored for winter use. The Neponset Quarries produced materials for tool making for use and trade. Chickataubut did not form treaties or agreements that would lead to his ultimate inability to deal effectively with the English from a place of power.
Massachusett Tribal life was matriarchal. Women of the tribe trapped small game, gathered shellfish, wild grains, greens, and herbs for food and medicine. The women of the tribe owned and tended the planting fields. The children were employed to keep the birds away from the planted fields. The women also built and owned the wetus (summer huts) and winter long houses that the tribal members lived in. The women were also the potters and basket weavers, wood gatherers, and fire keepers. Women took an active role in decision making, along with the men and elders within the tribe. Men of the tribe were responsible for mining, whaling, fishing, hunting, and for protecting the tribe and its territory against encroachment by other indigenous tribes.
The quarries within the Massachusett Territory supplied stone, quartz, minerals for tools, weapons, cellars, ceremony, etc. These were also valuable trade items. All the valuable resources under Chichataubut’s control did not go unnoticed by rival tribes and raids on the Massachusett fields and resources had to be defended. Chickataubut was often challenged by other tribes from the north and west seeking to take over this valuable territory. These attempts were not successful, but because of the reduced numbers of men of the tribe, defending the territory took up much valuable time, energy, and the lives of fewer men who would ordinarily be hunting, mining, whaling, and fishing.
Already weakened from former plagues, the village at Passanageset was struck with still another plague (probably smallpox). Chickataubut moved quickly with the uninfected (not even stopping to bury the dead) over to Moswetusett Hummock seeking to save them from certain death. Chickataubut lived with his people at Moswetusett Hummock until 1633 where he was finally struck down by small pox. Knowing the English dictate to reduce or convert to submission Chickataubut and his people and knowing Chickataubut to be a great political influence who was unwilling to submit, we, the descendants of Chickataubut’s Neponset Band, believe that the smallpox infection at Passanageset and Moswetusett was intentionally produced by the English through the trade of infected blankets. The English knew that the Indigenous People valued them greatly, so it would be an efficient way of infecting the tribe.
We don’t know how many, if any, remained or returned to Moswetusett Hummock after Chickataubut’s death. We know Wampatuck (later known as Josiah Chickataubut), Chickataubut’s son, was in line to succeed him and that Kitchamakin, Chickataubut’s brother, brought Wompatuck back to Neponset with him as he was still a boy. Kitchamakin was “appointed” (by whom we don’t know) to govern as Sac’hem during the minority of Wompatuck. Before Chickataubut’s Death in 1633, he had reserved Ponkapoag, a part of the Neponset territory, for his people. Ponkapoag was an area of the Blue Hills extending into and including areas now known as Canton, Stoughton, parts of Randolph, and the territory extending west and south of this area. His son and grandson honored this territory and never gave Ponkapoag over to the English. And that is why we, The Massachusett, are still here.
Many of Chickataubut’s tribe at Neponset joined others living at Ponkapoag after his death. They lived with Kitchamakin and then Wampatuck as their Sac’hem and then his son. They did not live unmolested by the English or competing tribes. The English encroached upon even these set aside lands, and by 1657 the English had reduced this area to 6,000 acres and under the direction of The Reverend John Elliot, proclaimed Ponkapoag a praying town. Not all of the residents of Ponkapoag were Christianized, however, and many from the time of Chickataubut continued with their traditional way of life. Wampatuck, and in turn his son, continued in the traditional ways. There were many Massachusett who never did forsake their traditional ways and never failed to pass them on to the next generation.
We are The Massachusett, descendants of Chickataubut’s Band of Massachusett at Neponset. This is how against all odds we have survived as a people.
Ritual Dance, drum, rattle, song, and rites of passage all enable the present day Massachusett Tribe to transfer the knowledge of our Ancestors to succeeding generations.
We have an oral tradition of storytelling, just as our ancestors did, that passes on the Massachusett World View of how the world works, our relationship with all of nature, and why things are the way they are.
There are Medicine Ways thousands of years old that we still practice today.
We thank our ancestors for keeping the traditions, for their foresight, and the gifts they left to us. Tabutne.
*The Charter of Massachusetts Bay 1629; American Colonist’s Library- Primary Source Documents
Please visit the website of the Massachusett:
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The world and humans for students and their parents
What is money?
From the book by Andrey Sokolov and Tatiana Sokolova "The world and humans for students and their parents".
Money is a versatile measuring instrument. It allows you to compare a loaf of bread to a tractor, a sandwich to a movie, a ride on an ice cream carousel. This happens by comparing their cost.
Due to the fact that money allows you to compare completely dissimilar goods and services, they are very convenient to use. Having rendered a service to someone and received payment for it, sold the goods and put the received in your pocket or wallet, you can safely go to the store, leave for another city and even to the other end of the country and be sure that you can exchange the received papers and coins for absolutely other goods and services, pay for something else.
This is an important quality of money.
Perhaps you once changed in class with candy wrappers or colored glass. And sometimes you needed candy wrappers and you changed your eraser for a couple of beautiful candy wrappers. And it worked well within the classroom. But in another class, school, and even more so in a store, it would not work. No one would have thought of exchanging a lollipop or even a pencil stub for a couple of candy wrappers. But for money you could buy a lollipop.
This is the versatility of money and the limitations of candy wrappers. You can pay off with candy wrappers only in your class, if everyone has agreed that you can pay with them.
But even money can be "candy wrappers". And this happens when the money that can be paid in one country is not recognized in another. Just like your candy wrappers are not recognized in another school or store.
How can you check whether your country's money is "candy wrappers" or not? The easiest way is to come to another country and look at the price tags in the store. If the name of the money that is in your pocket is written on them, then everything is in order - the money of your country is recognized in this one too. This situation may arise, for example, if you came from France to Germany, from Spain to Finland, or from the Czech Republic to Latvia. But if you come to Germany, for example, from the USA, Japan, China, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan or Russia, you will not be able to pay for ice cream at the checkout of the store with the money that you brought with you. You will have to go to the bank. And just then it turns out - "candy wrappers" in your pocket or real money.
If the bank calmly takes the money of your country and exchanges it for the money of the country you came to, then you have real money. If not - "candy wrappers".
Even the money of your country in your own country may turn out to be "candy wrappers". The point is that money changes periodically. This may be due to a change in design, protection from counterfeiters, a change in the state system in the country, or for other reasons. Then, after some time, old-style money is no longer accepted in stores to pay for goods.
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What would be the danger in the shift in ruling philosophy seen in Xerxes' reign?
Expert Answers
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The danger of the shift in ruling philosophies that was seen in the reign of Xerxes I was that that shift would bring about more rebellions and tensions within the empire. This danger actually was realized in the rebellions in such places as Egypt and Babylon.
The shift in ruling philosophy was a shift from toleration to a lack thereof. Xerxes’ predecessors had been religiously tolerant. They had held their own religious beliefs, but they had not tried to impose those beliefs on others. Xerxes broke away from this tradition. He tried to force various peoples of his empire to adhere to the same beliefs that he held.
This led to rebellions because it alienated the populations whose religions he tried to suppress. For example, Xerxes angered the Egyptians when he refused to be crowned as their ruler using the rituals required by their religion. This did not seem like a major problem until the rebelled. Their rebellion eventually led to them breaking away from the empire.
Toleration tends to make empires more stable. When Xerxes chose to move away from toleration, he set in motion forces that weakened his empire. This was why his shift in ruling philosophies was dangerous.
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Storytime/Read Aloud: Tadpole's Promise, by Jeanne Willis
Jeanne Willis writes special picture books and "Tadpoles Promise" is a great example. The ending is a real surprise and will delight children. She has other ...
Read Tadpole’s Promise. Define promise, i.e. saying that you will do something. Identify the promise that tadpole makes. Ask your child to share the promises they have made. Write a list of these on the board or a sheet of paper. Consider why it is important to keep promises. Discuss how it feels when promises are kept and broken. (Links with PSED) Now look at your worksheet. Think about the promise that Tadpole made and complete the sentence on your worksheet. Then talk with your adult about how Tadpole broke his promise, complete the worksheet by writing how Tadpole broke his promise.
Make an articulated frog. Children need to colour your frog and cut out the body and legs.
insert a split pin through the black holes in the legs and body to join them together (fine motor skills), and make it move!
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Birds, Flowers, Nicknames
Download PDF
Subject: U.S. Geography
Knowledge: Identifying state nicknames, state birds, and state flowers, connections to symbolism in literature
Skills: Critical Thinking, Collaboration, Oral Communication
Grade Levels: 2-8 (Ages 7-14)
Objective: Students will recall state nicknames, birds, and flowers by region as well as understand why learning this information is important.
Standards: Varies by state
Connection: Before playing the first time, teacher will engage students by asking probing question(s). Use any or all:
1. How many of you have a nickname? Show of hands and/or students share. Why do we have them? Nicknames are either shortened versions of a person’s name (Thomas = Tom) or a descriptive name for a person, place or thing. (Provide an example from literature such as Jerry Spinelli’s “Maniac” Magee or provide an example that your students will know.)
2. Does anyone know our state’s nickname? Answers vary
3. Why does every state have a nickname? States are unique with different and proud histories. Every state has a nickname based on its own historical information. Example: Alaska is also known as The Last Frontier. Why? Being near the Arctic Circle, it was one of the last states to be explored and settled.
4. Where can you see state nicknames every day? A: License plates! The next time you are in a car or walking down the street, how many state nicknames can you find?
5. What are symbols? A symbol is simply something that stands for something else. Example: The Stanley Cup or World Series Ring symbolizes a level of achievement. The United States flag symbolizes freedom. In literature, writers use symbols to reflect a characteristic, mood or emotion. Example: Oftentimes, a rainy setting in books symbolizes sadness. As you are reading, take note of rainy days and see if the main character is experiencing sadness in some way. (Or provide relevant example from your Program of Studies.)
6. What is our national bird and what does it symbolize, or represent? Bald Eagle. The Bald Eagle symbolizes the United States because it is a majestic and proud bird, just like our country!
7. Did you know we have a state bird? Does anyone know what it is? Answers vary
8. Why do states have state birds? Have students talk and turn to a shoulder/face partner. Ask for volunteers to share ideas. Official symbols represent the cultural and natural traditions of every state in our nation, just like the Bald Eagle symbolizes our country. Identifying state birds began in 1927. Every state has identified a state bird. Fun fact: Seven states have the Cardinal as its state bird!
9. We also have another state symbol: a state flower. Many states chose their flowers based on hardiness, medicinal value or historical prominence. Some states asked elementary school children to select the state flower. What is our state flower? Answers vary.
Playing the Game: We will play a game where we will learn the state symbols and nicknames. Remind students where to find the information on the GeoPlunge cards.
Cards Used: GeoPlunge Cards
Create teams of 1-3 students. Two teams play against each other. If there is an odd number of teams, that team becomes the teacher helpers for the game and rotate in the next round. The objective is for each team to use clues such as state nickname, state bird, or state flower to guess the name of the GeoPlunge state held by its opponents.
Step 1: Determine who guesses first. (A fun way to do this: Say: “Whichever team has a player whose birthday is closest to today goes first.” or “Whichever team has the tallest/shortest player goes first.” or “Whichever team has a player with the longest/shortest feet/hair.” etc.) Deal each team one GeoPlunge card face down. Teams may look at their card but should NOT show their opponent.
Step 2: The first guessing team will have up to three guesses to correctly identify the state of the GeoPlunge card held by its opponent. Before each guess, the clue-giving team provides one clue: state nickname, state bird, or state flower in any order. If the guessing team cannot identify the state held by its opponent, a different second clue is given. If necessary, a different third clue is given. The clue-giving team cannot give the same clue twice.
Step 3: After the first guessing team correctly guesses the name of the state held by its opponent or has made 3 incorrect guesses, the teams switch roles with the first guessing team then providing clues regarding its state. The second guessing team does not continue to guess once it has won or lost even if it has not made all three guesses.
Step 4: After playing, collect the GeoPlunge cards. Hand out new GeoPlunge cards to each team and play again. Play the game for a designated time period.
What’s Next?
Introduce another GeoPlunge game or learning activity.
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Want to improve the taste of strawberries? Make them peachy
Better tasting strawberries have a hint of peach to their flavor, thanks to a single gene. Scientists say this knowledge can be used to identify and breed strawberry plants with stronger and sweeter fruits.
Two studies, published in the open access journal BMC Genomics agree that the gene FaFAD1, which is activated in ripening fruits, including peaches and apricots, produces a key component of strawberry flavor. They also found that the gene is missing entirely from many popular strawberry varieties.
Flavor is a complex interaction between chemicals in food and the human senses. The gene, FaFAD1 encodes a fatty-acid desaturase, which kick-starts production of a gamma-decalactone, the compound that gives peaches their distinctive flavor. Modern strawberry farmers have bred their crops to improve yield and size, but not necessarily flavor. The scientists say that the identification of this gene will mean it can be easily detected in breeding populations, allowing researchers to identify specific breeding lines with a high likelihood of improved flavors. This “marker-assisted” approach will allow strawberry breeders to produce new varieties with improved flavors faster than with conventional breeding methods.
The paper by researchers at IFAPA in Malaga, Spain, used 20 different breeding lines of strawberries, mostly with a Californian origin. They searched across the genomes of these lines for genes associated with fruit producing gamma-decalactone, and showed that lines without FaFAD1 never produced gamma-decalactone. This was also true for several additional lines tested.
At the same time, the group at the University of Florida looked at gene expression in the strawberry fruits of an aromatic French variety, and compared it to the genes expressed in fruits that did and didn’t produce gamma-decalactone. This identified the single gene FaFAD1 which was not even present in the fruits that did not produce the compound.
Dr Iraida Amaya, from IFAPA-Centro de Churriana, Spain says: “The fact that the same gene is responsible for the variation in gamma-decalactone in very diverse cultivars is very important. Ours have mostly a Californian pedigree while Dr. Folta used a parental line from the Florida and an aromatic cultivar with French origin. This means that a marker in this gene would likely predict the presence/absence of the gene in breeding programs worldwide. The implementation of different markers for each desired trait will hopefully allow the efficient breeding of highly productive strawberries with tasteful fruits in the future.”
Dr Kevin Folta from the University of Florida says: “Because two different methods arrived at the same conclusion, it allows us to be a little more firm about connecting this gene to the trait in the absence of biochemical and transgenic plant data. As a scientist I always want more data to make sure I’m not making a mistake. When scientists like Dr. Amaya’s group say you have it correct, that’s really solid confirmation!”
Media Contact
Anna Perman
Media Officer
BioMed Central
T: +44 (0)20 3192 2429
Notes to Editor
1. Identification of a Candidate Strawberry Flavor Gene Using an Integrated Genetic-Genomic-Analytical Chemistry Approach
Alan H. Chambers, Jeremy Pillet, Anne Plotto, Jinhe Bai, Vance M. Whitaker and Kevin M. Folta
BMC Genomics 2014, 15:217
Available at the journal website
Deciphering gamma-decalactone biosynthesis in 1 strawberry fruit using a combination of genetic mapping, RNA-Seq and eQTL analyses
Jose F. Sanchez-Sevilla, Eduardo Cruz-Rus, Victoriano Valpuesta, Miguel A. Botella and Iraida Amaya
BMC Genomics 2014, 15:218
Available at journal website
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This post is part of our series exploring Christopher Booker’s theory of plot types in The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Write StoriesSee type 12345, and 6, and 7.
The two best known of the basic plots are comedy and tragedy, These two basic plot types make up the two halves of the drama masks that represent classic theatre, and you can categorize most of Shakespeare’s plays into one of the two.
King Lear
Everybody dies in Shakespeare’s tragedies. Photo by Anthony Topper
Today’s basic plot: the tragedy.
Want to learn more about plot types? Check out my new book, The Write Structure, on sale for $0.99 (for a limited time!). It helps writers like you make their plot better and write books readers love. Click to get the book.
What Is Tragedy?
Here are the stages of a Tragedy:
Anticipation Stage
Dream Stage
Frustration Stage
Nightmare Stage
Destruction or Death Wish Stage
The Write StructureNeed more plot help? After you practice this plot type in the exercise below, check out my new book The Write Structure which helps writers make their plot better and write books readers love. Low price for a limited time!
Get The Write Structure – $9.99 $0.99 »
Liz Bureman
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What is a Gület?
A schooner (Schooner in English) is a sailing ship equipped with two to seven masts, appeared between the sixteenth and the seventeenth century and which reached its peak in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is characterized:
a wooden frame, a characteristic rig,
an undeniable charm, a shallow draft which makes it possible to run aground near the beaches,
and a floating hotel as part of organized cruises./br> This rig was invented by Dutch sailors in the sixteenth century under the name "Schoener" which gave the English term Schooner. According to language scholar Walter William Skeat, “schooner” comes from Scoon, while the spelling sch comes from the later adoption of the Dutch spelling (“de schoener”). Another study suggests that the 17th-century Dutch phrase, "een Schoone Schip" ("Schoone" meaning beautiful in Dutch) may have led to the English spelling Schooner used by English speakers to describe early versions of the platform. schooner as it evolved in England and America. -
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The science behind Mona Lisa’s smile
Another piece of science that augments the Mona Lisa’s smile comes from Leonardo’s research on optics: He realized that light rays do not come to a single point in the eye, but instead hit the whole area of the retina. The central area of the retina, known as the fovea, has closely packed cones and is best at seeing small details; the area surrounding the fovea is best at picking up shadows and shadings of black and white. When we look at an object straight on, it appears sharper. When we look at it peripherally, glimpsing it with the corner of our eye, it is a bit blurrier, as if it were farther away.
With this knowledge, Leonardo was able to create an interactive smile, one that is elusive if we are too intent on seeing it. The fine lines at the corners of Lisa’s mouth show a small downturn—just like the mouth floating atop the anatomy sheet. If you stare directly at the mouth, the retina catches these tiny details and delineations, making her appear not to be smiling. But if you move your gaze slightly away, to look at her eyes or cheeks or some other part of the painting, you will catch sight of her mouth only peripherally. It will be a bit blurrier. The tiny delineations at the corners of the mouth become indistinct, but you will still see the shadows at her mouth’s edge. These shadows and the soft sfumato at the edge of her mouth make her lips seem to turn upward into a subtle smile. The result is a smile that twinkles brighter the less you search for it.
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CPM Homework Banner
Cisco was looking at a table of values from a silent board game of . She said, “This table contains , so I think it shows a proportional relationship.” Is Cisco correct? Why or why not?
Proportional relationships do contain the point , but is she sure that the graph makes a straight line or that the table has points with corresponding ratios?
Examine the graph of to the right.
Why is Cisco incorrect?
A parabola.
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Norway annexed a huge part of Antarctica
Norway annexed a huge part of Antarctica
On January 14, 1936, Norway declared annexation of a large area of Antarctica called Queen Maud Land. The annexation of the area was justified by the fact that the Norwegians first set foot on that part of Antarctica. Namely, Norwegian explorer Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen first came there in 1930. The territory was named the Land of Queen Maud after the then Queen of Norway, wife of King Haakon VII. from Norway. Queen Maud was actually born of a British royal family by birth (she was the granddaughter of Queen Victoria and also the descendant of the current British Queen Elizabeth II.)
Norway claims land on Queen Maud Land today. It is a vast expanse of approximately 2,700,000 square kilometers, that is, 270 million hectares. It is a territory almost 48 times larger than the territory of the Republic of Croatia, and about seven times larger than the Norwegian territory in Europe. In comparison, India is only 10% larger than Queen Maud's Land.
There are 12 research stations on Queen Maud's land today, two of which belong to Norway, two to Germany, two to Japan and one each to Sweden, South Africa, Russia, Belgium, India and Finland.
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What are the steps of a theory?
What are the steps of a theory?
Researchers who are building descriptive theory proceed through three steps: observation, categorization, and association.
• Step 1: Observation. In the first step researchers observe phenomena and carefully describe and measure what they see.
• Step 2: Classification.
• Step 3: Defining Relationships.
What is parsimony in nursing theory?
Parsimony requires a theory to be stated in the most economical way possible without oversimplifying the phe- nomena of interest. This means that the fewer the concepts and propositions needed to fully explicate the phenomena of interest, the better.
What’s an example of parsimony?
Parsimony is defined as extreme frugality or the use of extreme caution in spending money. When you analyze every purchase and are very careful about spending even small amounts of money, this is an example of parsimony. Great reluctance to spend money unnecessarily.
Why is parsimony used?
The concept of parsimony is used to help people identify the most reasonable explanation for a phenomenon or the best solution to a problem, based on the complexity of the available options. The complexity of a given explanation or solution can be defined in many ways, based on the context and on the factors involved.
READ: What is PDU autosar?
What is parsimony analysis?
Parsimony analysis is the second primary way to estimate phylogenetic trees from aligned sequences. In the parsimony approach, the goal is to identify that phylogeny that requires the fewest necessary changes to explain the differences among the observed sequences.
Which theory is the most parsimonious?
The principle of parsimony argues that the simplest of competing explanations is the most likely to be correct. Developed by the 14th-century logician William of Ockam, the theory is also known as Occam’s Razor. Biologists use the principle of parsimony when drawing phylogenetic trees.
How is parsimony score calculated?
(c) The parsimony score for each tree is the sum of the smallest number of substitutions needed for each site. The tree with the lowest parsimony score is the most parsimonious tree. There are often ties. (d) Parsimony does not distinguish between alternative rootings of the same unrooted tree.
How do you read a phylogenetic tree?
Some tips for reading phylogenetic trees Others use diagonal lines, like the tree at right below. You may also see trees of either kind oriented vertically or flipped on their sides, as shown for the blocky tree. The three trees above represent identical relationships among species A, B, C, D, and E.
What is the principle of maximum parsimony?
In phylogeny, the principle of maximum parsimony is one method used to infer relationships between species. It states that the tree with the fewest common ancestors is the most likely.
What are the principles of natural selection?
Natural selection is an inevitable outcome of three principles: most characteristics are inherited, more offspring are produced than are able to survive, and offspring with more favorable characteristics will survive and have more offspring than those individuals with less favorable traits.
READ: What causes late decelerations?
What is maximum parsimony analysis?
Why is maximum parsimony used in phylogenetic analysis?
Maximum parsimony predicts the evolutionary tree or trees that minimize the number of steps required to generate the observed variation in the sequences from common ancestral sequences. For this reason, the method is also sometimes referred to as the minimum evolution method.
Why is maximum parsimony important?
What is a parsimony?
1a : the quality of being careful with money or resources : thrift the necessity of wartime parsimony.
What is a Neighbour joining tree?
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. In bioinformatics, neighbor joining is a bottom-up (agglomerative) clustering method for the creation of phylogenetic trees, created by Naruya Saitou and Masatoshi Nei in 1987.
What is the difference between Upgma and neighbor joining?
UPGMA refers to a straightforward approach for constructing a rooted phylogenetic tree from a distance matrix while neighbor-joining tree refers to the new approach for constructing a phylogenetic tree, which is unrooted through a star tree.
What is the difference between Neighbour joining and maximum likelihood?
But in short maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods are the two most robust and commonly used methods. Neighbor joining is just a clustering algorithm that clusters haplotypes based on genetic distance and is not often used for publication in recent literature.
READ: Is CDC under NIH?
When should I use neighbor joining method?
Advantages and disadvantages of the neighbor-joining method
1. Advantages. is fast and thus suited for large datasets and for bootstrap analysis. permist lineages with largely different branch lengths. permits correction for multiple substitutions.
2. Disadvantages. sequence information is reduced. gives only one possible tree.
What is minimum evolution tree?
The minimum-evolution (ME) method of phylogenetic inference is based on the assumption that the tree with the smallest sum of branch length estimates is most likely to be the true one. In the past this assumption has been used without mathematical proof.
What is maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood?
The method of maximum likelihood seeks to find the tree topology that confers the highest probability on the observed characteristics of tip species. The method of maximum parsimony seeks to find the tree topology that requires the fewest changes in character states to produce the characteristics of those tip species.
What is the principle of maximum likelihood?
What is it about ? The principle of maximum likelihood is a method of obtaining the optimum values of the parameters that define a model. And while doing so, you increase the likelihood of your model reaching the “true” model.
What is maximum likelihood tree?
Maximum likelihood is the third method used to build trees. Likelihood provides probabilities of the sequences given a model of their evolution on a particular tree. The more probable the sequences given the tree, the more the tree is preferred. All possible trees are considered; computationally intense.
What are the differences between the parsimony and distance methods?
The primary difference between these methods and distances is that parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian methods fit individual characters to the tree, whereas distance methods fit all the characters at once. Also, some complex phylogenetic relationships may produce biased distances.
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Vocalizations are a major form of communication in animals, and can range from alarms calls to courtship calls. Vocalizations develop as the martins grow. The songs are longer, more complex vocalizations that seem like an actual song to the human ear, whereas bird calls are shorter, usually one or two syllables in length. Songs are commonly used during courtship and mating, while calls are commonly used to show alarm or location.
Vocalization Name
Who Uses/Performs It
Description/Purpose of Vocalization
Juvenile Calls
Juvenile martins
• Given at fledging time
• Monosyllabic
• Used when begging for food from parents, or when other martins approach the nest
• Also used to alert parents that they are being harassed by predators
• Used on their first flight
Choo Calls
• Used when escorting fledglings back to the nest
• Used when taking fledglings out to forage
• Mainly at dusk
Zwrack Calls
Males and females
• Used during alarm or highly aggressive situations
• Given singly
• Used when predator gets too close to the nest, causing the martin to dive-bomb
Hee-Hee Calls
• Related to territorial defense; usually given after chasing away an intruder
• Given in a series of 4 – 10 calls
• Often given during intraspecific (same species) combat
Zweet Calls
Males and females
• One-syllable call
• Indicate alarm
• Given in flight when martins fly away from a terrestrial predator, causing others to be more vigilant
• Shows excitement
• Males use this call if they see another male attempting to copulate with his mate
Cher Calls
Males and females
• Most common vocalization
• Used in many situations including during courtship, when showing contentment, when excited, and when approaching housing
• Sometimes used in conjunction with Zweet and Zwarck calls
• Given when in flight and when at rest
• Usually accompanied by wing and body shaking
• Used mainly during the day but also during pre-dawn hours
Chortle Calls
Males and females
• Consists of many syllables
• Sometimes used in conjunction with the Cher call
• Usually when showing higher excitement levels
• Both during the day and predawn
• While sitting
Croak Songs
• Main courtship song
• Directed at mate during egg laying
• Given both before and after copulation
• Also performed during extra-pair copulations
• Given in flight and while perched
• Performed after being rejoined with his mate after being separated for a length of time
Chortle Songs
• Heard most often during pair formation
• Mainly during courtship
• Given towards other females when approaching their territory
• Only heard near the end of the nesting season, after breeding
• Performed in a variety of situations
• Most common after birds began feeding their young
• Also common during roosting before migration
• Loudest Purple Martin vocalization
• During early morning hours to attract other subadult males, and thus females to the colony site
• Only sung after the male has established a nest
Croak sound file
Dawnsong sound file
—Descriptions by Charles R. Brown; Vocalizations of the Purple Martin
*Description of Dawnsong by Eugene Morton; A Purple Dawn
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History Timelines
Moshe Landau
Moshe Landau
Moshe Landau was the presiding judge at the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961. Landau was keen to ensure that the world was satisfied that Eichmann received a fair trial and was not effectively found guilty before the trial had even started.
Moshe Landau was born on April 29th 1912 in Danzig, Germany - now Gdansk in Poland. He studied Law in England and graduated from the University of London. However, by the time of his graduation, Hitler had come to power in Germany and Landau decided that he would not return. Instead, he went to the British Mandate of Palestine. In 1940, Landau was appointed a judge in Haifa. After the creation of Israel, his ability allowed Landau to work his way up the Israeli judicial system until he was appointed to the Israeli Supreme Court in 1953. He served as President of the Supreme Court from 1980 to 1982, the year he retired.
Because of his elevated position within the Israeli judicial system, Landau played an important part in creating the legal system for the new state. Landau was a defender of civil rights and fought for the right of freedom of expression. He was also keen to support the rights of defendants at trial even though he was in a position to hand out lengthy prison sentences for those found guilty. It was this background of beliefs that he held when it came to Eichmann's trial.
The removal of Eichmann from Argentina to Israel by Mossad agents was of dubious legality under international law - not that this garnered any sympathy for the former SS man. An argument was also forwarded that Israel could not put Eichmann on trial as his crimes had been committed before Israel had come into existence and in countries outside of Israel's legal jurisdiction. Therefore, Landau did not want the trial to appear as a mere act of revenge. To him not only was Eichmann on trial but to many in the international community so was the Israeli judicial system. Landau knew this and approached the trial in a clear and systematic manner - that there should be complete adherence to the spirit and letter of the law as it stood in Israel. Therefore, as far as Landau was concerned Eichmann was innocent until his crimes could be proved and his guilt was not assumed. Landau had to ensure that the other two judges believed the same, as he was presiding judge in the trial.
The trial against Eichmann started on April 11th 1961. Understandably, there was intense international media interest in the case. Landau read out the fifteen charges against Eichmann and also presented the case as to why Israel could put him on trial even if the state had not existed during the Holocaust. Landau argued that Israel represented all Jews and that “to argue that there is no connection is like cutting away a tree root and branch and saying to the trunk: I have not hurt you.”
Landau wanted the trial run only on a legal level and he did what he could to ensure that emotions did not blur legal arguments. On a number of occasions he rebuked the chief prosecutor, Gideon Hausner, who questioned witnesses in such a manner that it provoked an emotional outburst from them. Landau did not believe that harrowing details about life for Jews in the Polish ghettoes was relevant to the specific case against Eichmann and let Hausner know his feelings. Above all else, Landau wanted the world to see that Eichmann had a fair trial and that his guilt, or otherwise, was founded on legal issues not swayed by emotions.
Landau also had short shrift for Eichmann's argument that he was only following orders when he said: “a soldier, too, must have a conscience.”
The verdict of the trial was announced on December 11th 1961. It took two days to read out the 100,000 words document. Eichmann was guilty on all counts and sentenced to death. Landau succeeded in his mission that the world saw that Eichmann had a fair trial and that he was not already thought of as guilty before the trial actually started.
The trial cemented Landau's status as one of Israel's senior judges. He was called on to investigate why Israel nearly lost the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Landau's findings blamed the military's intelligence systems but cleared leading politicians of blame. It was a report that many would not accept. It was not the last time that a report by Landau would cause controversy. He also investigated the work of Shin Bet, the Israeli security service. Shin Bet had been accused of using torture to get information from suspects. In Landau's report he supported the use of “moderate physical torture” in cases where a terrorist threat against Israel was suspected. Human rights groups criticised his stand and in 1999 the Israeli Supreme Court ruled such methods were unlawful.
In 1991, Moshe Landau was awarded the Israel Prize for services to Israel - the highest award in the country.
Moshe Landau died on May 1st 2011 aged 99.
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Old St. Andrews
The Blacks of St. Andrews
St. Andrews had a black population from its founding in 1783, but very little is known about these people. There was no local newspaper until 1818, and no local news in these papers, hardly, until 1840. Even then, there would have been little reportage. The black population of St. Andrews was, as might be expected, landless, illiterate and poor. They worked mainly as servants and labourers, almost none owned land, and as such did not figure much in public records. Also, church records of marriages, births and deaths do not predate 1818, so the very early history of these people is almost non-existent. We have it on the authority of William Spray, New Brunswick historian and the author of an excellent small book titled Blacks of New Brunswick that St. Andrews had slaves, right along with the larger cities such as Saint John and Fredericton, adding that there was probably no slavery left in New Brunswick by 1810 or so. Interestingly, St. Andrews had the only black population in Charlotte County; it numbered about 60 in the first census of 1851. Who these blacks were, what percentage were slaves and what percentage servant, can only be speculated from church accounts of deaths, but it seems fairly certain that the Stewarts were an early black family in St. Andrews, as the Anglican Church burial notices give several black persons by this name as having died in the first decades of the nineteenth century at an advanced age. Also, the census of 1851 notes at least three sizable black families by this name living in the Town, and the Town's first execution was of a black brother and sister by the name of Richard and Maria Stewart in 1826.
Briefly, the main black families of St. Andrews were the Stewarts, Alexanders, Bannisters and Norris's. In my researches I was pleased to discover that a legendary black woman of the town named "Black Violet," who was said to have been able to remember being taken away from her African village, was actually Violet Tucker. She probably came to St. Andrews in 1798 or so with Colonel Christopher Hatch, who had been stationed in Saint John until that date. She married Rueben Alexander, had many children, and was unusual in that she and her husband owned land for a time. The Bannister family is notable for having produced a distinguished painter, Edward Banniser, who shipped out of St. Andrews as a boy and made a name for himself in Rhode Island, winning a prestigious prize at the first annual Philadelphia Exhibition for his painting "Under the Oaks." The Norris family was actually related to the Stewarts through a patriarch named Moses Stewart, a poor farmer along Cedar Lane, then called Slabtown. His grand-daughter Maria married a freed Maryland slave by the name of Charles Norris and raised a family here. The family is most remembered for a son, Caddy Norris, the last visibly black citizen of the Town and a local favorite, as one who was greatly beloved of the children of the Town, but who for reasons perhaps too obvious to mention, never married.
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Fish Dissection!
What's in that fish on your dish? While we may be used to the simple tuna fish sandwich or of simply wondering what the heck our goldfish is thinking about, there's a tremendous amount we can learn by investigating the anatomy of a fish. If you've always wanted the smell of fish permanently lining the insides of nostrils, then fish dissection may be the right thing for you. This works great whether you're out fishing or in a classroom. Take a moment to see how a fish works.
• What: Fish Dissection!
• OMG: EWWWWW!!!!!
• Concepts: anatomy, physiology, organ systems, evolution, biology
• Materials:
• 1 Fish (or 1 fish per group of two students)
• 2 gloves
• Tools:
• Tray
• Cutting device (X-acto, razor blade, sharp craft scissors)
• Tweezers
• Wood skewer for prodding (optional)
• Fish Anatomy Guide
A Note on Dissection
Dissecting animal organisms is a tricky subject which ultimately some will object to and that's okay. For us, we believe that with careful scientific exploration of animals who were treated in humane ways, we can learn and teach our students to be greater stewards of the environment, and especially toward the species they just learned about. There will always be some students who wish not to do a dissection, and we always allow whatever level of participation they choose in these experiences. Many prefer to just watch. Many of those eventually join in. But whatever it is, feel it out with your classroom or audience.
Okay, let's go fisihing!
Step 1: Which Fish Do You Wish?
For dissections with a class, often you're looking for a medium sized fish that isn't too expensive. I often choose to dissect perch because they have easy to see organs, don't have too much meat, and are cheap. However, this time at the grocery store, I was caught by the iridescence of the milkfish.
Step 2: Finding Fins
Get ready for a loud and resounding, "EWWWWWWWWW" if you're teaching in a classroom. I heard a great thing from another teacher, who said that while most might say, "EWWWW!," scientists say, "OooOooOoo!" So often I have the class do both together, because it's okay to feel both things!
There's a lot to learn from your fish before you cut in. After you put on gloves, and grab your tray, start by expanding your fish fins. Your fish is likely to have a pronounced and spiny dorsal fin (on top), pectoral fins (imagining chest level), a caudal fin (the tail), and an anal fin or two (in the back). Each one folds slightly differently.
How many do they have? What are the largest ones? How can they move and help the fish move?
Step 3: Color, Scales, and the Lateral Line
Fish win the rainbow contest for animals, and vary greatly in their appearance, even within a species. A common trait that you can see is to have a dark top and a light bottom. This is so that they can camouflage from predators looking down at them (blend in with the sea floor), or looking up (blend in with the sky).
Fish vary greatly on the colors of their sides, with many fish having iridescent scales like the milk fish shown here. Iridescence is an amazing phenomena, and is caused by tiny guanine crystals in the scales of the fish that give them that metallic sheen. There is a great paper on this here!
You can peel off a scale or two and look at it up close.
Additionally, the lateral line is an amazing system of sensory organs that you can see clearly in the third photo of this step. Fish and other aquatic vertebrates use these to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water. These are very important in schooling behavior, and in tracking prey. Fish can use these to track prey even in complete darkness!
Step 4: The Head
Fish heads! Oft neglected in the culinary realm, there's a lot to see in the scientific one!
The natural start is to look at the eye, which as students can see they don't have eyelids like us (no why would this be?) In the case of the milkfish, they have an adipose eyelid which is a transparent membrane over the eye. If you look directly into the center of the pupil, you can even see the lens, which is much more spherical than ours.
Moving on, if you look at the flaps on the side (called the operculum), you can see the gills inside. How many gills are there? Why would they have these flaps? If you open the mouth, you can tell a bit about the way in which your species of fish eats. In the case of the milkfish, it is mostly by opening their mouth rapidly, creating negative pressure, and forcing prey in. They have a tongue for assistance, too. If you poke through the mouth opening with your tweezers, you can sometimes see your tweezers come out the side flaps. Fish literally have holes in the side of their heads!
Step 5: Making the Cuts
Start by finding the anus (the only opening on the underside), and cutting a line not too deep all the way up to the gills. Open it up a bit, and then cut a lateral line up the side of the fish so you can open it up to see the way the guts are inside while they're in place.
Already you'll notice the ribs of the fish, and the thickness of the meat. In milkfish, they have a bulky muscular wall, and so there is a large amount of meat. If at the end of your dissection, you're still in the mood for fish, you can clean and fry it up!
Step 6: Digestive System
Track the digestive system either starting from the mouth or from the anus. You'll see a tiny fist-like organ which is mushy but tough, and that's the stomach! Start by removing it, and cutting it open to see what's inside. This is how biologists do gut exams and diet analysis. Our food material looks pretty well digested, but if they ate smaller fish shortly before they were caught, you can often see them in here.
Afterwards, remove the intestines from the fish, which are often quite long.
Step 7: Heart and Liver
Two pronounced organs in the fish near the pectoral fins are the heart and liver. The heart is often very dark and often has coagulated black blood surrounding it, and can be found just below the gills. You can remove it, and in larger fish even dissect it to see the two chambers inside. Human hearts, by contrast, have four chambers. The fish circulatory system is a single circuit, with blood flowing from the heart to the gills and then the rest of the body.
The liver is the largest item by volume in our milkfish. It is red, and often large in other fish, too, but varies by sex, species, and stage of life. Besides working to clean blood, the liver also often acts as a food storage of fats, blood sugar, and vitamins for the fish and so is essential in times of low food availability.
Step 8: Swim Bladder
If you're careful with your cuts, you can see a neat membrane that comprises a sac that is the swim bladder of your fish. All aquatic animals have different strategies for changing buoyancy, and how they float or sink in the water. They are also called "gas bladders" or "air bladders" because they are air-filled organs that allow fish to maintain a level of buoyancy in the water without wasting energy swimming. This is big news for being able to sleep comfortably.
We humans have borrowed this adaptive biology to do the same while scuba diving in Buoyancy Control Devices, which we inflate or deflate with tanks to control our position in the water.
Step 9: Grills of Gills!
Go to the head and remove the gills of the fish. How many does your fish have? You can see that they are often fan-like, and kind of look like a radiator. This is an adapted characteristic, so that they can have maximum surface area in contact with the water around them. Fish need all the help they can get to get oxygen, as they need it like we do. While air is approximately 21% oxygen or 210,000 parts per million, water often only has about 4-8 parts per million dissolved within. That means those gills have to do a lot of work!
Read about the amazing way that gills absorb oxygen and disperse carbon dioxide in this article!
Step 10: Fish Eyes
Okay, they're weird. As stated, fish don't have eyelids like we do (except sharks, kind of), but instead often have a translucent covering to protect their eyes that, of course, never dries out. If you cut away this protective layer, you can see how the optics of a fish eye work. Using your tweezers on the pupil, you can find the lens, which once you pull the gunk away, is almost a perfect sphere! If you really want to get into it, if you hold it up to light, you can see the way light passes through and flips images upside-down!
Step 11: Clean and Keep Exploring
Hope you enjoyed your fish dissection, whether it was virtual or physical. Hopefully with a greater knowledge about fish anatomy, we can come to understand how to protect them, manage populations sustainably, and understand more about human life and life of all things around us.
Different fish will have different pronounced characteristics, and there are a few that weren't pronounced here that you can find in others. Fish gametes are one, where often if they have two large sacs toward their rear, they are male, and one are female. Our milkfish was a juvenile and had not developed them yet. Fish brains are another, which are quite small and difficult to find, but are often somewhere between the eyes. There is always more, too, including spleens, olfactory bulbs, kidneys, and more.
If you are interested in other dissections, you can find our squid dissection here, too!
As always, keep exploring, and share what you find!
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Fandom Contest
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23 Discussions
1 year ago
Thanks for the helpful reply. I'll be sure to follow those tips! The fish dissection was cancelled but we did a squid in its place. (Followed your instructable) It was awesome! I'm back here again to follow the fish dissection instructable. We have this soon and I'm looking forward to testing the tips out. Thanks again.
2 years ago
Hi! Thank you so much for this! I have to this in class next week and at first i was worried but now i'm excited! By the way, do you have any tips on how to stop myself from getting grossed out or anything? thanks.
1 reply
Hey there! I know I completely missed this timing-wise, but how did it go? What I do to help me out with not getting grossed out is to do it before-hand, and practice thinking about every gross part as having something interesting, too. So next time you smell that complete stink, think, "Why would it be smelly? Why does my nose tell me it's bad? What animals like this smell?" Sometimes that does not work at all, but sometimes it can. :)
Sometimes the gross is fun because, well, any reaction is an interesting reaction.
2 years ago
While prepping for a lab, I have been looking at many guides, and this one ROCKS!
1 reply
2 years ago
Who did you give the fish after you had examined it to? A cat :D
3 years ago
That was a nice show to those still learning, but what do you do with the fish after you dissect it. I hope you didn't throw it away.
4 years ago on Introduction
Keen instructable! when it comes to dissecting I like trying to locate the otoliths in bony fish.
1 reply
4 years ago
I participate in a program called Trout in the Classroom. We raise trout from eggs starting around October and release the fingerling survivors in the Spring. This dissection would compliment the many learning activities we do perfectly. We can't dissect our trout, but we could look into getting some perch. Thanks for sharing! My favorite part of any dissection is watching the kids who start out making the loudest ewws finish the lab with the loudest ooooohhhs.
1 reply
4 years ago
Dissection is a great way to learn about anatomy. I've done frogs, shark, turtle, pigeon, cat and human. It's surprising how much we have in common.
(for the record, shark was the worst)
2 replies
Book Girl
4 years ago on Introduction
I hope i never have to dissect anything (no offence intended) i dont like the idea of cutting into dead animals
3 replies
4 years ago
I'd often dissect fish organs as a child when my father cleaned up our catches of the day. It was cool to see what they had just eaten, or how many eggs they were holding (if female).
I wish I had been able to dissect more things at school, but the coolest we got was a worm and the coughed up balls (undigested food stuffs) from owls (can't remember the name...).
Great tutorial! Hopefully some teacher sees this and teaches about fish and sustainability, ecosystems, and what we are doing to them.
1 reply
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Learning Care Group News: April 26th, 2012
Two-Year-Old Activities
These activities are great to do with a two year old!
Grooming Our Pets
What is Needed:
• Stuffed animals
• Combs, brushes, and ribbons & clips (optional)
Doing the Activity:
1. Get down on the floor with your two year old and bring out the stuffed animals, and brushes and combs.
2. Tell your child that their animals need to be brushed and cared for.
3. Pick up a stuffed animal and brush or comb, and start grooming your animal. Say out loud something like, “Do you like it when I brush you little horse?” or “How does it feel when I comb your hair, teddy bear?” or “I like to comb your hair, puppy dog.”
4. How does your child react? Does she pick up stuffed animal? Does he try using the comb or brush on his skin or hair? Ask him how it feels to use the brush on his arm. Give him words like, “I bet that feels soft on your arm.” Does he try and use the comb or brush on some animals? Is your child brushing the same stuffed animal as you are?
5. Put silly ribbons or clips in the animals’ hair. Does your child think that is funny? Does she want to try doing that too?
6. Continue as long as your child is interested.
Funny Faces
What is Needed:
• Gather child sized scissors for your two year old, glue or tape, heavy cardboard like an old cereal box you have opened and flattened out or heavy paper, and magazines
Doing the Experience:
1. Help your child look for animal or human pictures from magazines that show funny faces and cut them out.
2. You can attach them to pieces of heavy paper or cardboard if you want, but you don’t need to.
3. Hold up each picture and encourage your child to pretend to be that human animal.
4. Mimic the expression. Name the feeling that goes with the face.
5. Have fun and join your child in moving or acting like the animal or person also.
About the Author
Learning Care Group
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Passive Optical Components – Optical Circulator
Optical Circulators are microoptic devices and can be made with any number of ports but 3 and 4 port versions are most common. Also, it is common to build an asymmetric version where the last port does not circulate around to the first. While this saves some cost this is not the most important reason for doing it. If we make sure the last port does not circulate around to the first, we can use the device in systems where we do not need (or want) this feature. For example, if the input to the first port is directly connected to a laser we certainly don’t want spurious signals to be returned back into it.
One of the great attractions of optical circulators is the relatively low level of loss. Typical devices give a port-to-port loss of between 0.5 dB and 1.5 dB. Optical circulators are very versatile devices and may be used in many applications. For example, a bidirectional link consisting of two fiber strands (one for each direction) is multiplexed onto a single strand of fiber. This might be done to save the cost of fiber. Of course if you did something like this you would need to take particular care to minimise reflections on the link.
Operating Principle
By itself there is no single, simple principle behind the optical circulator. Optical circulators are made of an assembly of optical components. There are many different designs but the key principle is like that of the optical isolator. The basic function of a circulator is illustrated in the figure below. Light entering at any particular port travels around the circulator and exits at the next port. Light entering at port 1 leaves at port 2, entering at port 2 leaves at port 3 and so on. The device is symmetric in operation around a circle.
4-Port Optical Circulator
Light travelling in one direction through a Faraday rotator has its polarisation rotated in one particular direction. Light entering the Faraday rotator from the opposite direction has its phase rotated in the opposite direction (relative to the direction of propagation of the light). Another way of looking at this is to say that light is always rotated in the same direction in relation to the rotator regardless of its direction of travel. This is complicated by the presence of unpredictable polarisation. We could filter the unwanted polarisation out but we would lose (on average) half our light in doing that—and often a lot more. So we separate the incident “ray” into two orthogonally polarised rays and treat each polarisation separately. The two halves of the ray are then re-combined before being output to the destination port.
Here is a figure showing a basic 3-port optical circulator. Its components function as following:
• Polarising Beam Splitter Cube: This device separates the input ray into two orthogonally polarised rays.
• Birefringent “Walk-off” Block: This is just a block of birefringent material cut at 45° to the optic axis. A ray incident at a normal to the air-crystal interface is split into two rays of orthogonal polarisation. The ordinary ray is not refracted and passes through unaffected. The extraordinary ray is refracted at an angle to the normal.
• Faraday Rotator and Phase Plate: This combination passes light in one direction completely unchanged! (In the figure this is the right-to-left direction.) In the opposite direction polarisation of incoming light is rotated by 90°. In the left-to-right direction the Faraday rotator imparts a phase rotation of 45° (clockwise) and the phase plate rotates the light another 45° (also clockwise). Thus we get a net 90° clockwise rotation. In the right-to-left direction the phase plate rotates the light in the same direction (in relation to the direction of the ray of light) as before, that is, anti-clockwise at 45°. The Faraday rotator however rotates the phase in the opposite direction (in relation to the direction of the ray) as it did before, that is, clockwise by the same 45°. That is the phase is rotated in the opposite direction . Thus there is no net change in polarisation. (Of course in practice there are losses due to reflections and imperfections in device manufacture.)
Optical Circulator Path from Port1 to Port2
As shown in the 3-port optical circulator, light travels from Port 1 to Port 2 as following:
• 1. A ray input on Port 1 is split into two separate rays of orthogonal polarisations. The “ordinary” ray passes through without refraction but the orthogonally polarised “extraordinary” ray is refracted (upwards in the figure).
• 2. Both rays proceed from left-to-right through the Faraday rotator and phase retardation plates. Both rays are rotated through 90°.
• 3. The two rays then meet another birefringent walk-off block (block B) identical with the first. The effect of the phase rotation in the previous stage was to swap the status of the rays. The ray that was the ordinary ray in block A (and was not refracted) becomes the extraordinary ray in block B (and is refracted in block B). The extraordinary ray in block A (the upper path in the figure) becomes the ordinary ray in block B (and is not refracted in block B). The light is refracted and re-combined as shown. It is then output to Port 2.
Optical Circulator Path from Port2 to Port3
Coupling to fiber on input and output would normally use a lens of some kind. Typically a GRIN lens might be used here. The path from Port 2 to Port 3 is somewhat more involved:
• 1. Light entering from Port 3 is split in block B.
• 2. Travelling in the reverse direction the polarisation of both rays is unchanged.
• 3. Birefringent block A now passes the upper ray unchanged but shifts the lower one further away. 4. The two rays are then re-combined using the reflector prism and the polarising beamsplitter cube.
Note: If you only connect Ports 1 and 2, the optical circulator can be used as an Optical Isolator. Indeed if you leave out the beamsplitter cube and the reflector prism, you have an excellent (very low loss) polarisation independent isolator. A path from Port 3 to Port 1 can be constructed by adding additional components; however, for most applications this is unnecessary as we don’t want the connection from Port 3 to Port 1 anyway.
There are many ways to construct optical circulators (both 3 and 4 port). All of these ways use combinations of components and similar principles as those described above. The biggest problem with optical circulators is that the components must be manufactured to very close tolerances and positioned extremely accurately. This causes the cost to be relatively high. However, you could find Cost-effective Optical Circulators in Fiberstore.
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"url": "http://www.fiberopticshare.com/passive-optical-components-optical-circulator.html"
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The Shona Tribe
The Shona tribe inhabits Zimbabwe, Botswana and southern Mozambique in Southern Africa and bordering South Africa. They are also Zimbabwe's largest indigenous group. Their tribal language is Shona (Bantu) and their population is around 9 million. There are five main Shona language groups: Korekore, Zeseru, Manyika, Ndau, and Karanga. The Ndebele largely absorbed the last of these groups when they moved into western Zimbabwe in the 1830s.
The Shona people live in isolated settlements, usually consisting of one or more elder men and their extended families. Most decisions are made within the family, although organized political states were recognized as a source of centralized power. A principal chief who inherited his position and power in the same divine manner as a king headed them. He usually lived in a centralized location and was complemented by his court that advised him about most important decisions. The head chief often received substantial payment in the form of tributes from his constituency.
There is belief in a creator-god, Mwari, and a concern to propitiate ancestral and other spirits to ensure good health, rain, and success in enterprise. Elementary education, Christian missions, and partial urbanization have weakened traditional institutions and leadership and it said that traditional Shona culture is now in fast decline. However, magic and witchcraft continue as important means of social control and explanations for disasters.
The Shona people have a rich artistic heritage and are hailed for their stone work. Stone carving has been part of the Zimbabwean culture since 1200 AD when Great Zimbabwe, an archeological masterpiece of their early ancestors, was built. The re-emergence of this stone carving tradition came about in the 1950s, when it gained worldwide recognition to the solid forms and beautiful surfaces of Shona sculpture that expresses an extraordinary emotional power.
Drawing on ancient sculpting traditions, the Shona tribe has produced a modern art movement of dignified, exquisite works. Reminiscent of Picasso and Henry Moore, these extraordinary, intense works speak to all humanity.
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"language_score": 0.9701097011566162,
"url": "https://yorksshonagallery.com/pages/the-shona-tribe"
}
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Kathe Kollwitz
German (1867 - 1945)
Kathe Kollwitz Gesenkter Frauenkopf [Woman with Bowed Head] 1905
Born 1867
Died 1945
Nationality German
Kollwitz was born in Königsberg, East Prussia and trained in Berlin and Munich. In 1891 she married a doctor and moved to a poor area of Berlin where she experienced poverty at first hand. Kollwitz's social and political views were integral to her art, which consists almost entirely of prints (especially print portfolios), drawings and sculptures. In the 1920s she created humanitarian leaflets and posters and anti-war images. Kollwitz was almost entirely interested in portraying the human figure and always depicted working-class subjects in a dignified manner. In 1919 she became the first female member of the Berlin Academy, but was forced to resign in 1933 when Hitler came to power.
Glossary terms
• A German art movement of the 1920s and early 1930s. It was partly a response to the experience of the First World War, with images containing elements of satire and social commentary. Stylistically it was sober and restrained, moving away from Expressionism to depictions based on close observation. Major figures associated with this style are George Grosz, Otto Dix and Kathe Kollwitz.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9727985858917236,
"url": "https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/artists/kathe-kollwitz"
}
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Staffa, Scotland, UK
The tiny island of Staffa, part of the Inner Hebrides, is celebrated for its stunning geology. Vikings named it Stafyi-øy meaning ‘stave island,’ as its rock formations reminded them of the vertically placed logs used to construct their houses. Staffa is made up completely of hexagonal columnar basalt. Sixty-five million years ago, erupting lava cooled quickly, forming these distinctive shapes. Hexagons are most often associated with honeycombs in beehives, however, they are also characteristic in volcanic formations. Over time, a weakness in the rock was eroded by fierce Atlantic waves, creating legendary Fingal’s Cave. It was once known as ‘The Musical Cave’ for the wonderful sounds of the sea water reverberating against the sides of its large cavern.
The island was first promoted by Sir Joseph Banks, who was Captain James Cook’s naturalist in 1772. In the 19th century, Jules Verne, William Wordsworth, John Keats, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, the artist JMW Turner and 19-year old Felix Mendelssohn also visited Staffa.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9657806158065796,
"url": "https://www.seabourn.com/en_US/ports/staffa-scotland-uk.html"
}
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Quadrivium wiki, Quadrivium history, Quadrivium review, Quadrivium facts Quadrivium news, what is Quadrivium Quadrivium wikipedia
Quadrivium information, Quadrivium definition, Quadrivium timeline, Quadrivium location
The quadrivium (plural: quadrivia [2]) is the four subjects, or arts, taught after teaching the trivium. The word is Latin, meaning four ways, and its use for the four subjects has been attributed to Boethius or Cassiodorus in the 6th century. [3] [4] Together, the trivium and the quadrivium comprised the seven liberal arts (based on thinking skills), as distinguished from the practical arts (such as medicine and architecture).
The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. These followed the preparatory work of the trivium, consisting of grammar, logic and rhetoric. In turn, the quadrivium was considered preparatory work for the study of philosophy (sometimes called the "liberal art par excellence ") and theology.
These four studies compose the secondary part of the curriculum outlined by Plato in The Republic and are described in the seventh book of that work (in the order Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Music). The quadrivium is implicit in early Pythagorean writings and in the De nuptiis of Martianus Capella, although the term quadrivium was not used until Boethius, early in the sixth century. As Proclus wrote:
The Pythagoreans considered all mathematical science to be divided into four parts: one half they marked off as concerned with quantity, the other half with magnitude; and each of these they posited as twofold. A quantity can be considered in regard to its character by itself or in its relation to another quantity, magnitudes as either stationary or in motion. Arithmetic, then, studies quantities as such, music the relations between quantities, geometry magnitude at rest, spherics [astronomy] magnitude inherently moving.
Medieval usage
At many medieval universities, this would have been the course leading to the degree of Master of Arts (after the BA). After the MA, the student could enter for bachelor's degrees of the higher faculties (Theology, Medicine or Law). To this day, some of the postgraduate degree courses lead to the degree of Bachelor (the B.Phil and B.Litt. degrees are examples in the field of philosophy).
The study was eclectic, approaching the philosophical objectives sought by considering it from each aspect of the quadrivium within the general structure demonstrated by Proclus (AD 412–485), namely arithmetic and music on the one hand and geometry and cosmology on the other.
The subject of music within the quadrivium was originally the classical subject of harmonics, in particular the study of the proportions between the musical intervals created by the division of a monochord. A relationship to music as actually practised was not part of this study, but the framework of classical harmonics would substantially influence the content and structure of music theory as practised in both European and Islamic cultures.
Modern usage
In modern applications of the liberal arts as curriculum in colleges or universities, the quadrivium may be considered to be the study of number and its relationship to space or time: arithmetic was pure number, geometry was number in space, music was number in time, and astronomy was number in space and time. Morris Kline classified the four elements of the quadrivium as pure (arithmetic), stationary (geometry), moving (astronomy) and applied (music) number.
This schema is sometimes referred to as "classical education", but it is more accurately a development of the 12th- and 13th-century Renaissance with recovered classical elements, rather than an organic growth from the educational systems of antiquity. The term continues to be used by the Classical education movement and at the independent Oundle School, in the United Kingdom. [6]
See also
All information for Quadrivium's wiki comes from the below links. Any source is valid, including Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn. Pictures, videos, biodata, and files relating to Quadrivium are also acceptable encyclopedic sources.
Other wiki pages related to Quadrivium.
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"url": "https://everipedia.org/wiki/lang_en/Quadrivium/"
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Project Description
A harmonic pendulum is a series of uncoupled pendula with frequencies that change monotonically. Upon release from a uniform amplitude, the pendula display a variety of repeating patterns. We explored when and why these patterns happen by designing, building, and analyzing our own harmonic pendulum consisting of 30 independent swinging weights suspended by string of varying and specific lengths. We found that the phase differences between pendula cause distinct groups to form when the pendulum is a harmonic series fraction through its own period. For a harmonic pendulum with a period of 60 seconds, we found that n(n − 1) pendula guarantees the appearance of n separate groups. With our 30 pendula we were able to distinguish up to n = 6 groups. In our analysis, we considered aliasing and how it is manifested in the harmonic pendulum. We also investigated parallels between musical harmonics and the patterns created by the pendula.
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"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.2147504687309265,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9170358777046204,
"url": "http://lcphysx.lclark.edu/project/harmonic-pendulum-2/"
}
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Yokuts Indians
YOKUTS INDIANS, an important division of the Penutian linguistic family, fonnerly living in the San Joaquin Valley, from the mouth of the San Joaquin River in the north to the foot of the Tehachapi Mountains and the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The name is Indian for “person.” Actually a loose confederation of about 40 closely related smaller tribes, the Yokuts were one of the most numerous California peoples, and their way of life reflects the general cultural pattern of the central Pacific Coast region, with some extremely interesting differences.
Yokuts Indians
Each tribe had a hereditary chief. Villages consisted of a single row of wedge-shaped com-munal houses thatched with tule, and sweat-houses were in common use. Acorns were a staple food, and small game, including even deer and elk, were captured regularly. The Yokuts were one of the few tribes to use the dog for food, but they refused to touch the coyote or rattlesnake. The women were chaste, prior to white settlement; marriage was by purchase, and the husband moved into his bride’s home. Cloth-ing was scanty; women wore the bark apron common to most California peoples, and often tattooed the face and body. Religious life was moderately organized and many animal spirits were known; shamanism played a very important role in the various rituals. One unique feature was a rattlesnake ceremony, reminiscent of the more elaborate snake dance of the Hopi. Boys were initiated with a jimsonweed or toloache ceremonial. The dead were either buried or cremated, and the Yokuts observed the usual annual mourning cerempny common throughout California.
Yokuts women wove very fine basketry, making extensive use of quail and woodpecker feather decoration; the famous Tulare gambling trays and Tulare bottleneck baskets are familiar exhibits in many museums. One art peculiar to central California was the manufacture by Yokuts women of a crude pottery, which they may have learned from neighboring Shoshonean peoples. Lake Tulare gave a disproportionate importance to one segment of the confederacy, which be-came known as Tularenos, or Lake Tulare Indi-ans. Unfortunately, this name eventually became attached to the entire Yokuts group, resulting in considerable confusion.
The Yokuts are a remnant of a once numerous people, whose population at its height probably numbered some 10,000. Continued warfare with the Paiutes, who pressed on them from the east, resulted in some depopulation; but the later and much more disastrous aggression by white settlers, who found the Indians occupying land they wanted, practically exterminated many of the tribes. Today less tnan 600 survive, although they have managed to retain an extremely high degree of blood purity.
Leave A Reply
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"url": "https://www.what333.com/yokuts-indians/"
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Argentina! culture, geography, reading, speaking and listening!
My Spanish III students have been in the “travel” chapter. For the past 4 years, I’ve had my students “travel” to Argentina, and I have had them work quite a bit with maps and geography (two of the many links I use). One of the activities that I do is to have them compare Buenos Aires and Washington, D.C. Of course, initially, they don’t know what they are doing!
The first thing I do is divide them into groups (no more than 4 students per group) and give each group a packet of laminated, full color pictures (all pictures are located on the powerpoint below, just separated). Those pictures include geographical markers, sports, food, government buildings, etc. I ask the students to categorize the pictures into no more than 6 groups, and to write the names of the categories they chose. Buenos Aires DC categorization student group sheet The back of this paper will be used for the similarity/difference activity the next day.
I then asked them if they could guess the places/cities in the pictures. Of course, they came up with D.C. immediately, and because we had begun our preliminary introduction (Qué sabes de opening activity 2014) to Argentina, they guessed Buenos Aires. The next step was to divide the pictures into two groups: Buenos Aires/D.C.: quickly and easily done. We used this powerpoint Buenos Aires Washington, D.C. 2014 revised and started to talk about the similarities and differences between the two places. We continued this work the next day, but did not finish the powerpoint. Instead, I gave them the packet of pictures again and this time, also gave them captions Facts for Buenos Aires Washington D.C.. I asked them to match the captions with the pictures. Two members of the group were responsible for D.C. and two were responsible for Buenos Aires. They had to share information with each other when they finished, and I then also had them choose one picture/caption from D.C., and one from Buenos Aires that they were responsible for “teaching” to each other. They practiced reading captions to each other, choosing the appropriate pictures, etc. We then finished the powerpoint, and each group completed the paper Buenos Aires DC categorization student group sheet with their similarities/differences. It always amazes me how much the students DON’T know about their own capital!
The next day, in groups of two, I gave each student 9 words. Their task was to describe the nine words to their partner, without using the actual word, so that their partner would say that word(s). Each one had nine different words. Argentina questions Since we had been doing some map work, and we had watched several short clips about Argentina, I had them work with that partner to color code this map. La Argentina primer trabajo del mapa mapa
Borrowing an activity from one of my colleagues, I had my students work with another partner to complete a reading/listening and map activity. Each partner got a description of an imaginary trip that he/she had taken. They read it silently, then they read it to their partner. I had them read aloud several times, using various “voices”. The next day, they each got a map, and the partner read the description of his/her trip one more time to his/her partner. This time, the partner was drawing everything that was said on the map. Once they finished, they had to write 5 sentences, using ONLY the map that they had drawn on, to describe the trip of their partner. While this activity was going on, I was conducting individual one minute speaking assessments with each student in the class. Partner description of trip to Argentina with drawing activity 5 sentence about partner’s trip
A final speaking/pronunciation assessment came from a Google Voice assignment that I gave them 2 nights to complete. We practiced reading a paragraph about a trip to Argentina several times. They all read, and I timed them. Finally, they called my Google Voice number and recorded it. Google voice paragraph read Hice un viaje a Buenos Aires
A final activity with maps that was 100% engaging (again borrowed from a colleague): I gave a group of two students a blank map of South America in a sheet protector; the map had NO political divisions. Each student had a different colored dry erase marker and eraser. Their task was to draw all 13 countries and capitals, the equator, the Andes mountains, and label the oceans. I had to see approximately equal colors on their finished work to indicate that both partners had shared equally in the work. I was amazed at how intently they worked on this activity!
5 thoughts on “Argentina! culture, geography, reading, speaking and listening!
1. Pingback: Brillante Viernes: March 14, 2014 | Maris Hawkins
2. Thanks so much for sharing your ideas! I plan to use some of them this week when I start a unit on the TPRS novel ‘La Guerra Sucia’ and the movie ‘La Historia Oficial’
3. This is sooooooo great for Miami which has a HUGE group of Argentines. Now I can introduce a new country each time. However, I can’t locate the PowerPoint nor the pictures you mentioned.
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<urn:uuid:04c55a52-d316-4db5-95f8-5be504dc2b3c>
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{
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"language_score": 0.9551253914833069,
"url": "https://elmundodebirch.wordpress.com/2014/03/04/argentina-culture-geography-reading-speaking-and-listening/"
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eye photo
In the study, researchers looked at cultured cells from the human cornea and tested different parts for bactericidal activity, they discovered that the bactericidal part contained fairly short fragments of keratin, less than 30 amino acids long, or under than a tenth the length of the entire keratin protein, could kill bacteria. Of the keratin proteins detected, the one that they found most consistently was a keratin known as cytokeratin 6A, or K6A. To test how well this protein works in mice, they used a technique called RNA interference to make the mice produce less K6A in their eyes, then killed some of those mice and incubated their eyeballs with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a common, disease-causing bacteria. The eyes that were rich with K6A fragments fought off the microbes; the ones without the keratin fragments were covered in five times more bacteria.
The researchers also made synthetic versions of the keratin fragment and found that they would kill not only P. aeruginosa but also several other kinds of clinically relevant bacteria, including those that cause strep throat and staph infections. These keratin fragments could serve as a source of new drugs for these important human diseases; what’s more, since they are based on a human protein, they have a better chance than some drugs of fighting infection without being shut down by the immune system.
Eye photo via Shutterstock
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<urn:uuid:db45951a-bb83-4b94-8436-50ed17742828>
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{
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"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.21232014894485474,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9228044748306274,
"url": "http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2012/09/26/a-fortress-that-fights-back-structural-proteins-in-the-eye-double-as-antimicrobials/"
}
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Ndyuka Collection
Suriname and the Maroons
Suriname, originally a Dutch colony, has been independent since 1975. This small country, located on the northeast coast of South America, has cultural attributes more in common with Caribbean countries. Suriname has maintained a great diversity of ethnic groups, each with their own strong and longstanding forms of cultural expression such as woodcarving, textile art, music, and ceremonies. Though Dutch is the official national language, over 20 other languages are spoken and recognized by the Surinamese government. Suriname is thus a multiethnic and multilingual country.
Roughly 20 percent of Suriname’s population is Maroon, a term denoting descendants of African runaway slaves from Dutch plantations during the late-seventeenth and early-eighteenth centuries. Maroon culture, because of the people’s African heritage, is strongly rooted in West and Central African cultural traditions, with some Amerindian influences. Maroon groups are widely dispersed across Suriname and extend into neighboring French Guiana. The largest ethnic group, the Ndyuka, are centralized around Marowijne River, which forms the border between French Guiana and Suriname. There are six major Maroon groups. The Ndyuka and the Saramaka, with about 50,000 people each, are the two largest. (The name Ndyuka used to be spelled Djuka; the latter is now considered outdated and pejorative.)
The Ndyuka
The Ndyuka are one of the largest Maroon ethnic groups, and their culture, beliefs, and aesthetic styles are similar to, but vary slightly from, that of the other five Maroon peoples of the Guianas. The Ndyuka speak a Creole language unique to their people, called Ndyuka or Aukan. Most of Ndyuka vocabulary comes from English and several African languages, with smaller contributions from Dutch and Portuguese. The Ndyuka are similar to West African peoples in terms of physical appearance. Since it is rare for Ndyuka women to marry or have children with non-Maroons, they remain genetically close to their African ancestors.
Suriname has a tropical environment and climate, with lush jungle regions and fertile river valleys. There is a wide variety of flora and fauna, which provides Maroon artists with an abundance of resources for their exquisite woodcarving. The climate is relatively uniform due to Suriname’s location near the equator, with an average temperature of around 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
Ndyuka villages and camps, like other Maroon villages and camps, are located along the rivers of Suriname, which provide the primary source of transportation, using individually owned canoes. There are six different rivers located in eastern Suriname on which Ndyuka villages are established: Sara Creek, Upper Commewyn, Cottica, Marowyn, Tapanahoni, and Lawa. Social networks foster a high level of independence and, moreover, every adult may have multiple residencies many miles apart, leading to a great deal of inter-village and camp travel by canoe. Though Maroons have always been dependent on coastal societies for select goods, more recently populations have begun greater travel, and even settlement, in the capital city of Paramaribo, the only city in Suriname, which also serves as a the primary commercial center for the country.
Webpage developed by Anthropology Department intern, Jamie Luensman, 2008
Edited by Arianna Murphy, Anthropology Department intern, 2012
Questions? Contact Dawn Scher Thomae at thomae@mpm.edu
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"url": "https://www.mpm.edu/index.php/research-collections/anthropology/online-collections-research/ndyuka"
}
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Research - Kartvelian
Egyptian, Urartian, Hurrian or Mitannic, Elamite, Hittite, Sumerian, Basque, Etruscan, Cretan, Greek, Latin, North Caucasian languages, Semitic, Ural-Altaic are languages that at different times, different scholars have connected the Kartvelian languages. But how is it possible for a language family spoken by only about 5 million people today – a language discounted by many scholars as being completely irrelevant for prehistoric studies, to be connected to a great number of both dead and living languages?
Answering this question is one of the major goals of the Center for Research of Kartvelian Civilization.
The Kartvelian language family comprises Kartuli (Georgian), Megruli, Lazuri and Svanuri languages. They are spoken over a large territory to the south of the Caucasian mountains. J. A. Guldenstedt (1745-1781), a German scholar was the first to notice their genetic connections, later confirmed by G. Rozen, M. Brosset, F. Bopp and others in the 19th century.
Like many languages, the Kartvelian languages are thought to have derived from a common ancestor, usually referred to as Common Kartvelian. It is assumed that the branching off of Common Kartvelian started in the 3rd millennium B.C. with the Svan language separating from the basic core.
The 2nd millennium B.C. marked the separation of the Zan language which split into Megruli and Laz languages around the first millennium B.C. As a result, the Svan and Kartuli languages have existed for 5000 years, and Megruli and Lazuri for at least 3 millennia. Such longevity is unmatched among other members of the same language family.
The problem of the genesis of Kartvelian languages occupied the minds of Europeans in the 17th-18th centuries. Then, the discussion focused on two major aspects: first, the relation between Kartvelian and the language of the ancient population of Spain, and second, the genetic contacts between Kartvelian and Egyptian.
Later Kartvelian was linked to Greek and Latin, an idea supported by M. Brosset (1802-1880) and F. Bopp (1791-1867). A different view, connecting Kartvelian with Ural-Altaic (Turanic) was also expressed. Stating his views on the genesis of Kartvelian languages, F. Müller (1823-1900) disconnected them from both Indo-European and Turanic, linking them instead to a much larger group of ancient languages which spread in the Causasus and its southern territories before these were settled by Semitic, Aryan and Ural-Altaic tribes. This view was shared by Al. Tsagareli, then a Professor at Petersburg University.
The view on Kartvelo-Indo-European contacts was revived in the 20th century by a German scholar G. Deeters, a Russian Kartvelologist G. Klimov, and Georgian linguists A. Shanidze, M. Andronikashvili, T. Gamkrelidze and G. Machavariani.
Ivane Javakhishvili first formulated the theory on the genetic relationship of Kartvelian and Caucasian languages. Developing I. Javakhishvili’s theory, A. Chikobava expanded the area of genetic relations of Ibero-Caucasian languages to include the dead languages of Asia Minor. He wrote: “The deeper we look into the history of Kartvelian and other Ibero-Caucasian languages, the more apparent their genetic contacts with the languages of ancient civilizations of the Near East and Mesopotamia become: Urartian, Hittite, Sumerian, Elamite…”. The Kartvelian languages have also been linked to a number of languages of ancient civilizations in the Mediterranean basin (Cretan, Etruscan, and Basque).
It follows that scholars have attributed the Kartvelian languages to two worlds – the world of ancient and dead languages of Mesopotamia, Near East, North Africa and Mediterranean as well as the world of modern and living languages of Indo-European origin.
To make things worse, the Kartvelian languages have been genetically linked with Semitic, too (N. Marr, A. Gleie). In a word, Kartvelian which is also called Japhetic is connected with Semitic and Hamitic (modern Afro-asiatic family) taking us back to the Bible, which tells us not only of the genetic identity of Semitic, Hamitic and Japhetic, but also of the fact that Japhetic was the oldest:
“And Noah was five hundred years old, and Noah begot Shem, Ham, and Japheth” (Ge 5:32).
“And children were born also to Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder” (Ge 10:21).
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Northern European Collection
1450 - 1650
The works of art seen in this collection were mostly made between 1450 and 1650 in the Holy Roman Empire, which roughly corresponds to modern-day Germany and the Low Countries.
In the 1520s the area became the battleground for the Catholic and Protestant faiths, starting two centuries of bitter religious conflict in Europe. Reformers targeted religous iconography, some being destroyed and others dismantled and dispersed.
Northern European artists developed a style distinct from their southern European counterparts, typified by enthusiastic representation of minute detail and the use of much gilding and polychromy. Several of the works in this collection come from near Nuremberg in southern Germany, which from 1450 to 1550 was home to an important circle of artists and craftsmen, including sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider.
Explore Compton Verney's Collections
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Opelousa Tribe: Probably from Mobilian and Choctaw Aba lusa, “black above,” and meaning “black headed” or “black haired.”
Opelousa Connections. No words of the Opelousa language have survived, but the greater number of the earlier references to them speak as if they were allied with the Atakapa, and it is probable that they belonged to the Atakapan group of tribes.
Opelousa Location. In the neighborhood of the present Opelousas.
Opelousa History. The Opelousa seem to have been mentioned first by Bienville in an unpublished report on the Indians of the Mississippi and Gulf regions. They were few in numbers and led a wandering life. They maintained some sort of distinct tribal existence into the nineteenth century but disappeared by the end of the first quarter of it.
Opelousa Population. About 1715 this tribe was estimated to have 130 warriors; in 1805 they are said to have had 40, and in 1814 the total population of the tribe is placed at 20.
Connection in which they have become noted. The Opelousa gave their name to an important post and the district depending upon it.
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Carolingian Shields
The Carolingians were the pre-eminent military power in the Western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. The military might of the Carolingians was based on the fact that their soldiers were very well-armed and carried high-quality weapons and armour.
A key part of a Carolingian soldier’s armour was the shield which was critically essential for use in the battlefield at a time when lances and spears were the foremost combat weapons. Acknowledging the significance of the availability of good shields for successful warfare, Carolingian rulers took special care to ensure that their soldiers were well-supplied with ample shields.
Carolingian Shields Usage
Shields were used by both the cavalrymen and infantrymen in a Carolingian army. This came to be due to the fact that Carolingian shields were very inexpensive and even common soldiers could easily afford them, using them for some basic defence on the battlefield. Compared to the Carolingian helmet, for instance, the Carolingian shield costs 1/6th of the helmet’s price. So while many footmen couldn’t afford helmets like the mounted warriors, they chose to own a shield.
Carolingian Shields Warrior
Carolingian Shields Warrior
Military Significance
Due to the widespread use of shield by all Carolingian troops, it became the most vital defensive armour for Carolingian armies. Consequently, Carolingian monarchs such as Charlemagne specifically ordered different monasteries to include a definite number of shields in their annual tribute to the crown.
Charlemagne also ordered the availability of shield-makers in all districts of his Empire. Later Carolingian monarchs went so far as to order the inclusion of shield-makers on military campaigns. This ensured that should the troops come in need of replacing their shields or using new shields, they would have shield-makers at hand to supply them new shields without any delays. On protracted military campaigns, such a measure was particularly useful.
Carolingian Shield Shape
Very few extant historical sources convey any information about the shape and size of Carolingian shields. According to these sources, the regular Carolingian shield was typically round and concave in shape, being as large as 0.8 meters in diameter.
An interesting feature of the round Carolingian shields was the use of a sugarloaf boss on the centre which served to deflect the blows of an opponent and also as a pointed weapon in its own might. It is important to note here that the design and shape of the Carolingian shields was significantly influenced by Anglo-Saxon and Viking shields.
Carolingian Shields Construction
Carolingian shields were usually constructed from wood with additional materials such as leather or metal to enhance the strength of the basic wood structure. In some cases, radial arcs were used on the front of the shield. These arcs were often pieces of metal strips which were used to significantly reinforce the wood base.
Some Carolingian shields also made use of metal rims running around the perimeter of the shields and fixed in place by rivets, making the shields stronger and more able to withstand blows from an opponent’s weapon. The backside of the Carolingian shields featured a fixed handle used as an arm-mount during combat and a strap which was used by the soldiers to carry the shield across their shoulders when not in use.
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In 1915, an airship base comprising two airship sheds and a hangar was established near Tønder. The first Zeppelins landed here in spring 1915, and primarily flew reconnaissance missions over Great Britain. The base was subsequently expanded to include a double shed (243 m long and 73 m wide) and was operated by a staff of 500. In July 1918, the base was bombed by British aircraft and never became operational again.
A defence installation called Sicherungsstellung Nord was built in 1916, extending all the way across the region of Southern Jutland from the Wadden Sea in the west to the waters of the Little Belt in the east. It was intended to prevent a possible British landing near Esbjerg in neutral Denmark, followed by an invasion of Germany from the north. Sicherungsstellung Nord was an extremely robust fortification, comprising two lines of trenches including more than 800 concrete bunkers. It featured roads, concrete bridges, military rail tracks, and signal and radio stations. It remained manned until the end of the war, but never saw action.
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Sam Seitz
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor is one of the most puzzling strategic decisions of World War Two. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill found the attack “difficult to reconcile… with prudence, or even sanity,” and his criticism appears mild when measured against that in the Philadelphia Enquirer, which characterized the attack as “an insane adventure that for fatalistic abandon is unsurpassed in the history of the world.”[i] And yet, the decision was no bout of madness but a considered solution to the strategic predicament in which Japan found itself in 1941. So how does one make sense of this? That is one of the questions this paper seeks to answer. More broadly, this paper serves as an assessment of Japanese strategic decision-making in the lead-up to and during World War Two. To that end, the paper is comprised of several sections. The first looks at the lead-up to Pearl Harbor in an historical context, explaining Japan’s strategic position and the broader challenges and constraints it faced when deciding to strike the United States. The second section focuses on Japanese planning, with a particular focus on its goals upon entering the conflict. Section three briefly summarizes the results of the Pearl Harbor attack and the ensuing months of the Pacific War to assess the operation at the tactical and operational levels and to serve as a basis for evaluating the broader strategic utility of Japan’s decision. The final section is the core of the paper in which I evaluate the efficacy of Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in the context of its wider strategy. While the specific conclusions of the paper are detailed at length in the final section, the fundamental argument is that the attack on Pearl Harbor was a tactical success but a strategic failure. It relied upon unjustified presumptions of Japanese racial superiority and was never integrated into a broad and coherent strategic plan. The fundamental issue, however, was that the attack on Pearl Harbor was a strategic decision made for operational reasons. Thus, while it achieved its short-term goals, it unnecessarily weakened Japan’s strategic position by forcing a war with the United States that it had no clear plan to win.
The Origins of the Pearl Harbor Attack
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan experienced tremendous military success, defeating both the Chinese and Russian Empires and, as a result, expanded its territorial holdings throughout Asia. Indeed, by the end of World War I, during which Japan benefited from supporting the victorious Entente, Tokyo controlled Korea, Taiwan, the Ryukyus and Kuriles, and part of Manchuria. It was an ascendant empire, and it leveraged this status to buttress its international position, quickly joining the League of Nations and prominently serving on its Council. However, the collapse of the global economy and international trade resulting from the Great Depression led Japan to reject international cooperation and instead pursue a policy of autarky and self-sufficiency. The result of this shift was an attempt by Japan to expand its territorial holdings in mainland Asia, as Japanese leaders felt that the large resource base and Chinese market were crucial to their country’s economic security. This push to establish suzerainty over China was only magnified by the Kwatung Army, a largely autonomous Japanese army group on the Asian mainland that sought to provoke conflicts with the Chinese in order to expand further into Chinese territory. Thus, by the late 1930s, Japanese policy was largely the domain of the military and expansionist industrialists who sought financial gain from imperial conquest and growth in military expenditure.[ii]
The critical tipping point occurred in 1937, the point at which Japan’s military-dominated government dragged the country into full-scale war in China. This adventure was naively expected to yield a swift and easy victory, but it quickly deteriorated into a strategic nightmare, as Japan simply lacked the manpower and logistical capacity to project adequate force into the Chinese heartland. As the conflict dragged on into 1938, Japan increasingly found itself in a difficult strategic situation in which almost all of its resources were tied up in a protracted struggle in the vast land expanse of China. In 1937, for example, Japanese military expenditure was 69% of all government spending, and this number only grew over the following years![iii] By 1941, moreover, Japan had committed 31 of its 51 divisions to the mainland, leaving only 40% of its forces available for other contingencies.[iv] This precarious position was further magnified by lingering concerns about a potential conflict with the Soviet Union in Manchuria. Indeed, several border skirmishes erupted while Japan was still embroiled in China: In 1938 the Kwantung Army initiated a border conflict with Soviet soldiers in disputed territory around Manchuria in an incident that came to be known as the Changkufeng Incident, and in 1939, conflict between Japanese and Soviet forces resurfaced during the Nomonhan Incident.[v] Both skirmishes ended in Japanese defeat, prompting Japanese military leaders to grow even more fearful about their strategic situation. In short, Japan found itself overextended and increasingly in conflict with its powerful neighbors.
This growing Japanese bellicosity worried American policymakers, as they feared for the security of the Philippines, an American colony at the time. The situation from the American perspective became increasingly dire in the late summer of 1940, however, as it was at this point that Germany began its rampage through Europe. Even though the United States had not yet entered the war, it was carefully following events and slowly increasing its support of the United Kingdom through policies like the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. The primary source of American disquiet was a concern that Japan might exploit the weakened state of European countries to expand into the European colonies of Southeast Asia – indeed, Japan did pressure Vichy France to allow Japanese troops into French Indochina.[vi] This would place British possessions like Singapore and India at risk, increase the danger to the Philippines, and raise the possibility of a general Pacific War.[vii] U.S. State Department officials also feared that continued Japanese expansion into China and Southeast Asia would hurt U.S. trade access to the region, as Tokyo was blocking shipping along the Yangtze and introducing new currency into China that made it difficult for non-Japanese imports to enter.[viii] By the spring of 1939, therefore, the Unites States Congress was pushing legislation to block the sale of steel and iron scrap metal to Japan. Following this escalation, President Roosevelt allowed the US-Japanese Trade Treaty to expire without renewal, which opened the door to a full embargo of Japan.[ix]
These moves spooked the Japanese, as they desperately needed American raw materials to support their war effort and military buildup. Indeed, 80% of Japanese oil and 75% of its scrap iron was sourced from the U.S.[x] However, the deciding blow was delivered in 1941. During the previous year, Roosevelt had restricted the sale of aviation fuel, scrap iron, potash, copper, brass, and other metals to Japan, but he had refused to embargo oil for fear that the inclusion of this precious resource would permanently destroy relations with Japan and increase the risk of Japanese adventurism into the oil-rich Dutch East Indies.[xi] The German invasion of the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941 changed these calculations, however, as Roosevelt began to receive intelligence from MAGIC, the American decryption program, that Japan was contemplating an invasion of the Soviet Union. The concerns were only exacerbated by Japan’s decision to join Germany and Italy’s Tripartite Pact in September of 1940.[xii] As one analyst in the State Department explained, “[Tokyo] cannot be expected to forget what they have for many years considered as the Russian dagger pointed at the heart of Japan.” The report concluded that although Japan’s future war plans were still ambiguous, they were “far more likely… to be in the direction of action against Russia.”[xiii] This was tremendously distressing for American policymakers, as they felt that Japan creating a second front for the Soviets would all but guarantee Nazi dominance across all of Eurasia. In response, hardliners within the American Department of State and Treasury exercised their control over trade regulations to interpret Roosevelt’s call to freeze all Japanese assets in such a way as to impose a complete ban on American oil exports to Japan.[xiv] Japanese leaders knew this ban would put them in dire straits, as their strategic reserves were rapidly diminishing. Indeed, Prime Minister Tojo noted that “Two years from now we will have no petroleum for military use. Ships will stop moving… We can talk about austerity and suffering, but can our people endure such a life for a long time?… I fear that we would become a third-class nation after 2 or 3 years if we just sat tight.”[xv] Consequently, they earnestly began planning a military campaign to achieve economic security and improve their strategic position.
Planning to Strike
Given the rapidly deteriorating strategic situation confronting Japan, the leadership in Tokyo began planning potential military options for redressing the situation. It should be noted that throughout the military planning phase, Japanese politicians and diplomats were concomitantly working to obviate the need for war. However, their sincerity was questioned by American policymakers who observed Japan’s continued buildup of military forces for operations in Southeast Asia, which U.S. Ambassador to Japan Joseph Grew repeatedly flagged in his cables to Washington.[xvi] As a result, Japanese attempts to avert war were repeatedly stymied, and the likelihood of conflict continued to grow.
As Japanese leadership developed its plan to break free from the American economic chokehold, it became increasingly apparent that an invasion of the resource-rich European colonies in Southeast Asia was essential to Japan’s long-term strategic position. The question, however, was how best to acquire these precious territories while minimizing the risk to Japan. Although Japan’s civilian government was staffed with officials, such as Foreign Minister Togo and Finance Minister Okinori, who were averse to conflict with the United States, they were largely shut out of the strategic planning by the military.[xvii] Prime Minister Tojo was also the Army Minister, granting the military inordinate influence within the cabinet.[xviii] This bias in favor of the militarists, combined with the extreme autonomy enjoyed by the Japanese military – they had initiated several coups in prior years and had also provoked conflict in Manchuria without the approval of civilian leadership – undermined the influence of the more pacifist voices within the cabinet.[xix]
As the plans developed, two competing proposals emerged. The first plan was to launch coordinated attacks on Malaya and the Dutch East Indies to appropriate and secure their oil and rubber resources. Significantly, this proposed operation would bypass the American-held Philippines in an attempt to avoid war with the United States. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) was in favor of this plan, as they felt that the risk posed by American forces in the Philippines, under this scenario, was relatively small. First, they believed it fairly unlikely that the United States would risk a war in the Pacific given the situation in Europe. They therefore had no desire to draw the U.S. into a war. Additionally, they felt that even if the Americans did choose to challenge the Japanese aggression in Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, the paucity of American naval and air forces in the Philippines meant that the risk to the Japanese invasion fleets was relatively low.[xx] The Navy emphatically disagreed, arguing that it was imperative to secure the Philippines in order to protect the Southeast Asian battlespace from an American intervention. As a result, the Navy lobbied for a modified version of the Army plan that included attacks on the Philippines and, fatefully, the American Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor.
Interestingly, the civilian Minister of the Navy, Shimada Shigetaro, was strongly opposed to war with the United States.[xxi] In what was by this point a commonplace circumstance in Japan, however, his views were ignored and bypassed by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), which was nominally subordinate to him. Commander of the Combined Fleet Isoroku Yamamoto threatened to resign if the IJN’s preferred approach was not adopted,[xxii] and Suzuki Teiichi, a retired lieutenant general who served as the general director of the Cabinet Planning Board, intentionally misled the civilian leadership about the feasibility of conflict with the U.S. in order to garner their support for a war.[xxiii] Thus, by late October, even many of the formerly dovish Cabinet members had begun to accede to the merits of a conflict with the United States.[xxiv]
The plan devised by the Japanese military was forced to contend with Japan’s manpower shortage, which was a result of the still fierce conflict in China. The IJA pledged 20% of its total strength – 12 divisions and 4 brigades, supported by 2 air groups composed of 700 aircraft – for the Southeast Asian campaign. British Hong Kong and Malaya, along with the American Philippines, were to be taken in the first stage of the campaign. Once these areas were secured, The IJA would then move to occupy the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile, Japanese Marines were tasked with taking the American island bases of Wake Island and Guam.[xxv] The opening move of this grand plan, of course, was the attack on the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor. This attack was to be conducted by a task force based around six carriers and their 417 aircraft, and it hoped to achieve three major objectives.[xxvi] First, it was designed to support the broader Japanese push south by damaging American naval capacity to the point that it could not be quickly deployed to defend the Philippines. Second, the attack sought to improve Japan’s strategic situation by destroying enough ships to offset the American naval buildup to an impactful degree.[xxvii] Finally, Japanese officials hoped that the attack would demoralize the American public and lead Roosevelt to acquiesce to some kind of settlement regarding Japan’s position in Asia.[xxviii]
But even if the attacks did not move the U.S. to sue for peace, the Japanese leadership felt that the attack on Pearl Harbor and, later, the American island outposts of Guam and Wake Island would stun the United States Navy long enough to allow Japan the time it needed to expand throughout Southeast Asia and fortify its island holdings in the Pacific. The hope was that by the time the U.S. ramped up its economy to meet the demands of a large-scale war, Japan would be so ensconced in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific that the United States would seek a negotiated settlement rather than pay the cost in lives and money needed to root out Japanese forces.[xxix] This view was not entirely without merit. After all, Japan had more warships of every class than the U.S. Pacific Fleet: it had twice the number of fleet carriers and four more light carriers, a battleship advantage of 5:4, twice as many cruisers, and nearly three times as many destroyers.[xxx] However, this advantage would not endure, as The Two Ocean Navy Act of 1940 committed the U.S. to increase its tonnage by 70% – in part by constructing 18 new carriers, 6 new battleships, and 33 more cruisers – by the mid-1940s.[xxxi] Japanese Army Chief of Staff Hajime Sugiyama also warned that “the ratio of armaments between Japan and the United states will become more unfavorable… as time passes; and particularly, the gap in air armament will enlarge rapidly.”[xxxii] In other words, if Japan were to attack, it had to act soon because any delay would allow the U.S., with its enormous industrial capacity, to build an insurmountable advantage. Japan also held the advantages of surprise and geographic proximity, as it could decide when the war began and quickly move forces throughout Southeast Asia from its bases in the Pacific and China. Despite these advantages, the plan was still fraught with risk given the sheer strength of the U.S. economy: United States GDP was 5.7 times that of Japan in 1941 and 10.24 times as large by the end of the war in 1945.[xxxiii] Indeed, Suzuki privately acknowledged that:
Japan has not established a defensive system, has no long-term plans for material sustenance of the state, and has dealt with the distribution of materials on a year-by-year basis… For 1942, we project the material supply to be 90 percent of what it was for [1941]… That would mean depleting all the present stock.[xxxiv]
The Japanese also had no plan to end the conflict, as they realized they could not defeat the U.S. in a total war and had no way to meaningfully hold the American homeland at risk. Thus, their entire strategy rested on a naïve and somewhat racist belief that Americans, as a result of their decadent culture, would have neither the will nor the tenacity needed to push into Japanese-held territory. In short, Tokyo’s plan was to hit the U.S. hard and then dig in. The Japanese were hoping and betting against considerable odds that the U.S. would seek a negotiated peace because absent this occurrence, there was little Japan could do to end, let alone win, the war.
The Plan in Action
December 7, 1941 was, in the words of U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, a day that shall live in infamy. In the early morning hours, fighters, torpedo bombers, and dive bombers from Japanese carriers attacked Pearl Harbor in two waves. The result was the destruction of 47% of U.S. aircraft in Hawaii and damage to another 40%. Japanese planes also hit the base’s eight U.S. battleships hard, damaging all and inflicting so much damage upon the Arizona and Oklahoma as to permanently knock them out of the war. The 38 smaller surface combatants suffered only minimal damage, allowing all of them to survive the attack. Japanese aircraft also failed to strike the American fuel depots and drydocks at Pearl Harbor, leaving much of the Pacific Fleet’s logistical and support infrastructure intact. Additionally, Japanese aviators failed to destroy any U.S. carriers, as they happened to be out of port during the morning of the attack. Despite these shortcomings, the strike must be considered a tactical success: It maintained the element of complete surprise from planning to execution, inflicted heavy damage upon the United States’ Pacific battleships, and resulted in a loss to Japan of only 29 aircraft and five midget submarines.[xxxv]
The success of the Pearl Harbor operation also guaranteed the short-term security of Japan’s invasion of Southeast Asia. Indeed, the Japanese saw fantastic successes early on, capturing Malaya, Singapore, the Philippines, the Dutch East Indies, and eventually most of Burma. While it is easy to pan the short-sighted nature of the attack by pointing to America’s massive industrial potential, the harm wrought to the American fleet was far from trivial: it induced caution among American admirals and damaged every Pacific battleship to some degree. Thus, even a year later, after defeats at both Midway and the Coral Sea, Japan still possessed more carriers, battleships, and cruisers in the Pacific than the United States. To emphasize this point, it is noteworthy that in the autumn of 1942, Japan had eight operational carriers to America’s one.[xxxvi] This was extremely important, as Japanese crews were generally better trained, and Japan’s pilots were absolutely superior. Thus, the IJN already enjoyed a clear qualitative advantage at the onset of the war, so the quantitative advantage that was extended through the attack on Pearl Harbor served only to amplify Japan’s early operational advantages. It does not follow, however, that the attack was the optimal long run decision. Tactical and operational successes are certainly important, but without sound strategic guidance they are largely superfluous. After all, a country may win many battles and still lose the war.
Evaluating Japan’s Strategic Choices
Before offering a strategic analysis of Japan’s decision to bomb the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, it is worthwhile to briefly review Japan’s pre-war position. Tokyo found itself embroiled in an intense war in China that was draining equipment and manpower at an alarming rate, faced increasing economic sanctions from the United States, and enjoyed a clear military advantage within the Western Pacific. With European nations focusing all of their efforts against the Nazis and, in most cases, failing to halt the German onslaught, the European-controlled Southeast Asian territories replete with strategic resources like oil and rubber lay completely exposed. This presented a tempting target for Japanese leaders, as occupation of these European holdings would simultaneously strengthen Japan’s position in Asia and solve its worrisome resource problems.
In consideration of these facts, it becomes clear that Japanese leadership faced little choice but to occupy at least a portion of Southeast Asia. Were Japanese leaders to accede to U.S. demands, pulling out of China and forgoing any more territorial expansion lest this trigger more crushing American economic retaliation, it would effectively neuter their strategic autonomy and ensure that their country remained dangerously reliant on access to American resources for the indefinite future. This exact concern was voiced by IJA Vice Chief of Staff Tsukadu Osamu, who noted that “a troop withdrawal from southern Indochina won’t happen… [because] if we withdrew, the United States would have its way. Then it could interfere with us anytime it wanted.”[xxxvii] Reason puts it well when he writes that “The United States was, in effect, demanding that Japan renounce its status as an aspiring great power and consign itself to permanent strategic dependency on a hostile Washington. Such a choice would have been unacceptable to any great power.”[xxxviii] Thus, some kind of occupation of the resource-rich European colonies was clearly in Japan’s strategic interest, as this would be the only way to ensure the Japanese economic security so important for enabling Tokyo’s military power and international status.
The less obvious question is this: How should Japan have executed this southern strategy? It is here that Japan’s leadership made their biggest mistake, as they confused operational preferences with strategic imperatives. Instead of deliberately instigating conflict with the United States, Japanese leaders should have attempted to address their resource concerns without precipitating an outright war with the American industrial giant. One way they could have achieved this end would have been simply to adopt the IJA’s preferred plan to advance into Southeast Asia while bypassing the Philippines and canceling the strike on Pearl Harbor. By the autumn of 1941, Japan already occupied all of French Indochina and could have easily occupied the Dutch East Indies given that Holland lay under the boot of German occupation. An attack on British holdings in Malaya would have been somewhat more perilous given the importance Roosevelt assigned to the survival of Britain against the Nazi onslaught. However, it is noteworthy that similar threats to the United Kingdom’s security and very survival, such as the German Blitz, did not precipitate an American entry into the war. Even at this point, the United States remained rife with isolationist sentiment, and it is extremely doubtful that Roosevelt could have garnered the popular and Congressional support needed to declare war on Japan over something as seemingly trivial and distant as the Dutch East Indies or British Malaya. Moreover, one must not discount that Roosevelt was focused almost exclusively on the threat from Nazi Germany. He was not seeking a protracted military entanglement in the Pacific and would likely have made every possible effort to avoid one.[xxxix] Thus, Japan could very likely have poached even British Singapore without risking large scale war with the United States. But instead of taking limited actions that might have ignited a limited conflict with the United States, Japanese leadership obtusely embarked upon a series of actions that effectively guaranteed an all-out war with the greatest economic leviathan of the time.
As the war dragged on, the idiocy inherent in this choice revealed itself with increasingly clarity. There was little that Japanese leaders could do, however, as they had guaranteed a fight to the death by attacking not simply an American colony, but a United States naval base staffed by American sailors and civilians. The attacks on Pearl Harbor, as successful as they were on a tactical level, created an alarmingly palpable belief among the American populace that they were under direct threat. Despite their aversion to war, therefore, the population was mobilized by Pearl Harbor in a way that little else could have, awakening a giant that Japan could not hope to slay. For all the short-term advantages Japan accrued by catching the Pacific Fleet unprepared, the long-term consequences were far worse and far more significant. In 1943 alone, U.S. industry answered the call to war and built 2 battleships, 6 fleet carriers, 9 light carriers, 24 escort carriers, 4 heavy cruisers, 7 light cruisers, 128 destroyers, and 200 submarines. And over the course of the entire conflict, the U.S. produced an astounding 24 Essex-class fleet carriers, which were unmatched by any craft in the Japanese fleet.[xl] To put this output in its proper context, the U.S. produced more ships for the Pacific theater in the four years of war than had previously existed in its pre-war Pacific Fleet. This meant that by 1944 the U.S. Pacific Fleet alone was more than twice the size of the entire IJN. Not only were U.S. ships greater in number, they were also generally of superior quality. This is perhaps most obvious in the field of submarines, where America’s 70 Gato-class and 122 Balao-class fleet submarines were deployed to devastating effect against Japanese shipping.[xli] In fact, the Japanese Planning Board anticipated these losses to some degree but concealed them from the Cabinet. But even Japan’s worst-case forecasts significantly underestimated the damage wrought by American submariners: The Planning Board privately thought Japan could lose 700,000 tons of shipping a year, but the actual numbers were almost double this estimate (even subtracting for new shipping capacity built during the war).[xlii]
Japan also faced a deeper problem, which was that its military had no plans for extricating itself from the war in China. During the negotiations with the U.S., for example, the Japanese leadership proposed withdrawal dates of between 25 and 99 years in the future. Of course, this inability to disengage from the messy war in China partially explains Japan’s decision to embark on a war with the U.S. in the first place. Its rapidly diminishing stock of strategic resources needed to be replenished from sources to the south. However, the inability to remove troops from China was also part of the reason that Japan had little chance of success against the U.S. As late as August of 1945, 56% of the Japanese Army deployed outside the home islands was in China and Manchuria, not in the Pacific.[xliii] Simply stated, Tokyo did not possess the requisite manpower to fortify and develop enough island outposts to keep the U.S. at bay. With so much of its force tied down on the Asian mainland, in other words, Japan’s entire defensive perimeter strategy ceased to make much strategic sense because Japan lacked the manpower to implement it effectively. Ironically, Japan’s solution to its resource problem only exacerbated the underlying problems it faced. By fighting not only the Chinese nationalists but also the United States, Tokyo invited a scenario that rendered its manpower crisis that much more acute. And by exposing its shipping capacity to U.S. air and naval power, Japan actually ended up reducing its access to vital resources. At its greatest extent, the Japanese Empire was 6,400 miles wide and 5,300 long, and it encompassed particularly rugged, inaccessible terrain in place like Burma.[xliv] For reasons not entirely clear, Japanese leadership never gave much pre-war consideration to the logistical challenge this would pose, and thus they proved consistently unable to adequately resource a large number of their troops. This failure would be intolerable in any conflict, but Japan’s inability to efficiently maximize resource distribution in a war against an industrial titan like the United States is simply inexcusable.
As the U.S. onslaught intensified, Japanese leaders clung stubbornly to their pre-war plan of inflicting as much damage as possible on the American fleet early in the war and then riding out the storm. And while they changed their tactics on the margins, adopting a friendlier approach to the natives of occupied territories to garner their support and cooperation against the Americans, this was a case of too little too late. Japan’s earlier savagery against these populations made reconciliation nigh impossible.[xlv] And even had Japan been able to increase the level of trust and comity that existed between its occupying armies and local populations, this would not have significantly changed the strategic situation facing Japan. The inanity of Japan’s defense perimeter strategy extended to the method they employed to defend their island outposts. As D. Clayton James notes, “Instead of developing clusters of mutually supportive island bases around their Pacific perimeter, Japanese commanders were ordered to prepare concentrated defenses on single islands separated by large distances and with vulnerable lines of communication.”[xlvi] These isolated garrisons, though tenacious, simply had no chance of repelling U.S. amphibious forces, especially when the U.S. island-hopping campaign simply bypassed most Japanese-held islands. By failing to properly resource and support its garrison and choosing not to develop an integrated, comprehensive and thorough defense in depth strategy of mutually-supporting islands, Japan only further weakened its ability to defend against U.S. forces. Given that a strong defense comprised the entirety of Japan’s post-Pearl Harbor strategy, this failure proved to be one of calamitous enormity.
Of course, much of the aforementioned information concerns events post-Pearl Harbor, so one might wonder about its relevance. But this is the point: Pearl Harbor was just a small part of Japan’s overall strategy, lasting only a few hours. It therefore must be considered within the broader context of the Pacific War. While the attack on the Pacific Fleet was technically brilliant and fairly well executed, it seemed to be largely viewed in a vacuum by Japanese decisionmakers. The implications of the attack on broader Japanese strategy were never fully appreciated, and Japanese planning never understood the full magnitude of a war with the United States. By focusing inordinately on the short-term operational objectives of securing supply lines and impeding the ability of the Pacific Fleet to sally forth into the South China Sea, the Japanese forgot to fully account for – or simply chose to ignore – the immense strategic burden an attack on the United States would create. From logistical requirements to industrial capacity to manpower, Japan was woefully unprepared.
Consequently, the attack on Pearl Harbor was also not as strategically decisive as it needed to be. It temporarily eliminated most of the American battleships and helped to grant the IJN numerical superiority for several months beyond what it otherwise would have enjoyed, but it absolutely did not decisively degrade American sea power. For all the quantitative naval advantages Japan possessed in the first year of the war, its Pearl Harbor attack failed to eliminate any of the smaller surface combatants of the Pacific Fleet. The attack also left the logistical support facilities, such as drydocks and fuel depots, that proved so crucial to the early American war effort completely intact. Simply put, the Pearl Harbor attack was far too minuscule to decisively shift the direction of the war even despite its visionary brilliance and tactical success. To really stand a chance against the American juggernaut and buy enough time for its defensive strategy to bear fruit, Japan would have had to eliminate almost the entire Pacific Fleet and most of its support infrastructure. It did not, nor could it have, and thus the attack on the American fleet was of very limited strategic value.
Given these multiple failures, one is forced to grapple with how Japan bungled its strategic planning so severely. The answer seems to be that there simply was no rigorous strategic planning by the Japanese military or civilian leadership. While there were certainly isolated voices vociferously opposing war with the United States, most in the Japanese leadership seemed to have a fatalistic resignation about the inevitably of conflict with their rivals across the Pacific. This is somewhat understandable – Japan and the U.S. were increasingly coming to blows – but the logic was quite circular. Japanese leaders seemed to believe that “the policy of the southern advance would make conflict with the U.S. inevitable; since war was bound to occur, Japan should advance southward to prepare for the conflict.”[xlvii] What is exceedingly less understandable is Japan’s motivation for deliberately striking U.S. forces at Pearl Harbor, thus mobilizing the American public for a large-scale war. After all, American isolationist sentiment and fixation with counterbalancing Nazi Germany would have likely resulted in only a limited response to Japanese expansion. Why would Japan intentionally provoke an almost unwinnable war when it could likely be avoided? To answer this question, one must look back at the leadership, which was composed largely of either active or former military officers. As a result, much of the initial planning – especially that by the Navy – was disproportionately focused on the operational, as opposed to the strategic, level of war. The IJN was so concerned about the potential of American attacks against its forces in Southeast Asia that it felt compelled to launch a pre-emptive attack against American positions even if this guaranteed a bigger strategic challenge in the long-run. This decision appears even more obtuse when one realizes that the operational success of Japan’s invasion into Southeast Asia did not require a surprise attack on the Pacific Fleet: Even had America intervened – which is doubtful – it would have required at least six months to gather sufficient oilers and support vessels to support large operations near Japan.[xlviii] In short, to ensure the success of a single campaign, Japan put itself in a position to lose the entire war.
Japan made a fateful choice by choosing to strike the U.S.-held Philippines and, more consequentially, the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor. By deliberately attacking American territory and forces, Tokyo guaranteed a conflict with the most powerful economy in the world. As a result, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor cannot be understood in a vacuum; it must be placed within the broader strategy of the Japanese Empire. As noted throughout this paper, Japanese leadership faced a particularly vexing situation in the leadup to war with United States: its forces were bogged down in an interminable war with the Chinese and its access to strategic resources like oil and metals was being increasingly constricted by American trade embargos. These pressures meant that some kind of imperial expansion was required to secure Japan’s economic base and position as a great power. Acquiescence was simply not an acceptable option for a proud, rising power like Japan, especially given the dominant position of pro-expansion militarists in its government. However, the particular manner in which Japan chose to pursue this expansionary path was horribly short-sighted and reveals the dearth of proper strategic thinking among senior decision-makers in Tokyo.
Japanese leaders, by striking at the U.S. Pacific Fleet, invited a war with a significantly more powerful country that otherwise would likely have begrudgingly tolerated limited Japanese expansion into Southeast Asia. This strategic folly was compounded by the problem that Japanese leaders significantly underestimated, or willfully ignored, the immense strain upon its resources, both human and material, that a war with the United States would create. This would be consequential even if Japan were fighting only the United States. In fact, the situation facing Japanese leadership was far direr, as they had to fight the U.S. while also engaging in a large-scale conflict in China and expanding into Southeast Asia. As a result, Japan faced the American giant while significantly overstretched and under-resourced, and it therefore could not effectively implement its plan to create a durable defensive perimeter around the Japanese home islands and Southern Resource Zone.
As noted throughout, the Pearl Harbor attack was brilliantly executed. It masterfully employed a new class of warship, the carrier, to great effect, and it achieved many of its tactical objectives. For all its cunning, however, the plan made little sense when incorporated into Japan’s overall strategy, as it needlessly provoked a total war with the one power Japan absolutely could not afford to fight. Japanese carrier aviators were given the impossible task of destroying American naval power to such a degree that, even with America’s immense industrial capacity, the IJN could have overwhelming Pacific dominance long enough for Japan’s defensive perimeter strategy to be successfully implemented. Even if everything had gone perfectly – Japanese planes were able to sink the American Pacific carriers and severely damage Pearl Harbor’s infrastructure – it is still unlikely that Japan could have won because it simply lacked the capacity to conduct a war on the scale that was required. Its armies were trapped in China, its growing empire created ever more strain on its logistical and industrial capacity, and it faced the greatest economic power of the time. The Pearl Harbor attack is a testament to the excellence of Japan’s naval aviators, its tactical creativity, and the importance of luck. Far from improving Japan’s already difficult strategic situation, however, the attack needlessly destroyed Japan’s position for little more than a cheeky tactical victory and short-term operational gain.
[i] Scott Sagan, “The Origins of the Pacific War,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988), 893.
[ii] D. Clayton James, “Strategies in the Pacific,” in Peter Paret (ed.) Makers of Modern Strategy, 704-705 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971).
[iii] Alan Schom, The Eagle and the Rising Sun (New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004), 60.
[iv] Williamson Murray and Allan Millett, A War to Be Won (Cambridge, M.A.: Belknap Press, 2000), 167.
[v] Jessica L. P. Weeks, Dictators at War and Peace (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2014), 124-126.
[vi] D. Clayton James, 706.
[vii] Jeffrey Record, Japan’s Decision for War in 1941: Some Enduring Lessons (Carlisle, P.A.: Strategic Studies Institute, 2009), 14.
[viii] Dale C. Copeland, Economic Interdependence and War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014), 175-176.
[ix] Ibid., 177.
[x] Ibid., 178.
[xi] Record, 15.
[xii] Ibid., 12.
[xiii] Foreign Relations of the United States (Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1941) 4:276-277; 983-984.
[xiv] Record, 17.
[xv] Quoted in Nobutake Ike, Japan’s Decision for War: Records of the 1941 Policy Conferences (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1967), 238.
[xvi] Copeland, 218.
[xvii] Eri Hotta, Japan 1941 (New York, N.Y. Vintage Books, 2013), 216-217.
[xviii] Ibid., 220.
[xix] John Toland, The Rising Sun (New York, N.Y., Random House, 1970), 1-14.
[xx] Murray and Millett, 172.
[xxi] Hotta, 225.
[xxii] Murray and Millett, 172.
[xxiii] Hotta, 224-225.
[xxiv] Ibid., 228.
[xxv] Murray and Millett, 172-173.
[xxvi] Alan Zimm, Attack on Pearl Harbor: Strategy, Combat, Myths, Deception (Philadelphia, P.A.: Casemate Publishers, 2011), 83.
[xxvii] H. P. Willmott, The Barrier and the Javelin: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies, February to June 1942 (Annapolis, M.D.: Naval Institute Press, 1983), 14.
[xxviii] Zimm, 372.
[xxix] Victor Davis Hanson, The World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won (New York, N.Y.: Basic Books, 2017), 145.
[xxx] Ibid., 142-143.
[xxxi] Spencer Tucker, ed., Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2005), 1541.
[xxxii] Record, 25.
[xxxiii] Hanson, 455.
[xxxiv] Hotta, 223.
[xxxv] Murray and Millet, 178.
[xxxvi] Hanson, 143-144.
[xxxvii] Hotta, 237.
[xxxviii] Record, 21.
[xxxix] David Evans and Mark Peattie, Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 (Annapolis, M.D.: Naval Institute Press, 2012), 493.
[xl] Hanson, 153.
[xli] Ibid., 189.
[xlii] Hotta, 223.
[xliii] D. Clayton James, 715.
[xliv] Ibid., 717.
[xlv] Ibid., 714.
[xlvi] Ibid., 719.
[xlvii] Akira Iriye, Across the Pacific (New York, N.Y.: Imprint, 1967), 208.
[xlviii] Zimm, 373.
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Vouloir, c’est pouvoir
On April 21, 1944, French women received the right to vote. Shocked that it took so long? Me too, but women in Switzerland had to wait until 1977 and those in the United Arab Emirates just got the vote in 2006!
Detail of Kucharski's portrait of Olympe de Gouge
France’s relatively late entry into women’s suffrage is particularly ironic when one considers that this right was proposed at the time of the French Revolution. Olympe de Gouge, a feminist writer, composed the “Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizens” in response to a certain other famous declaration. She argued that women not only had the right to vote, but to an education, to serve in the military, and to obtain a divorce. She was guillotined for treason in 1793.
English: Hubertine Auclert (1848-1914), French...
English: Hubertine Auclert
Suffrage was debated in 1846, but the “wise ones” decided that giving women the right to vote would interfere with their domestic duties, disrupt family life, and undermine society. In 1871, women actually did have the right to vote under the Paris Commune, but when that government fell after a few months, away went women’s suffrage. Feminist Hubertine Auclert argued at the close of the 19th century that women would, in fact, bring a “civilizing effect” due to their more “peaceful” natures. Eugenie Niboyet trumpeted these views in her newspaper “Voix des Femmes.”
The intervention of two World Wars that were largely fought on French soil may have put Christine Lagarde - World Economic Forum Annua...the issue on the back burner, although other European countries did adopt women’s suffrage in the war years. Nonetheless, it wasn’t until the decree of Charles de Gaulle, at a time when half of France was still occupied, that women got the right to vote. They were eligible to participate in the first national election of October 21, 1945. A woman came close to winning the French presidency in the 2007 election and several women hold top cabinet positions in the current cabinet, including the extremely impressive Christine Lagarde. (Note: Since this was written, Lagarde was named as the head of the International Monetary Fund.) We’ve come a long way, bébé.
Today’s expression vouloir, c’est pouvoir (voolwahr seh poovwahr) means “to want is to be able” or, as we would say, “where there’s a will there’s a way.” Women like Olympe de Gouge died so that women can vote. Their will made a way for the rest of us.
Liberty Leading the People
Declaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne
About Patricia Gilbert
2 Responses to Vouloir, c’est pouvoir
1. Eva McCane says:
I had no idea! Thanks for sharing.
2. Pingback: Un objet parfaitement beau comporte un parfait simplicité | One quality, the finest.
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The gemshorn: a (necessarily) short history
What is a gemshorn?
A Gemse or chamois (from which we also name the leather).
A Gems or chamois (from which we also name the leather).
The word cornet or cornett appears in French sources from the 13th century onwards, indicating any little horn, including animal horns and short metal trumpets, and the same usage appears in English from c. 1400. In the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, French sources also refer to cor à doigts, literally fingered horns. These animal horns drilled with finger holes cannot be classed with gemshorns, as they are all blown from a mouthpiece created at or near the sharp point of the horn, eventually leading to the creation of the leather-covered wooden cornett in c. 1500. Gemshorns, however, are distinctive for being blown from the open end.
A gemshorn (one word) is the horn of the Gems (hard g), plural Gemsen or, in modern German, Gämsen, a European mountain goat. The removed horn had holes drilled in it to make a wind instrument, the open end plugged with a fipple and a lip made to blow into, so it becomes essentially an ocarina made of horn with a range of the number of holes plus one note. Commercially available gemshorns today are not the horns of Gemsen, but the horns of other animals, such as cows or oxen.
Evidence of its use
The first written description of the instrument is in Musica Getutscht und Ausgezogen, published in 1511, by the German musicologist Sebastian Virdung, who described it as a short, curved animal horn, with 4 finger holes. German renaissance musician and music theorist Martin Agricola published his Musica instrumentalis deudsch in 1529, including information and illustrations for the gemshorn and other instruments that appears to be taken directly from Virdung’s earlier work.
Left: The gemshorn and other instruments illustrated in Sebastian Virdung’s Musica Getutscht und Ausgezogen, 1511. Right: An identical-looking gemshorn as it appears in Martin Agricola’s Musica instrumentalis deudsch, 1529.
Left: The gemshorn and other instruments illustrated in Sebastian Virdung’s Musica Getutscht und Ausgezogen, 1511. Right: The gemshorn as it appears in Martin Agricola’s Musica instrumentalis deudsch, 1529.
The Heidelberger Totentanz is a German book of 38 prints from woodcuts, author unknown, printed by Heinrich Knoblochtzer in 1488. The story in the book and its striking illustrations depict the dance of death, only the second printed book to have done so, the first being published by Parisian printer Guyot Marchant in 1485, in what was to become a major theme in art. The Heidelberger Totentanz woodcuts mostly feature the figure of death playing or holding musical instruments of the time – lute, bray harp, shawm, tromba marina, bagpipes, psaltery, etc. One woodcut depicts what looks very much like a gemshorn: we can clearly see the window (the rectangular hole cut near the mouthpiece) and it is played at the wide end as a gemshorn would be, not the narrow end as a hunting horn, for example, would be.
Death holding a gemshorn, a woodcut in the Heidelberger Totentanz, Germany, 1488.
The illustration lacks finger holes, but this may well be the woodcutter’s artistic imprecision, seen throughout the woodcuts. In a similar way, the harps in this collection of woodcuts have strings unfeasibly placed, and medieval or early renaissance illustrations of stringed instruments sometimes show different numbers of strings to tuning pegs: we see that in this collection, where a lute drawn with 6 courses is shown with only 5 pegs. In the unlikely case that this particular horn did lack finger holes, it is the same size and blown the same way as a gemshorn, so I don’t think such a detail, even if true, need disqualify it, pushing the earliest recorded date back to 1488.
An instrument structurally the same as a gemshorn but made of clay was found buried beneath the foundation of a house dated 1455, with 4 holes in the front, just as Sebastian Virdung described in 1511, and with another hole in the back (citation here without further details – I wish I could tell you more). Of course, it’s a moot point to ask if the material really matters: if it functions the same way but is made of clay instead of horn, is it any less a functioning gemshorn than one made of cow horn rather than goat horn? If it doesn’t matter, this pushes the earliest date back to 1455.
Gemshorn and other pipe organ stops.
Gemshorn and other pipe organ stops.
The gemshorn on a pipe organ
Pipe organs have a selection of stops, used for the purpose of admitting pressurised air in order to change the timbre of the sound. One stop is called the gemshorn, the earliest date of which may help us date the eponymous instrument. The gemshorn stop, however, first came into use in the early 16th century and so pushes the date back no further.
Period and usage
So we know that the gemshorn was played from the late middle ages or early renaissance (depending on when you think the renaissance started in Germany) to the early baroque period, when another German musician and musical lexicographer, Michael Praetorius, provided gemshorn diagrams in his De Organographia, 1618. After this, it disappears from the records.
Overall it appears extremely rarely in any known documents or iconography, it only appears in Germany, and there is no music written specifically for it, which is normal for a medieval instrument but a huge omission for the renaissance period. We have to conclude, therefore, that the gemshorn was evidently a very minor player in renaissance and early baroque music, was never used in mainstream music of the period and, despite some early music groups using it for medieval music, there is no evidence of its existence or use in the middle ages before 1455 (which, in any case, is arguably the renaissance). Some shops sell gemshorn consorts, a set in different sizes and therefore at different pitches, for which there is no evidence; and drill extra holes in them (seven in the front, one in the back) in order to play them like recorders.
So essentially the gemshorn is an early music curiosity with an unknown repertoire and uncertain use, but nevertheless with a rather haunting and lovely sound, as you can hear below: Packington’s Pound, anonymous, England, late 16th century, played on gemshorn by Andy Casserley.
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05 Accusative Case
In the previous chapters you’ve learned how to use nouns that end in -a (in their dictionary form) as objects, that is, how to make their accusative (object) form (also called case). But what about other nouns?
First, there are general nouns that end in -o or -e. They usually don’t change at all in the accusative case, that is, they can be used as objects in their dictionary (or nominative) form. For instance:
auto ▶ car
jutro ▶ morning
meso ▶ meat
mlijeko milk
nebo ▶ sky, skies
more ▶ sea
pismo ▶ letter
pivo ▶ beer
vino ▶ wine
voće ▶ fruit, fruits
We can (and must!) use them as objects without any change:
Pijempiti pivo. ▶ I’m drinking beer.
Ana gleda more. Ana is watching the sea.
Goran pijepiti vino. Goran is drinking wine.
Jedemjesti voće. I’m eating fruits.
Ivan pijepiti mlijeko. Ivan is drinking milk.
Pišempisati pismo. I’m writing a letter.
Ivana vozi auto. Ivana is driving a car.
There are two useful and similar verbs:
vidjeti (vidi) (can) see voljeti (voli) like, love ®
These two verbs change from -jeti in inf to -i in pres-3. That happens for almost all verbs in -jeti, and can be considered regular, therefore, I usually won’t list pres-3 forms for such verbs. Some examples:
Vidim more. I (can) see the sea.
Ana voli pivo. Ana likes beer.
Then, there are nouns that end in a consonant (nouns that end in -i or -u are very rare in Croatian). Their behavior depends on what they stand for. If they stand for anything except people or animals, they also don’t change in accusative:
brod ▶ ship
film movie
kruh ▶ bread ®
ručak lunch, dinner
sok juice
vlak train ®
Let’s introduce two more useful verbs:
poznavati (poznaje) know (someone)
rezati (reže) cut
Croatian has a special verb for knowing people (and cities), like French connaître. (Also, this is not an error, the verb poznavati has a different stress in infinitive and present. Such shifts specific for individual verbs is what makes stress complex in Croatian.)
Again, we can use the nouns listed above as objects without any change:
Ana gleda film. Ana is watching a movie.
Režemrezati kruh. ▶ I’m cutting bread. ®
Goran pijepiti sok. Goran is drinking juice.
Ivana kuha ručak. ▶ Ivana is cooking lunch.
Čekam vlak. I’m waiting for a train. ®
However, nouns that end in a consonant, but stand for people or animals do change in accusative. You must add an -a to them. This applies to e.g. following nouns:
brat ▶ brother
čovjek ▶ man/human
galeb ▶ (sea)gull
konj ▶ horse
muž ▶ husband
sin ▶ son
Let’s put them to use:
Ana gleda konja. Ana is watching a horse.
Ivan čeka brata. ▶ Ivan is waiting for his brother.
Goran vidi galeba. Goran sees a seagull.
The accusative ending applies to names as well:
Ana čeka Gorana. Ana is waiting for Goran.
Josip poznajepoznavati Ivana. ▶ Josip knows Ivan.
This applies to names having more than one word (e.g. with the last name) and to non-native names as well – each word in the (masculine) name has to get an -a:
Čekamo Ivana Horvata. We’re waiting for Ivan Horvat.
Gledam Brada Pitta. I’m watching Brad Pitt.
When you hear or read a sentence where names are expected to be in the accusative case, you have to be able to work them back to the default (nominative) forms. You simply cannot understand Croatian without understanding cases – that’s why I have introduced them from the start:
Čekam Ivana. I’m waiting for Ivan. (Ivan = male)
Čekam Ivanu. I’m waiting for Ivana. (Ivana = female)
When endings are added to certain nouns ending in a consonant, they don’t get added to their nominative form, but to a usually slightly different form. One example is pas dog. In the accusative case, it looks like this:
Ana gleda psa. ▶ Ana is watching a dog.
The accusative ending is not added to pas, but to a slightly shorter form (ps). We can call that form the ‘case-base’ and list it after such nouns, in parentheses:
magarac (magarc-) donkey
pas (ps-) dog
vrabac (vrapc-) sparrow
The case-base form has usually just the last syllable shortened, but sometimes there’s a consonant alternation as well. (This form is also called oblique stem, or just stem; I’ve invented a simple name for it.)
A few nouns have two possible forms of their case-base. However, the difference is only in spelling, as in sequences -dc- and -tc-, only -c-; is pronounced. Common ones are:
sudac (sudc- / suc-) judge
svetac (svetc- / svec-) saint ®
A few male names that end in either -o or -e behave as if they end in a consonant and have a specific case-base, usually just without the last vowel (j is added if the word ends in -io):
Darko (Dark-)
Hrvoje (Hrvoj-)
Marko (Mark-)
Dario (Darij-)
Mario (Marij-)
Silvio (Silvij-)
For example:
Ana čeka Marka. Ana is waiting for Marko.
Josip ne poznajepoznavati Hrvoja. Josip doesn’t know Hrvoje.
The j is sometimes carried even to the nominative (that is, dictionary) form: according to the official statistics, there are 32708 Mario’s and 4066 Marijo’s in Croatia.
Finally, there are common male names that change as if they end in -a. They end in -e or -o, but that’s just in the nominative case. All other forms are like for nouns in -a. Such names are historically nicknames. For example, Ante is a nickname for Antun (corresponding to English Anthony), but it’s used as an official name as well (there are 35457 Ante’s in Croatia).
Two more names that behave like that are Ivo and Kruno. For a more exhaustive list, check L1 Common Names.
To mark such strange names, I’ll use (A -u) as a reminder that they change like any other nouns in -a, i.e. get an -u in the accusative case. For example:
Čekam Antu. I’m waiting for Ante.
Ne poznajempoznavati Krunu. I don’t know Kruno. ®
Now you know how to make accusative case of almost all nouns! We can summarize the rules we have learned in a table:
noun type (N) A (object)
nouns in -a -a-u
nouns in -o or -e no change
nouns in a consonant
(not people or animals)
no change
nouns in a consonant
(people or animals)
add -a
(These rules are not completely precise, but will work for almost all nouns; I will give you the exact rules a bit later.)
Finally, let me explain how you can ask about objects. Start questions with the following question words:
kog(a) ▶ who (as an object)
što ▶ what
For example, you can ask what Ana is watching, or who Goran is waiting for. There’s a very important point: the answers must be again in the accusative case, as they are still considered objects:
Što Ana gleda? ▶ What is Ana watching?
— Film. A movie. (A!)
— Konja. A horse. (A!)
Što Ivan pijepiti? What is Ivan drinking?
— Kavu. Coffee. (A!)
Koga Goran čeka? Who is Goran waiting for?
— Anu. Ana. (A!)
Again, you’ll often hear and read the colloquial word šta ® instead of što. I’ll explain details of who and what questions later, in 28 Asking Who and What.
You can, of course, answer with just:
— Ne znam. I don’t know.
The verb znati know is one of a very few verbs which shift their stress to ne¨ even in the ‘western’ scheme, since its pres-3 has only one syllable (zna). I’ve indicated it with an underline under ne¨. (People feel it’s pronounced differently than other ne¨ + verb combinations, so you’ll see sometimes non-standard spellings as one word i.e. neznam.)
® In Serbia, where “Ekavian” forms prevail, verbs like vidjeti have inf videti, but the pres-3 is just vidi.
Instead of kruh, hljeb is used in most of Bosnia, and in the “Ekavian” form hleb in Serbia; instead of vlak, voz is common in these countries.
Standard Serbian spelling allows only case-bases suc- and svec-.
In most of Serbia, Kruno has forms like Marko, so it would rather be ne poznajem Kruna, but the name is really rare in Serbia.
The form šta is Standard in Serbia and most of Bosnia.
↓ Something Possibly Interesting (click to show)
↓ Examples (click to show)
↓ Exercise (click to show)
5 Easy Croatian: 05 Accusative Case In the previous chapters you’ve learned how to use nouns that end in -a (in their dictionary form) as objects, that is, how to make their a...
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Tule is a common name applied to various species of marshland grasses and reeds. Of these, the most common is the Common Tule (Schoenoplectus acutus). The term “tule” applies to species such as the common cattail, bulrushes and other similar grassy plants. As a group, tules were extremely useful to the Indians of Nevada and the Great Basin, specifically the Washoe, Paiute, and Shoshone.
Tules were extremely useful in the lives of the Indian people who used them. These versatile grasses and reeds could be used to make watercraft, baskets, mats, and duck decoys, as well as many other items. Because tules grow to fairly large heights, they can be cut at varying lengths depending on the intended use.
Various tules had seeds that were collected that could be ground into flour, using stone metates and hullers. The roots of tules can be eaten either cooked or raw.
Tules can grow to heights between 8 and 10 feet. They are perennial and generally grow abundantly in wet, marshland areas. Some varieties create thick, dense walls of grasses around lakes or ponds and are found below the elevation of 7,500 feet.
The term “tule” was derived from the Aztec word “tullin,” which designated the group of plants including the common cattail, bulrushes, and similar plants. The term was used similarly by the Spanish to designate any such marshland plant.
Geographic Area:
Article Locations
Related Articles
Further Reading
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Indian History
The government of the Rajputs was feudal in character.
The records of the Rajputs refers to a regular bureaucracy.
The officials were called "Kayasthas".
The officials mostly belonged to the upper caste.
The chief source of income of the state was the land revenue. That was supplemented by taxes on commerce and trade. Some money was also paid by the Jagirdars.
Agriculture was the main occupation of the people.
The Rajput rulers built many irrigation works, reservoirs, tanks, wells and canals. State extended lot of help to the farmers. The village administration was conducted by the village councils.
The headman of the village and the Patwari were in charge of collecting the revenue and remitting the same to the royal treasury.
Revenue of the state was collected through the agency of the panchayats.
They also administered civil and criminal Justice.
The Rajputs were great warriors and maintained an efficient army.
They followed the traditional method of warfare swords, bows and arrows and lances were the weapons used by the soldiers.
Since their method of warfare was primitive the Rajput soldiers could not face the army of the Muslim invaders who were well diciplined.
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"fasttext_score": 0.3077698349952698,
"language": "en",
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"url": "http://gsweb.in/indianhistory/medieval/rajputs/administration"
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From where does the sweet water come inside coconut? What is its role?
Clusters of coconut palms thrive on the seashore outside the tidal zone provided there is plenty of subterranean fresh water.
As the fresh water assimilated by the roots is conveyed right up to the crowns of the coconut palms through osmosis process, any dissolved salts which exist in the subterranean water automatically get eliminated through this natural filtration. Fresh water that gets accumulated in coconut is actually ‘endosperm’ or the food or nourishment for the coconut’s growth. It is not that Nature has provided only coconut with endosperm. Nature has provided such endosperm to seeds of all the fruits in the form of glucose and starch for nourishing the embryo existing in the seed.
Nourishing endosperm is in the liquid form in the initial stage of the green coconut. After some weeks the liquid form starts transforming into the creamy tissue that starts depositing on the coconut’s inner surface. By the time soft creamy layer of tissue becomes the hard ‘copra’, the erstwhile endospern would have become clean coconut water.
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"url": "http://www.herebeanswers.com/2012/04/from-where-does-sweet-water-come-inside.html"
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A spanish mothers day activity for children using basic vocabulary and gustar.
I made this simple printable handout to talk about mothers and El día de la madre. In Spanish Mother’s Day is El Día de las Madres or El Día de la Madre. This handout can be used as an activity to talk about moms, or as a prompt for writing a paragraph or a Spanish Mother’s Day card. It uses basic vocabulary and the verb gustar.
With any age group, the idea is that kids circle the things that their moms like and do not circle things their moms don’t like. Then, they add an answer of their own in the empty circles. They can read the sentences they create about their mom and can even use it as a Spanish Mother’s Day card.
With young students or beginners, you can suggest that the first answer be a color. They can add the color with a crayon or marker, and you can help write the word if you like. You can also suggest that the second answer be an animal.
After they have circled the things their moms like, you can use the handout to talk about them. You can ask questions: A tu mamá ¿le gusta leer? and they can use the handout to help them answer.
A Spanish Mothers Day activity for practicing gustar.
You can also talk about their answers using simple sentences. Even beginners will understand what you are saying if you point to the picture, to yourself or to them as you speak, and they can answer with and no. Use sentences like these:
A tu mamá le gustan los caballos.
A mí también me gustan mucho los caballos.
A ti, ¿te gustan los caballos?
A tu mamá no le gustan las zanahorias.
A ti, ¿te gustan las zanahorias?
Older students and students with more Spanish can use the handout as an organizer to help them write a paragraph about what their moms like. They can add other items to the ones mentioned.
You can also encourage kids to add additional information by including phrases like por la mañana, por la noche, en el parque, conmigo, etc. If students are aware of subject-verb agreement with gustar, suggest other subjects and have students identify if they would be included in the top group (le gusta + singular subject) or in the bottom group (le gustan + plural).
Spanish Mother’s Day Printable
A mi mamá le gusta… Printable activity for talking and writing about moms.
You may also be interested in this post: Mother’s Day Printable Spanish Subway Art to Color
Spanish Lessons: Friday Five for Kids
Readers Theater: Benefits for Spanish Learners
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"language_score": 0.8599469661712646,
"url": "https://www.spanishplayground.net/spanish-mothers-day-printable-activity/"
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Four Questions(English, pl.); Fir Kashes (Yiddish); Mah Nishtanah (Hebrew) - The Four Questions are asked during the Pesach (Passover) seder. The answers to these explain the meaning and the symbols of the holiday. During the seder, the Four Questions are traditionally asked in Hebrew or English by the youngest person at the table that is able to do so. Much of the seder is designed to fulfill the biblical obligation to tell the story to one's children, and many of the customs that have developed around the Four Questions are designed to pique a child's curiosity in order to hold their attention. The leader of the seder answers each question by guiding the guests through the Haggadah, which tells the story of the Israelites’ Exodus from Egypt. The questions are introduced with the query, “Why is this night different from all other nights?”and are as follows: 1) On all other nights we eat bread or matzah. Why on this night do we eat only matzah? 2) On all other nights we eat many vegetables. Why on this night do we eat bitter herbs? 3) On all other nights we do not dip our food. Why on this night do we dip twice (in salt water)? 4) On all other nights why do we eat sitting upright or reclining. Why tonight do we recline? Come to our Folkshul Seder and hear the explanation for each of the Four Questions.
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"fasttext_score": 0.9910393953323364,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.944134533405304,
"url": "http://folkshul.org/node/189"
}
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'The Grapes of Wrath' -- The Importance of the Title
Grapes of Wrath
Grapes of Wrath. Penguin
"The Grapes of Wrath," a Pulitzer-prize winning book written by John Steinbeck and published in 1939, tells the story of the Joads, a poor family of tenant farmers driven out of Depression-era Oklahoma -- also referred to as "Oakies -- by drought and economic factors, who migrate to Californa in search of a better life. Steinbeck had trouble coming up with the title for the novel, a classic in American literature, and his wife actually suggested using the phrase.
From Bible to Battle Hymn
The title, itself, is a reference to lyrics from "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," written in 1861 by Julia Ward Howe, and first published in "The Atlantic Monthly" in 1862:
He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword:
His truth is marching on."
The words have some important resonance in American culture. For example, Martin Luther King Jr, in his address at the conclusion of the Selma-to-Montgomery, Alabama, civil rights march in 1965, quoted these very words from the hymn. The lyrics, in turn, reference a biblical passage in Revelations 14:19-20, where the evil inhabitants of Earth perish:
In the Book
The phrase "grapes of wrath" does not appear almost until the end of the 465-page novel: "In the souls of the people, the grapes of wrath are filling and growing heavy, growing heavy for the vintage." According to eNotes; "The oppressed such as the Okies are 'ripening' in their understanding of their oppression. The fruit of their anger is ready to be harvested." In other words, you can push the downtrodden so far, but eventually, there will be a price to pay.
In all of these references -- from the tribulations of Joads, to the battle hymn, the biblical passage and King's speech -- the key point is that in response to any oppression, there will be a reckoning, likely ordained by God, and that rightness and justice will prevail.
Study Guide
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De Utrechtse Buurtoren, een tijdelijke spits voor eeuwig
• Hein Hundertmark
The present Buurtower has a Romanesque predecessor, the foundations of which were excavated in 1933. The place of this disappeared tower is still recognizable. The tower used to stand to the east of the present one. In the present church nave its place can be recognized by the rhythmical interruption of the columns and a definitely larger vault panel. In 1370 the building of the present Gothic tower had started, but in 1380 it was interrupted when the tower structure had reached a height of 17 meters. This building freeze is still recognizable by the different use of the natural stones in the corners of the facade. For this building phase corner blocks of a light grey French limestone were used.
During the following building phase a sandy limestone with its characteristic beige colour was used. After an approximately 14-year interval they started building again until the work on the unfinished lantern was ceased in 1405 and the tower was covered with a temporary eight-sided spire construction. This temporary, wooden eight-sided construction was cramped between the wall work of the unfinished lantern and covered up by the spire roof.
In the complicated eight-sided construction space was created for the municipal banishment bell. The church bells were hung in a separate belfry in the tower structure. The banishment bell was used for announcing regulations, executions and banishments. During the 15th century the bell was recast a few times until in 1471 a bell maker called Steven Butendyc gave the bell its present shape. The eight-sided spire construction was not strong enough to cope with the ringing of this new and bigger pendulum bell and it showed constructive wear and tear. In 1477-1478 some parts of the eight-sided construction were removed to make room for the present belfry for the banishment bell.
In about 1440 the spire was partially levelled to place a small lantern for the watch bell. In 1674 this lantern was damaged because of a storm that caused serious damage to many churches, towers and houses of the city of Utrecht. The Gothic lantern was replaced by the present lantern with a small cupola. The temporary eight-sided spire was preserved.
Several times during the 18th and 19th century the city government tried to sell the banishment bell, to melt it down, and to demolish the tower with its temporary spire construction in order to save on the maintenance cost. So far the tower had survived once again, but in 1943 disaster struck when the German occupier seized the historical bells in order to use and recast them for the German war industry. Only the banishment bell stayed behind in the tower.
Fortunately, the vanished historical bells were returned shortly after the war but weren't replaced in the Buurtower. They were given to neighbouring church towers whose bells had not been returned. Until in 2001 the lonely banishment bell was reunited with the vanished bells, when they were returned and replaced in the restored Buurtower.
Biografie auteur
Hein Hundertmark
Hein Hundertmark volgde na de studie MBO-bouwkunde de post-MBO opleiding restauratiemedewerker te 's-Hertogenbosch en het restauratie instituut Raesfeld in Duitsland. Sinds 1993 is hij freelance bouwhistorisch onderzoeker en adviseur werkzaam voor verschillende opdrachtgevers en als extern deskundige betrokken bij de gemeente Utrecht. Tevens is hij lid van de monumentencommissie van de gemeente Oss.
Hoe te citeren
HUNDERTMARK, Hein. De Utrechtse Buurtoren, een tijdelijke spits voor eeuwig. Bulletin KNOB, [S.l.], p. 61-72, juni 2006. ISSN 2589-3343. Beschikbaar op: <>. Datum gebruik: 26 mei 2019 doi:
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"url": "https://journals.library.tudelft.nl/index.php/knob/article/view/Hundertmark61"
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Want more Spanish etymologies? Let us know!
Tripulacion, Pulir and Polish, Interpolate
Tripulación (Spanish for “crew”, such as on a boat or plane) comes from the Latin prefix inter– (“between”) and the Latin root polire (“to polish” in Latin). A crew probably spends much of their time polishing the ship to perfection, right?
From the same Latin root polire, we get another Spanish word: pulir which means… “to polish”. Surprise, surprise!
From this root, we also get the English polish as well, in addition to the less obvious: interpolate. How did that transformation of meaning happen? Remember that in interpolating, you’re really polishing up the data! You’re taking data from the dusty bins of forgotten files, dusting it off and reusing it: just like polishing up a ship.
The p-l root is clear in all variations as well.
How some nerds found us:
• tripulacion etymology
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"language_score": 0.9005847573280334,
"url": "https://spanishetymology.com/tripulacion-pulir-and-polish-interpolate/"
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Wearable 'microbrewery' saves human body from radiation damage
Wearable 'microbrewery' saves human body from radiation damage
Workers in hospitals and nuclear facilities can wear disposable yeast badges to check their daily radiation exposure instantly. Credit: Purdue University image/Kayla Wiles
The success of the badge lies in the quick and measurable response of yeast to radiation: The higher the , the higher the percentage of that die. Wetting the badge activates the cells that are still alive to eat glucose and release carbon dioxide—the same fermentation process responsible for brewing beer and making bread rise.
"We use the change in electrical properties of the yeast to tell us how much it incurred. A slow decrease in electrical conductivity over time indicates more damage," said Rahim Rahimi, Purdue in electrical and computer engineering.
Wearable 'microbrewery' saves human body from radiation damage
Simply adding a drop of water to a badge engineered by Purdue researchers activates yeast to show radiation exposure as read by an electronic device. Credit: Purdue University image/Kayla Wiles
"For yeast, it seems that radiation primarily affects the cell walls of the membrane and mitochondria," Ochoa said. "Since biologists are already familiar with , then we're more likely to understand what's causing the biological effects of in organic matter."
Explore further
May repairs full of mistakes develop into cancer?
More information: Chang Keun Yoon et al, Yeast Metabolic Response as an Indicator of Radiation Damage in Biological Tissue, Advanced Biosystems (2018). DOI: 10.1002/adbi.201800126
Journal information: Advanced Biosystems
Provided by Purdue University
Citation: Wearable 'microbrewery' saves human body from radiation damage (2018, August 9) retrieved 16 June 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2018-08-wearable-microbrewery-human-body.html
Feedback to editors
User comments
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"url": "https://phys.org/news/2018-08-wearable-microbrewery-human-body.html"
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Priscus vs. Verus: A Fight to Remember!
Last week in Literacy, Class 9 and 10 re-enacted the famous gladiator battle between Priscus and Verus. Children played the roles of the gladiators, Emperor Titus and the notorious Colosseum crowd. The children made note of the atmosphere and how each of the gladiators were feeling to support them in writing a newspaper article of the event.
Pitch Perfect!
This week in Science, Class 9 have been exploring the relationship between the pitch of a sound and the features of the object that produced it. To do this, the children used glass bottles and water, boomwhackers, xylophones, cow bells, drums and elastic bands. They concluded that the shorter the length of the object, the higher the pitch of the sound.
Engineers in the Making!
Today, in Design and Technology, Class 12 were set the challenge to build a shelter that could withstand different extreme conditions: heavy rain (200ml of water), a landslide (200g weight) and a hurricane (Mrs Cookson’s hairdryer!). The children scored points for group work and how well they structured their shelters. Congratulations to Niall’s group, whose shelter was the most successful overall.
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"language": "en",
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"url": "https://stphilipsrcprimary.wordpress.com/2015/09/"
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The second of three categories of heavy infantryman in the Roman Legion of the mid-republican period (3rd and 2nd century BC). The Principes were the men in their late twenties and early thirties, considered by the Romans to be at the peak of their fighting ability. The standard legion contained ten maniples of Principesi, each numbering between 120 and 160 men. They were equipped with two Pila, the famous Gladius, and a long semi-cylindrical body shield, made of calfskin stretched over plywood. As the soldiers had to pay for their own armour, most made do with a simple bronze chest plate, while the wealthier soldiers had either a mail or scale cuirass. The Principes were expected to win the battle after the hastati had taken the sting out of the enemy army. The final line, the Triarii would only enter the fray if the Principes had been defeated.
cover cover cover
How to cite this article: Rickard, J. (20 December 2002), Principes,
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"url": "http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/concepts_principes.html"
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Proud: 1945- Present
These authors are some of the earliest examples of having a queer identity attached to their names as they write and publish. While there was still significant oppression and erasure efforts of some of the author’s work, exemplified in the censorship of Brick’s homosexual relationship with Skipper in the film adaptation of Tennessee Williams’ Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, these authors were allowed an amount of freedom unprecedented in American history.
While reading, compare the open expressions of identity in these authors to the subversive tactics some of the previous authors used in their work. How does Whitman’s homoeroticism compare to Ginsberg’s? How is Audre Lorde’s experience as a lesbian different than Ruth Fuller Field’s? Or the intimate relationships of Roosevelt and Hickok and the Dickinson women?
Also during this time, visibility of writers of color improved, and therefore queer writers of color became more widely-read. While reading, pay attention to how the experiences and writings of authors like Maurice Kenny, Audre Lorde, and Chrystos differ from their white counterparts. How do they address colonialism, especially the indigenous writers?
Tennessee Williams
James Baldwin
Allen Ginsberg
Audre Lorde
Maurice Kenny
Paula Gunn Allen
Adrienne Rich
June Jordan
Leslie Feinberg
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Thursday, August 10, 2017
Skorpiovenator by Dinoraul
Skorpiovenator bustingorryi by Paleocolour
Skorpiovenator’s skull was short, stout and covered in the ridges, furrows, tubercles and bumpy nodules that are scattered over the heads of most abelisaurid theropods. Its slender jaws housed rows of razor-sharp teeth. Skorpiovenator may not have had a large bite force, as has been suggested for some other abelisaurids. Skorpiovenator may have used its deep skull as a club, arching its head back and swinging it down onto its prey to drive the teeth home with enough force to do some serious damage to its prey.
Cast of the holotype specimen Skorpiovenator
The type species, Skorpiovenator bustingorryi, is known from a single, nearly complete skeleton (MMCH-PV 48K) missing only sections of the tail and the majority of the forelimbs. The specimen was recovered from the lower part of the Huincul Formation in Patagonia, dating to the late Cenomanian stage, about 95 million years ago. It would have lived alongside other carnivorous dinosaurs such as the carcharodontosaurid Mapusaurus and another abelisaurid, Ilokelesia.
In 2008, Canale et al. published a phylogenetic analysis focusing on the South American carnotaurines. In their results, they found that all South American forms (including Skorpiovenator) grouped together as a sub-clade of Carnotaurinae, which they named Brachyrostra, meaning “short snouts”. They defined the clade Brachyrostra as “all the abelisaurids more closely related to Carnotaurus sastrei than to Majungasaurus crenatissimus.”
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Critical Commentary
Sadie Ingalls’ origin story is concise, but filled with meaning. Themes of sin invade the text, as does the conflict between the individual and the community in this carefully worded yet ambiguous piece.
Sadie’s crow suffers several faults. First, he forgets his promise to his companions that he will not eat the groups food. There is no hint of malicious intention in this act, just carelessness. The crow is driven by his hunger, a real physical need. Tricksters are often guided by their appetites for food and pleasure, however Sadie imbues this crow with no emotion other than the desire to eat. The crow then goes on to lie to his friends when they ask him whether he has eaten their meat. His friends know he is lying and tell him he will be punished, but they do not tell him for what he is being punished. The readers must speculate as to which is the greater sin, disobeying orders or lying about it. Either way, the crow suffers the consequences of the group, because each action separated him from their expectations and rules. In taking the food and satisfying his individual hunger, the crow disregarded the needs of the group and disrespected their wishes. The crows punishment of dull colored feather isolates him from his friends and makes him markedly different. With the groups understood as the native tribes, this punishment reveals an interesting aspect of the story. Themes take on significant new meanings with knowledge of the Carlisle Indian School.
The Carlisle Indian School specialized in turning Indians into humans capable of assimilating to white culture and society. This process began with the muting of physical differences between whites and indians. Images from the school show lighter skin in pictures taken later in their school careers, either by lighting or the virtue of being inside more at school. Students hair was immediately sheared once they entered the school, cutting them off from a source of pride and identity. The crow’s loss of his brilliant plumage can be understood as an allusion to the author’s forced adoption of muted American clothes and short unadorned hair. This physical difference separated the children at the school from their peers back home. Although, like the crow, they could associate with their tribe after leaving Carlisle, they were forever marked.
The interference of the Great Spirit in the story points to the influence of the Christian values of the Carlisle Indian school. In the story, God or the Great Spirit is not an actual character. Instead the crow’s friends tell him that the Great Spirit is the one punishing him. Read through an oppositional lens, this portion bears similarities to Zit-kala-sa’s relationship with God and the Devil. Zit-kala-sa, a writer who taught at Carlisle Indian, wrote of her fear of punishment and the Devil. In a nightmare about it she describes the Devil as chasing her while ignoring her mother, who cannot see it. For her mother, the Devil was not interested in her, menacing, or real because their culture and religion had no conception of it. Sadie’s larger power in the story similarly exists only through the insistence of others, like the Christian teachers at school. It is unclear as to why the Great Spirit is the figure who punishes the crow, when he has been absent from the story until his friends discover his sins. This larger figure could be an adaptation of the God figure in genesis, or an attempt to highlight how abruptly God entered their lives; an imposition used by Carlisle to keep the children in line.
There is no indication in Sadie’s letters that the story should be read with an oppositional voice however. She had no disciplinary issues and frequently received excellent and good on her evaluations. Sadie appeared to be fully invested and active in her education, and married a white man after school. There survives no letters of Sadie’s to those outside of the school though, and no written opinions on her time at school. Being that there appears to be no actual Sac and Fox tale about the crow, it seems unlikely that Sadie was acting as a tribal educator. The lack of Sadie personal feelings in her records and the ambiguity in her writing suggests her voice is conflicted. How heavily one reads the influence of the historical context affects how rebellious the story’s message is.
Sadie Ingalls’ story of the crow is important historically. Its historical context allows for various interpretations and debate over how a successful student would feel towards her forced assimilation. Its possible interpretations each speak to the conditions of the Carlisle Indian school and themes of sin, punishment, and losing a community. Along with the story’s historical importance is its aesthetic. As a member of the Mercer’s literary club who frequently participated in debates and recitations, Sadie would be aware of rhetorical devices and literary trends. Thus the simplicity of her story belies an intentionality. The switch between passive and active voice leaves the actual responsibility of the crow for his actions up in the air. Why was he obliged to stay while his friends hunted? Yet all his sins occur in the active voice, showing that the crow made a series of decisions all on his own. The sequence of his friends leaving and his eating the meat takes place in one long sentence, moving quickly from the order to the sin. This could reflect the actual timeline, during which the crow would not have been hungry enough to justify disobeying his friends, or it could show how quickly a couple of bad decisions can change ones life. Altogether, Sadie Ingalls writes a deceptively simple story whose ambiguities allow for nuanced critiques of the Carlisle Indian School and notions of assimilation.
This entry was posted in Sadie M. Ingalls, The Conflicted and tagged , , , , , , , , , . Bookmark the permalink.
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CS Sealey
New Zealand-based sub-editor, writer and author
Collective nouns
A collective noun is a word that describes a group of people or things, and there are lot of them, as a different one is used for different situations and types of people. Examples of collective nouns for humans include:
faculty (of academics)
team (of players)
crowd (of people)
gang (of thieves)
choir (of singers)
troupe (of performers)
audience (of listeners)
Animals are usually grouped by species or kind:
herd (of buffalo)
pride (of lions)
school (of fish)
colony (of ants)
troop (of monkeys)
murder (of crows)
flock (of birds)
But when it comes to inanimate objects, the following can be used:
chain (of islands)
fleet (of ships)
library (of books)
wealth (of information)
bouquet (of flowers)
convoy (of vehicles)
constellation (of stars)
As you can see, there’s a lot and some get very peculiar, especially the older ones (a clench of sphincters and a beautification of spatulas, for instance). But once you collect a group of somethings, does that make the collective a singular or plural entity?
The clue here is to look at the article.
The colony of ants
A fleet of ships
The choir of singers
Despite the fact we are talking about multiple things (ants, ships, singers), the act of collecting them together into a group means they become a single entity. If you remove the singers, ants and ships from the sentences, you’re left with a colony, a fleet and a choir—all of which are easily singular entities.
The colony (of ants) was destroyed in the flood.
A fleet (of ships) is entering the harbour.
The choir (of singers) is heading to London.
So while we are talking about multiple people or things, the act of collecting them together into groups merges them into a singular entity.
How this affects things like companies, bands and sporting teams is a bit of a contested issue, depending on your locality. I covered this in proper nouns.
CS SealeyArchiveContact
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The Ark and the Cherubim: Cultic Practice and Ancient Near Eastern Iconography
Raanan Eichler, an Israeli scholar who was a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University this year, delivered a guest lecture at Revel that took the audience on a journey through time to uncover the secrets of the Ark of the Covenant. Adducing examples of art and cultic objects throughout the Ancient Near East to situate the Ark in its original cultural context, Dr Eichler explored how it looked, the nature of its iconography, and its cultural and cultic functions.
The basic construction of the Ark has been subject to debate over the centuries, but illuminated in modern times by archaeology. For example, medieval Jewish commentators took the expression “its four pa‘amot” (Exod 25:1) to refer to the four corners of the Ark, even though the word pa‘am usually connotes a foot. But when looking at examples from Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Levant, it quickly becomes obvious that most chests were indeed raised off the ground with four feet, one at each corner. Even the hieroglyph for “box” or “chest” shows a box raised off the ground on feet!
Scholars have argued that the Ark and the Kaporet – its lid – served as a throne for G-d, much as how other chests around the Near East and Mediterranean depicted deities seated on chests or thrones of similar construction. But the Ark depicted in the Torah has no image enthroned upon it—a symbolic way of indicating that the God of Israel has no physical form.
The cherubim on the Kaporet are of particular interest. In the Torah, they are described as pure gold figures atop the Kaporet, and we see similar size cultic figures on other arks in the Near East. Eichler pointed to a golden ark from Egypt with an Anubis figurine atop it as an example. In I Kings, the cherubim in the Temple are described as olive wood gilded with a golden overlay, and ten cubits high, with their wings outspread ten cubits so that their inner wing tips touched each other and their outer wings touched the walls of the Inner Sanctuary, the Holy of Holies. This too is not unusual. We see similar outsize sculpture of divine and mythical creatures in Mesopotamia and Assyria, as well as liberal use of gilding.
Commentators have debated for millenia what the cherubim looked like. Some say they were birds, others that they were winged children, and yet others say they were winged adults. The notion that they were winged children, first appearing in the Talmud, seems to be influences from Herodian-era Roman iconography (which was actually much later than the Ark as depicted in Exodus). The eighteenth-century discovery of Ancient Near Eastern winged oxen statues led some to posit that the cherubim resembled their form. Similar creatures are depicted in Assyria in the palace of Nimrud, guardian creatures called lamassu, revealed in archaeological excavations in the nineteenth century. Others said they were griffins, a different mythical winged creature attested in Near Eastern and Mediterranean iconography, based on the theory that the root K-R-V is akin to Greek G-R-P, from which the word “griffin” originates. Yet others suggested a winged sphinx, citing the various deities in Egypt and Mesopotamia pictures sitting upon such creatures as a living throne.
Eichler favors the theory that cherubim were winged adults, based on depictions of such creatures on cylinder seals both from ancient Israel and elsewhere in the Near East. In Egypt such winged figures shelter images of the gods. For example, on one war chest there are winged figures sheltering the name of the pharaoh Ramses. But the cherubim on the Kaporet are sheltering an empty space, symbolically sheltering the Presence of a Divine being that is incorporeal. The Ark is thus like an empty divine throne. It is uniquely and purposefully abstract to deliberately prevent physical representations of divinity so common to the region at the time, to point to this empty space and say “this is where you don’t see G-d.”
Written by B. Lana Guggenheim.
B. Lana Guggenheim studied archaeology and political science at Hunter College CUNY and international conflict at LSE.
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Eager to wrestle with the difficult and embrace the unpredictable, Claude Monet was one of the most inventive and courageous artists of all time. Beginning in the 1860s, Monet and his fellow Impressionists developed a revolutionary new style as they strove to capture their direct visual experiences of the natural world. When Impressionism became widely accepted and imitates in the 1880s and 1890s, many of Monet’s colleagues turned away from it. But Monet continued to work resolutely–and successfully—to expand the scope of Impressionism and maintain his own position as a leading exponent of modern art.
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Medieval Venice II
In August 1379, the Genoese are victorious in the Adriatic and seize the port of Chioggia, at the entrance of the lagoon, and besiege Venice. But the Doge Contarini and Admiral Pisani galvanize resistance and in turn attack the besiegers who capitulate June 24, 1380.
The new eminence of Venice was exemplified by one of those scenes of living theatre at which Venice excelled. The characters in this lavish spectacle were the leaders of Latin Christendom. One was the emperor of Germany, Frederick Barbarossa, and the other was Pope Alexander III. Barbarossa laid claim to the Lombard states, and in particular to Milan; Pope Alexander strenuously resisted the claim, and allied himself with the Italian cities. The emperor was excommunicated. Nevertheless Barbarossa, spurned by the Church, had success with the sword. The Lombard cities were taken. Milan fell, and was largely destroyed. Yet the dominion of Germany over this part of Italy was constantly being threatened by internal rebellion and by the open hostility of other Italian cities that looked to the pope for leadership. The weariness of continual warfare, and the inevitable cycle of victories and defeats, eventually disheartened both sides. The pope and the emperor contemplated the principles of an agreement. But where should they meet formally to ratify their pact?
Venice had largely kept itself aloof from the hostilities, on the very good ground that it is better to remain neutral in any battle between such powerful enemies. Venice did not in any case concern itself with the affairs of Italy if its own interests were not directly touched. So the most serene city became the most appropriate setting for the reconciliation of Barbarossa and Alexander. On 23 March 1177, the pontiff landed at the Lido and was received at the monastery of Saint Nicholas; he was no doubt shown the so-called “relics” of the saint himself. On the following day he sailed into Venice, where he was received by the doge. There were now long and difficult negotiations over the terms of the peace, with the emissaries of both sides raising objections and proposing alterations. Yet the pact was finally sealed. On 23 July the emperor was welcomed to the monastery of Saint Nicholas. On the following day he sailed to Venice, where Alexander awaited him. The pope sat in state upon the papal throne, which had been placed before the central gates of the basilica; he was surrounded by his cardinals, like some crowd scene from the sacred plays of the period. The emperor, disembarking from the glittering barge of the doge, walked in stately procession towards the pontiff. Before him walked the doge himself. Saint Mark’s Square was filled with spectators, eager to see the play unfold. When the emperor reached the papal throne he took off his scarlet cloak and, bowing to the ground, kissed the feet of the pope. Alexander, now weeping, raised up the emperor and gave him the kiss of peace. The audience now began to sing the Te Deum, and all the bells of the city rang out. It had been a great performance.
This dramatic scene was also used by Venice as an advertisement for the city’s strength and sense of justice. It was the seat of a general reconciliation. The city was the place of impartial judgement and of equity because it was subject to God alone. It played no part in the power politics of popes or emperors, except to heal the wounds caused by them. That, at least, was the message of the Venetian chroniclers in reporting these events from the summer of 1177. For that moment, when the bells pealed, Venice was the centre of the world. There were more immediate benefits also. The emperor granted trade privileges to Venice throughout his empire, and the pope gave Venice ecclesiastical dominion over Dalmatia.
The spectacle itself might have acted as an overture for the grander opera that was about to be performed. In the years that followed, Venice entered another, and greater, phase of its imperial power. It conquered and stripped Constantinople. A new scenario began with another holy war. The pope had declared a fourth crusade against the infidels and, in the early months of 1201, the French princes who had taken the cross came to Venice to plead for the ships that would transport them to the Holy Land. They were received in great state by the doge, and were asked to plead their case before the people of Venice in the basilica. So, after mass had been heard, one of their number stepped forward and declared that “no nation is so powerful on the seas as you”; after that piece of flattery, he implored the aid of the Venetian people. The princes then knelt down and wept. Immediately there were cries all around the basilica. “We grant it! We grant it!” It was a fine piece of stage management, in the best traditions of the city.
The doge, Enrico Dandolo, was already old and nearly blind. He was elected at the age of eighty-four, but he was one of those Venetian patriarchs whose tenacity and singleness of purpose were the visible proof of the city’s own ruthlessness. It was said that he had nourished a grievance against Constantinople ever since the mass imprisonment of 1171. According to one Byzantine Greek chronicler, “he boasted that so long as he failed to take revenge on them for what they had done to his people he was living under sentence of death.” It was even reported, in later chronicles, that he had been blinded by the Byzantines themselves when he had once travelled to the city as an ambassador; this is the stuff of legend only.
The carpenters of the Arsenal were set to work, engaged to build and equip enough ships to carry 4,500 horsemen and 30,000 soldiers. In return Venice demanded 84,000 silver marks. The efficiency of the shipbuilding yards was by now well known throughout Europe, and all of the ships were delivered on time. But there was one problem. The crusaders had been unable to find the money to pay for them. So a new arrangement was concluded. The Venetians would waive full payment, on condition that the crusaders would assist them in subduing the rebellious city of Zara on the Dalmatian coast. It was a diversion from the Holy Land, but the leaders of the forces of the cross considered it to be a necessary one. Three hundred ships left the lagoon in October 1202, to the chant of the Veni Creator, and sailed down the Adriatic. Zara, after a siege of five days, surrendered. Christian had turned against Christian rather than the common enemy of the Saracen. The pope, incensed by this unwelcome development, excommunicated the forces of the expedition. It is not reported that the Venetians, in particular, were in any way cowed or humbled by the papal wrath.
Once the Venetians were fully in possession of the town, they were surprised by the arrival of an unexpected guest. The son of the deposed emperor of Constantinople, Alexius Angelus, came to Dandolo in search of justice. He wished the crusaders to overthrow the usurper, on the throne of the empire, and reinstall his father. For his part he pledged to finance and otherwise assist the armies in their high purpose. It was an offer that could not be refused. It has often been surmised that Dandolo had held this aim in mind throughout all the preparations for the crusade, and that he had already determined that Constantinople rather than Syria was to be the destination of the Venetian fleet. There can be no doubt that Dandolo saw a great opportunity for advancement and enrichment in this war at the expense of Constantinople. But there are elements of adventitious chance in all the affairs of men. Dandolo could not have known that the French crusaders would be unable to honour their obligation, although it is likely that he knew in advance of the arrival of Alexius in Zara. The Venetians were always adept at taking advantage of chance and circumstance. Yet in another perspective the great events of the world seem, on close scrutiny, to be made up of a thousand singular elements and accidents and coincidences. In the midst of this swirling world it would be hard to detect a pattern. So we may say that it just happened. As a consequence of these events the power of Byzantium was extinguished, its city and empire weakened beyond repair.
The Venetian fleet, in aid of Alexius, moved against the city. On 24 June 1203, it sailed beside the walls. A French attack by land seemed to have failed and so, under the command of Dandolo, the Venetians tied their galleys together to form a united front; from the decks and turrets of the vessels, military engines discharged their fire into the city. Constantinople was in flames. Dandolo himself stood at the prow of the first ship that struck land. He was dressed in full armour, and the standard of Saint Mark flew at his side. At his urging the Venetian soldiers leapt from their vessels and scaled the ladders swung against the walls. There was some combat, but the forces of the Byzantines were overwhelmed by this swift attack from the sea. The banner of the republic was fixed on the rampart. The city was taken. The deposed emperor, on whose behalf Alexius had pleaded, was rescued from his dungeon and placed upon the throne. Alexius himself was crowned in the basilica of Saint Sophia, and took his place as co-ruler of the empire.
Yet the fatal decline of Constantinople was about to resume its inevitable course. Alexius had promised the crusaders more than he could achieve. He lacked finance and, more importantly, he had forfeited his authority among his countrymen by relying upon the forces of the crusaders to obtain the imperial crown. The citizens of Constantinople, instigated by fear and rumour, rebelled against the new emperor. Alexius was cut down, his father abandoned to his grief.
The Venetians and their allies now had to extinguish this rebellion, and bring the city under their rule. They had not come so far to be simply asked to leave. So once more, in March 1204, they laid siege to the city. On the eve of the assault Dandolo declared to his men that they must “be valiant. And with the help of Jesus Christ, milord Saint Mark, and the prowess of your bodies, you shall be tomorrow in possession of the city, and you shall all be rich.”
Once their victory was assured, the Christian armies, inflamed by greed and anger, began a general sack of the city. Constantinople was pillaged and burned. The wealthiest city of the world, filled with art and sculpture, was laid bare. Its citizens were slaughtered, the frenzy of blood-lust such that it seemed that the gates of hell had been opened. The palaces and houses of the city were ransacked. The churches were despoiled. The statues were melted down, and the pictures ripped apart. The tombs were opened, and the sacred vessels removed. It is reported that a prostitute was enthroned in the chair of the patriarch, in the basilica of Saint Sophia, from where she “hurled insults at Jesus Christ, and she sang bawdy songs, and danced immodestly in the holy place.” One chronicler claimed that the rapine exceeded any other since the creation of the world. And the Venetians were the principal agents of this despoliation. Much of the plunder found its way to Venice. The four great horses that surmount the basilica of Saint Mark’s are part of the fruit of that brutal victory.
There were other spoils. The crusaders claimed the dominions of Constantinople, and carved up its empire among the victors. Venice negotiated its portion with its customary merchant zeal, and was rewarded “the fourth part and the half of the Roman empire”; that is, it commanded three-eighths of the old empire. It already claimed Dalmatia and Croatia, and now it took possession of the Aegean coasts and islands as well as parts of the Mediterranean. It controlled Crete and Corfu as well as the islands of Modon and Coron. It took the western part of Greece and the islands of the Ionian Sea. It demanded the coast of Thrace, as well as the ports on the Hellespont. It seized Negroponte in the Aegean. While the other crusaders were unsure of their geography, the leaders of Venice knew exactly what they wanted. Many of the islands were then granted to various patrician families of Venice, who held them as fiefdoms of the republic. There was now also a large Venetian colony within Constantinople itself, which acquired a large measure of independence from the home city. There were even reports that the capital of the new empire was about to remove from Venice to Constantinople, but these were discounted. Yet one central fact was clear. The markets of the east were beckoning. All thought of the war against the infidel was forgotten and, indeed, the crusaders never did reach the Holy Land. It was the last of the crusades.
The strategy of Venice was that of a sea power intent upon strengthening its command of the sea. That is why the first great conquests were in the Levant, or eastern Mediterranean, where Venice might pose as the begetter of “an apostolic empire of the East” as a fitting successor to the Christian empire established in the East by Justinian and Constantine. It is a typical example of Venetian rhetoric masking policy. To the victors, the spoils. So the imperium of Venice was largely confined to the islands and to the coastal regions. The Venetians wanted no part of the inland empire of Byzantium, whether in Asia or in Europe. The city could never have become another Rome. Instead it settled for secure trading routes across the seas, with a series of ports under Venetian control linking the market of the lagoon to the markets of the Levant. These were not so much colonies as trading posts, stretching from Venice to the Black Sea. The nature of Venetian dominion was now clear for all to observe. The power of Constantinople was effectively gone for ever. The consequences of the Venetian adventure, however, were by no means beneficent. That which is born in fire may die in fire. A weakened Constantinople became the prey of the Turks; the newly established Latin empire endured for only sixty years; the colonial possessions of Venice also left it exposed to attack in a long sequence of wars that tested its strength. For the next seventy years the serene city would be engaged in almost constant warfare with its rebellious subjects and with its rivals, with the Saracens and with the pirates of the Mediterranean.
It was estimated by the reigning doge, in 1423, that the city possessed thirty-five galleys, three hundred round ships and three thousand other vessels; they required a complement of thirty-six thousand sailors, almost a quarter of the entire population of 150,000 people. There were ships christened La Forza, La Fama and La Salute. They were used to protect the armed galleys of the trade convoys that left Venice on prearranged dates; they were used to combat pirates and to harass enemy traders. No foreign ship was safe in the waters Venice considered its own. The officers were elected from the patrician class of the city. Service at sea was an indispensable part of the education of the young patrician.
The crews were at first all free men, volunteers found in Venice or in Venetian possessions. By the beginning of the sixteenth century conscription had been introduced. This of course so lowered the status of galley labour that it became a burden to be avoided. To be an oarsman, a galeotto, was considered to be part of a “low” profession. So by the middle of the sixteenth century there was a change in the nature of these crews. It was said that they comprised drunks and debtors, criminals and other outcasts. The courts of Venice sometimes consigned the guilty to the galleys rather than the cells. By 1600 prisoners made up the principal part of the crew. The measure of their servitude can be computed by the records of the Venetian courts—eighteen months of galley service was considered equivalent to three years of close imprisonment and a period in the pillory, while seven years in the galleys was considered to be equal to twelve years of confinement. Their rations were made up of biscuit, wine, cheese, salt pork and beans. The diet was designed to feed the sanguinary humour. A Franciscan friar was always on board to rouse them. Yet there are reports of disease and of early death, of exhaustion and despair. Carlo Gozzi, in the eighteenth century, saw “some three hundred scoundrels, loaded with chains, condemned to drag their life out in a sea of miseries and torments, each of which was sufficient by itself to kill a man.” He noticed that, at the time, “an epidemic of malignant fever raged among these men.” It is not clear, however, that the changed personnel were in general any less proficient as oarsmen. They helped to win a famous victory against the Turks at Lepanto.
The maritime marvel of Venice was the Arsenal, the greatest shipbuilding concern in the world. The word itself derives from the Arabic dar sina’a, or place of construction, thus affirming the strong connection of Venice with the East. It was built at the beginning of the twelfth century, and was continually being extended and expanded until it became a wonder of technology. It was variously described as “the factory of marvels,” “the greatest piece of oeconomy in Europe” and “the eighth miracle of the world.” The epithets are a measure of the respect in which new technologies were then held. Its famous gate, made up of Roman and of Byzantine elements, was raised there in 1460. The Arsenal had become the centre of another empire. It was the engine of trade. It was the foundation of naval might. It was a token of the supremacy of industrial enterprise in the most serene city.
Eventually two and half miles (4 km) of walls, and fourteen defensive towers, surrounded sixty acres (24 ha) of working space. It was the largest industrial enterprise in the world. A population of skilled workers and labourers grew up around the site. The number of workmen has been estimated at anything between six thousand and sixteen thousand; in any event they worked in large numbers. This shipbuilding neighbourhood in the eastern part of Venice became a recognisable part of the city, with its own prejudices and customs. People lived and died, were baptised and married, within the three parishes of S. Martino, S. Ternita and S. Pietro. It is still an area of tiny houses, crowded tenements, small squares, dead-ends and narrow alleys.
The inhabitants became known as arsenalotti, and such was their importance to the state that the male population of ship-makers was also used as a bodyguard for the doge. They were also employed as fire-fighters. Only the arsenalotti were allowed to be labourers in the Mint. They alone rowed the ceremonial barge of the doge. Proud of their status, they never united with the other artisans of Venice. It is a case of divide and rule. It is also a signal example of the subtle way in which the leaders of Venice co-opted what might have been an unruly group of people within the very fabric of the city. The loyalty of the arsenalotti materially helped to secure the cohesion and the very survival of Venice.
The Arsenal was the first factory established upon the assembly line of modern industry, and thus the harbinger of the factory system of later centuries. One traveller, in 1436, described it thus:
as one enters the gate there is a great street on either side with the sea in the middle, and on one side are windows opening out of the houses of the arsenal, and the same on the other side. On this narrow strip of water floated a galley towed by a boat, and from the windows of the various houses they handed out to the workers, from one the cordage, from another the arms …
It was known as “the machine.” The armed galleys were constructed here. The relatively unarmed “round” ships, with sails instead of oars, were also made here. The key to its efficiency lay in the division, and specialisation, of labour; there were shipwrights and caulkers, rope-makers and blacksmiths, sawyers and oar-makers. Thirty galleys could be built and fitted within ten days. When the French king visited the place in 1574, a galley was built and launched in the two hours it took him to eat his dinner. The whole process of industrial collaboration, however, might be seen as an image of the Venetian polity itself. Everything is of a piece.
Dante visited the Arsenal in the early fourteenth century, and left a description of it in the twenty-first canto of the Inferno:
As in the Arsenal of the Venetians
Boils in the winter the tenacious pitch …
One hammers at the prow, one at the stern,
This one makes oars and that one cordage twists
Another mends the mainsail and the mizzen.
It may not be coincidence that Dante places this vision in the eighth circle of hell, where corrupt public officials are punished eternally. The blatant sale of public offices became a problem in Venetian governance.
Eventually the Arsenal was outmoded. The development of craft technology in the seventeenth century rendered it obsolete. It continued producing galleys when no galleys were needed. It became inefficient, its labourers underpaid and underworked. Yet it did not finally close until 1960, when eleven thousand families were removed from their ancient neighbourhood. Now the factories and production lines are used to house exhibitions for the various festivals that visit Venice. It is an apt token of the nature of the city.
The Venetian army was as effective by land as the Venetian navy on the oceans. By the middle of the fifteenth century it could afford to maintain a standing force of twenty thousand troops, with extra militia ready to be called up in an emergency. By the beginning of the following century, that number had doubled. It was of mixed identity. Venetian engineers were well known for their skills in siege weaponry, but it was said that the Venetians themselves did not make good soldiers. To a large extent, therefore, the city relied upon mercenaries for its defence. Its soldiers came from Dalmatia, Croatia and Greece as well as from Germany and Gascony; there were light horse from Albania and cuirassiers from other parts of Italy. When some Venetian gunmen were captured at Buti in 1498, and their hands cut off, some of the unfortunate troops were from England and Holland.
The acquisition of a land empire, at the beginning of the fifteenth century, was the direct motive for the creation of a standing army. Yet such an army posed problems for the leaders of the city. An army could move through its streets. An army could threaten its mainland possessions. That is why no Venetian was ever made general or commander. The danger of a military coup was always present to the administration. Venetian patricians were not allowed to command, at any one time, more than twenty-five men. It was a safeguard against faction. Instead a foreign commander was always chosen, although he held his office under the watchful care of two senior patricians in the field with him. It was not an ideal arrangement, especially in the very heat of battle, but it served Venetian interests well.
The foreign generals were known as condottieri, from the Italian word for contract. They were contracted men. But they were also adventurers, and sometimes brigands, who were suited to the theatre of Venice. They aspired to the type of the classical Roman general, ferocious in war and gracious in peace; they were deemed to be no less wise than courageous, no less virtuous than judicious. And they were paid well. Venice was known as a generous, and prompt, employer. The condottieri were given ornate houses along the Grand Canal, and were granted large estates on the mainland. They seemed to be indispensable to the state, but there were some who questioned the wisdom of employing them. They could be persuaded to change sides, if large enough bribes were offered, and they could sometimes be feckless and excessively independent. Machiavelli blamed the collapse of Venice, in his lifetime, on the use of mercenaries and mercenary commanders. If the Venetians did not excel at warfare, they would soon become deficient in the arts of peace. Sir Henry Wotton, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, commented that “by the lasciviousness of their youth, by the wariness of their aged men, by their long custom of ease, and distaste of arms, and consequently by their ignorance in the management thereof” the Venetian state was in sad decline. Yet decline was always being predicted for Venice, even at the acme of its power.
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Making Humans, Making Gods
FIGURE 1. St. Francis receives the stigmata on the frontispiece to Alonso de Molina’s 1555 Castilian to Nahuatl _Vocabulario_.
FIGURE 1. St. Francis receives the stigmata on the frontispiece to Alonso de Molina’s 1555 Castilian to Nahuatl Vocabulario.
FIGURE 2. Tlazolteotl as costume elements on folio 12r of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis.
FIGURE 3. Flayed human skin in the place sign for Ehuacalco, “In the House of Skin,” on folio 10v of the Matrícula.
FIGURE 4. Cell 14 of the Lienzo de Tlaxcala.
FIGURE 4. Cell 14 of the Lienzo de Tlaxcala.
Clothing and hairstyles in today’s world are often seen as trivial and superficial.1 The word ‘superficial,’ of course, means ‘above the face’ or ‘above the surface.’ People put on clothing and craft hairstyles in order to change their outward appearance. The choices made in selecting clothing and hairstyles are one way people can express on the outside their inner natures and desires.
In other times and places, however, clothing and hairstyles were not seen as superficial. Clothing and hairstyles were often strictly regulated by social rules. Who you were determined what you could wear, and you could be punished for dressing inappropriately. Both sixteenth- century Europeans and sixteenth-century Nahuas created laws that limited certain kinds of
clothing to people born into noble families. In some cases, wearing the wrong clothes could be punishable by death. Clothes and hairstyles were expressions of broader social norms, not of individual whimsy.2
Yet clothes did more than represent the social order. Both sixteenth-century Europeans and sixteenth-century Nahuas believed that clothes and hairstyles could shape the wearer. If, today, clothes and hairstyles are often seen as expressions of one’s internal self, in the sixteenth century clothes and hairstyles were often thought to transform one’s internal self. An example of this, from the European tradition, can be seen on the frontispiece to Alonso de Molina’s 1555 Castilian to Nahuatl Vocabulario (Figure 1). There, a printed woodcut shows St. Francis kneeling and receiving a vision of Christ on the cross. Five lines connect the hands, feet, and side of St. Francis to the hands, feet, and side of Christ. The human saint is being marked with the wounds of the Passion.
As St. Francis kneels in ecstasy, he wears a distinctive costume and hairstyle. The top of his head has been shaved, leaving only a circular fringe of hair. This hairstyle is called a tonsure in English, and a corona (‘crown’) in sixteenth-century Spanish (the word tonsura is more common today). St. Francis’ body is covered in a long hooded robe, tied at the waist with a knotted cord. He does not wear shoes. This costume was referred to as a habit in English, a hábito in Spanish, and a habit in French. In all of these languages, ‘habit’ also has a second meaning, related to customary behavior. To be ‘in the habit’ of doing something, to be habituado, means doing something regularly, almost unconsciously. The connection in these three different languages between ‘habit’ as a monastic garment and ‘habit’ as a form of regular behavior is no accident. Monastic habits were thought to encourage behavioral habits. Wearing certain clothing was thought to help monks and nuns transform their inner selves. By dressing like St. Francis, Franciscan monks hoped to become like St. Francis. Habits habituated.3
Parallel beliefs in the transformational power of ‘superficial’ accoutrements existed throughout Mesoamerica. Clothes and hairstyles had the power to transform their wearers, often in radical ways. Clothes and hairstyles could shape unsexed, asocial newborns into actual human boys and girls. Clothes could also transform men and women into incarnations of the gods themselves.
According to sixteenth-century alphabetic sources, when Central Mexican children were born they were thought of as shapeless raw materials that needed to be ‘crafted’ into adults. The gender of these young beings was uncertain. Nahuatl used a number of terms to divide children into different age grades. Until adolescence, however, these terms lacked gender-specific forms. In contrast, after adolescence different terms were used to speak of the ages of men versus the ages of women.4 Similarly, Central Mexican boys and girls were given the same style of haircut until they were around ten or eleven. With the onset of adolescence, boys and girls began wear different hairstyles, further shaping them into differentiated men and women.5 Children, in other words, were not automatically considered to possess a specific gender at birth. They had to be shaped by their parents and other adults into boys and girls.
This process of ‘boying’ and ‘girling’ began very early in life. Shortly after birth, a child was ritually washed and received his or her calendrical name. (Significantly, calendrical names were shared by both men and women: they were not gender-specific; see the ‘Counting’ Nahua tutorial). As part of this bathing and naming ritual, miniature copies of adult clothing were prepared for the infant. For boys, a tiny cape and loincloth were created; for girls, a tiny skirt and blouse (huipil). After the infants were washed, and the appropriate speeches given, they were dressed in these baby-sized clothes.6 These were only temporary costumes. For many years, boys wore only a cape (without a loincloth). Girls wore only a huipil (without a skirt).7 In the years which followed, the bodies of infants were shaped in various ways. Their ears were pierced, they received articles of adult clothing, and their bodies were taught to perform tasks appropriate for men or for women. Even when adulthood was reached, the transformation of the self through the transformation of costume continued. Where young women wore their hair long, married woman tied it up into two tight buns. Young men passed through a series of military ranks, and over time they gained the privilege of wearing different hairstyles and different warrior costumes.8
Clothing and hairstyles shaped Central Mexican infants into adults, and then shaped adults into different kinds of men and women. But perhaps the most radical transformation made possible by costumes and hairstyles was one that turned humans, and often human prisoners, into manifestations of the gods. One of the central concepts in Central Mexican theology was the idea of the ixiptlatl (image, replacement, representative) or teixiptla (the image, replacement, or representative of a supernatural).9 A teixiptla could take many forms: ‘a human being, a figure of dough, or a wooden frame provided with a mask.’10 A teixiptla served as a stand-in, a representative for a divine force. By creating a teixiptla, humans were able make divine forces present on the earth.
On one level, the idea of the teixiptla is not so unusual. Many religions use statues or paintings of deities to make those deities present. But in Central Mexico, living humans could be turned into living teixiptla, animate embodiments of the supernatural. In other words, when a man or woman dressed in the clothing of a supernatural being, he or she became that supernatural. Clothing and hairstyles, then, could transform a mere human into a god or goddess. For this reason, several images from Central Mexican art depict gods and goddesses by drawing only articles of clothing. Consider folio 12r of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, painted around 1562. The image drawn in the center of the page (and surrounded by an L-shaped red grid) represents the goddess Tlazolteotl (‘Filth Deity.’) Her face and body are not drawn: she is represented only by her costume elements. These include her hair, headdress, curved gold nose ornament, and black, mouth-covering face paint (Figure 2).11 What images like this reveal is that, for Central Mexicans, clothing was a medium through which the sacred could be summoned.
Another famous example of dressing as divinity involves the god Xipe Totec, ‘Our Lord the Flayed One.’ This supernatural was impersonated by skinning a sacrificial victim, and then dressing a priest in that victim’s holy skin. By covering the priest’s body in a new surface, a new skin, Xipe was made present on the earth. One of these flayed skins, yellow with a lumpy layer of fat, appears on folio 10v of the Matrícula as part of the place sign for Ehuacalco, ‘In the House of Skin’ (Figure 3).
It may seem extraordinary to think that a god or goddess could be manifested through pieces of clothing. Perhaps even stranger is that many of these living teixiptla were created to be sacrificed. Humans dressed other humans in the clothing of the gods in order to be able to sacrifice, not a human, but a god. This practice of sacrificing manifestations of the divine probably reenacted events that took place at the beginning of the present Age of Creation. Central Mexican accounts of the beginning of the world tell how the gods sacrificed themselves in order to create the sun and moon and set them in motion (These narratives are discussed in more detail in the ‘Counting’ tutorial).
As an example, the month of Toxcatl (which lasted from around May 20 to June 8) was dedicated to the god Tezcatlipoca (‘Smoking Mirror’). As part of this month’s rituals, a flawless young man was chosen and trained for a year to perform the role of the teixiptla of Tezcatlipoca.12 This role culminated in the young man-god’s sacrifice.
The rites of Tezcatlipoca during the month of Toxcatl had an important role to play in the events surrounding the conquest of Tenochtitlan. In late May of 1520, Hernán Cortés was dealing with a rebellion on the Caribbean coast. He left his lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado, in charge of the European and Native American troops in the Aztec capital. Tragically, Alvarado panicked during some of the festivities performed to honor Tezcatlipoca. He ordered the massacre of hundreds of Aztec worshippers. The aftermath of this slaughter is depicted in Cell 14 of the Lienzo de Tlaxcala. The striped face of Tezcatlipoca looks to the right as Aztec warriors lead a counter-attack against the Tlaxcalans and Europeans (Figure 4). The Toxcatl massacre started a chain of events that led to the death of emperor Moctezuma II, and to the flight of the Europeans and their Native American allies from Tenochtitlan on June 30, 1520. In sum, Central Mexican costume was neither trivial nor superfluous. The following paragraphs explore this complex world of dress in more detail.
Clothing >
1 The subtitle to this tutorial (Skirt, Huipil) is a translation of the sixteenth-century Nahuatl metaphor for woman: in cueitl in huipilli. See Montes de Oca Vega 1997, 35.
2 Durán 1967, vol. 2, 211-13; Sempere y Guarinos 1788, vol. 2, 1-94; Jones and Stallybrass 2000, 187-190.
3 Jones and Stallybrass 2000, 6; Asad 1993, 62-64.
4 López Austin 1988, vol. 1, 285-290.
5 Berdan and Anawalt 1992a, vol. 3, folios 58r-60r; Joyce 2000, 479-480; Hassig 1988, 31.
6 Sahagún 1969, 201-207 (chapters 38 and 39).
7 Joyce 2000, 476; McCafferty and McCafferty 1991; Berdan and Anawalt 1992a, vol. 3, folio 58r.
8 Anawalt 1992, 112-130; Hassig 1988, 31, 36.
9 Hvidtfeldt 1958; Lockhart 1992: 237-238.
10 Hvidtfeldt 1958, 97.
11 Quiñones-Keber 1995.
12 Klein 2001, 219-228.
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Comenzar a escuchar
A Concise History of Italy
Escrito por
Narrado por
11 horas
Since its formation in 1861, Italy has struggled to develop an effective political system and a secure sense of national identity. Christopher Duggan’s acclaimed introduction charts the country’s history from the fall of the Roman Empire in the West to the present day, and surveys the difficulties Italy has faced during the last two centuries in forging a nation state. Duggan successfully weaves together political, economic, social and cultural history, and stresses the alternation between materialist and idealist programs for forging a nation state. The audiobook includes coverage of 19th- and 20th-century Italy, as well as a section devoted to Italy in the 21st century. This is the ideal resource for those seeking an authoritative and comprehensive introduction to Italian history.
Leer en la aplicación Scribd móvil
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Waiting for Sale
When Crowe exhibited Slaves Waiting for Sale, Richmond, Virginia, in London in 1861, critics were struck by what they saw as the picture’s accuracy. Instead of representing the well-known moment of the auction, in this painting, Crowe sought to convey the depth and complexity of the horrors of slavery by presenting an entirely different scene: the moments before the auction. By choosing to represent slaves waiting to be sold rather than slaves being sold, Crowe forced viewers to think about the emotional moments before the sale and to consider the uncertainty faced by these individuals. By leaving their fate ambiguous, Crowe intended to unsettle viewers and generate an emotional response to the plight of the enslaved.
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10 Things You Need to Know about the Sana’a Pentateuch
Yemen is a country that somehow feels further away than most. Located on the south-west part of the Arabian Peninsula, news about Yemen only seem to reach us when there is a tragedy.
But Yemen is so much more than the occasional news story from a far away land. Yemen is a country with an old civilization capable of wonderful art.
Book art.
One of the most famous books from Yemen is the so-called Sana’a Pentateuch. Sana’a is the capital city of Yemen and a Pentateuch consists of the first five books of the Torah, also known as the Five Books of Moses. In Christianity these books are known under the names of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
The roots of the Jewish community of Yemen are clouded in history. According to one tradition, Jews arrived in what is now Yemen after the Queen of Sheba returned from her visit to King Solomon. Another tradition says they arrived after the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem in 587 B.C.E. Archaeologically, the first traces of a Jewish community have been dated to around 110 B.C.E.
Today, very little is left of the Jewish community of Yemen. Because of persecution and poverty, most of them have moved, either to the United States, the United Kingdom, or Israel. A group of fifty people remain in the country.
Even though this community with ancient roots no longer exists, some of the beautiful books that they produced have survived to our day, including the Sana’a Pentateuch.
Here are ten things you should know about the Sana’a Pentateuch.
1) The Sana’a Pentateuch was made in Sana’a, Yemen, in 1469. The Pentateuch is a codex, in other words what we call a book, unlike most other Judaic holy texts that are written on scrolls. The Pentateuch consists of 158 folios. The folios are 40 cm tall and 28 cm wide, or 15.74 inches by 11 inches.
Dark ink on orange-tinged paper, typical for Yemenite Hebrew manuscripts from the Middle Ages (Sana’a Pentateuch, British Library, Oriental 2348 f. 15v).
2) The Sana’a Pentateuch is written on paper. The paper used has an orange tinge, which is typical for Yemenite Hebrew manuscripts from the Middle Ages.
3) The Sana’a Pentateuch is written in Hebrew, using the type of square script that developed in Yemen. The ink is very dark, this too typical for Yemenite Hebrew manuscripts from the Middle Ages.
4) The Sana’a Pentateuch was made by a scribe named Benaiah ben Saadia ben Zekhariah ben Marga (d. 1490). Even though Benaiah doesn’t identify himself in the manuscript, his style is so distinctive that the writing and the decorations of the Sana’a Pentateuch match other manuscripts where he has added his name.
5) The Sana’a Pentateuch was commissioned by a man named Abraham ben Yosef al-Israili. Abraham is a known patron of several surviving manuscripts, and he hired Benaiah to work on several of them.
Parallel lines displaying a blend of Judaic and Islamic influences (Sana’a Pentateuch, British Library, Oriental 2348 f. 152v).
6) The Sana’a Pentateuch is famous for its beautiful decorations using micrography. Micrography is a Jewish art form where text in Hebrew or Aramaic is written as outlines of images. Micrography developed in Egypt and Palestine in the seventh and eighth centuries C.E. as a way of circumventing the rule not to include images in the holy texts of Judaism.
7) Yemenite micrography reached its peak in the fifteenth century. It tends to favor simple geometric parallel lines and recurring motifs.
8) The Sana’a Pentateuch is famous for its recurring patterns where Jewish elements blend with Islamic influences, probably inspired by trends in contemporary Yemenite crafts.
9) The Sana’a Pentateuch is also famous for its lavish carpet pages and for its intricate micrographical representations of fish swimming in the sea.
Carpet page with micrography. The outlines of the fish and scales consist of lines taken from the Book of Psalms (Sana’a Pentateuch, British Library, Oriental 2348 ff. 38v–39).
10) It can be found at the British Library. The British Library bought the manuscript on May 28, 1881 from Mr. Nic Mavrocordato.
If you would like to flip through the pages of the Sana’a Pentateuch, the manuscript has been digitized in its entirety and can be viewed here.
If you would like to know more about beautiful Jewish manuscripts from the Middle ages, click here for ten things you need to know about the Golden Haggadah.
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Wednesday, May 10, 2017
The Long History of the Viking Longhouse
The basic structure of the Viking longhouse is an old form, going back to the Bronze Age:
According to Marianne Hem Eriksen, it is striking that the three-aisled longhouse persisted for nearly 3000 years of Scandinavian prehistory – especially when considering the major upheavals that occurred throughout this period.
‘Many have pointed to architecture as a fundamental expression of the ideology prevailing in a specific culture. Especially in societies that have no written language, architecture takes on special importance as a collective expression of the organization and mindset of a culture,’ she points out.
The period from the early Bronze Age to the Medieval period was characterized by huge and fundamental social, political and religious upheaval. Towards the end of the Bronze Age the chieftains ruled, before the bronze networks of that age collapsed. The centuries preceding the birth of Christ are said to be characterized by equality and egalitarianism. This period was followed by the rise and fall of the Roman Empire and the Age of Migration with its great movements of migrant populations – this could indeed be described as ‘Europe on the move’. In addition, we have the Vikings and their raiding and colonization towards the end of the first millennium AD.
‘Throughout this period, people in Scandinavia continued to build their houses in more or less exactly the same way as before. That’s really intriguing,’ the archaeologist says.
Eriksen's recent work focuses on the ritual importance of these houses; for example, when they had decayed to the point that they needed to be replaced, they were often burned and a burial mound erected over the remains. Literary sources tell us that certain key posts ("high seat pillars") were removed and taken to the new house.
I think the rituals are interesting but I do not think they are necessary to explain the long use of this design. I think it survived because it was a perfect fit for the society and environment of Bronze and Iron Age Scandinavia. This was a land of long, cold, dark winters, and the basic test of any house design was whether it could keep people warm with a limited use of fuel. These windowless longhouses fulfilled that basic function. More, they provided a way for people to get together in the dark season and pass the time in company. Each of these longhouses belonged to a chieftain and they were large partly to accommodate a lot of guests. In the three-aisled design, the two outer aisles were usually divided into small spaces for semi-private sleeping quarters, storage bins, and the like, but the center aisle was a common space. There the folk of the stead could gather for feasts or drinking bouts, to hear skalds recite ancient lays, or just to talk. These gatherings kept up the morale of the people and also reinforced the prestige of the chieftain.
Think of the hall of Heorot in Beowulf, a place of light, comradeship and safety amidst the stormy, monster-haunted world.
1 comment:
G. Verloren said...
Rather similar structures crop up in Native American architecture on both sides of the continent, as well that of numerous Pacific Islands, and even places in mainland Southeast Asia such as Vietnam.
It seems that there are some shared attributes we can pick out. For all these different people, the primary building material is wood rather than stone. They also all live in climates with somewhat extreme temperatures, either very cold or very hot periods of the year that must be endured.
Somewhat less obviously, they're also all from wet climates, and possibly an important part of the longhouse was to create and maintain a dry environment through the use of indoor fires, regardless of the temperature. In basically all cases, longhouses were not just communal centers, but also a vital source of storage space for perishable goods.
A high roof makes it much safer to have a fire indoors, and allows the smoke to spread out and thin. It also provides a lot of space to hang goods from the rafters, or to erect lofts. It also helps regulate the temperature, as a larger volume of insulated air takes longer to warm or to cool, and you can make adjustments using smoke flaps in the roof, either increasing or reducing the rate of temperature exchange with the outside. And it's also just a lot cozier to have a high roof and feel less bottled up and penned in when stuck inside during your local variety of extreme (and wet) weather, such as a snowstorm or a typhoon.
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Math Dictionary-X
Math Dictionary-X deals with words starting with the letter X. In this page, we are going to see about the words which are having the initial letter “x”. Let us take the following words which are having “x” as initial letter.
x, X, x-axis, x- coordinate, "x" intercept, “x-y” plane, “x-z” plane.
We might have already known the above listed of words which are having “x” as the initial letter. Beyond our knowing about these words and also the meanings of the words, some more additional information are available for the following words x, X, x-axis, x- coordinate, x- intercept, “x-y” plane, “x-z” plane.
It is vital for the Students who study math to be knowing the additional information of the above words listed which are having the “x” as initial letter. For getting the additional information of the words, students might have to explore in web for each word alone and or they may be spending some time to have that additional information of those words. To avoid the students’ burden, we give some more information for the words with the initial letter “x”.
Math dictionary-x words are as follows:
A symbol used in Algebra to denote unknown quantity in an equation. Example: x+5=9
Value of 10 in Roman numerals
The axis which is horizontal in a coordinate plane
The first coordinate in any ordered pair(x,y). It is also called abscissa.
The point at which the value of y is zero.
“x-y” plane:
If a plane is formed with the two co-ordinate axes “x” and “y” , then it is called the “x-y” plane. Hence, the plane which has been formed with the two co-ordinate axes “x” and “y” is “x-y” plane.
“x-z” plane:
Whenever a plane is formed with the two o-ordinate axes “x” and “z” , then it would be called as “x-z” plane. So, the plane which is being formed with the two co-ordinate axes “x” and “z” is “x-z” plane.
We had discussed words starting with 'X' in this page math dictionary-x.
It subtracts sadness and adds happiness in our life.
It divides sorrow and multiplies forgiveness and love.
We will update regularly this page Math Dictionary-X . We welcome your valuable suggestions. Please use the box below to express your suggestions.
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Dictionary-x to Home Page
Math Dictionary
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Giving directions often involves landmarks. “Turn left at the clock tower,” “head straight until you reach the bridge,” “look for Waldo under the red-and-white beach umbrella.” A new study from linguists and a psychologist from the University of Aberdeen, The Ohio State University, and the University of Edinburgh underlines how important these recognizable visual cues are in giving directions. In fact, people understand directions best when they begin with mention of a landmark, according to the research, published in the journal Frontiers in Psychology.
The researchers analyzed a dataset first collected as part of a 2013 study: 1672 descriptions of where to find Waldo in images from Where’s Waldo (better known outside North America as Where’s Wally), generated by 152 participants. For the present study, the researchers examined the word order used by speakers to direct the listener to find a target. They found that people described landmarks that were easier to see early in the sentence before they mentioned the hard-to-find target: “At the upper right, to the left of the sphinx, the man holding the red vase with a stripe on it.”
In a follow-up experiment, the researchers wanted to see how word order affected people’s understanding of directions. They asked 32 participants to listen to audio recordings of instructions helping them find Waldo. They found that people could find Waldo easier if the easy-to-find landmark object was mentioned first in the sentence, rather than after. So, “Next to the sphinx, Waldo is holding a vase,” is more effective than the more linguistically common phrase, “Waldo is holding a vase next to the sphinx.” Proper word order, they discovered, could speed up searchers by 10 percent.
"Listeners start processing the directions before they're finished, so it's good to give them a head start by pointing them towards something they can find quickly, such as a landmark,” co-author Micha Elsner, an assistant professor of linguistics at The Ohio State University, says in a press release.
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Lac qui Parle is the French translation of the Dakota name, “Lake That Speaks.” It was at this aptly named site that Joseph Renville worked with missionaries to create the first written Dakota language alphabet and dictionary.
Joseph Renville
The son of a French trader and a Dakota woman, Joseph Renville was born near present-day St. Paul and lived with his Dakota relatives until he was ten, when he moved with his father to Canada. He eventually returned to Minnesota, where he was an interpreter for Lieutenant Zebulon Pike in 1805 and 1806 and for Major Stephen Long in 1823. Renville established a fur-trading post in 1826 near Lac qui Parle as an agent for the American Fur Company. His familiarity with European and Native culture, as well as his fluency in the Dakota, English, and French languages, made him an effective trader and a trusted intermediary among the people who lived and worked near his post.
Raised as a Catholic, Renville invited European missionaries to establish a mission and school near his fur post. Through the Lac qui Parle Mission, Renville worked to further strengthen relationships among the European and Dakota peoples. With missionaries Thomas S. Williamson, Stephen R. Riggs, and Samuel and Gideon Pond, he translated the Bible and various hymnals into the Dakota language. The process was slow: a Bible verse would be read in French, Renville would translate it into the Dakota language, and his words would be carefully written down. Dakota is an oral language, and Renville's translations were among the first attempts to record Dakota in written form.
Renville had many friends and relatives in the Native community at Lac qui Parle. He stayed at the mission until his death in 1846.
The mission
Lac qui Parle Mission was a site for Christian missionary work to the Dakota for nearly 20 years. After Renville’s death in 1846, the mission was taken over by the “irreligious” Martin McLeod. The mission’s relationship with the Dakota soured, and in 1854, the missionaries left Lac qui Parle for the Upper Sioux Agency. Lac qui Parle Mission was abandoned and fell into disrepair.
In 1941, Lac qui Parle was designated as a state park, and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) reconstructed the Lac qui Parle Mission building that stands today.
Joseph Renville marker at Lac qui Parle Mission site, Jack Renshaw, 1971.
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Building Willard Straight Hall
The first student union was established at Cambridge University in England. Houston Hall at the University of Pennsylvania, the first student union in North America, opened in 1896. But it was not until after the world wars that unions became popular on university campuses.
The student union idea was just beginning to catch on in the United States when Dorothy Straight decided to build one at Cornell. The post-World War I surge in college enrollment highlighted the grim social existence of students in "Collegetown" rooming houses, where it was hard to find a decent place to eat, much less a pleasant environment for socializing. Aware of what a difference the canteen and recreational centers had made in the lives of servicemen during the war, colleges transferred the concept to the union to solve many of the social problems of campus life. And how would colleges finance the building of unions? One answer came out of the war: create this new kind of campus democracy as memorials to those who died for democracy.
Universities had great hopes for student unions. The union would provide a common ground for students of all backgrounds and affiliations to get to know each other outside the classroom. It was felt that education in the art of living was as practical as a course in engineering.
Before Leonard Elmhirst left for India in 1921, Dorothy Straight made a second visit to Cornell, where she established links with several faculty members and President Livingston Farrand and began to plan the union building. Harold Fleck '12 with the Cornellian Council, suggested, "We should keep in mind future extensions" (words of a prophet). Professor Alexander M. Drummond of the English department was eager to include a small theater; it was difficult to stage plays in a Goldwin Smith lecture hall. Single Professors were excited about the prospect of a bachelor quarters in the new building.
For three years, Dorothy Straight worked tirelessly to ensure the new union met the requirements of the university. On June 15, 1924, a cornerstone-laying ceremony was held.
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The role of black and white women slavery in Brazil
The Mae Preta was used as a powerful symbol for the Brazilian nation yet her voice is missing from discussions about race and belonging. Write an op-ed or opinion editorial from the perspective of a Mae Preta to the black male intellectuals who have chosen to use her as a symbol. Make sure you use first person. Read op-ed pieces from respected newspapers like The Washington Post, New York Times, and Chicago Tribune to get a feel for the format and tone of the assignment. Consider the role of white women, the role of black women, and the history of slavery in Brazil.
Sample Solution
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Fig. 304. These simple shapes illustrate visual order.
will see now repetitions in an orderly fashion of a more complex waveform (Fig. 302) . Now feed some noise into the same scope. You'll see waveforms, but they will be neither regular nor orderly (Fig. 303). Perhaps you're thinking—and rightly, "that's all well
and good, but I've heard musical sounds that pretty well approximate noise." In some of the more modern compositions dissonances do sound close to noise. And by the same token there are noises, such as the whistle of a steamship, that are definitely musical.
In the field of design we can take this same basic proposition practically verbatim. Design is an ordered form of visual experience whereas that which is not design is a non-ordered or disordered form of visual experience. A random outcropping of
Fig. 305. A magnified view of the crystalline structure of a snowflake showing a complex example of visual order.
rocks on a Vermont hillside is not design but the shapes of the leaves of, say, an oak tree on that same hillside are. They have a rocks on a Vermont hillside is not design but the shapes of the leaves of, say, an oak tree on that same hillside are. They have a
Fig. 306. The ellipse, rectangle and rhombus illustrate order.
that we can recognize, whether man-made or natural in origin, are those based upon geometric shapes. The circle, the square, the six-pointed Star of David, all have a regularity that constitutes visual order (Fig. 304). The same is true of more complex geometric forms such as those in a microscopic view of a snow-flake (Fig. 305), or the patterns seen in a kaleidoscope. These more complex and decorative patterns, are still based upon the simple geometric forms of regular five- or six-sided figures. The ellipse, the rectangle and the rhombus (Fig. 306), exhibit a
slightly different formal order from the geometric figures mentioned. The familiar parallelogram is also an ordered shape (Fig. 307). But the basis of its orderliness is not quite as obvious as that of the previous examples.
Static and dynamic order
There are two types of order. One is static and the other is dynamic. Let's go back to music again for a moment, for an
analogy. The asymmetrical dominant seventh chord is just as much music as the balanced and static tonic chord from which it is derived and into which it ultimately resolves. The dominant seventh is just as orderly as the tonic chord but it exhibits a different kind of order. The same thing is true in visual design.
Fig. 308. Dynamic effects can be produced by static elements: (a) a point generates a line; (b) a line generates a plane; (c) a plane generates a solid.
Some designs show a static kind of order and others obtain their order from the balancing of a number of dynamic forces within the design. To understand how this happens, let us go back to the simplest component element that one can use to construct designs. You may recall from elementary geometry that a point generates a line, a line generates a plane, and a plane generates a solid (Fig. 308). Much the same thing is true in design except that the mathematical point has no relevance for our purpose and we begin with the line. If you stop to think about it, there are only two fundamental kinds of lines: straight and curved (Fig. 309). There are only two kinds of straight lines. One is the static line which is either horizontal or vertical. The other, the dynamic line, is at any angle in between (Fig. 310). The horizontal or vertical line has force and direction along a b
Fig. 309. There are only two basic kinds of lines: (a) straight; (b) curved. However, these simple elements can be used to create patterns which imply movement.
its own length but that is all (Fig. 311). Like the tonic chord in music, it is at rest. It doesn't feel as if it wants to go anywhere
Fig. 310. Lines of force, dynamic lines, are produced by angular conformations: (a) although a static composition the vertical and horizontal lines produce areas of force; (b) the simple angled lines produce a greater feeling of movement.
beyond where it is. By contrast, the angled line is similar to the dominant seventh in music. It has its own internal force along
Fig. 311 (left). Visual forces (arrows) produced by static lines. Fig. 312 (right). Dynamic lines produce stronger and more varied forces.
its length, as do horizontals and verticals, but like the dominant seventh it seeks resolution. The eye wants to resolve it to the nearest horizontal or vertical (Fig. 312). The angled line in design calls for another to counter the force with which it seeks
Fig. 313 (left). Converging dynamic lines produce an even greater number of visual forces. The result is an enhanced sense of motion. The figure seems to be poised, ready to move. Fig. 314 (right). Horizontal rectangles have a basic direction along their long axis. They "want" to spread.
resolution (Fig. 313). In this way it begins to find balance in the forces inherent in the directions of the two lines. In the m i
Fig. 315 (left). Vertical rectangles also seem to want to move along the long axis. Because of their upright form they seem to try and stretch. Fig. 316 (right). The direction of a parallogram is along the primary line of force. It seems to want to resolve back into a straight line.
design of furniture, angled lines can be brought into balance against horizontals or verticals or, occasionally, be left in an unbalanced condition. It is on the basis of the inter-relationships between the forces and directions of lines that a full-grown design is finally developed. By using groups of connected lines, we can begin to develop planes and these planes, like lines, will give the eye a feeling of force and direction. For example, a low, wide rectangle will partake of the feeling of a horizontal line. The lower and wider it is, the more it will assume horizontality (Fig. 314). A high, narrow rectangle will feel strongly similar to the vertical line and, again, its verticality will be strengthened by an increase in its narrowness relative to its height (Fig. 315).
Fig. 317. Piet Mondrian pioneered in producing a sense of movement through the use of static lines. Shown is "Composition in White, Black and Red." (Collection, Museum of Modern Art.)
The planes formed by horizontal or vertical rectangles or squares, since they give the same general feeling as a static line, would be considered static planes. Compare this with the feeling you would get from a plane in the shape of a regular parallelogram. The main feeling of direction in such a plane would be along a diagonal through the two acute angles of the parallelogram (Fig. 316). This in turn is a dynamic line, and the entire plane partakes of the feeling of restlessness inherent in the dynamic line forming its main direction.
Probably you have already anticipated the reason why so much furniture, both historically and in modern times, has been designed around solid masses which, in turn, were constructed from combinations of static planes. If a home or the furniture in it were designed on a basis of dynamic planes, perhaps parallelograms or, worse yet, completely irregular figures of one sort or another, it would be an unnerving place in which to live. If there were no repose or resolution in the design of one's surroundings, the visual influence could have quite profoundly disturbing emotional effects.
Dynamic lines in furniture
Does this mean, then, that the only satisfactory lines for furniture are static ones? Not by any means. To return to our musical analogy, this would be the same as attempting to compose a piece iwhih Lines ur runv/L -L- ——-
Fig. 318 (left). Horizontal and vertical rectangles imply a diagonal dynamic line. The static forms create dynamic forces. Fig. 319 (right).
Horizontal rectangle proportioned two to three.
of music using nothing but the tonic chord. The dreadful dullness of such a composition is not difficult to • imagine. But, fortunately, here our analogy between music and design breaks down a little. In music we have only one tonic chord in a given key; in design we have two tonics, the horizontal and the vertical, and they can interrelate with each other in interesting ways. The interrelationships between horizontal and vertical lines were extensively explored in recent years by the painter Piet Mondrian, and many fields of design, furniture included, have benefited greatly from his explorations. Among other things, he demonstrated that it is possible to organize a series of rectangular areas which are inherently static in such a manner as to create a dynamic whole (Fig. 317). This dynamism results from diagonals or, if you please, dynamic lines that are implied rather than expressed directly.
Actually, only the terms, not the reasoning, are unfamiliar. Suppose you have a horizontal rectangle and at the end of it you join on a vertical rectangle (Fig. 318). It doesn't matter whether this drawing is an end in itself or a sketch for a piece of furniture
or a building. You've implied a diagonal running down from the vertical to the horizontal rectangle.
This is exactly the sort of thing that is done by a designer when he works out an interesting pattern of doors and drawer fronts, on a cabinet with a front plane that is a simple horizontal or vertical rectangle. Let's demonstrate this by taking a simple horizontal rectangle with a relationship of height to width of 2 to 3. This happens to coincide exactly with a standard cabinet's case dimensions of 2 feet by 3 feet wide.
We'll assume that this 2 by 3 rectangle forms the outline of the front plane of a cabinet that will be used to house hi-fi equipment (Fig. 319). Let's look at some of the ways in which the plane can be subdivided to make it visually more interesting and, at the same time, subdivide it in such a way that adequate spaces for equipment inside the cabinet will be provided. All the arrangements inherent in even such a simple appearing problem as this are too numerous to cover here. So we'll stick to some of the simpler possibilities and see why they were used. After you've seen the how and why of these, you'll possibly think of some solutions of your own that you like better.
The simplest thing possible is to make a vertical division of the space right down the middle. In practice, a pair of doors could be hung at the sides and meet in the middle. Behind these doors you would make internal subdivisions in thé cabinet for your various pieces of equipment and perhaps record storage.
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Fig. 320. A cabinet front designed to the
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proportions of Fig. 319.
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1 1 ; 1 1 ■ill,!.!
Right off, thinking in terms of a cabinet, there are many ways in which even a simple subdivision of a space can be accomplished, each of which will result in a slightly different appearance. One way is to hang the doors flush with, but inside the front edges of both the sides, the top, and the bottom. This in effect doubles the outline and strengthens the shape of the original horizontal rectangle relative to the two new vertically created rectangles (Fig. 320).
There are also three other immediate ways of achieving substantially the same functional effect with a slightly different visual effect in each case. First, let's bring a center partition through between the doors (Fig. 321-a). This doubles the center vertical line and increases the feeling of verticality as against the horizontality of the outline. Now let's try letting the doors overlap the sides but not the top and bottom (Fig. 321-b). And, finally let's try letting the doors overlap both sides and the top and bottom so that all that is seen from the front are two vertical rectangles comprising the doors (Fig. 321-c). Each of these varia-
Fig. 321. A few simple alterations add interest to the plain cabinet front: (a) simple center partition; (b) doors overlap on the sides only; (c) doors overlap all edges and the center partition.
tions has a slightly different visual effect. And, remember, we've been talking only about what is really one basic kind of subdivision of a rectangle as applied specifically to our audio cabinets. Still talking only about possible subdivisions of a 2 by 3
Fig. 322. Another variation of the two by three cabinet. The drop front across the equipment section produces the low long look.
rectangle for the front of an audio cabinet, let's look at a few more possibilities. We could have a drop front clear across the upper portion of the cabinet over the equipment, and doors opening over the lower section for record storage (Fig. 322). Or, leaving the lower section as it now is, we could divide the upper portion into two parts, one opening over the equipment controls and the other opening for the record player (Fig. 323). We could split the cabinet in half vertically and use one half for the equipment and record player, each opening separately, and leave the other half in a single unit for storage (Fig. 324).
This is just a sampling of the variety of ways in which a simple
Fig. 323 (left). The upper portion of the basic cabinet can be divided for equipment controls and the changer compartment. Fig. 324 (right). The section on the left is for storage. The two sections on the right are for equipment.
2 by 3 rectangle representing the front of an audio cabinet can be subdivided to allow for the mounting of the equipment and at the same time vary the space relationships within the plane of that front.
Up to this point, we have studied two methods of enlivening a simple, rectangular plane—either adding onto it from without
Fig. 325. Although the tapered legs add to its appearance the cube form contains no dominant forces to create visual interest.
or subdividing it from within. In the process of working out a design for a piece of furniture, these devices can be used singly or in combination. And we have not by any means exhausted the possibilities inherent in internal subdivision. We haven't mentioned grain, color, texture or various types of decorative detail, all of which can be used to increase visual interest. However, let's leave these matters in abeyance for the moment. We'll come back to them later.
So far we've been dealing with lines and planes without assembling them into the solid three-dimensional objects of furniture. Select a piece of furniture in your living room and try to get it into such a position that you can see only the front or one side. It's a bit difficult, isn't it? This points up the fact that you see any piece of furniture, not as a single plane at a time, but as at least two or more planes forming the surfaces of a solid. This solid is pleasing or not in its proportions, depending upon how these planes relate to each other.
Three dimensional relationships
Suppose you were to design a piece of furniture in the shape of a cube; that is, all the surfaces are squares. A square is a shape that has no dominant direction and, if all of the sides of an object are square, the whole piece has no dominant direction (Fig. 325). It would be dull and very difficult to liven up even by judicious use of interesting grains or decorative detail.
Now let's go back to our 2 by 3 proportioned front and develop it into a solid by giving it a depth of half the width. The resulting object will have a front wider than it is high with sides higher than they are wide. The front then will have a predominently horizontal direction while the sides will have a vertical one (Fig. 326). As we look at our object, the interplay of these two dominant directions vastly increase the visual interest of the object as a whole compared to, say, that of a cube. In the same ways that we found we could add to the interest of a plane, we can increase the interest of a solid object by adding onto it externally or subdividing it internally.
Fig. 326. Rectangular solid; two by three by one and one-half.
1. 327. Variations in depth add interest to a basically simple design.
2. 328. By setting back the top shelf and raising it on spacers the design of Fig. 327 takes on a fresh modern look.
Returning to our simple 2 X 3 X 11/2 case> let us trY a three-dimensional variations. The simplest subdivision of the unit was to split the front down the center into two swinging doors. We'll start with that arrangement and try some external additions. One of the simplest and most useful would be to place a couple of open shelves on top for either books or records. By looking at the front planes or front elevation of this variation, we don't appear to have made a very interesting change. But let's look at it in perspective. By making the shelf section approximately one-third shallower than the main cabinet and leaving
the front of the shelf open, we have introduced variations in depth that add new interest (Fig. 327). Now let's cut the shelf section down from two compartments in height to only one and we'll raise that one compartment about 3 inches above the main cabinet on a pair of runners. In both front elevation and perspective, this arrangement gains a good deal in terms of interest over our first try (Fig. 328). Next, let's add, alongside our original cabinet, a cabinet matching it in size to be used as a speaker enclosure. This is a very common and not very inspired type of addition. On the other hand, it's certainly not unpleasant and has the undeniable virtue of being highly functional (Fig. 329). At this point, we've added to our original cabinet both vertically and horizontally. Now let's try combining the two
Fig. 330. Placing a shelf on the original cabinet of Fig. 329 produces a much more interesting total grouping.
movements. We'll add both the bookshelf and the speaker and we'll move the bookshelf off center on the original cabinet so that it's cantilevered out over the speaker cabinet (Fig. 330). Again we've added to the number of visual movements and directions and to the visual interest of the whole. Remember that the illustrations we've examined are not intended as original or brilliant design contributions. Quite to the contrary, they are the simplest possible examples of certain principles. They are intended to resemble things you've seen before, so that you'll be able to visualize readily. Studying them is an exercise in looking at familiar objects from a slightly more analytical viewpoint.
Variations can be made to a three-dimensional shape by either external additions, which we've just discussed, or by internal subdivision or combinations of both. To keep it simple, we'll stay with our 2 X 3 X V4 case> and this time try adding a third dimension to a couple of variations we have found we could make on its front. Let's try the one that had a drop front across the top over the equipment and a horizontal record-storage section below. This time we'll take the doors off the record-storage section so that the lower section will now recede in depth. Fig. 331 shows it in perspective both with and without the doors. Another variation of this same arrangement would be to put the lower doors back on but inset them by about 2 inches. Still another would be to leave the lower doors flush and inset the drop front at the top by about \/2 inch (Fig. 332).
There is, as we have found out, quite a wide range of measures lower doors back on but inset them by about 2 inches. Still another would be to leave the lower doors flush and inset the drop front at the top by about \/2 inch (Fig. 332).
Fig. 331. The use of depth as a dimension: (a) simple drop front cabinet with storage space; (b) removing the lower doors makes the bottom section recede, changing the character of the piece.
design but before we move on to other things, let's look at one example of a combination of external addition and internal subdivision. We'll take one of the examples of subdivision that we have already used and add to it the matching speaker enclosure plus the floating storage shelf on top (Fig. 333). There are many more possibilities inherent in mere static lines, static planes and static solids than might have seemed possible at first.
Dynamic planes
Happily, however, these elements are not, by any means, all we have available. We can imply dynamic lines by the way in which static shapes are used. There are also occasions when
Dynamic planes
Fig. 332. Depth can be used with greater subtlety than shown in Fig. 331: (a) the lower doors of the unit are inset; (b) insetting the drop front seems to reduce the mass of the unit.
the first applications is leg treatment. Think about it a moment and you'll discover that practically all of the furniture leg shapes you see around involve the use of dynamic lines in one form or another.
By trying several different legs under our standard cabinet we can see how this works out. First, the straight, round, tapered leg. Although the central axis of the leg is vertical, the actual
1. 333 (above). By combining a number of features a stimulating effect can be produced.
outlines, since the leg is tapered, are angled and therefore dynamic (Fig. 334-a). Next take the same leg and angle it. This time both the central axis and the outlines are dynamic (Fig. 334-b). For another try, let's make a base using a square tapered leg at the corners. If we keep both the axis of the leg and its outside outline vertical, we'll still end up with a dynamic line on the inside to form the taper (Fig. 335-a). We can, of course, take the same base and cant the whole leg so that we have both a dynamic axis and a dynamic outline (Fig. 335-b).
To introduce a dynamic plane, the baffleboard, for example, of a speaker enclosure can be tilted in at the top, thus making the entire front surface a dynamic plane (Fig. 336). As a matter of fact, in some cases, the acoustical people recommend doing
Fig. 335. Keeping the axis of the leg and its outside outline vertical does not necessarily make it static: (a) the inner taper produces dynamic lines; (b) canting the whole leg relative to the base produces much more vitality.
this with speaker enclosures to improve the balance of sound distribution throughout the room.
If you want to cant a baffleboard or a control panel for reasons either of function or appearance, go ahead; you can come up
with perfectly good results this way. But don't try canting in the sides of the whole cabinet. The results are likely to be weird and difficult to live with (Fig. 337).
Use of curves
Another very important area of design is the subject of curved lines and curvilinear shapes. We have discussed straight-line and flat plane shapes first because these are properties inherent in our main raw material, wood, as it comes ready for fabrication into cabinets. Plans that do not take into account the inherent properties of the materials to be used are more than likely to come to grief. Wood can be carved, edge-cut, edge-shaped, or turned to curved lines with reasonable facility but to bend a curve into the length or width of a plank or panel is well nigh impossible. Keep these factors in mind while looking at the
Fig. 337. Dynamic planes are dangerous to handle and sometimes the results are disappointing.
design effects of curved lines and curved shapes to relate such elements usefully to our specific subject.
One of the most common complaints heard from those who prefer traditional furniture styles is that the moderns, having w doMMUirit dfacZum, removed the curvilinear carvings, moldings and turnings of the earlier styles, have ended up with a style that is too rectangular, too straight, too boxy and, therefore, lacking in the warmth and grace of the more traditional designs. There is unquestionably some merit to this argument; how much depends on individual taste. The inclusion of curvilinear lines and shapes in the design
1. 337. Dynamic planes are dangerous to handle and sometimes the results are disappointing.
2. 338. The circle and the ellipse are the ancestors of curved lines; (a) the circle is as static a plane as you can get—it has no dominant direction; (b) the ellipse does a little better in that some line of force is implied.
of cabinets can add a gracefulness and flow that will endow them with a character and distinction absent from designs comprised entirely of straight lines and angular masses. Let's examine some curved lines and curvilinear shapes as such and then we'll see how they apply to cabinet design.
There is no such thing as a static curved line in the same sense
Fig. 339. The scalloped edge is a regular waveform and consequently is fairly static.
that we have a static straight line. The nature of a curve makes this impossible. It is never at rest but is constantly changing in direction and therefore cannot become static. There is a feeling of constant movement about a curved line, and this restlessness
Fig. 340. The spiral form is more dynamic than the regular waveform: (a) spiral in a plane; (b) the solid spiral.
Fluting of this kind was often used on furniture legs.
Fluting of this kind was often used on furniture legs.
constitutes its vitality. Certain curves are more nearly static than others. The circle is the most static possible (Fig. 338). Although it is continually changing in direction, its rate of change is absolutely constant. The circle, like the square, having no predominant dimension, has no predominant line of force. This makes it not quite as interesting as it might be. On the other hand, it is for the same reason immensely flexible, often taking on what-
ever axis may be desired from its relationship to other elements. Similar to the circle in many respects is the ellipse or oval. It has much of the same character as the circle except that it does have a main axis and, in consequence, a main direction. Another of the more static types of curves would be any of the variations of the regular waveform pattern (Fig. 301). Although constantly in movement and constantly changing direction, it is also endlessly repeating itself. A variant of this would be the type of
1. 341 (left). The curve of force illustrated is remarkably similar to the cross section of an airplane wing. Fig. 342 (right). The reverse curve starts to go in one direction and then changes its mind. It is widely used in period furniture.
repeated arc of a circle that forms the scalloped edges on many early American cabinet and table aprons (Fig. 339). Somewhat more fluid but still partaking strongly of a feeling of regularity is the spiral (Fig. 340-a). It has been used in the form of either a linear surface decoration or fluting as on the legs of some Spanish-Moorish furniture (Fig. 340-b).
The curves we've studied thus far, along with their variations and combinations, fall into two classifications. The first is the geometric curve. The circle, the ellipse and any variations based upon them fall into this category. Certain other geometric curves such as the parabola, the hyperbola, the catenary and exponential curves have not been discussed because they do not occur in furniture. While the catenary and exponential curves appear in engineering computations on which the inside partitioning of
Fig. 343. Reverse curves are often used in moldings: (a) the cyma recta; (b) the cyma reversa.
certain speaker enclosures is based, we are not going that deeply into acoustical design and these curves do not concern us. The waveform, the spiral and their variants form our second category, that of repetitive curves.
Categories of curves
Three additional types of curves can be applied to furniture. The first of these is the one-direction curve or, as it is sometimes called, the curve of force (Fig. 341). The one-direction curve starts with a slow, gentle sweep and ends with a quick curl. It is the simplest of the free hand curves. Sometimes it bears a close resemblance to a spiral and at other times is quite distinct. In period styles, it is sometimes encountered in decorative carvings and in the outlines of cornices on tall cabinets or in the outline of a scroll-cut apron at the bottom of a cabinet.
The reverse curve is far more common, recurring constantly in many period styles. It starts off curving in one direction and part
Fig. 344. Compound curves are used extensively in French Provincial furniture.
way along reverses itself and swings off the other way (Fig. 342). It sometimes terminates in a tight curl at one end, sometimes at both ends or sometimes at neither. It is found on the legs of Chippendale, Hepplewhite, French Court, and French Provincial styles and in many styles as an outline curve for aprons, cornices and door panels. It is also used as the basis for moldings such as the cyma recta and the cyma reversa (Fig. 343).
Compound curves are actually combinations of curves. The complete outline, for example, of a French provincial apron might be a compound curve composed of a number of reverse curves tied end to end (Fig. 344). Compound curves also turn up continually in the cross-sections of many types of moldings (Fig. 345).
The free-form curves of modern design are not particularly new. They are combinations of one-direction and reverse curves but are far less regular and often tend to be totally asymmetrical. The popular kidney-shaped or amoeboid-shaped cocktail tables are unhappy examples of the free-form curve carried to its most uninspired conclusion.
Proportion and balance
Before proceeding further, let's summarize briefly. With reference to furniture, design starts with line. Lines combine to form planes and planes combine to form masses. All of these elements have readily discernible visual forces and directions. The manner in which these directions and forces relate to each other to form visually satisfactory unity in a piece of furniture falls under the headings of proportion and balance. These are difficult subjects to discuss in a general way because any individual's sense of proportion and balance is likely to be largely influenced by his own conditioning and what he has been accustomed to seeing.
Fig. 345. Compound curves form the basis for many types of molding: (a) thumbnail; (b) scotia; (c) cove.
There are many in the fields of art and design who would start a lively argument on this point, claiming that there are definite canons of proportion and balance they can prove. Looking back historically, one can find that a number of such canons have been proclaimed at different times. From the numerology of the pyramids to the dynamic symmetry of the Greek vase and on up to the present day, individuals and schools of thought have tried to establish the Divine Proportion. The fact that the various rather dogmatically proclaimed canons do not too often agree with each other tends merely to strengthen a conviction that visually satisfying balance and proportion are largely influenced by individual and cultural considerations and are not the result of some eternal and divine law or mathematics that can be discovered and promulgated once and for all. No one would claim for a moment that the architects of the Parthenon and the Cathedral of Notre Dame followed the same divine proportioning. Yet each is an object of
beauty in its own right despite the easily established fact that each is based upon a totally different concept.
The same kinds of comparisons can be made in furniture. The neo-classic simplicity of the Directoire style (Fig. 346) has a beauty
Fig. 346. The Directoire is an example of the almost spartan Neo-classic simplicity.
of its own but one that is quite at variance with that found in the Baroque-influenced furnishings of the French Provincial style. (See Fig. 344.)
Although in good conscience we cannot set down rules to determine balance or proportion, a few pointers can be used as guides. Proportion and balance are so closely related to one another that it is difficult to tell where one leaves off and the other begins. The simplest way to obtain balance in a design is by means of symmetry. This is a 25-cent word meaning that, if you draw a line down through the middle of the piece, the right-hand side would
be a mirror image of the left-hand side. This type of balance is used in practically all traditional styles.
In a sense, this would be the same as if you put two equal weights on a seesaw, equally distant from the center pivot point. They'll balance each other exactly. But you'll undoubtedly also recall that, if you decrease one of the weights and move it further out or increase one and move it further in, the two weights will still balance. This is the basis of the asymmetrical design often seen in modern furniture.
Actually there are only two ways to get balance in a design, either symmetrically or asymmetrically. If you have symmetry, by definition you have balance. It's that simple. You may or may not have good proportions, but you will inevitably have balance. Asymmetrical balance is another thing, and not as simple. There's a great deal more latitude here for personal interpretation. Here, too, is where proportion and balance become inextricably snarled. As long as you're using symmetrical balance, you can have a poor relationship of height to width without destroying the balance. You could also have other unattractive proportions without destroying balance. For example, the cabinet might be top heavy because the legs are too light or too high. Or, it might seem bottom heavy because the legs are too big. For this reason, symmetrical design is easier to work with because you can isolate the two problems of balance and proportion.
But leave symmetry behind and you're in the wide open spaces. Both questions must be dealt with at once. Here's where you've got to rely on your feelings for the forces and directions of the planes and masses involved, to achieve satisfying proportion and balance in asymmetrical designs.
The scaled drawing
When you get ready to start finalizing your ideas about hi-fi cabinets, the only way you can reasonably check the proportion and balance of what you have in mind is to make a scaled drawing. The basic procedure for scaling a cabinet is no different from that used to scale a floor plan except that the scale units will have a different meaning. Whereas 14 inch equals 1 foot is a common scale for floor plans, in scaling a cabinet 14 inch generally equals 1 inch, except for very large units where such a scale might result in an inconveniently large drawing (Fig. 347).
Graph paper can be used for scaling. It is quite convenient—no ruler is necessary—just count off squares. But the squares may tend to confuse your overall view of what has been drawn. Unless you are used to visualizing three dimensions from two, the linear pattern of the paper may be distracting. To avoid this disadvantage, use tracing paper with graph paper underneath to get your scaling, and then take the graph paper away to see what you've got.
But however you do it, and no matter what scale you use or how you arrive at it, make a scaled sketch of your ideas before proceeding with the construction of any cabinetry. Adjustments of as little as an inch or two can make vast differences in balance and proportion. A change of an inch in the height of a drop front or even as little as inch in the thickness of a leg can bring an entire cabinet into or out of proportion.
Before leaving the generalities of design to discuss specific styles, let us touch upon one other subject briefly. That is color. The range of the colors for a cabinet is actually quite limited. But within that range the color chosen can have quite a considerable influence on the success or failure of the effect of the total unit.
The colors you are likely to use will range from off-white blonds to yellow, tan blonds to ambers and from there to various greens, red-browns and grays down to dead black. The most important factor influencing the choice of color for cabinets should be the other colors in the room. If you have light-colored woods, fabrics and walls, the chances are you won't want a big black hunk of hi-fi cabinet. Conversely, if the wood pieces already in the room are largely medium to dark, you won't want a massive blond unit.
If you are using a period style, the color of the unit should conform, in general at least, with the colors historically used for that style. For example, a bleached, mahogany Heppelwhite sideboard or an ebony black French Provincial one would be an anachronism. The colors just don't agree with the styles. A very dark brown Chippendale piece or a very light gray French Provincial one would be appropriate. These colors were used.
There are tricks in the use of color. Against a light wall, a cabinet will look smaller if it is also light in color and larger if it is dark. Against a dark wall, the reverse is true. (The piece will look smaller if dark and larger if light.) In general, a piece will look a little larger if light in color than it would seem if it were dark. Dark colors tend to show dust more readily—light colors reveal imperfections. Dark colors can obscure the effect of decorative detail, carvings and moldings. Medium-value colors will enhance them.
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A short history of a truly unique train
A story of the royal visit that started it all, and the burning ambition that pushed it into reality.
The first railway in an underground cave
After setting up Postojna Cave as a show cave in 1819, a suitable solution that would make the arduous and long cave tour by torchlight easier for visitors was sought for decades. As early as 1853, Schmidl was surprised that there were no riding animals in the cave, no donkeys or ponies to ride on.
On March 11 in 1857, when the Southern Railway Vienna – Trieste was launched, sedan chairs were set up for the imperial couple Franz Joseph and Elizabeth, who visited the Postojna Cave at the time.
Postojna Cave is a horizontal cave, which made it possible to set up the first documented railway in an underground cave (official opening being June 16 in 1872). How did it work? It was moved by the cave guides, who pulled two carriages called Phaetons (each carrying four visitors) around the cave.
From 1872 to 1923: becoming a tourist attraction
Development of tourism began when the district governor Dr Anton Globočnik von Sorodolski took over as the Chairman of the Cave Commission. Footpaths around the cave were set up and so was the railway foundation. The work on laying tracks, which were 1,534 metres in length and had a track gauge of 620 mm, started in March 1872, was supervised by the road master Gregor Oblak and took three months to complete. On 16 June 1872, the first railway started running from the speleothem called Prižnica (Pulpit) in the Great Dome to the foot of the Great Mountain. This would have been impossible to do if the cave was not almost horizontal.
The first gasoline-powered locomotive
After World War I, Postojna Cave became a territory within the Kingdom of Italy. A lot of attention was devoted to its development and so in 1923 the railway line was completely renovated and extended. Visitors were now moving around the cave by a gasoline – powered locomotive. The first one was called Montania 803. It was a mine locomotive and was built to pull 20 passengers.
Making progress
The number of cave visitors was rapidly increasing, and so the cave’s management soon purchased another gasoline-powered locomotive. This time it was called Montania S 10 no. 2044 and it far better than the one before. It had 25 carriages with 6 seats each and so it became possible for up to 150 visitors to be taken on the tour at once.
This specific locomotive was used until 1957 and is still on display at the Postojna Cave exhibition pavilion.
When tourism increases…you need a third locomotive!
The Kingdom of Italy did a good job promoting Postojna Cave and so many more people wanted to see this popular attraction! And so, a third locomotive was needed. In 1926, the locomotive CEMSA 20 G No. 20-779 was purchased in Milan and was soon put to good use.
1956: Introducing electric locomotives
After World War II, Postojna Cave became part of the Free Territory of Trieste and later Yugoslavia. Over time, the gasoline-powered locomotives became outdated as visitors were becoming annoyed by their noise and exhaust fumes. Finally in 1956, the cave management purchased two battery-powered electric locomotives. They were soon proven to be reliable, so the management kept purchasing new ones until they owned a total of twelve. The last two were purchased in 1988. In 2013, an asynchronous motor was installed into locomotive No. 3 - this type of motor charges batteries during braking as well.
The cave railway after 1964
Only three trains could run on the single-track railway at the same time. This caused a serious problem, because only 2,100 visitors could visit the cave on a daily basis. The demand was much higher. Therefore, the decision was made to build a circular line. The first phase was completed in 1964 and the second one in 1967. 422 meters of the tunnel was excavated out of bedrock and a loop was made. A 19.4-metre long bridge was also constructed across the side passage inside the Small Caves. In the winter of 1969/70, a new, more suitable train depot was built and the exit platform was set up in 1979.
A new bridge with a railway track was constructed above the original footpath leading into the cave. And in April 2015, the boarding platform behind the Jamski Dvorec Mansion was completely renovated.
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The Online Library of Knowledge
You are here: Life > Mammals > Colugo
ColugoColugo Otherwise known as the flying lemur, the colugo glides between the trees of the Southeast Asian rainforest. It has a loose flap of skin that stretches between its neck, fingers, toes and tail. Even the spaces between its fingers and toes are webbed to increase its total surface area. Looking like a kite, it sails through the air for distances of more than 100 metres (over 300 feet) losing very little height. Sometimes a mother carries its young clinging to its belly on the flight.
The colugo clings to a tree trunk.The colugo clings to a tree trunk.
Almost completely helpless on the ground, the colugo will wrap itself in its "cloak", its kite-shaped skin, called a patagium, and haul itself back up to the tops of the trees using its sharp claws. It is a clumsy, but effective, climber. Lacking thumbs for holding branches, it grips on to the bark of trees with its small, sharp claws and pulls itself upwards in slow hops.
Baby Philippine flying lemurBaby Philippine flying lemur
Although known as a flying lemur, the colugo is not a lemur and it does not fly.
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Ships in 18th Century
By the eighteenth century, the world’s richest cargoes were carried by the big armed merchantmen of the Dutch , English, and French East India companies.
Trading with India and the Far East, the East Indiamen carried rich cargoes of bullion on their outward voyages with which to purchase the luxury goods demanded by the markets of Europe — spices, tea, Chinese porcelain and jade, jewelry, and furniture.
The cargoes carried by a single East Indiaman would have made every man in her crew rich for life, and had to be defended against pirates. East Indiamen were therefore as heavily armed as many warships, with up to 50 guns or more per ship, and indeed many did serve as warships in time of war. There are plenty of detailed ship models in museums which show what East Indiamen looked like.
Rather less was known about their cargoes until wrecked East Indiaman Witte Leeuw (sunk off St. Helena in 1631), and Slotter Hooge (sunk off the Madeira Islands in 1724). Witte Leeuw was homeward bound from the East Indies with a cargo of 1,311 diamonds, spices, and Chinese porcelain. A century later, outward bound from Holland to the East Indies, Slotter Hooge’s cargo consisted of three tons of silver ingots and four chests full of silver coins.
The splendid ear of the stately East Indiamen was a long one. It lasted nearly 250 years until the 1840s and 1850, when private merchant shipping fleets helped by steam power proved able to ship cargoes faster and more cheaply.
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smallest monkeys
21/01/2012 18:19
One of the world's most endangered primates has been caught on camera by scientists on the island of Borneo.
Using time-lapse recordings to investigate the diversity of the remote Wehea forest, the team were surprised to see an unusual sub-species.
Close analysis confirmed that they had photographed a group of Miller's grizzled langurs.
Fears for the monkeys' future were sparked last year when none were recorded in previously known habitats.
The international team of researchers suggest their evidence could indicate a more optimistic future.
"Our findings confirm that indeed this monkey still lives in the forests of Borneo and we found that its range extends farther inland than scientists had previously thought," said PhD student Brent Loken from Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada.
"This gives us hope that we may still be able to find large enough populations of this monkey to ensure its survival."
The team's findings are published in the American Journal of Primatology.
Miller's grizzled langurs on the camera trap. Picture by B Loken The secret snap that tipped scientists off
Populations of Miller's grizzled langurs were first described in Kutai National Park and Sangkulirang Peninsula, East Kalimantan, Indonesia, in 1985.
However, due to habitat loss and hunting, subsequent studies recorded falling numbers of the monkeys in these areas with no activity recorded last year.
Scientists from Indonesia, the Czech Republic, US and Canada worked together to set up hidden cameras so they could learn more about the animals living in the rainforest.
A Miller's grizzled langur rests by the river. Picture by E Fell Scientists returned for more photographs
Stunned by the results of their initial camera-trap study, scientists returned to the location to photograph the little-known monkeys in greater detail.
"It was a challenge to confirm our finding as there are so few pictures of this monkey available for study," said Mr Loken.
"The only description of Miller's grizzled langur came from museum specimens. Our photographs from Wehea are some of the only pictures that we have of this monkey."
But for you people who don't understand that, we have made it simpler:
some scientists found the worlds smallest monkeys who are almost extinced.
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Habitat - Roosting Areas
1. In northern regions, woodcock often leave their daytime feeding habitats at dusk and fly to openings such as clearcuts, old fields, pastures, and barrens, where they spend the night sitting on the ground. The birds usually begin to use roosting fields around the middle of July, and continue using them up to the time of the southward migration. (In southern wintering habitats, woodcock use roosting areas from the time they arrive in late autumn until they leave again the following late winter or early spring.) Woodcock do not generally feed in their nighttime roosting habitats; instead, they are seeking protection from predators. The vegetative structure of a roosting habitat needs to be open enough so that a woodcock can detect and escape ground predators, such as weasels, while offering some overhead protection against aerial predators, such as owls.
2. What to Look For:
1. Pastures receiving light to moderate grazing.
2. Recent clearcuts and log landings.
3. Newly established or herbicide-released forestry tree plantations.
4. Revegetating gravel pits.
5. Blueberry barrens or fields.
3. Vegetative Structure:
1. Mainly barren, with a light herbaceous ground cover.
2. Some bare ground.
3. Scattered weeds or brambles offering overhead protection.
4. Clumps of grass rather than unbroken sod.
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Alexander disease is a devastating brain disease that almost nobody has heard of— unless someone in the family is afflicted with it. Alexander disease strikes young or old, and in children, it destroys white matter in the front of the brain. Many patients, especially those with early onset, have significant intellectual disabilities.
Regardless of the age when it begins, Alexander disease is always fatal. It typically results from mutations in a gene known as GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein), leading to the formation of fibrous clumps of protein inside brain cells called astrocytes.
Classically, astrocytes and other glial cells were considered “helpers” that nourish and protect the neurons that do the actual communication. But in recent years, it’s become clear that glial cells are much more than passive bystanders, and may be active culprits in many neurological diseases.
Read more at the original source.
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French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud Replaces Maurice Gamelin with Maxime Weygand, Following Failure to Contain German Offensive
On the morning of 20 May, Maurice Gamelin ordered the armies trapped in Belgium and northern France to fight their way south and link up with French forces that would be pushing northward from the Somme river.
However on the evening of 19 May, French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud had dismissed Gamelin for his failure to contain the German offensive, and replaced him with Maxime Weygand. Weygand immediately cancelled Gamelin's order, as he wished to confer with the other Allied commanders in Belgium before deciding what to do. This resulted in three wasted days before Weygand issued the same orders that Gamelin had issued on 19 May. The plan was nevertheless referred to as the Weygand Plan.
Although Weygand was now seventy-three years old, prime minister Paul Reynaud appointed him as Allied commander in chief on 17th May 1940. He devised what became known as the Weygand Plan. This involved General Gaston Billotte and the 1st French Army Group attacking the German Army at Cambrai while General John Gort and the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)attempted to link up around Bapaume.
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"url": "https://worldhistoryproject.org/1940/5/19/french-prime-minister-paul-reynaud-replaces-maurice-gamelin-with-maxime-weygand-following-failure-to-contain-german-offensive"
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The Tempest Written By William Shakespeare - How does the opening scene capture the audience, introduce themes and characters and sustain interest bearing in mind the construction of Shakespeare's theatre?
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By Sabina Chan The Tempest Written By William Shakespeare: How does the opening scene capture the audience, introduce themes and characters and sustain interest bearing in mind the construction of Shakespeare's theatre? This play is unlike any other Shakespeare play. It contains magic and supernatural things. In Shakespeare's time, people believed in magic because they had poor education and could not explain natural events. In 'The Tempest' the main themes and characters are introduced in the opening scene. The tempest is the symbol of change. In the Tempest, order has been upset by the overthrow of Prospero. The storm brings the people responsible to the island so that order can be restored. 'A tempestuous noise of thunder and lightning heard'. So already Shakespeare is getting the audiences attention by starting off the play with a ship in the middle of a storm. The play begins on a ship, with a shipmaster, a boatswain and mariners trying to keep the ship from getting wrecked and killing passengers. Then Alonso, Sebastian, Antonio and Gonzalo enter and get rude to the boatswain. The Boatswain orders action to save the ship but disaster strikes. Miranda and her father Prospero are left on the island. Prospero begins to tell her his history, and how they became upon the island. During the storm, Boatswain talks to noble men with a polite manner, but after when he lose his temper, he curses and is blasphemous. 'A plague upon this howling! Have you a mind to sink?' His authority on the ship overrides the traditional hierarchy where the king is in charge. Alonso gives the audience the impression that he is worried, but is also kind and caring. ...read more.
The second view is that nature is naturally bad, and therefore cannot be left to its own devices, but must be controlled and educated in order to become good. In this second view, nurture is superior to nature. This belief is expressed in Prospero's opinion of Caliban 'on whose nature nurture can never stick'. Here, nature is naturally untrustworthy, savage and evil: Caliban is incapable of being educated or trained. Finally the last theme that is used is Sleep and dreams. Sleep and dreams recur often in the pay. Prospero sends his daughter Miranda to sleep, Ariel causes Alonso and Gonzalo to sleep, as a result provoking brutal thoughts in Antonio and Sebastian. The sailors are asleep throughout the entire play. Caliban has such wonderful dreams he always wishes to be asleep. Gonzalo has a vision of his 'commonwealth' in his dream, and what the perfect Utopian society would look like. The reason why Shakespeare used many different themes was that it made the play more interesting and grabbed attention from the audience. In this play the main characters are introduced in the first scene, one of the main ways that this is done is through-using magic. To sustain interest throughout the play there must be a strong beginning with a good opening scene so the audience will respond more to the play. So Shakespeare used a good dramatic opening scene, when Prospero cursed a storm. Shakespeare used very good dramatic techniques in the opening scene. There are many characters in this play and most of them are introduced through the first scene. Prospero is the main character of this play, Prospero used to be the legitimate Duke of Milan. ...read more.
Iambic means two syllables, first a soft syllable and then a hard syllable. Pentameter means five feet to a line. So each blank verse line has ten syllables in the soft-hard pattern. Although this format varies here and there with an extra foot or a short foot, most of the lines will parse. Since Shakespeare could not dim the lights or draw a curtain, rhyme was employed to close scenes. These are called 'capping couplets'. Rhyme is also used to indicate a sudden attack of love. Lastly, prose appears in the plays. Prose may indicate that a person of lower status is speaking or that someone of higher status is speaking in a rude or impolite way. Shakespeare's language differs from modern language. Obsolete words were used, but these are no longer used in English. Some examples are wrack for wreck, fain for gladly, and wherefore used as why. Also words that have changed meaning for example art meant skill and brave meant splendid. The English used to have a familiar form of the subject 'you'. The words thee/thou/thine/thy, etc. are familiar, and indicate relationship or social class. The 'thou' form is used with close friends or family members, with pets, with servants, and with those lower in social class than the speaker. Shakespeare often uses this form expressively: simply calling an enemy 'thou' indicates disrespect. To conjugate the familiar 'thou', a different verb ending is added generally t, st, or est (as in thou shalt, canst, dost, hast, or art). In conclusion in my opinion I think that 'The Tempest' does catch attention to people in the audience as the opening scene was dramatic and tense. Even though there were no special effects the whole scene and the way the play was written and all the themes that were used didn't need any big loud effects, as the story was interesting. ...read more.
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However, others could interpret this as being king, caring and affectionate, as she has her father, and will find her true love, so she doesn't need anybody else. However, I find it very sad, as the only man that Miranda can compare Ferdinand to is her own father: "Nor can imagine form or shape, Besides yourself to like of."
Miranda is like the Queen, the second most important piece in the game, but not as powerful as the King, yet more important than the bishops and Knights. Prospero is the King of the island and is more powerful than anyone and the most important person to him is his daughter so she is the Queen.
He continues to punish the party further more by sending spirits on Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo, "A noise of hunters heard.
It seems he feels threatened by his loss of control and goes to patronise Boatswain, "Good Boatswain have care." There was no apparent need for Alonso to say this as Boatswain is in control however it seems that Alonso is merely desperate to assert his power.
and Iris), and in Act 4 Scene 1, Prospero stages his own masque. At the end of the play, Prospero is re-instated as the rightful Duke of Milan, Miranda and Ferdinand marry, Ariel is set free and Prospero forgives his enemies.
2. Is Prospero good or evil?
When Ariel was captured by Sycorax he was physically restrained but he was mentally free. When Prospero freed Ariel he became physically free but mentally he belongs to Prospero. Whenever Prospero calls Ariel he appears. "Approach my Ariel, come." This shows the tremendous hold Prospero has over Ariel; Ariel is a spirit but can be controlled by a mortal.
It also helps the understanding for the audience, because of the unexpected ending and Prospero's final speech. In the speech he explains his reasons for forgiving those who have done wrong against him so he can ask for freedom
This shows the audience that the natural balance is returned and it also shows us that the play may be coming to an end. Additionally, in Act 1 Scene 2 Prospero creates the tempest to try and hurt his usurpers, but he always makes sure that they are physically unharmed, "are they safe?"
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Cross-dressing is the act of wearing clothing commonly associated with another gender within a particular society. The usage of the term, the types of cross-dressing both in modern times and throughout history, an analysis of the behaviour, and historical examples are discussed in the article below.
Nearly every society throughout history has had a set of norms, views, guidelines, or laws, regarding the wearing of clothing and what is appropriate for each sex. Cross-dressing is behavior which runs counter to those norms and therefore can be seen as a type of transgender behavior. It is not, however, necessarily transgender identity since a person who cross-dresses does not always identify with the other sex.
The term cross-dressing denotes an action or a behavior without attributing or proposing causes for that behavior. Some people automatically connect cross-dressing behavior to transgender identity or sexual, fetishist, and homosexual behavior, but the term cross-dressing itself does not imply any motives. (See "Equal clothing rights" below.) However, referring to a person as a cross-dresser suggests that their cross-dressing behavior is habitual and may be taken to mean that the person identifies as transgendered. The term cross-dresser should therefore be used with care to avoid causing misunderstanding or offense.
A new meaning for the term "cross-dressing" has appeared in the African-American community, where it is used to refer to wearing two different name brands of clothing simultaneously. For example, a Tommy Hilfiger hat and FUBU jacket might be referred to as "cross dressing." This use of the term is exclusively negative. While far removed from the original meaning, this usage is increasingly common and can lead to confusion among those used to more traditional meanings of the term.
Varieties of cross-dressing
There are many different kinds of cross-dressing, and many different reasons why an individual might engage in cross-dressing behavior. The following examples are by no means an exhaustive list.
Single-sex theatrical troupes often have some performers cross-dress in order to play roles written for members of the opposite sex. Cross-dressing is often used for comic effect onstage and onscreen.
Drag is special form of performance art based on cross-dressing. A drag queen is a male-bodied person who performs as an exaggeratedly feminine character, in an elaborate costume usually consisting of a gaudy dress and high-heeled shoes, heavy makeup, and a large wig. A drag queen may imitate famous female film or pop-music stars.
A drag king is the counterpart of the drag queen — a female-bodied person who adopts an exaggerated masculine persona in performance or who imitates a male film or pop-music star. Some female-bodied people undergoing gender reassignment therapy also self-identify as drag kings, although this use of "drag king" is considered inaccurate by some.
Many transgendered people cross-dress relative to their birth sex, but transgendered people who have undergone gender reassignment therapy are usually not regarded as cross-dressing. See transvestism.
Some people who cross-dress may endeavor to project a complete impression of belonging to another gender, down to mannerisms, speech patterns, and emulation of sexual characteristics. This is referred to as "trying to pass". Others may choose to take a mixed approach, adopting some feminine traits and some masculine traits in their appearance. For instance, a man might wear both a dress and a beard. This is sometimes known as genderfuck. Finally, for some the motivation for cross-dressing is to undermine the idea that any article of clothing is "only for men" or "only for women." These people may broadly mix clothing from both genders, in a practice called freestyle.
The actual determination of cross-dressing is largely socially constructed. For example, in Western society, trousers have been adopted for wear by women. This is generally not regarded as cross-dressing. In cultures where men have traditionally worn skirt-like garments such as the kilt or sarong these are not seen as female clothing, and wearing them is not seen as cross-dressing for men.
As societies are becoming more global in nature, both men and women are adopting styles of dress associated with other cultures. Surfers in California have begun wearing sarongs and pareos as an after-surfing wrap, and men throughout the U.S., including those involved in construction and outdoor sports, such as kayaking or hiking, have begun wearing skirts and kilts, such as the Macabi Skirt, the Utilikilt, and other hiking kilts. The Macabi Skirt in particular has won rave reviews by various backpacking and outdoor magazines. Reviews - Macabi Skirt for Men
"Equal Clothing Rights"
It was once taboo in Western society for women to wear clothes traditionally associated with men. It is specifically cited as an "abomination" in the Bible in the book of Deuteronomy (22:5). This is no longer the case and Western women are often seen wearing trousers, ties, and men's hats. Nevertheless, many cultures around the world still prohibit women from wearing trousers or other traditionally male clothing.
In most parts of the world it is still generally considered taboo for a man to wear clothes traditionally associated with women. Many people perceive this as hypocrisy and an imbalance in the equality of men and women in society and believe that men should not have to suffer discrimination for wanting to wear dresses or skirts. This issue is often labeled as "equal clothing rights," which has gained a significant movement around the world. In fact, some men who wear skirts or similar garments contend that they are simply wearing masculine clothes that currently aren't in fashion; they may call themselves "bravehearts" after the 1995 film Braveheart, which depicted a leading man in a kilt.[1]
Another element of equal clothing rights is resistance to one's own traditional gender-mandated clothing. For instance, men may resist wearing neckties or women resist wearing skirts as part of a workplace uniform.
Female-bodied cross-dressers
Cross-dressing among women in modern Western societies seems to be rare. Yet the question of how many people cross-dress is difficult to answer, as it depends on social norms that change over time. When only a few women in the West wore trousers, women in trousers were considered to be cross-dressing. As more women began to wear trousers, the style gained mainstream social acceptance. Trousers are now no longer considered for men only. This broadening of clothing types considered "normal" for women has made cross-dressing behavior in women more difficult to identify. A woman might wear men's shirts, trousers, and underwear without anyone recognizing that she is cross-dressing, as very similar clothing items are produced for women.
The classic psychoanalytic view
The problem of attributing motives for cross-dressing
Some famous examples of cross-dressing
In Greek mythology
• Achilles, dressed in women's clothing at the court of Lycomedes
In Norse mythology
• Thor dressed as Freya in order to get Mjölnir back in Thrymskvida.
• Hervor from Hervarar saga. When Hervor learnt that her father had been the infamous Swedish beserker Arngrim, she dressed as a man, called herself Hjörvard and lived for a long time as a Viking.
Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people
Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people include:
• Pope Paul II, Catholic pope known to have worn women's clothes and was nicknamed "Our Lady of Pity"
• The Chinese legend of Hua Mulan, and the Disney movie Mulan derived from it, feature a cross-dressing heroine.
Cultural examples of cross-dressing
The explosion of the Internet and the World Wide Web has provided new opportunities for cross-dressing people to express themselves. Numerous websites cater to cross-dressing men by providing dresses, shoes, and other feminine accessories in larger men's sizes. In addition, the Internet has given many cross-dressers a safe forum for sharing photos and stories
Bugs Bunny occasionally engages in cross-dressing, usually to confound a foe. His transformation is typically so effective that his adversaries (especially one Elmer Fudd), who moments earlier had been trying to kill him, are smitten by his "feminine charm."
The film Revolutionary Girl Utena (also known as 少女革命ウテナ Shōjo Kakumei Utena) is perhaps one of the best-known examples of Japanese animation involving cross-dressing. The female protagonist, Utena Tenjou, cross-dresses as a result of her desire to be a heroic prince.
In the Japanese comic book series Urusei Yatsura (1978-1987) created by Rumiko Takahashi and published by Shogakukan, a girl character named Rynosuke wears a white shirt with the Chinese ideogram for "male" on the back of her shirt along with pants, along with other male attire as part of her father's misguided insistence that his child is a male. More recently, in the Japanese action comic Gunslinger Girl (2003), published in the United States by ADV, one girl character brainwashed to be an assassin, takes pleasure in wearing a men's style suit and tie.
The Takarazuka Revue is a group of six associated all-female Japanese acting troupes, known for their elaborate productions of stage musicals. Takarazuka actresses may specialize in either male or female roles, but the most popular stars tend to be those who play male characters.
Beethovens' only opera, Fidelio, involves the story of a woman who disguises herself as a young man as part of a plan to rescue her husband from prison.
• Charles Anders, The Lazy Crossdresser, Greenery Press, 2002. ISBN 1890159379.
External links
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James Joyce
Joyce, James, 1882–1941, Irish novelist. Perhaps the most influential and significant novelist of the 20th cent., Joyce was a master of the English language, exploiting all of its resources. His novel Ulysses, which is among the great works of world literature, utilizes many radical literary techniques and forms.
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Parts of a Mushroom I – Nomenclature Cards
Oh, Kingdom Fungi. What an interesting bunch you are.
This kingdom has always had a mysterious ring to it, mostly because it invokes memories and thoughts of the fantastical world of gnomes, fairies, goblins, and other imaginative characters.
But on this earthly plane we can become more aware of and create a deeper sense of connection with the science behind this fascinating kingdom by exploring the anatomy of mushrooms as we did in Parts of a Flower I, II, and III.
This particular lesson is using nomenclature cards and is the first of a three part series that can be done simultaneously or on their own – in no particular order.
Objective: to learn the basic anatomy of a mushroom.
Deeper Objective: to gain a deeper understanding, awareness for, and more respect for nature by learning the anatomy of a mushroom.
Mushrooms and lichen are in the Kingdom Fungi.
Mushrooms and lichen are in the Kingdom Fungi.
mushroom box
1. Nomenclature cards for parts of a mushroom (see Montessori Printshop)
2. blank mushroom book pages (normally included in the purchase of downloadable nomenclature cards)
3. colored pencils
4. stapler
When you have everything at your rug or table, start to lay out the cards that have the picture and name (hereon called picture/name cards) of each part of the mushroom.
Match the picture cards up with the correct picture/name cards and lay them underneath their matches (some teachers prefer to lay the picture card on top of the matching picture/name card)…
…until each picture card is laid out.
Match the name cards up with the correct picture/name cards and lay them underneath their matches (or on top of the matching picture/name card). When working with much younger kids like primary to first grade ages, I’ll be more exaggerated about this and pretend as though I am thinking out loud. For example, in this first picture I am seeing if the symbols that make up this word (I jokingly add, the symbols we call letters) match the symbols that make up the other word. If they do not match I say no and move on to the next name until I find the name that matches.
When this happens I say a satisfied and happy yes and lay the name card down underneath the picture card.
Once all of the cards are matched up, take enough of the blank mushroom coloring pages to make each part of the mushroom. In this set of cards there are nine. If you do not have any completely blank pages of the same size you can always turn an extra page over to use as the cover of your book.
Use one page for each part of the mushroom and color only one anatomical feature per page. Then have the child write the name of the feature underneath the picture. Some teachers like to have the parts the same color as the cards, but I’ve played around with students trying to mimic the colors of their favorite photos of mushrooms they’ve found, even if there are stripes or spots. As long as it’s not too busy and they are coloring at their best abilities.
Write a title on the blank white page to use for your title and stack the pages together into a book. Staple, and there you have your own Parts of the Mushroom book to show off to the world!
See my next post on Parts of the Mushroom II – Felt Mushroom Puzzle.
Montessori Printshop also has parts of the mushroom nomenclature definition cards that create more of a challenge for older children. When making the booklet, the older child can write the definition on the opposite page.
The cover of the booklet can be in any format. You can always use a different colored piece of paper (perhaps to match the child’s mushroom?) and/or the child is always more than welcome to decorate the cover. I often ask that the decorations reflect the work, since little Minecraft guys can be saved for free drawing in the art area.
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Definition of the Hundred Years War from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
the Hundred Years War
; NAmE
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a war between France and England that lasted, with long periods between battles, from the 1340s to the 1450s. The English were trying to get control of France, and won some major battles, including Crécy (1346) and Agincourt (1415), but by the end of the war they had only gained the area around Calais, which they kept until 1558.
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SAT Vocab
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1. Prosaic (adj)
2. Nefarious (adj)
3. Cursory (adj)
performed hastily
4. Foster (v)
cultivate, nurture
5. Tenacious (adj)
persistent or stubborn; holding fast
6. Anecdote (n)
a short account
7. Pessimistic (adj)
8. Elaborate (adj)
planned with great care, painstaking
9. Vindicate (v)
to clear of accusation or suspicion
10. Boorish (adj)
11. Anachronism (n)
something out of its correct chronological or historical order
12. Laudatory (adj)
containing or expressing praise
13. Commendable (adj)
worthy of great praise or approval
14. Equitable (adj)
characterized by fairness and impartiality
15. Holistic (adj)
emphasizing the importance of the whole
16. Eclectic (adj)
comprising individual elements from a wide variety of sources
17. Consensus (n)
general agreement or accord
18. Nostalgia (n)
a longing for a former place or time
19. Disparity (n)
20. Lament (v)
to mourn for
21. Depict (v)
to represent or characterize in words or pictures
22. Zealous (adj)
motivated by zeal; enthusiastic
23. Embody (v)
to represent in bodily or tangible form
24. Cathartic (adj)
delivering catharsis; emotionally purging
25. Idiosyncrasy (n)
a habit or characteristic peculiar to an individual
26. Elucidate (v)
to make lucid or clear, to explain
27. Advocate (n)
one who acts in support or defense of a person or cause
28. Partisan (adj)
biased in support of a party
29. Censure (v)
to express disapproval, to criticize or blame
30. Florid (adj)
reddish or rosy
31. Apprehensive (adj)
32. Eloquent (adj)
characterized by clear, persuasive speech
33. Refute (v)
to prove to be false
34. Naive (adj)
35. Mundane (adj)
36. Deride (v)
to ridicule
37. Lucid (adj)
clear; rational
38. Mock (v)
to ridicule, defy
39. Irreverent (adj)
showing lack of due respect
40. Arrogance (n)
display of self-importance or superiority
41. Ineffable (adj)
defying expression or description
42. Defiant (adj)
boldly resisting authority or an opposing force
43. Consummate (adj)
complete or perfect in every respect
44. Magnanimous (adj)
generous in forgiving; unselfish; free of resentment
45. Rhetorical (adj)
used for style or effect only
46. Felicitous (adj)
well suited for the occasion, appropriate
47. Obstinate (adj)
48. Intemperate (adj)
given to indulgence; not moderate
49. Superfluous (adj)
50. Novel (adj)
new; different
51. Pragmatic (adj)
52. Brevity (n)
the quality of being brief in time or duration
53. Exemplary (adj)
worthy of imitation; estimable; praiseworthy
54. Quell (v)
to suppress; to put an end to; to pacify
55. Adept (adj)
very skilled, able or proficient
56. Solicitous (adj)
anxious or concerned; careful; eager
57. Somber (adj)
dark; dimly lit; gloomy
58. Speculate (v)
to think or reflect; to conjecture
59. Cite (v)
to quote as an authority or example
60. Venerate (v)
to regard or treat with reverence
61. Aesthetic (adj)
pertaining to what is beautiful
62. Disparage (v)
to speak of with disrespect, belittle
63. Conciliatory (adj)
64. Erratic (adj)
having no fixed or regular course; lacking consistency
65. Sanguine (adj)
optimistic, hopeful or confident
66. Ethical (adj)
in accordance with the rules or standards for right conduct
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SAT Vocab
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Heritage Community Foundation Presents
Alberta Online Encyclopedia
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The Peoples, Their Places
The Slavey (Dene Tha') Nation
[Dene Tha' First Nation Profile]
Slavey girl Also known as the Acha'otinne, or "woodland people." The Slavey peoples inhabited Alberta's far north, their hunting territory encompassing part of the Nunavut (NWT). They were organized into six bands and, like other woodland peoples, maintained only small family groupings with no central leadership, only electing leaders in times of conflict. The Slavey developed a reputation for being a peaceful people with a rich tradition of story-telling. They were respectful of each other as well as of outsiders. They were forest-dwellers and had few enemies due to their reputation of being powerful sorcerers. However, they were known demonstrate violence at times. They drove the Nahannis west into the mountains and even destroyed the post at Fort Nelson. The clothing of the Slavey was more decorative than other Athapaskan tribes and, before the women obtained beads through trade, they used porcupine quills and colored moose hair for adornment. The Slavey women, to this day, are known for their beautiful beadwork and silk embroidery. Staples of the Slavey diet included fish, along with moose and caribou, although obtaining enough food was often problematic. Their dwellings were conical lodges made usually of spruce bark or brush and two families usually placed their lodges together, with entrances facing the fire. During the colder winter months the Slavey lived in low, oblong cabins constructed of poles with walls chinked together with moss and a roof of spruce boughs.
Reprinted from "A Sense of the Peace," by Roberta Hursey with permission of the Spirit of the Peace Museums Association and the author.
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The discovery was made through a new measuring technique called magnetotelluric imaging, that sizes up the plume by taking a peak at its electrical conductivity. That differs from the previous measuring method called seismic tomography, which used earthquake waves to create an image. The University of Utah geophysicists who conducted the study says the two methods are both capable but "it's like comparing ultrasound and MRI in the human body; they are different imaging technologies".
And though the new discovery doesn't mean the volcano is on the verge of erupting, it does reminds us how intimidatingly huge volcanos can be. Let's not mess with it. [University of UtahThanks Christine!]
Image Credit:
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<urn:uuid:411b6ded-7e9c-473b-b815-549bc61f5a91>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.3707626461982727,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9630566835403442,
"url": "http://gizmodo.com/5792095/the-scorching-underground-plume-that-feeds-yellowstones-supervolcano-is-even-bigger-than-we-thought?tag=Supervolcano"
}
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James D. Calder
The National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, more popularly known as the Wickersham Commission, was embedded in President Herbert C. Hoover’s broader policy initiative to improve the federal criminal justice system. Hoover also believed that the results would provide state and local governments with models for upgrading all other justice systems. President Hoover instructed the chairman, former U.S. Attorney General George W. Wickersham, to assemble a group of leading scholars and the best research findings, mainly from the nascent social sciences, to investigate the causes and costs of crime, Prohibition enforcement, policing, courts and antiquated criminal procedures, and prisons, parole and probation practices, among other topics. Prohibition, it is argued, was not the central focus of the Hoover–Wickersham efforts. Through the morass of divisive and festering Prohibition controversies, however, Hoover and the Wickersham group stayed the course to complete the project in 1931. Ultimately, the Commission’s fourteen reports languished in relative obscurity through years of the Depression, World War II, and the postwar economic boom. They served as a collective summary of the first federal initiative to examine one of America’s most costly social problems. As time passed, they were cited as foundational guideposts in several later federal and state studies, policy initiatives, and agency changes. Recognizing contributions and disappointments in the Commission’s work, the net product set the tone for future studies of the American justice system while it provided the President and the nation with a tool for closing the gap between “brain” and “state.”
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<urn:uuid:00e6532b-2526-49e7-8fb2-9a17e97f9d78>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.04795283079147339,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9452621936798096,
"url": "http://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/mulr/vol96/iss4/6/"
}
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In this project a LED is used to mimic a flickering candle as closely as possible. When using a LED to behave like a candle, it may not be possible to sway the flame, but what can be achieved is the random variation of intensity.
The intensity of the LED can be varied using a random number generator and PORTB of the microcontroller implement the intensity control. To simulate the color of light of a candle, a warm white or yellow LED can be used.
The picture below shows the diagram of the flickering candle.
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<urn:uuid:011381ba-2457-4cab-b173-4124f0f3b42f>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.08635562658309937,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8215153217315674,
"url": "http://avrprojects.net/index.php/avr-projects/led-s/16-led-candle?showall="
}
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miércoles, 4 de mayo de 2016
Democratic system in Spain
With all these documents, how is the democracy in Spain?
When did arrive the democratic system? how?
How is organised this democratic system? Monarchy or Republic? Explain the meaning of the words.
How are the different branches of the state powers in Spain? Explain.
Main ideas in the Spanish Constitution.
Make a brief presentation with the main ideas and compare both systems (in Spain and EEUU), to show in the ethics class (work in group, 2-3 people).
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<urn:uuid:af34103e-0692-467e-8ce2-d0ffad7c5d47>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.9375,
"fasttext_score": 0.9999611377716064,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8594670295715332,
"url": "http://ethicsauces.blogspot.com/2016_05_01_archive.html"
}
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Miles Davis: Jazz Musician Innovator
Essay by paintedCollege, UndergraduateA-, November 2009
download word file, 7 pages 1.0
There is little doubt that Miles Davis was one of the most innovative artists of the 20th century. Often compared to great philosophical thinkers, Miles Davis revolutionized jazz and changed the face of music forever. "Miles Davis was the personification of restless spirit, always pushing himself and his music into uncharted territory. He was an innovative lightning rod for musicians from all genres -- particularly the brightest young players. Davis created some of the 20th Century's most challenging and influential music" (NPR). To examine his career is to examine the history of jazz from the 1940's through the early 90's since he was on the forefront of every important development. He was continually, "â¦reinventing himself and his sound endlessly in his musical quest. He was an artist that defied (and despised) categorization, yet he was the forerunner and innovator of many distinct and important musical movements" (Miles Davis Properties). Most of it can be attributed to his longing for new creations and incapability to be satisfied.
He was notorious for creating a new style and then just completely abandoning it in search of a new horizon. He led the way in almost every jazz innovation of the time, moving from bebop to modal playing to jazz-fusion. Specifically, Miles Davis is considered so innovative because of his unique musical style, technical innovations, development of modal playing and his experimental nature.
Miles' musical style served as the foundation for his innovative contributions to jazz. As a trumpeter, he was known as having a pure, round sound mixed with a creative approach to articulation and pitch. He was seen as one of the few Jazz musicians who had the ability to improvise and swing at a constant tempo. However, his most unique contribution to jazz was his minimalist style of playing. He used...
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<urn:uuid:6f020f97-95f2-4e99-9120-1a33ea050186>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.3270704746246338,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9838420748710632,
"url": "http://www.writework.com/essay/miles-davis-jazz-musician-innovator"
}
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Recessional velocity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Recessional velocity is the rate at which an astronomical object is moving away, typically from Earth. It can be measured by shifts in spectral lines or estimated by general reddening of a galactic spectra.
Galaxies outside our galaxy often have their recessional velocity calculated relative to the cosmic microwave background.[1]
Application to cosmology[edit]
Recessional velocity is most pertinent to distant galaxies, which (due to Hubble's Law) redshift proportionally to their distance from the Earth. The redshift is usually interpreted as due to recessional velocity, which can be calculated according to the formula:
where is the Hubble constant, is the intervening distance in Mpc, and is the recessional velocity, generally measured in km/s.
The recessional velocity of a galaxy is usually calculated from the redshift observed in its emitted electromagnetic radiation. The distance to the galaxy is then estimated using Hubble's Law.
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<urn:uuid:f539f9bf-fa3e-4315-abdd-b996d564a938>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.875,
"fasttext_score": 0.864178478717804,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9385988116264343,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recessional_velocity"
}
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Concerning the city of Tyre, at least six specific predictions were recorded in Ezekiel 26:
1. King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon would destroy the city (Ezekiel 26:7-8)
2. Many nations would come against Tyre (Ezekiel 26:3)
3. The city would be leveled and scraped clean—like a bare rock (Ezekiel 26:4)
4. The city’s stones, timber, and soil would be cast into the sea (Ezekiel 26:12)
5. The area would become a place for the spreading of nets (Ezekiel 26:5)
6. The city would never be rebuilt (Ezekiel 26:14).
Each of these items came to pass exactly as Ezekiel said.
Tyre, a coastal city of ancient times, had an island about one-half mile offshore. Within a few years of Ezekiel, Nebuchadnezzar besieged the mainland city (586 B.C.). When he finally defeated Tyre thirteen years later, the city was deserted—most inhabitants had moved to the island. Things remained that way for 241 years. Then in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great took the island city. This was accomplished by scraping clean the mainland city of its debris, and using those materials to build a land-bridge to the island. The city still stood, however. Tyre persisted for the next 1,600 years. Finally, in A.D. 1291, the Muslims thoroughly crushed Tyre, and the city has remained in ruins ever since. Aside from a small fishing community, nothing is left.
How can we account for Ezekiel’s precision? How could he look almost 1,900 years into the future and predict that Tyre would be a bald rock where fishermen would spread their nets? God must have told him! —Brad T. Bromling
Print Friendly
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<urn:uuid:f766618f-455f-489c-91b8-458bd5ecedb1>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.9200381636619568,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9727769494056702,
"url": "http://housetohouse.com/how-did-he-know-that/"
}
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Thursday, February 26, 2015
Pogroms...Unit 7
Pogroms were a persecution of the Jewish population in Russia during the late 19th and early 20th century. However, pogroms have recently been expanded to encompass Hinduism, Islam as well as nationalities. Pogroms are not like the holocaust, but rather a specific event that is meant for persecution of a race or nationality. Pogroms became famous during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, just as Russia began to see major changes being instilled. Those pogroms ranged from 2 to over 2000 killed per pogrom. In 1909, 30,000 Armenians were slaughtered for trying to stage a coup. From 1983 to present, pogroms have been used by other nations to target and exterminate groups that disrupt government or go against organized religion. Other pogroms, such as the mlawa pogrom, are used to instill terror in minority group. Historians have recently found out that pogroms may have been used as far back as the year 38, by Rome and in the years 1066, following the fall of Al-andalous and Granada, 1068 to persecute people of the Rhine and countless other times to terrorize outlier populations. Pogroms have been in use since early times, however, the Russians were the ones that made pogroms infamous to Jewish populations. A pogroms primary objective is not to commit genocide, but rather to instill fear and force a population into submission.
No comments:
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<urn:uuid:764bd4ad-0cd1-4f1b-b083-af9d49ad26ae>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.33012819290161133,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9803557395935059,
"url": "http://bearinahat.blogspot.com/2015/02/pogromsunit-7.html"
}
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Decorated Gothic Architecture
• AD 1275-1350 (+/- 25 years)
• Elaborate windows and vaulting
• Higher and more elegant columns
• Exeter Cathedral
• The Octagon at Ely
Information: This page is under construction and has limited information.
During the thirteenth century this style of design developed into what is known as the Geometric style. In this style, the windows became larger with the increased use of mullions, and the decorations became more complex and geometric in design.
In the decorated designs, the windows are subdivided by vertical stone bars known as mullions. The mullions are spaced close together usually rising the whole height of the window up to the springing line. The springing line of a window or arch is the line at which the arch shape starts from. The area above the springing line of the window is full of complex shapes of stone called tracery. With higher walls and larger windows, the cathedrals were now becoming more open to the light. The majority of Exeter Cathedral is built in this style.
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<urn:uuid:0a9b86a9-e2ca-4cda-94c0-a5aabf6ef8ed>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.703125,
"fasttext_score": 0.019209325313568115,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9557260274887085,
"url": "http://timeref.com/places/decorated.htm"
}
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