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Why Lyreades?
An explanation of the name Lyreades, which combines two iconic Blue Mountains species.
Eucalyptus oreades
In the misty forests of the upper Blue Mountains grow stands of tall, straight Eucalyptus oreades or Blue Mountains Ash. Stockings of bark peel off in long strips and lie piled around the bases of the trees revealing creamy-white trunks reaching towards the sky. Around 100 species of Eucalyptus grow in the Blue Mountains region, but it’s arguably the oreades more than any other which give the place its unique character.
The species name oreades is from the Ancient Greek for “of the mountains”. In Greek mythology, the Oreads or Oreades were mountain nymphs — minor goddesses inhabiting mountains, valleys and ravines.
Their namesake eucalypts grow on mountains, valley slopes and ravines above 600 metres in the Blue Mountains and in scattered locations further north (as far as south-east Qld). Mature trees reach a height of 40 metres. When you walk among these lofty “nymphs” in the swirling mist, the great blue void of the valley resonant with lyrebird songs, you know you’re in the mountains.
Terpsichore, Muse of dancing and choral song, playing a lyre. ClipArtETC
Superb Lyrebirds are so named because the male’s spectacular tail is shaped like a lyre, an ancient stringed musical instrument. However, living birds don’t normally hold their tail in the position that resembles a lyre. At rest, while feeding or walking through the forest, the tail is trailed horizontally. In display it’s raised, spread wide and inverted over the bird’s back so the feathers form a shimmering silver veil, almost completely hiding the bird’s body and head. In contrast, the lyre shape might be seen on the rare occasion the tail is held vertically — perhaps during territorial confrontations and briefly during the “invitation display”. And in the beautiful but stylised illustrations drawn from specimens in colonial times.
1932 Australian lyrebird stamp
1932 postage stamp featuring a lyrebird depicted in the traditional manner, with tail upright resembling a lyre.
But the musical connection doesn’t end there. Lyrebirds are themselves talented songsters with powerful voices, famous for their ability to mimic any sound. In the wild their repertoire of mostly bird calls is passed down from one lyrebird to another. Thus it becomes a sort of encapsulation of the forest soundscape over generations of time.
So the name Lyreades represents not only lyrebirds and Eucalyptus oreades but the essence of the mountains…embodied in the unique and fascinating natural history. Pronounce it however you like; my own preference is: lirry-aah-deez.
Blue Oreades
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Rímur (sing., ríma) are a particular kind of narrative poetry versified from previously existing prose literature, such as sagas, romances, or novels. Most texts consist of sets of rímur (rímnaflokkar). Usually the metre of successive rímur in a set is varied, clearly separating the individual rímur from each other. As the task of the poet was simply to transform an already existing tale into verses, his art was limited to skillful handling of the poetic passages inherited from the older skaldic poetry 1 and mastery of of the various verse metres. However, the mansöngur, a short lyrical introduction to each rima in the same metre as the ríma itself, is an exception, as the subject matter is the poet's own; these introductions were usually omitted in performance, according to most of the informants. The texts vary in length from single rímur of less than 100 stanzas to sets of twenty or more rímur adding up to thousands of stanzas.
The earliest extant text is Ólafs ríma Haraldssonar written in the 14th century, and the latest rímur are of the present century. In the intervening six hundred years rímur were produced in greater quantities than any other kind of Icelandic literature and appear on the whole to be a response to an enormous demand for metrical tales possible to perform (i.e., kvæa). That rímur were expressly made for this purpose is supported by the fact that not a single informant has mentioned rímur ever being simply read aloud for entertainment like the prose literature. Several, on the other hand, heard hymns being recited rather than sung in the course of the traditional house prayers.
Medieval narratives, both native and foreign, continue to be the favorite subjects throughout the history of rímur, but other tales of more recent origin have been used as well in the last two centuries. Even if the poets generally stick closely to the original, it is not unusual for them to omit some parts and expand others. Especially descriptions of battles are drawn out by means of poetic language and various conventional paddings. Catalogues or lists of heroes are also frequently prolonged by making a complete stanza out of each name with the help of a few stock phrases. The same process is used in a particular class of short poems in rímur metres apparently considered as fit for performance as rímur, where instead of legendary heroes, the poet's contemporaries -- the farmers and fishermen of his neighborhood -- are listed. Boat foremen of a certain fishing station, for example, receive tributes similar to the heroes of rímur (i.e., they are brave and strong). Sometimes in this kind of poetry, as well as in rímur , a vivid portrait results when the procedure is modified, as for example in the following stanza taken from one of the numerous lays of foremen. (Note how the sound of the name "Eirikur" is echoed by the rhymes at the beginning and end of each line.)
Eirikur me árar tvær
óra thó sé krappur sjór,
grigur fram i geri rær
glórir i votan andlits bjór.
Eirikur with two oars
in spite of the rough sea
greedily to the fishing grounds rows
the wet hide of his face gleaming.
Stanzas of this order are often found as independent single-stanza epigrams (lausavísur ), and making such epigrams reflecting the various aspects of life seems to have been a favorite pastime of Icelanders in all times. After the skaldic court poetry came to an end at about the same time as the Icelandic commonwealth (1262), the skaldic verse metres continued to be used for single stanzas; it was not until the 16th century that rímur metres were preferred for this purpose. And now when rímur metres are no longer in favor, single stanzas in the main metre ferskeytt are still composed, even if interest in the practice is not as widespread as it used to be.
Most single stanzas and many of the short poems in rímur metres have never been put in writing. On the other hand, rímur were written down as a rule by their authors. Only manuscript copies circulated until the last decades of the 18th century, when a few sets were printed. After that, inexpensive editions became increasingly available, and by the beginning of this century printed copies were almost exclusively used.
As public entertainment, performances of rímur and readings of sagas took place most frequently in the winter evenings from the end of October to the beginning of April when the people gathered in the living rooms of the farmhouses to work. The following account of this tradition (kvöldvaka) is taken from Magnús Gíslason's recent study of the subject:
Even since the Middle Ages it has been customary on Icelandic farms for the family and the farm-hands to foregather on the winter nights in the sitting room, badstofa, which was often the only living room in the house, the room where they worked or cultivated their higher interests. This tradition survived as a general custom until the 1920's and even, in some places until the 1930's.
The sheep pens were frequently situated at some distance from the farm, and the care of the livestock kept the farmer and his men employed throughout the day. The female servants spent most the days of the dark season sitting on their beds in the bastofa working: carding wool, spinning, weaving, knitting and sewing. In the kitchen and pantry the housewife or one of the maids attended to the food. Such was the daily routine.
At dusk on the short winter days the men returned from work. The lamp was not lighted at once, as fuel had to be economized. Instead the adults slept through the twilight...The kvöldvaka lasted from the time the lamp was lit until everyone went to bed. On awakening each person went to his or her appointed place and set to work.The men made ropes of horse hair and saddle girths of wool leftovers or knotted and mended nets, carved tools, firkins or food-boxes of wood and so on. Only the weaving loom was still, as it caused too much disturbance...
Even if the manual work was the most important element in the kvöldvaka it was certainly also strongly associated in the minds of many with the concomitant activities of reading and entertainment, though it might sometimes seem that the intellectual pursuits were just a means of keeping everyone awake.2
The performer of rímur (kvæamaur) usually sat by the only lamp in the room with a copy of the text. His audience listened in silence until he reached the long-held last syllable (seimur, also called lota) of each stanza; then, according to several informants, one, two, or even more of those present joined in and held it with him.
Kvæaskapur was not only presented in this public way but also practiced privately, and rímur, or memorized excerpts from them, as well as shorter poems and single stanzas could be performed in the most varying circumstances. Both aspects, public and private, are mentioned by the poet Magnús Stefánsson (1884-1942) in his reminiscences of his childhood at the farm Thorvaldsstair in Langanes:
In the years between my 4th and 7th or 8th year a good kvæamaur belonged to the household and performances of rímur were then more frequent than reading of sagas...Once, when I was 5 of 6 years old, a woman from the neighborhood stayed with us one night. That evening rímur were performed. When she noticed that I sat without moving a limb and stared at the kvæamaur, she asked my mother: "Does he understand this?" I found this a foolish question and an offensive one too because I believed that I understood rímur completely or at least as well as anyone else. But one of the reasons why I stared at the kvæamaur was his habit of shaking his jaw rapidly from one side to the other in order to get the dill [i.e., tremolo] on the lota or seimur at the end of each stanza, and it was very amusing to watch how his beard shook.
The other men of the household could not compare with this kvæamaur . He was a born kvæamaur. But they were only ordinary people. After he left performances in the winter evenings were rare. But it was usual on the other hand that the men would raula while working, both outdoors and indoors. It seemed to me that each had his own kvæa-melody for himself, probably unconsciously, and kept it ever after. He did not need more, and it was without doubt the fruit of his musical talent and temperament. One of the hands, however, could imitate others, but he did not have his own kvæa-melody, and the same happened to me. I had no kvæa-melody and depended therefore on others.3
It is noteworthy that performances of rímur were the chief entertainment at this farm only when a good kvæamaur was constantly available; after his departure performances were rare even if most men could kvea or at least raula. Generally, good kvæamenn were much sought after, and some of them stayed at several households as entertainers in the winters earning their living in this way.
A few names with the prefix kvæa- have come down from earlier periods. Persons with such names probably were professionals as was the case in the last century. The earliest mentioned, Kvæa-Anna, lent the monastery at Thingeyrar 500 pounds of butter in a famine in 1421.4 One of the latest, also a woman, is mentioned by Finnur Jónsson (1842-1924): "I remember a middle-aged unmarried woman in Bikupstunger who was called Kvæa-Ingibjörg. She performed with a strong, clear voice various sets of rímur from memory. She also told tales."5
Until the middle of the 19th century kvæaskapur was appreciated by the entire society, and rímur poets came from all walks of life. At the beginning of the century Magnús Stephensen (1762-1833), the highest administrator of the Danish crown in Iceland, had attacked the "howling" of rímur and wanted it replaced with poetry containing "intelligent and meaningful thoughts" set to "merry tunes," but he had no success.6 The 18th century is perhaps the bleakest period in Icelandic history. Plague and famine reduced the population to less than 50,000. Traditional dancing was abolished, and even the reading of sagas seems to have diminished somewhat. On the other hand, kvæaskapur flourished, as may be seen from the proliferation of texts culminating in the first half of the 19th century.
In the following period adverse criticism of rímur is closely allied to the growth of the romantic lyrical poetry representing a new way of life. And then, with the gradual recovery of political independence, urbanization, and material progress, new tunes, at first mostly of foreign origin, gain ground. At the beginning of this century kvæaskapur was considered worthless and even shameful by the educated, with few exceptions. In the opinion of poet Einar Benediktsson (1864-1941) "a varied wealth of Icelandic musical ideas" appears in kvæa- melodies, but "much of this wealth is probably lost because of the unjust contempt in which the national art has been held of late."7 Kvæaskapur as public entertainment finally disappeared in the places where it was retained the longest at the same time as the sessions in the winter evenings combining work and entertainment were abandoned.
However, after the founding of the state radio station in 1930 kvæaskapur was sometimes broadcast, but with the new song-like style of performance most in evidence. In 1941 the mathematician Ólafur Danielsson (1877-1957) made this comment: "It is a complete fake, it does not resemble in any way the old kveskapur as I heard it in my childhood, it is hardly possible to call it an imitation...The radio kveskapur compares to the old rímnakveskapur as a concrete gabled house compares to a farmhouse."8 The farmhouses Ólafur has in mind are clearly the traditional turf houses with wooden gables. The comparison is apt, as the difference is fundamental in spite of the superficial similarities.
There is no self-evident reason why the style in question was limited in recent times to the district of Breiafjörur in the western part of the country. In the last decades interest in rímur was certainly greater in the west than elsewhere; proper names from rímur, for example, are common only there. But this is true in the neighboring Vestfirir no less than Breiafjörur, and kvæaskapurr as public entertainment was not abandoned earlier there (i.e., between 1900 and 1930). A much more detailed investigation than has been possible until now would be needed to determine to what extent the older kvæaskapur had existed in other parts of the county until lately and what the local differences were. At the present stage the Breiafjörur style (with offshoots in Vestfirir) should perhaps be regarded as one representative example of old style rather than the old style.
When the criteria of well-defined personal style and technical mastery are applied to the performers in question, a few are outstanding. They have something in common which could possibly be called professionalism in spite of the fact that not a single one has been a professional kvæamaur. They have practiced their art primarily for themselves, in solitude. Karl Gumundsson says, for example, the he used kvæaskapur to keep warm while watching his sheep; he also states that he never heard a good kvæamaur in his youth, but mastered the art somehow just the same. The others knew at least one whom they consider of first order; thus Kristján Bjartmarz mentions Benjamin Hjálmarsson at Lambanes and Thórur Gubjarsson and Brynjólfur Björnsson at Litlanes. Brynjólfur was a professional much in demand in the county of Barastrandars´ysla. He did not receive payment, but usually one member of the household where he was staying was sent to his farm to attend to it while he was away. In his boyhood Kristján often had the opportunity to kvea with Benjamín, but this seems an exception rather than a rule, as most of the informants learned by listening and practicing without any guidance. Gunnar Alexandersson believes that he learned first from his father, who put him to sleep with kvæaskapur when he was a child.
It is almost as difficult to get a description of the qualities of a good kvæamaur as of the process of learning. But at least three requirements emerge: good voice, good stemma, and the ability to kvea long phrases, even whole stanzas without a pause. A few have stressed the importance of clear delivery of the text, but most seem to take this for granted. As mentioned above, the presence of an audience has not been usual in the lives of the kvæamenn under discussion; notwithstanding, it is evident from their reactions to their own performances that perfection has been sought.
Rímur og Kvæamenn: Footnotes
1 Skaldic poetry already existed in Norway as court poetry before the settlement of Iceland (in the 9th and 10th centuries). But after the 11th century the poets (skalds) practicing it at the Norwegian and other Scandinavian courts were exclusively Icelandic.
2 Gíslason (1977), 144 and 151. (An extract from the author's English summary.)
3 Ólafsson (1942), 164-65.
4 Thorkelsson (1888) mentions another four such names additionally from the 16th and 17th centuries.
5 Jónsson (1945), 338.
6 Stephensen (1797), preface.
7 Benediktsson (1913), IX.
8 Danielsson (1940). Ólafur was born and brought up in Skagafjörur in the nort
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Mauryan Art and Architecture
The monuments before the period of Asoka were mostly made of wood and therefore perished. The use of stone started from the time of Asoka.
Ashoka mauryan empire
Even of the numerous monuments of Asoka, only a few have remained. His palace and monasteries and most of his stupas have disappeared. The only remaining stupa is at Sanchi. The artistic remains of the Mauryan period can be seen in the following heads:
saranath pillar mauryan artThe pillars erected by Asoka furnish the finest specimen of the Mauryan art. Asokan pillars with inscriptions were found in places like Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Saranath. Their tops were crowned with figures of animals like lion, elephant and bull. The Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to back is the most magnificent. The Indian government adopted this capital with some modifications as its state emblem.
mauryan sanchi stupa
Asoka built a number of stupas throughout his empire but majority of them were destroyed during foreign invasions. Only a few have survived. The best example is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive
dimensions. It was originally built with bricks but later enlarged after the time of Asoka.
The caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son Dasaratha remain important heritage of the Mauryas. Their interior walls are polished like mirror. These were meant to be residences of monks.
The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are wonderful pieces of Mauryan architecture.
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Aztec crime and punishment
There was no shortage of laws in the ancient Aztec empire. In many ways, Aztec crime and punishment was very much like crime and punishment in many countries today. However, some parts of the Aztec legal system will no doubt seem strange to many people...
Aztec crime and punishment
Aztec law
As the empire grew and became strong, many peoples became a part of the Aztec system. In the world of the Aztecs, the gods had power over people, through the leadership of the emperor and nobles, and of course through the priests. Interestingly, though, when it came to law, religion was less of a factor than in most of Aztec daily life. Practicality played a larger role.
Though the power was someone centralized, the empire was still really a loosely connected alliance between various cities. These cities shared a common emperor and often a similar heritage, so laws were similar throughout the empire, but not exactly the same. And so Aztec crime and punishment did vary from city to city.
Aztec laws covered almost every aspect of life. This included laws about marriage, inheriting an estate, the class system, and economic situations. As an example of a law intended to protect the class system, a common person was not allowed to decorate his house or dress in lavish clothes as a noble was. Regarding marriage, a man could have as many concubines as he wished, but only descendants of his original wife could inherit his estate. Divorce was allowed in certain situations, but the woman would get half of the couple's assets, and was free to re marry.
It's hard to know today how much crime there actually was in the empire. As we will see, punishment was harsh. Although some crime was overlooked, much of it was efficiently dealt with through a system of courts. Some crimes considered serious would include stealing from another's crops, public drunkenness (except at a festival, or if you're over 70 years old), and murder.
Most crime was dealt with in a local court, where senior warriors would be the judges. If the crime was more serious, it could be tried in Tenochtitlan in the teccalco court. Very serious cases, such as those involving nobles, could be tried by professional judges in the emperor's palace. These judges may even include the emperor himself.
The fact that much of the Aztec crime and punishment was swift and local made the system efficient, which it needed to be without a system of prisons.
Remember that the people at the heart of the empire had recently been fairly nomadic. A system of prisons was impossible, so Aztec crime and punishment had to develop along totally different lines. There were no prisons, and no torture. Instead, the death penalty was a common punishment for crime. The criminal could be taken to an alter and put to death, strangled, or even stoned on the spot. The nobles, who were supposed to set an example, often got harsher punishments.
Sometimes there would be a lighter punishment, for example if this was a first offense. A lighter punishment might include having your home demolished, or having your head shaved.
Of course in Aztec crime and punishment, there were many crimes that were not considered nearly as serious. In these cases, people would simply be required to make restitution. For example, if there was a fight, the one who started the fight might be required to pay for the medical expenses. Or, of course, if something was stolen it would have to be paid back, though often even minor theft would be punished with death.
Slavery was often a punishment as well. In the Aztec empire, slavery was a common way to pay back what was owed. Exile was also a punishment in certain cases.
Early Mexican Law
The University of Texas at Austin has an interesting site about law in Mexico before the conquest, which includes information about Aztec crime and punishment. If you want to learn more, this is a great place to start.
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The Crimean Conflict refers to a geo-political dispute regarding the autonomous southern Ukrainian Peninsula of the same name. Historically, post-Cold War political tensions in Ukraine revolved around Ukrainian and Russian sympathies; these are the two major ethnic groups and are divided into northern and southern regions respectively. Most recently, anti-Russian activism in the North led to widespread violent uprisings against Russian sympathizing politicians. In response to these uprisings, paramilitary forces bearing a strong resemblance to Russian forces surrounded Ukrainian military posts of Crimea in the early morning hours of March 1, 2014. The Ukrainian interim leadership received public support from the United States the same day. Crimea is bordered on three sides by the Black Sea and by virtue, presents a economic and military vantage point. It was ceded to Ukraine by Russia at the end of the Soviet Era as reparations following 300 years of Russian rule, briefly interrupted
JURIST Calls for Commentary
03/22/2014: Ukraine PM signed elements of EU trade pact.
03/21/2014: Russia finalized annexation of Crimea.
03/18/2014: Putin signed treaty incorporating Crimea into Russia.
03/17/2014: Crimea Parliament declared independence following refenderum.
03/13/2014: EU Parliament demanded immediate withdrawal of all Russian troops from Crimea.
03/11/2014: Crimea Parliament voted to become independent state via referendum.
03/06/2014: Crimea Parliament set referendum to become part of Russian Federation.
03/01/2014: Obama condemned Russian military intervention in Ukraine as a violation of international law.
02/26/2014: Ukraine interim government requested international arrest warrant for Yankuvych.
02/25/2014: Ukraine parliament voted to send ousted president before ICC.
02/24/2014: Ukraine issued arrest warrant for ousted president.
02/22/2014: Ukraine opposition leader released from jail.
02/03/2014: Ukraine opposition called for constitutional changes.
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What are the Origins of the Phrase "the Pot Calling the Kettle Black"?
"Don Quixote" includes the phrase "the pot calling the kettle black."
William Shakespeare used a version of the phrase "Pot calling the kettle black" in his play "Troilus and Cressida."
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The term “the pot calling the kettle black” is usually used in the sense of accusing someone of hypocrisy. The origins of the phrase date back to at least the 1600s, when several writers published books or plays which included wordplays on this theme. Despite suggestions that the phrase is racist or nonsensical, the meaning is actually quite obvious when one considers the conditions of a medieval kitchen.
Typically, pots and kettles were made from heavy materials like cast iron to ensure that they would last and hold up to heat. Cast iron tends to turn black with use, as it collects oil, food residue, and smoke from the kitchen. Both pots and kettles would also have been heated over an open fire in a kitchen. As a result, they would have become streaked with black smoke despite the best cleaning efforts.
Since both are black, the pot calling the kettle black would clearly be an act of hypocrisy. The act could also be described by “it takes one to know one,” and it suggests a certain blindness to one's personal characteristics. There is another explanation for the term, involving the pot seeing its black reflection reflected in a polished copper kettle. In this sense, the pot does not realize that it is describing itself.
One of the earliest written instances of the phrase appears in Don Quixote, by Cervantes. The epic book was published in the early 1600s, and had a big influence on the English language. Numerous terms and idioms have their roots in Don Quixote, such as “quixotic” to describe an idealist. Shakespeare also played with the concept in one of his plays, as did many of his contemporaries. The phrase has been twisted and expanded over the centuries, appearing in forms like “pot, meet kettle.”
Some people believe that the phrase is racist, since it refers to the surface color of the objects involved. These individuals might want to keep in mind that in a modern kitchen, the idiom might be “the pot calling the kettle silver,” in a reference to the fact that many modern pots and kettles are often made from polished stainless steel. In this particular instance, skin color has nothing to do with the idiom, except in the sense that both of the objects involved are the same color.
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Post 8
The phrase is ambiguous because the context of the statement is missing. You could make fun of someone else for being now what they have scorned prior, and so in that context there would be no hypocrisy. However, the term, "dirty" is absent from the phrase and so that also leads to greater ambiguity.
Post 7
Pot calling the kettle black is generally used to describe someone at fault labeling someone else at fault.
The problem is, if this analogy is followed through, why is it a fault for the pot to be black in the first place?
It isn't, yet the phrase is used in this way.
Post 6
You are all missing the point. It´s about self deception and not seeing yourself as others see you. I don´t think the colour is the issue; it´s the dirt. It´s like saying to someone you need a wash when we ourselves are covered in muck. In summary, it means we must look to ourselves before criticizing others.
Post 5
The speck in another's eye and a log in your own actually comes from the bible, and I think is a lot better to use.
Post 4
Here in Africa, the meaning is more of "remove the log in your eye before telling you neighbor to remove the spec." This is because African pots are made from clay, which is usually black in most cases.
Another fact is that the pots are used over open fires, and the soot adds to their dark color. The kettle, meanwhile, is made from either steel or aluminum and in most cases is usually not that dark since it is washed along with dishes.
Post 1
I once heard from a middle eastern friend of mine that there is a similar phrase from Old Persia. It goes as: "The sieve telling the watering-can that the watering-can has way too many holes in it". It was, of course, in reference to a person with lots of faults accusing an innocent man of a wrong doing and demanding that the man be punished severely!
This may kind of be related to the "a person in a glass house should not throw rocks at other people's houses."
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A House Divided
Posted at 03:27 PM ET, 03/28/2011
Lonnie Bunch: General-in-Chief Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan called for the early blockading of sea ports and the Mississippi River to strangle the rebellion; could that plan have worked?
At the end of an important military career, General Winfield Scott, the hero of the Mexican-American War, devised a strategy to defeat the recently seceding Southern states that became known as the Anaconda Plan because of the plan’s attempt to surround and strangle the nascent Confederacy. Conceived during the spring and summer of 1861, Scott’s plan called for a naval blockade to limit access to all Southern ports and a military maneuver that would allow the Union to control the Mississippi River from Illinois to New Orleans, thus cutting the Confederacy in half. Scott believed that his plan would force the Confederacy to see how vulnerable it was, or at the very least, encourage those who had Unionist sentiments to confront and overthrow the plantation oligarchy.
The Anaconda plan was never formally implemented, and its reliance on rather passive means such as a blockade was immediately criticized by many Northerners who wanted a quick and decisive military campaign.The plan would not have worked during the initial stages of the war because the Union was unprepared to implement an effective blockade. And the ability to marshal an army that could capture and control the length of the Mississippi River was well beyond the military capabilities of the newly formed and poorly led Union Army. Scott’s plan was not an effective strategy so early in the war. Scott finally retired during the first year of the war.
Ironically, elements of the Anaconda plan proved quite effective during the latter stages of the war. As the Union Navy evolved, it was able to mount an effective blockade that limited the South’s ability to garner materials from potential European allies. Due to the military leadership of Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman, the North eventually controlled the Mississippi and divided the Confederacy. Scott’s plans were valid but just not possible to implement during the initial war years. As Scott and the nation would learn, it would take years of loss and destruction before the war would end.
By Lonnie Bunch | 03:27 PM ET, 03/28/2011
Categories: 150th anniversary, Views
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© 2011 The Washington Post Company
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The Matriarchal Theory
Its Origin:
Historical researches of the second-half of the 19th century revealed that the Patriarchal Theory did not offer a universal solution of the problems of kinship and origin of the society. On the contrary, it was preceded by the matriarchal form of society in the prehistoric times. This view is advocated by the supporters of the Matriarchal Theory, the chief advocates of which are Mclennan (Primitive Society, 1865, Morgan (Ancient Society, 1871) Frederick Engel’s (The Origin of Family, Property and State, 1892) and Edward Jenks History of Politics, 1900).
They discovered proofs for this primeval society in the books of the ancients, such as the Epics of Homer, and in the existing primitive peoples of Australia, Madagascar, Malayan and Indonesian islands, the Red Indians of America and the tribes of South India. We may say, therefore, that the matriarchal society has existed down to the present day on the periphery of the civilised world of Asia, North America and Europe.
Matriarchal Theory stains with the idea that, instead of the family and permanent marriage union, the primeval society consisted of matriarchal groups or ‘packs’ Man was then in the hunting stage of primitive history. He depended on the bounty of nature, and subsisted on the fruits or berries of the forests, and on the animals killed by the ‘pack’ or totem-group of men, women and children living together. In this primitive society, marriage and family were unknown. Sexual relations were prohibited between men and women within the same ‘pack’. But these relations were temporarily permitted between men and women of two definite ‘packs’ or totem-groups which dwelt together during a particular season.
Children bom to the women of a ‘pack’ became its members. They did not know their ‘fathers’ in the other ‘pack’, for maternity was a fact, while paternity was unknown. AH relations of kinship and descent were traced “only through the mother. Property or private possessions were unknown. Women were the equals of men. As wealth was unknown, there was no question of inequality. Matriarchy society was peaceful and war too was unknown.
At last the matriarchal society changed. The factors of change were the invention of tools and implements, the domestication of animals and, above all, the discovery of agriculture. These inventions and discoveries transformed the wandering hunters of the matriarchal society into patriarchal tribes. Property relations in land domestic animals and household possessions began. Women were confined to household duties and men took to the hard labour of the outdoor work. Sexual relations between a man and woman or women became permanent union for procreation and property inheritance.
The equality of the matriarchal “pack” was replaced by the inequality of the Matriarchal tribe. Powerful tribes, either because of wealth or of numbers, began to fight the weak tribes. Thus war began. This increased the importance of men as opposed to women. The male became the ruler, as a father within family, and as a chief within his tribe. All relations of kinship and descent came to be traced through the father alone. In this way, the patriarchal society arose in primitive times.
There is much to commend in the Matriarchal Theory. It has thrown a flood of light on the prehistory of Man. It has filled the gaps left unexplained by the Patriarchal Theory. It docs not refute but rectifies the lacunae in the Patriarchal Theory. It has shown that the primitive society was far more complex in organisation than the Patriarchal Theory would have us believe. It gives more sound explanation of the origin and evolution of human society.
It has, however, the same demerits as the Patriarchal Theory; it does not so much explain the origin of the State as that of the society. Moreover, as Dr. Leacock has pointed out, there does not seem any adequate proof for regarding it as the universal and necessary beginning of society. Lastly, kinship and family alone are not sufficient to explain the origin and development of the State.
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Uitlander(Afrikaans: “outlander”“foreigner”), any British or other non-Afrikaner immigrant in the Transvaal region in the 1880s and ’90s. The After 1886 the prospect of gold lured large numbers of newcomers to Johannesburg, where they became a majority of the citizenry and were led by an aristocracy of wealthy mine owners. The Transvaal’s long-established rural population of Boers (Afrikaners), afraid of being overwhelmed, passed laws to restrict the Uitlanders’ influence. A law of 1888 declared that only the Dutch language could be used in legal proceedings and official documents.
Naturalization and the right to vote, under a law passed in 1890, involved not only a naturalization fee but also a minimum of 14 years’ residence. These restrictions on the franchise became a focus of Uitlander protest. In 1892 the lawyer Charles Leonard organized the National Union, which held meetings and circulated petitions demanding that Uitlanders be given the right to vote. From that time on, tensions mounted steadily, aggravated by the Jameson Raid of 1895 and by open British support for the Uitlanders. War finally erupted in 1899 (see South African War), in part due to the offer made by Transvaal president Paul Kruger to reduce the Uitlander residency requirement for political rights from 14 to 7 years; the British rejected this offer as insufficient.
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New insight into the brains of birds
In a paper appearing in PLoS Biology, Helmut Prior (Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Maine), Ariane Schwarz and Onur Güntürkün (Ruhr-University Bochum), present evidence for mirror self-recognition in Magpies. By means of the mirror-and-mark test that is often used with human children and apes, the authors show that Magpies take their mirror image for a reflection of their own body. These findings represent the first evidence of mirror self-recognition in a non-mammalian species and bear several major implications.
Magpie Pica pica
In one test, the researchers placed yellow and red stickers on the birds in positions where they could only be seen in a mirror. On seeing their reflections, the Magpies became focused on the stickers as they tried to reach them with their claws and beaks. On several occasions, they succeeded in scratching the stickers off. Black stickers placed on the birds' bodies did not elicit the same response. When no mirror was present, the Magpies took no notice of the stickers.
The phylogenetic lines of birds and mammals have gone through a separate evolutionary history for at least 300 million years. Up to now mirror-self recognition had only been shown in very few mammalian species like chimpanzees, orang-utans, elephants, and dolphins. Evidence for self-recognition in Magpies, therefore, provides particularly strong support that higher cognitive skills and consciousness developed independently in different evolutionary lines.
Magpie, New Brighton, Cheshire (Photo: Richard Steel)
It has always been assumed that the neocortex is a prerequisite for higher cognition and consciousness. But birds have no neocortex and are endowed with a vastly different brain organization. Thus, the recent findings in Magpies show that even self-recognition is possible without a neocortex. This is a remarkable capability that might play a role in perspective taking.
Prior H, Schwarz A, Güntürkün O (2008) Mirror-induced behavior in the magpie (Pica pica): Evidence of self-recognition. PLoS Biol 6(8): e202. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202
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Literary Devices
What is it?
Allusion is a literary device in which the writer or speaker refers either directly or indirectly to a person, event, or thing in history or to a work of art or literature.
Why is it important?
Allusion connects the content of a text with the larger world. Allusion calls to mind the ideas and emotions associated with a well-known event or published work. Those ideas and emotions then contribute to what the author conveys.
How do I do it?
Refer either directly or indirectly to a well-known work of literature or an historical person or event.
Example 1:
—Abraham Lincoln, the Gettysburg Address
Note: Here, Lincoln refers to the American Revolution using an allusion to the date 1776, the year the Declaration of Independence was signed. Four score and seven years ago means eighty-seven years, since a score is twenty years. Eighty-seven years earlier than 1863 is 1776.
Example 2:
"She was almost ready to go, standing before the hall mirror, putting on her hat, and he, his hands behind him, appeared pinned to the door frame, waiting like Saint Sebastian for the arrows to begin piercing him."
—Flannery O'Connor, "Everything That Rises Must Converge"
Note: O'Connor compares her character with the religious figure Saint Sebastian in order to call to mind the idea of martyrdom associated with Saint Sebastian's story.
More about allusion
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Anna Karenina
Anna Karenina
by Leo Tolstoy
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Anna Karenina Theme of Gender
Tolstoy believes that people have specific roles they're "supposed to" fulfill. Many of these notions are uncomfortable for modern audiences. For example: the nobility has been given land, so they should stay in the countryside and pay attention to agriculture; the peasants have been given a nature disposed towards hard work, so they should keep farming; and women should be mothers and caretakers because they are biologically able to give birth, and also have the spirits necessary to bear children and look after the sick. Consider Kitty and Miss Agatha's instinctive ability to care for Levin's sick brother Nicholas, or Dolly's natural bonding with the peasant women on her estate over childbirth. Tolstoy seems to view a woman's first responsibility to be to her family. Women who abandon these responsibilities – most notably, Anna Karenina – are in for a world of hurt.
Questions About Gender
1. In what ways is Anna not the ideal woman, according to Tolstoy? Compare Anna to Dolly and Kitty.
2. Do you see Kitty's fate as being similar to Dolly's? How will Levin as a husband alter the course of her life's trajectory?
3. Tolstoy delves into many of the rites of womanhood: proposal, marriage, childbirth, nursing, and education. What function do these rituals serve? Does Tolstoy's portrayal of women's reactions to these moments seem believable?
Chew on This
Rather than always inscribing women into predestined roles, Levin is quite open regarding female capabilities.
Because Anna has deviated from "normal" female concerns (i.e., childrearing) in favor of devoting her life to Vronsky, she is emotionally punished until the moment of her suicide.
Next Page: Family
Previous Page: Compassion and Forgiveness
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Bewick's Wren
Photo Credit: Bill Horn
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Thryomanes bewickii (Audubon)
OTHER NAMES: House Wren (Kennedy and White 1997).
DESCRIPTION: A rather large (13 cm [5.1 in.]), long-tailed drab wren. Sexes identical in plumage color and pattern. Back and crown coloration of eastern populations flat brown, lacking rich rufous tones of Carolina wren. Underside grades from fairly bright white on throat to dull gray on undertail. Lower breast and belly lack rufous coloration of Carolina wren. A white eyebrow stripe separates crown and cheek. Have bold black and white markings along margin of tail that separates them from all other wren species. Male’s song usually composed of five phrases and sounds like, seee-teu-whee-teu-eeee (Kennedy and White 1997). Approximately 19 extant and one extinct subspecies. Although distinctness questionable, eastern populations divided into two subspecies (AOU 1957, Kennedy and White 1997), the nominate race, T. b. bewickii, winters in Alabama, and the Appalachian race, T. b. altus, once bred in Alabama (Imhof 1976). Eastern subspecies browner than western subspecies.
DISTRIBUTION: Were absent from Midwest and southern Appalachian region at time of European settlement. With fragmentation of forests of Midwest and southern Appalachian regions, suitable habitat was created and they moved north and east. Between early nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, colonized a large area of eastern North America from Illinois to New York to Georgia. Established breeding populations in Georgia by 1854, Tennessee by 1886 (Kennedy and White 1997), and presumably colonized Alabama during same period, but no records exist. Howell (1928) reported them as a fairly common summer resident in the northern half of the state but “nowhere so abundant as the Carolina wren.” In winter he reported them “found in moderate numbers all over the State.” Howell (1928) makes no mention of changes in abundance. Declines in abundance and a retraction of the breeding distribution began in the northern and eastern portions in the 1920s (Kennedy and White 1997) and were noted in Alabama by 1960 (Imhof 1976). Breeding bird survey data show declines from 49 percent of eastern U.S. routes in 1966 to 12 percent of routes in 1979 (Robbins et al. 1989) to virtually no routes in 1990. By the turn of the millennium, had disappeared as a breeder from all but a few localities in the Midwest or southern Appalachians and is still declining (Kennedy and White 1997). Although probably bred in Alabama in 1975 and 1976 at various locations (Reid 1976), the last confirmed breeding record was in 1974 at Newburg, Franklin County (G. Jackson, pers. comm.). Individuals still occasionally observed in Alabama in migration and during winter (Jackson 2001a).
HABITAT: Open habitat with clumps of vegetation. Did not occur in deciduous forest. In the east, including Alabama, were birds of farmyards and rural dwellings. Also found in windrows or slash piles created from clear-cutting operations (Robinson 1989). Were famous for nesting in buckets hanging in sheds, abandoned cars, and even in the pockets of clothes on clothes lines. Most nests in Alabama were associated with human dwellings. Avoided wet lowlands, preferring uplands, especially hilltops (Howell 1928).
LIFE HISTORY AND ECOLOGY: Eastern populations at least partly migratory with birds from the northern portion of distribution moving south, but there are few band recoveries and no detailed information on migratory movements (Kennedy and White 1997). Migratory males sing upon arrival on breeding area in spring. Resident males may start singing as early as January. Males use song to defend territories that usually are established around human structures in Alabama. Typically, monogamous pairs are formed as females choose territorial males, but occasionally a male will pair with more than one female (Kennedy and White 1997). Both sexes build a cup nest placed in a cavity, or on a shelf. Female lays three to eight white eggs (average [mean] = 5.6) that are finely spotted with reddish brown, and incubates alone (14 to 16 days) with male providing her with some food. Nestling period is 14 to 16 days and young remain on natal territories for about five weeks. Both parents feed young through the fledgling stage. Some pairs produce two broods per season (Kennedy and White 1997). Diet includes arthropods such as bugs, beetles, bees and wasps, butterfly and moth larvae and adults, grasshoppers and crickets, and spiders, as well as plant material such as fruit pulp and seeds. Predators include snakes and birds of prey (Kennedy and White 1997). After breeding, males stop singing and defending territories. Migratory individuals move south. Whether birds migrate or not, males and females separate and establish individual home ranges during winter (Kennedy and White 1997).
BASIS FOR STATUS CLASSIFICATION: Have undergone a precipitous decline to virtual extinction in the twentieth century. In Alabama, may now be extirpated as a breeding bird (Jackson 2001a). With the possible exception of the cerulean warbler, no other bird in Alabama in recent history has declined as rapidly to such a low end point. Over about four decades the species went from being widespread and fairly common to virtually extinct. Habitat modification by humans is unlikely to have directly caused the decline because the rural setting favored by Bewick’s wrens remains widespread across the former breeding distribution, including northern Alabama. The current, most widely suggested, explanation for the decline is competition with house wrens. House wrens are known to destroy the eggs and nests of other birds and they seem particularly aggressive toward Bewick’s wrens (Imhof 1976, Kennedy and White 1997). The expansion of the distribution of the house wren coincided fairly closely with the decline of Bewick’s wrens (Kennedy and White 1997). However, house wrens and Bewick’s wren’s had coexisted for decades in some portions of the Midwest, and Bewick’s wrens disappeared from many regions before the appearance of house wrens (Wilcove 1990). Further, house wrens have never been considered a regularly breeding species in Alabama (Howell 1928, Imhof 1976). Perhaps competition with the much more common Carolina wren has contributed to the decline in the Southeast. It has also been suggested that the rapid decline was caused by an epizootic (Wilcove 1990), but that hypothesis is now untestable. The presence of occasional wintering birds in southern Alabama indicates that a few individuals still occur in the state and that it deserves protection.
Author: Geoffrey E. Hill
Official Web site of Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
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Cormorants: Limiting Factors
Published 01/25/11
By Barry Kent MacKay, Senior Program Associate
Double-breasted cormorant
(Painting by Barry Kent MacKay)
Cormorants are dependent on accessible fish biomass, and there’s no doubt that it has increased in some places at the local level. A field that once grew cotton and now grows fish obviously provides more accessible food for cormorants, and as indicated above, it seems quite possible to think that while the Great Lakes — the largest body of fresh water on the continent — may have fewer fish overall than the vast numbers who met the first European colonists (indeed, several of those species that were once common now endangered or extinct), the arrival of alewives and round gobies may have enhanced the ability of the lower Great Lakes to feed cormorants over what existed centuries earlier.
There is no way to know for sure, but the paucity of records of breeding cormorants in the Great Lakes (which does not mean there were none; some records do exist) suggests the possibility.
The amount of food and suitable nesting sites are what real biologists call “limiting factors” in determining population sizes of many species of bird. In other words, the limits to how much food and suitable nesting sites are available are, and always have, been major factors in determining how many cormorants there are. For millions of years they were by far the major limiting factors in the absence of human influence and thus can be called “natural” limiting factors.
What are not natural are the factors that determined the number of double-crested cormorants since Europeans began to inhabit North America.5 The first and most important of these was firearms. With guns blazing there was a truly devastating destruction of eastern North American wildlife, both for profit and “sport.” Nothing big enough to be a target was spared. Losses in eastern North America include the extinction of the distinctive “heath hen” subspecies of the greater prairie-chicken, the extirpation of the Canadian lynx, cougar and the gray wolf, the extinction of the eastern race of elk, bison in the east and the ivory-billed woodpecker, the extirpation of the wild turkey, the extinction of the Carolina parakeet, the extinction of the sea mink, Labrador duck and the Eskimo curlew and, most spectacularly, the extinction of what had been by far the most abundant bird species in North America, the passenger pigeon, once numbering in the billions, but totally gone by 1914 when the last known bird died, in a zoo.
Numerous other species were reduced to remnants of current population sizes, many never recovering. During the Victorian era, stuffed birds or parts of them were sewn into large hats that were the fashion of the day. In 1866 the great ornithologist, Frank Chapman, conducted an odd kind of bird census. He took a couple of afternoon walks through an uptown shopping district of New York City, and counted the birds he found on 700 ladies' hats. Three out of four contained feathers, and Chapman was able to identify no fewer than 160 North American species, including the American robin, scarlet tanager, blackburnian warbler, cedar waxing, bobolink, blue jay, scissor-tailed flycatcher, red-headed woodpecker, northern saw-whet owl, snow bunting and pine grosbeak. Cormorants also were killed for their plumage, with 19th century accounts from Ohio mentioning “boatloads” of dead cormorants.
Gunfire was not the only factor in this vast slaughter. There was nest destruction, disturbances and displacement and a massive destruction of habitat, but direct persecution was enough to account for most of the losses in larger species of fauna in eastern North America. The wheel and axel, draft animals, metallurgy, use of sails and, ultimately, the internal combustion engine rendered nothing out of reach of men with guns.
But as surviving species struggled to recover from the slaughter, other threats emerged.
It was during World War II that scientists invented a completely synthetic toxin called dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, better known as DDT. It was a powerful pesticide that killed insects and saved many human lives otherwise lost to insect-transmitted disease, including malaria, and thus was seen as a miracle substance and was put into wide use.
But this chemical has a dark side. It is fat-soluble, meaning it is absorbed in fats, and it “bioaccumulates.” When put into the environment it may be directly absorbed by small organisms, such as minnow-sized fish, in trace amounts that do no harm to the animal. But as those small fish, each with a trace amount of the chemical in its body, are consumed by larger fish those amounts of chemicals increase as they accumulate, moving up the food chain. Species at the top of the food chain thus have much more of the chemical absorbed into their fat than those at the bottom. And the chemical, in larger amounts, can cause harm. In birds such as peregrine falcons, ospreys, brown pelicans and cormorants, the chemical inhibits the ability of the birds to produce normal eggs. In ways not understood the ability to produce calcium is compromised, the shells of the eggs become too thin, the egg collapses and this leads to massive reproductive failure.
There is still a great deal of controversy over exactly what happened, since some experiments seemed to exonerate DDT as the causative agent in well-documented egg shell thinning, some experiments seem to indicate that it was a metabolite of DDT called DDE that caused the problem, and some research suggests that some types of birds were susceptible while others were not. But the bottom line is that cormorant numbers, and those of several other top-of-the-food-chain predators — including brown pelicans and ospreys — went into freefall decline with the appearance of DDT in the environment, and the numbers recovered when use of DDT was curtailed or eliminated.
Thus, loss of cormorants not only to DDT but to various other toxins such as lead and mercury that were increasing in the environment occurred as they were recovering from a much earlier reduction that saw precipitous declines in cormorants long before the invention of DDT. But those earlier declines mostly happened so early in the history of European (not to mention Asian and African) colonization of the Americas that they went largely or completely unrecorded. Wildlife managers, and even many naturalists, assume that the “normal” numbers of cormorants were those that appeared once accurate record keeping began, and even then they often ignore such information that does exist from earlier eras, including Wires and Cuthbert’s 2006 paper.
Introduction: Why Cormorants Can't Kill All Fish
Wildlife Management North and South of the Border
Energy Transference, Basic Physics and the Technology Prosthesis
Back in the Real World
Cormorants: Food Chains and Basic Ecological Principles
The Alewife, Alien Salmon and Trout, and the Double-Crested Cormorant
The Round Goby
The Difference Between Science and Management
The Agricultural Subsidy
The Missing Predator Argument
NEXT » Semi-Science and Wildlife Management
So ... What Do Real Scientists Say?
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Europe in 1939
On this completed map of Europe on the eve of World War II, students should pay particular attention to the areas of dispute, primarily in central Europe.
1. Locate the approximate boundaries of the Rhineland which Germany remilitarized in 1936
2. By the time of this map, August 1939, what territories had Germany already annexed directly?
3. Draw in the "Sudeten Mountains".
4. What has happened to Czechoslovakia? What new state has emerged from that unhappy country?
5. What two other states gained land from the division of Czechoslovakia? Locate those areas.
6. Locate Danzig and the so-called "Polish Corridor."
Go to Syllabus for Hs 002.01
Go to My Homepage Index
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Assignment 4, Due Tuesday, November 27th.
1. Consider the 6x7 game of hex, where the first player is trying to connect the two more distant sides and the second player is trying to connect to two nearer sides. It turns out that there's a pairing strategy the guarantees a win for the 2nd player. Show this. Does your solution generalize to the n by n+1 game?
2. In Misere Hex, the goal is to force your opponent to make a path connecting her two sides before you do. Who wins nxn Misere Hex?
3. Mudcrack Y is played on a convex board that is constructed as follows. Imagine the map of a circular country that is divided into n states. A state is a connected set, and no four states meet at a point. (I.E The dual of the map is a planar graph, triangulated except for one large face.) The country is surrounded by three oceans: the Red, the Blue, and the Green. The bounary between two oceans does not occur at a state boundary.
Play proceeds like Hex (players alternate putting down white and black stones into the states). When the board is filled, the winner is the one who has formed a "Y" with his color. A Y must have beachfront property on all three oceans.
Give an informal proof that at the end of the game, there must be a Y.
Below is a picture of the dual graph of a specific game of Mudcrack Y. (Ignore the line around the whole thing.) The three acute corners are the boundaries between the three oceans.
Mathematical Games
Daniel Sleator
Last modified: Wed Nov 14 19:54:24 EST 2001
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Colossus computer The world's first electronic, digital, programmable computer
Colossus was designed by engineer Tommy Flowers with input from Sidney Broadhurst, William Chandler, Allen Coombs and Harry Fensom at the Post Office Research Station, Dollis Hill to solve a problem posed by mathematician Max Newman at Bletchley Park.
Ten Colossus computers were in use by the end of the war.
The Colossus computers were used to help decipher teleprinter messages which had been encrypted using the Lorenz SZ40/42 machine.
British codebreakers referred to encrypted German teleprinter traffic as "Fish" and called the SZ40/42 machine and its traffic "Tunny".
Colossus compared two data streams, counting each match based on a programmable Boolean function. The encrypted message was read at high speed from a paper tape.
The other stream was generated internally, and was an electronic simulation of the Lorenz machine at various trial settings. If the match count for a setting was above a certain threshold, it would be sent as output to an electric typewriter.
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It's "the first-ever fireplace," said Tel Aviv University archaeologist Ran Barkai in an email, and the earliest-known evidence of domestication of fire. Bringing home and roasting meat are "two very human phenomena that for us seem natural, but really are not. [The hearth] belongs to a crucial time in human biological and cultural evolution."
The hearth lies inside Qesem Cave, which is located in a geographical area known as the Levant—southern Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Israel.
The identity of the hearth users is a mystery, though. "We call it for now a new hominin lineage," Barkai says.
"It is clearly different than [Homo] erectus and has affinities of both [Homo] sapiens and Neanderthals," he explains. "Since Neanderthals appear very late in the Levant and are of European origin, and since the Qesem [hominin] teeth bear more resemblance to early Homo sapiensin the Levant, we believe they are closer to Homo sapiens."
Qesem Cave was originally uncovered in October 2000 by a construction crew building a road. But it has taken years of excavation and analysis for Barkai, one of the co-leaders of the project, and his colleagues to build what they say is an unequivocal case for how the site was used.
Charred remnants of animal bones and flint tools used in butchering meat offered additional evidence for the activities that took place there.
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Welcome to the new LearnersDictionary.com. We want to hear your thoughts about the new design.
Learner's definition of BLOCK
[count] : a solid piece of material (such as rock or wood) that has flat sides and is usually square or rectangular in shape
: an area of land surrounded by four streets in a city
b US : the length of one city block
[count] : a large building divided into separate units (such as apartments or shops)
◊ This sense of block is more common in British English than in U.S. English.
[singular] : something that stops the progress or achievement of something
[count]sports : an action or movement that stops or slows down an opponent
[singular] : something that stops a person from thinking about certain things
: a number of similar things that form a group
b : an amount or section of something
chip off the old block
— see 1chip
knock someone's block off
— see 1knock
new kid on the block
— see 1kid
on the block
oron the auction block
: for sale at an auction
broadly : for sale
Learner's definition of BLOCK
[+ object]
: to be placed in front of (something, such as a road or path) so that people or things cannot pass through — sometimes + up
b : to place something in front of (something, such as a road) so that people or things cannot go into the area — often + off
[+ object]
: to stop (someone or something) from moving through or going by
b : to stop (something) from getting through to someone or something
c : to be in front of (something) so that it cannot be seen
[+ object]
: to not allow (something, such as progress or an action) to occur
b : to be in the way of (something)
sports : to stop the movement of (an opponent, a shot, etc.).
[+ object]
[no object]
block in
[phrasal verb]
block in (someone or something) or block (someone or something) in
: to put something in front of (someone or something) so that person or thing cannot leave
block out
[phrasal verb]
block out (something) or block (something) out
: to hide or cover something so that it cannot be seen, felt, or heard
: to force yourself not to think about (something) : to ignore (something)
— blocker
Comments & Questions
Comments & Questions
What made you want to look up block? Include any comments and questions you have about this word.
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Ban renaissance small square
Important Events During Renaissance Time Period
Timeline created by mikeyork in History
Event Date: Event Title: Event Description:
Black%20plauge small square 1st Jan, 1347 Bubonic Plauge Begins The Black Plauge killed about 1.5 million people from the total 4 million in Europe in that time. Since there was no medical knowledge about the disease, there was no way of stopping it from spreading and killing.
Sunrise2 small square 1st Jan, 1350 Renaissance Begins The age of the Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. Also included a huge artistic movement.
Brunelleschione small square 1st Jan, 1420 Brunelleschi creates linear perspective Brunelleschi is famous for two panel paintings illustrating geometric optical linear perspective made in the early 1400s. His biographer, Antonio Manetti, described this famous experiment in which Brunelleschi painted two panels: the first of the Florentine Baptistery as viewed frontally from the western portal of the unfinished cathedral, and second the Palazzo Vecchio as seen obliquely from its northwest corner.
Joan of arc statue small square 1st Jan, 1428 Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orleans The Siege of Orléans (1428–1429) marked a turning point in the Hundred Years' War between France and England. This was Joan of Arc's first major[5] military victory and the first major French success to follow the crushing defeat at Agincourt in 1415.
Printingpressgutenberg small square 1st Jan, 1445 Johann Gutenberg invents the printing press Johann's invention of mechanical movable type printing started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period.It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.
220px cosimo di medici (bronzino) small square 1st Jan, 1464 Cosimo de Medici Dies Cosimo died on August first, 1464 he was the first of the Medici political dynasty, de facto rulers of Florence during much of the Italian Renaissance; also known as "Cosimo 'the Elder'" and "Cosimo Pater Patriae" (Latin: 'father of the nation'). After his death the Signoria awarded him the title Pater Patriae, "Father of his Country"
Inquisition small square 1st Jan, 1478 Spanish Inquisition Begins The Spanish Inquisition was used for both political and religious reasons. Following the Crusades and the Reconquest of Spain by the Christian Spaniards the leaders of Spain needed a way to unify the country into a strong nation.
Venus small square 1st Jan, 1486 Sandro Botticelli paints Birth of Venus Painting Sandro Botticelli. It depicts the goddess Venus, having emerged from the sea as a fully grown woman, arriving at the sea-shore (which is related to the Venus Anadyomene motif). The painting is held in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.
Columbus small square 1st Jan, 1492 Columbus Discovers the America's At 2am on October 12th 1492, a sailor aboard the Pinta by the name of Rodrigo de Triana shouted, “Tierra! Tierra!” For his sighting of land, he should have received a yearly pension for the rest of his life. But the Admiral of the three-ship fleet would later tell his benefactors, Ferdinand and Isabella, that he had himself seen a light the evening before and claimed the reward for himself. Thus, inauspiciously, began Christopher Columbus’s “discovery” of the New World
300px sanzio 01 small square 1st Jan, 1511 Raphael paints The School of Athens One of the most famous frescoes by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. It was painted as a part of Raphael's commission to decorate with frescoes the rooms now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. The School of Athens the second painting to be finished there, after La Disputa, on the opposite wall. The picture has long been seen as "Raphael's masterpiece and the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the High Renaissance."
550px sistine chapel ceiling photo 2 small square 1st Jan, 1514 Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel The painting is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art. The ceiling is that of the large Papal Chapel built within the Vatican The ceiling's various painted elements form part of a larger scheme of decoration within the Chapel, which includes the large fresco The Last Judgment on the sanctuary wall, also by Michelangelo.
523552610 e97aeb12e9 o small square 1st Jan, 1514 Thomas More Utopia The book, written in Latin, is a frame narrative primarily depicting a fictional island society and its religious, social and political customs. A 'Utopia"' refers to a perfect society or world. (so no war, poverty etc. So this book is about a perfect place more or less.
Martin%20luther small square 1st Jan, 1517 Martin Luther 95 Theses The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences also known as, The Ninety-Five Theses, was written by Martin Luther, 1517 and is widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. The disputation protests against clerical abuses, especially the sale of indulgences.
C271 small square 1st Jan, 1524 Start of European Wars of Religion The European wars of religion were a series of wars waged in Europe from ca. 1524 to 1648, following the onset of the Protestant Reformation in Western and Northern Europe. Although sometimes unconnected, all of these wars were strongly influenced by the religious change of the period, and the conflict and rivalry that it produced.
Ivan 4 small square 1st Jan, 1530 Ivan the Terrible is born Ivan was Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, Ivan managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All Russia. Historic sources present disparate accounts of Ivan's complex personality: described as smart, but had a bad temper and mental illnesses.
Machiavelli small square 1st Jan, 1532 Machiavelli writes The Prince The book is a political treatise by the Italian diplomat, historian and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From correspondence a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus (About Principalities). But the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after Machiavelli's death.
Henry viii 470 470x300 small square 1st Jan, 1533 Henry VIII of England Excommunicated The pope excommunicated Henry VIII because he refused to submit to papal authority. He challenged the church's decision not allowing him to divorce Catherine of Aragon, and in doing so proclaiming himself leader of the church in England, thus being able to make his own decisions regarding his divorce.
220px holbein erasmus small square 1st Jan, 1536 Desiderius Erasmus dies Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a pure Latin style. He was an early proponent of religious toleration, and enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists"; he has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists." Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament
Ihs logo small square 1st Jan, 1543 Jesuit Order founded by Ignatius Loyola Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuits (the Society of Jesus). The Jesuits were one of the major spearheads of the Counter-Reformation. The work done by Ignatius Loyola was seen as an important counter to Martin Luther and John Calvin.
220px nikolaus kopernikus small square 1st Jan, 1543 Scientific Revolution / Copernicus The scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance era and continued through the late 18th century, the later period known as The Enlightenment. It was sparked by the publication in 1543 of two works that changed the course of science: Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) and Andreas Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human body).
Spanishflag small square 1st Jan, 1557 Spain declares Bankruptcy for the first time Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. Spain became the first sovereign nation in history to declare bankruptcy.
Elizabethcoronation small square 1st Jan, 1558 Coronation of Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeth I was crowned Queen. She was the third of Henry VIII’s children to become monarch and she was the last of the Tudor dynasty.Elizabeth had inherited the throne from her half-sister Mary I, who had died on the 17th November 1558.
The martyrdom of st bartholomew xx valentin de boulogne small square 1st Jan, 1572 Saint Bartholomew's Massacre The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots, during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici. The Massacre is unknown to exactly how many deaths it caused, but the guess is anywhere between 5,000 and 30,000
Edict small square Edict of Nantes Issued by Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic. In the Edict, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity.The Edict separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance.
Lastsuppertongerlocopyz small square Da Vinci paints the Last Supper A 15th century mural painting in Milan created by Leonardo da Vinci for his patron Duke Ludovico Sforza and his duchess Beatrice d'Este. It represents the scene of The Last Supper from the final days of Jesus as it is told in the Gospel of John 13:21, when Jesus announces that one of his Twelve Apostles would betray him.
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Biafra Arochukwu Kingdom the Aro Confederacy (1690–1902)
The Aro Confederacy (1690–1902) was a political union orchestrated by the Igbo subgroup, the Aro people, centered in Arochukwu in present-day southeastern Nigeria. Their influence and presence was across Eastern Nigeria into parts of the Niger Delta and Southern Igala during the 18th and 19th centuries. It is claimed that their influence extended through parts of present-day Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea.
The Aro Confederacy (1690–1902) was a political union orchestrated by the Igbo subgroup, the Aro people, centered in Arochukwu in present-day southeastern Nigeria. Their influence and presence was all over Eastern Nigeria, lower Middle Belt, and parts of present-day Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Arochukwu Kingdom was an economic, political, and an oracular center as it was home of the powerful Ibini Ukpabi oracle, High Priests, the Aro King Eze Aro, and central council (Okpankpo).
By the mid-18th century, several Aro business families had migrated to the Igbo hinterland and to adjacent areas as a result of the rise of the demand for slaves and for palm oil. This migration, the influence of their god Ibini Ukpabi through priests, and their military power supported by their alliances with several related neighboring Igbo and eastern Cross River militarized states (particularly Ohafia, Edda, Abam, Abiriba, Afikpo, Ekoi, etc.), quickly established the Aro Confederacy as a regional economic power.
Aro activities on the coast helped the growth of city-states in the Niger Delta, and these city states became important centres for the export of palm oil and slaves. Such city-states included Opobo, Bonny, Nembe, Calabar, as well as other slave trading city-states controlled by the href="https://draft.blogger.com/null">href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijaw_people" title="Ijaw people">Ijaw, Efik, and Igbo. The Aros formed a strong trading network, colonies, and incorporated hundreds of communities that formed into powerful kingdoms. The Ajalli, Arondizuogu, Ndikelionwu, and Igbene Kingdoms were some of the most powerful Aro states in the Confederacy after Arochukwu. Some were founded and named after commanders and chiefs like Izuogu Mgbokpo and Iheme who led Aro/Abam forces to conquer Ikpa Ora and founded Arondizuogu. Later Aro commanders such as Okoro Idozuka (also of Arondizuogu) expanded the state's borders through warfare at the start of the 19th century. Aro migrations also played a large role in the expansion of Ozizza, Afikpo, Izombe, and many other city-states. For example, Aro soldiers founded at least three villages in Ozizza. The Aro Confederacy's power, however, derived mostly from its economic and religious position. With European colonists on their way at the end of the 19th century, things changed.
During the 1890s, the Royal Niger Company of Britain bore friction with the Aros because of their economic dominance and alleged human sacrifice. The Aro resisted British penetration in the hinterland because their influence economically and religiously was being threatened. The Aro and their allies launched offensives against British allies in Igbo and Ibibioland. After failed negotiations, the British planned on capturing the Aro Confederacy in 1899. By 1901, the tensions were especially intensified when British prepared for the Aro Expedition. The invasion of Obegu (in Igboland) was the last major Aro offensive before the start of the Anglo-Aro War. In November 1901, the British launched the Aro Expedition and after strong Aro resistance, Arochukwu was captured on December 28, 1901. By early 1902, the war was over and the Aro Confederacy collapsed.
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Hypoplasia is the medical-histological term that describes an incomplete development of a tissue or organ, resulting from an insufficient or inferior number of cells.
Enamel hypoplasia
Hypoplasia is similar to aplasia, but is less severe. Thus, a hypoplastic organ is more developed than an aplasic organ.
Among the organs and tissues that can be subject to hypoplasia, we note: the testicles, the optic nerve, the ovaries, the heart, the enamel of the teeth, the thymus, the uterus, the corpus callosum, the cerebellum, the thumb, the pectoral muscles and the breasts.
Definition of hypoplasia
Hypoplasia is the term that, in the medical-histological context, indicates the underdevelopment or incomplete development of a tissue or organ, due to an insufficient or inferior number of cells.
In medicine and histology, aplasia is the failure to develop an organ or tissue; "failed development" means "development not completed".
Hypoplasia is similar to aplasia, but is less severe. This means that an organ or tissue affected by hypoplasia is more developed than an organ or tissue affected by aplasia.
The word "hypoplasia" derives from the union of two terms of Greek origin, which are "ipo" (ὑπo) and "plasis" (πλάσις). The term "hypo" means "below" or "inferior", while the term "plasis" means "formation". Thus, the meaning of hypoplasia is "under-formation".
There are various types of hypoplasia . Among the most well-known types of hypoplasia, they certainly deserve a quote:
• Testicular hypoplasia, in conditions such as male hypogonadism, Klinefelter syndrome, varicocele, orchitis, etc .;
• Hypoplasia of the optic nerve;
• Enamel hypoplasia, also called Turner's tooth ;
• The two cardiac hypoplasias, known as hypoplastic left heart syndrome and hypoplastic right heart syndrome ;
• Thymus hypoplasia, in DiGeorge syndrome ;
• Uterine hypoplasia;
• Hypoplasia of the corpus callosum;
• The hypoplasia of the depressor muscle of the corner of the mouth. To learn more about the depressor muscle of the corner of the mouth, readers can consult the article here;
• Monolateral hypoplasia of pectoral muscles in a condition known as Poland syndrome ;
• Ovarian hypoplasia, also known as ovarian hypoplasia;
• Nail hypoplasia, in conditions such as Turner syndrome ;
• Mammary hypoplasia, also known as breast hypoplasia;
• Cerebellar hypoplasia, ie the hypoplasia of the cerebellum;
• Thumb hypoplasia, also called congenital thumb hypoplasia ;
• Mandibular hypoplasia, in Goldenhar syndrome ;
• Lung hypoplasia, ie the hypoplasia of the lungs.
The article briefly describes the causes and consequences of some of the aforementioned types of hypoplasia.
Also known as hypotrophy of the testicles or simply small testicles, testicular hypoplasia is potentially responsible for: reduced spermatogenesis, with consequent decrease in fertility, and decrease in the production of steroid hormones, with consequent failure or incomplete development of secondary sexual characteristics (eg : pubic hair, beard etc.).
The optic nerve is a collection of nerve fibers, having the important task of transmitting the visual signals from the organs of sight - namely the eyes - to the brain, for the processing of sight .
Identified with the Roman number 2 (II), the optic nerve represents one of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves .
In general, people with optic nerve hypoplasia complain of more or less marked visual difficulties affecting one or both eyes, mono- or bilateral nystagmus and a degree of strabismus .
In some circumstances, the hypoplasia of the optic nerve is associated with some particular malformations of the central nervous system, from which the presence of epileptic seizures and developmental delay may depend.
Enamel hypoplasia is an anomaly of the teeth, in the presence of which the dental enamel, although having normal hardness, is extremely thin, scarce in quantity and, at times, covered with holes, which expose the dentin .
At the base of the enamel hypoplasia, there is a wrong process of formation of the so-called enamel matrix (or enamel matrix).
The causes of enamel hypoplasia include nutritional deficiency, celiac disease, congenital syphilis, hypocalcemia, premature birth, deciduous dentition trauma and fluorosis.
The heart of the human being is ideally divided into two halves: a right half and a left half.
Composed of a right atrium and a right ventricle, the right half of the heart has the task of sending oxygen-poor blood to the lungs, coming from the organs and tissues of the body.
Consisting of the left atrium and the left ventricle, on the other hand, the left half of the heart has the task of pumping oxygenated blood back from the lungs to the organs and tissues of the body.
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome is a rare congenital cardiac malformation characterized by an underdevelopment of the left half of the heart (and its valves).
Its presence involves different blood circulation difficulties, both as regards the passage of blood from the left atrium to the left ventricle and as regards the passage from the left ventricle to the aorta.
The symptomatic picture of hypoplastic left heart syndrome can be seen from birth and usually consists of: cyanosis, breathing difficulties, cold hands and feet, drowsiness and shock.
Hypoplastic right heart syndrome is another rare congenital cardiac malformation, characterized by incomplete development of the right atrium and right ventricle (and their valves).
Its presence causes a reduced blood supply to the lungs, with consequent poor blood oxygenation. Because of poor blood oxygenation, the patient manifests cyanosis in various parts of the body, including: skin, lips and the ends of the fingers.
Uterine hypoplasia is a congenital malformation that involves the presence of a small uterus.
Part of the so-called Müllerian duct anomalies (such as uterine agenesis or Müllerian agenesis), uterine hypoplasia is responsible for: primary amenorrhea, poor vaginal opening and infertility.
Cerebellar hypoplasia represents a heterogeneous group of cerebellar malformations, all of which involve a very similar symptomatological picture, including: early onset non-progressive ataxia, hypotonia and motor learning deficits.
Possible causes of cerebellar hypoplasia include: hereditary factors, severe metabolic abnormalities, viral agents and / or toxic agents.
Congenital hypoplasia of the thumb is an anomaly present from birth, which is characterized by an underdevelopment more or less evident in the thumb of one or both hands.
Typical sign of conditions such as Holt-Oram syndrome, VATER syndrome, TAR syndrome and Fanconi anemia, thumb hypoplasia affects one subject every 100, 000 newborns.
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Mysterious striped currents
It may seem hard to believe, but the oceans have stripes. These stripes are not visible without looking very closely, but they are visible through their effect on currents, temperatures, and sea surface heights.
These stripes are being reported in an upcoming issue of Geophysical Research Letters by an international group of scientists lead by Nikolai Maximenko at the University of Hawaii.
Each stripe is approximately 200km across and they are oriented roughly east-west. In the northern hemisphere, they appear to be oriented more southwest-northeast at an angle of 13 degrees, while in the southern hemisphere they are closer to northwest-southeast at an angle of 9 degrees.
Finding these stripes was difficult because they are very subtle features that are superimposed on much larger ocean current, topography, and temperature fields. The stripes have velocities around 1-1.5cm/s, while major ocean currents often travel at 40-50cm/s.
The change in sea surface height from one stripe to the next is roughly four centimeters
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Mar Chiquita Lagoon, a saltwater body of water located northeast of Cordoba and southeast of Santiago del Estero, is home to the largest clutch of Chilean flamingos in Latin America in the 2020-2021 breeding season.
Local conservation experts indicate that in recent months more than 300,000 individuals were counted and seven clutches of Chilean flamingos were observed. Flamingo censuses in Mar Chiquita began to be carried out by park ranger and member of the High Andean Flamingo Conservation Group (GCFA) Pablo Michelutti, and continue to this day.
The flights to count the birds are carried out at two times of the year, during the summer and winter. Three organizations collaborate to carry out the censuses: the GCFA, Natura International and the Cordoba Secretariat of Environment.
(Lucila Castro / Natura International)
The Mar Chiquita Lagoon and the Dulce River marshes, in addition to being the habitat and breeding place of the Chilean flamingo, are a migration point for the Andean flamingo (or great flamingo) and the Puna flamingo (also called the small flamingo), which is why three species of flamingos of the six existing in the world can be observed in the area. On the other hand, there are approximately 380 species of resident and migratory birds in the area, making the wetland one of the richest in the world in terms of biodiversity.
An adult Chilean flamingo can reach an average length of 100 centimeters, and has long legs and a curved beak, adapted for foraging in the muddy lagoon. They are born with grayish, brownish or white plumage. When they reach maturity, the feathers take on pink tones because the flamingos feed on algae and crustaceans native to the area, which contain pigments. Depending on where they live and the species they feed on, the pinkish hue of the flamingos’ feathers can vary in intensity.
(Yanina Druetta / Natura International)
How the censuses are carried out
The Mar Chiquita Lagoon and the marshes of the Dulce River extend over almost one million hectares in northeastern Cordoba and southeastern Santiago del Estero. Aerial surveys are the only viable way, for the moment, to estimate bird populations in such extensive wetlands.
During the flight, a census taker goes to each side of the plane to carry out the photographic survey. Together with the gauging methodology, these images are processed in software and are useful to directly count the number of individuals and which species inhabit the wetland.
Courtship and nesting
Some years, with the arrival of September and the increase in temperature, flamingos congregate in the wetland to begin courtship. There, flamingos of reproductive age gather in groups and perform a dance to attract mates. When they succeed, they mate.
(Yanina Druetta / Natura International)
If the process is successful, the flamingo couple builds a nest on the banks of the Mar Chiquita Lagoon, where a single egg is deposited. From there, the couple protects the egg until the chick hatches.
It is of great importance to generate instances of conservation in the sector. According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Chilean flamingos are almost threatened, and their population trend is decreasing.
Flamingos are very sensitive birds. If frightened, they abandon the nests en masse, leave the site and leave the eggs and hatchlings to drift away. It is very important not to disturb them so that they can reproduce normally.
(Matías Michelutti)
A promise of conservation
The future Ansenuza National Park is nearing its creation. When it is established, the nearly one million hectares between the lagoon and the marshes will be protected under a legal framework, which will contribute to the conservation of these species.
Once the park is created, economic activities can be carried out around it in a sustainable manner, without affecting the local flora and fauna. In addition, with the new protected area, there will be new personnel and a specific budget dedicated to preserving the wetland.
To achieve the creation of Ansenuza National Park, environmental training and education of all the stakeholders involved in the establishment process is essential. In addition, it is necessary to develop agreements that will lead to the changes in land use necessary to create the area.
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Main Content
Scan the leaves of a plant with an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense and train a model to detect if it’s diseased.
Just like humans, plants can become diseased too. And just like how you might develop a rash from a skin infection, a plant’s leaves might become yellowed and/or blotchy from a fungus or other pathogen. So, by leveraging the power of machine learning, colors can be scanned and then used to train a model that can detect when a leaf’s color is off.
The brain of this project is the Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense, and it was chosen for several reasons. First, it has a rich set of powerful sensors, including a 9DoF IMU, APDS-9960 (color, gesture, proximity, and brightness), microphone, and a temperature/humidity/pressure sensor combo. In order to move the board around the plant’s leaf and take measurements, a pair of stepper motors are used in conjunction with a pair of DRV8825 driver boards.”
Link to article
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Skip to main content
Month Day
February 14
First trainload of oranges leaves Los Angeles
Destined to become one of the state’s major exports, the first trainload of oranges grown by Southern California farmers leaves Los Angeles via the transcontinental railroad.
The Spanish had established Los Angeles, one of the oldest cities in the Far West, in 1781 to help colonize the region. For several decades, the city was the largest center of population in Mexican California. Mexican settlement and development of California, however, proceeded very slowly, and Los Angeles developed little real economic or political power during this period. By the time the U.S. took control of California in 1848, Los Angeles still only had just over 1,610 inhabitants.
READ MORE: 10 Ways the Transcontinental Railroad Changed America
As Anglo-Americans began to assert their control over California, they gradually broke up the large Hispanic ranches and replaced them with a more diversified farming economy. With irrigation, southern California proved an ideal environment for growing many crops, particularly valuable fruits like oranges. During the 1870s and 1880s, state railroad lines linking Los Angeles into the new system of transcontinental railways created additional moneymaking opportunities. Settlers, tourists, and health seekers all boarded trains to travel to the Pacific, where the sunny climate and beautiful scenery promised a new and better life.
READ MORE: Los Angeles: A History
The healthful new California lifestyle became closely associated in the public mind with the sweet fruits that grew so abundantly in the orchards around Los Angeles. Taking advantage of the rapid transportation capabilities of the transcontinental lines, Los Angeles area orchard owners began shipping their oranges to the East in 1886. As the city grew, it subdivided many nearby orchards and pushed the orange growers out into regions like Orange County. There, the orange growers steadily increased the size of their orchards to the point where local supplies of water for irrigation were inadequate. Determined to sustain their agricultural and real estate booms, Los Angeles residents undertook a massive program of hydraulic engineering in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Engineers took water from the distant mountains to transform the arid southern California ecosystem into a green agricultural and residential paradise.
The resulting growth was astonishing. In 1880, just before the first trainload of oranges departed, Los Angeles had 11,183 inhabitants. A decade later, the population had ballooned to 102,479. By 1920, there would be more than half a million residents. Los Angeles was already well on its way to becoming the largest urban center in the American West.
"Pale Blue Dot" photo of Earth is taken
On Valentine's Day, 1990, 3.7 billion miles away from the sun, the Voyager 1 spacecraft takes a photograph of Earth. The picture, known as Pale Blue Dot, depicts our planet as a nearly indiscernible speck roughly the size of a pixel. Launched on September 5, 1977, Voyagers 1 and more
Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini calls on Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie, author of "The Satanic Verses"
Salman Rushdie likely understood he would cause a controversy when he published a novel titled The Satanic Verses. The book mocked or at least contained mocking references to the Prophet Muhammad and other aspects of Islam, in addition to and a character clearly based on the more
Teen gunman kills 17, injures 17 at Parkland, Florida high school
On February 14, 2018, an expelled student entered Parkland, Florida’s Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School and opened fire, killing 17 people and wounding 17 others, in what became at the time the deadliest shooting at a high school in United States history. Dressed in a maroon more
Captain Cook killed in Hawaii
On February 14, 1779, Captain James Cook, the great English explorer and navigator, is killed by natives of Hawaii during his third visit to the Pacific island group. In 1768, Cook, a surveyor in the Royal Navy, was commissioned a lieutenant in command of the HMS Endeavour and more
St. Valentine beheaded
On February 14, around the year 270 A.D., Valentine, a holy priest in Rome in the days of Emperor Claudius II, is said to have been executed. Under the rule of Claudius the Cruel, Rome was involved in many unpopular and bloody campaigns. The emperor had to maintain a strong army, more
Olympic speed skater Dan Jansen falls after sister dies
On February 14, 1988, U.S. speed skater Dan Jansen, a favorite to win the gold medal in the 500-meter race at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, falls during competition, only hours after learning his sister had died of cancer. Jansen suffered disappointment after more
Theodore Roosevelt’s wife and mother die
Future President Theodore Roosevelt’s wife and mother die, only hours apart, on February 14, 1884. Roosevelt was at work in the New York state legislature attempting to get a government reform bill passed when he was summoned home by his family. He returned home to find his more
The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre
Four men dressed as police officers enter gangster Bugs Moran’s headquarters on North Clark Street in Chicago, line seven of Moran’s henchmen against a wall, and shoot them to death. The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre, as it is now called, was the culmination of a gang war between more
Sandinistas agree to free elections
At a meeting of the presidents of Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica and El Salvador, the leftist Sandinista government of Nicaragua agrees to free a number of political prisoners and hold free elections within a year; in return, Honduras promises to close bases being more
Patriots defeat Loyalists at Kettle Creek
A Patriot militia force of 340 led by Colonel Andrew Pickens of South Carolina with Colonel John Dooly and Lieutenant Colonel Elijah Clarke of Georgia defeats a larger force of 700 Loyalist militia commanded by Colonel James Boyd on this day in 1779 at Kettle Creek, Georgia. The more
Battle of the Kasserine Pass
On this day, German General Erwin Rommel and his Afrika Korps launch an offensive against an Allied defensive line in Tunisia, North Africa. The Kasserine Pass was the site of the United States’ first major battle defeat of the war. General Erwin Rommel was dispatched to North more
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How does a berlese funnel measure biodiversity?
How does a Berlese funnel work? How can you use this to measure biodiversity? It helps extract insects from the soil and uses a heat source to dry the sample forcing the insects through a screen and into a jar with preserving fluid.
How do berlese funnels work?
A berlese funnel is a device that is used to extract insects from soil samples. It uses a heat source (in this case a light bulb) to dry the sample, forcing the insects through a screen (optional) and into a jar of preserving fluid.
What does a tullgren funnel measure?
Tullgren funnel A device used to extract small invertebrate animals from a dry soil sample. … The heat causes the animals to move away from the top of the sample, through the gauze sheet and into the funnel from which they can be collected.
How long does a Berlese funnel take?
What are the benefits of berlese funnels?
Berlese funnels are used for extracting arthropods from soil and litter samples. They work on the principle that insects and other arthropods that normally live in soil and litter will respond negatively to light.
INTERESTING: Question: What happens when you delete data from Recycle Bin?
What are the limitations of a Tullgren funnel?
Tullgren funnels work extremely well but the application of direct heat from the light-bulb does cause large numbers of mortalities amongst species which can not move very quickly and fail in their attempts to migrate downwards to higher humidity levels.
What does leaf litter do?
called leaf litter. This layer of litter provides nesting material for birds and squirrels, hiding places for small woodland mice and salamanders, and protected spots for seeds to escape notice by hungry birds. It also enriches the soil and keeps it moist so new plant seedlings can grow.
What is a funnel in biology?
How is the Berlese funnel used to collect invertebrates from soil and leaf litter samples?
Berlese funnels have three components: a funnel for holding litter and soil, a light source placed over the funnel to slowly heat and dry the samples and force the invertebrates to move downward, and a jar placed under the funnel to collect the invertebrates.
What is the Berlese apparatus?
A Berlese funnel, also known as Tullgren funnel, Berlese trap, or Berlese-Tullgren funnel, is an apparatus used to extract living organisms, particularly arthropods, from samples of soil. … Antonio Berlese described this method of dynamic sampling in 1905 with a hot water jacket as heat source.
What is Winkler extractor?
Winkler samples are an efficient method of sampling leaf litter ants. The method involves sifting bulk samples of leaf litter and rotten wood by agitating them vigorously in a bag above a coarse mesh screen.
INTERESTING: What is the key piece of environmental legislation in NSW?
What is baermann funnel?
A device used to extract nematodes (Nematoda) from a soil sample or plant material. A muslin bag containing the sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the lower end by a rubber tube and clip. Being heavier than water, the nematodes pass through the muslin and sink to the bottom.
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Bullet-Resistant Glass: How Does It Work?
Assume you are in midst of a deadly encounter; ducking bullets fired by the enemy. You are in dire need of help. You cannot keep dodging deadly sniper’s bullet for long. The safest way in which you could save yourself in this dire situation would be by placing a transparent but tough barrier that shields you from the bullet. Something which is tough enough to take on the bullets without resorting to spalling by dissipating bullet’s energy around it. Well, that’s the basic premise for having “bulletproof” glass. In this article, we will demystify the science behind the coveted bulletproof glass.
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Not really “bulletproof”
If you are an ardent action movie buff, you might have spotted bulletproof glass on several occasions in the movie. This bulletproof glass is mostly depicted to be indestructible. Irrespective of the gun used and the quantity of bullets fired, bulletproof glass remains to be invincible and intact in the action-packed movie scenes.
That’s a wishful science but reality isn’t really the same. Though we have made strong “bullet resistant” glass but that’s not really “bulletproof” from a scientific perspective. Because no glass is impenetrable. Bullet-resistant glass typically delays the impact of the bullets, i.e., it will usually take several bullet shots to shatter. Therefore, its actually the bullet-resistant glass that you see in high-security applications. But as usual clever marketers call it ‘bulletproof’ to make their glass sound invincible as ballistic glass industry is worth several billion dollars in value.
History of bulletproof glass
Many historians credit discovery of bullet resistant glass to the Prince Rupert of the Rhine of the 17th century. He accidentally placed a molten glass in a container of cold water. To his surprise that made the glass almost indestructible. But the first patented bullet-resistant glass was made by a French chemist, Édouard Bénédictus in 1909. It was more of a simplified variation of laminated safety glass. Benedictus used celluloid, a variant of plastic that was sandwiched between the two sheets of glass. Popular Science magazine envisaged the possible use of “bulletproof glass” in armored police vehicles in 1937.
How bulletproof glass works?
If you have ever played cricket you know that it’s challenging to catch a fast-moving ball; especially if the batsman has timed it well. You might be aware that the trick to catch a fast-moving ball is move your hands back i.e., in the direction of the balls’ trajectory, in a bid to stop the ball more gradually. This method minimizes the force which you feel on hand and thus catching would be a less painful experience. To explain it from the physics perspective, the force exerted by the ball on your hand is proportional to the rate of change in the ball’s momentum. Simply put, the force you can feel due to the ball hitting your hand can be reduced if you change the momentum of traveling ball slowly or gradually. Let’s understand it with an example.
Concept of sportsman playing Cricket match sport(Vecton)S
Boy trying to catch a ball (Photo Credit : Vecton/Shutterstock)
Suppose you try to catch a ball by abruptly stopping it upfront say in just half a second. You would feel a thwack on hand. Now suppose you could replay the same moment again—this time you catch the ball gradually—taking two seconds to complete the catch. Now as you took 4x more time to bring the ball in motion to rest, force feels on your hand would be quarter than what you felt when you did it abruptly in 0.5 seconds.
Coming back to the glass, unlike your hand, a pane of glass cannot move. It offers very little protection against the ramming object. So, if a person fires a bullet on a normal glass sheet, glass cannot bend and absorb the energy gradually. Instead, a shot bullet fractures the glass with force and makes the glass shattered into innumerous shards. Some of these shards can be very sharp and pointed. This adds another dimension of fatality to the glass. Because these shards of glass might just kill you even if bullet does not. This is why an ordinary glass offers zilch protection against the bullets. It fails miserably to slow down the bullet.
Bullet resistant glass is different than the ordinary glass. Apparently, bullet resistant looks like ordinary glass. The internal composition of bullet resistant glass is different from ordinary glass. It can withstand the impact of a few bullets, depending on the glass’s thickness and the calibre of the bullets.
Normal glass vs. bullet-resistant glass
Bullet resistant material is basically made by inserting a layer of polycarbonate material between layers of ordinary glass. The process is commonly called lamination. The polycarbonate material imparts a general toughness and flexibility to the glass. It can be up to 10 times thicker than an ordinary glass and are also quite heavy.
Now when someone shots a bullet onto the bullet resistant glass, the energy of bullet spreads out sideways through the layers. Due to multi-layered arrangement this energy gets divided between different layers of glass and plastic. This way energy is quickly absorbed by bullet resistant glass without spalling. The bullet is resisted so much by the glass that it does not have enough energy to pierce through the tough multi-layered glass. Although if several bullets are shot on the same point, glass does break. But thanks to the interlayered plastic, glass does not shatter like a typical glass with numerous shards flying around. Consider bullet resistant glass as “energy absorbing” glass and you’ll have a fair idea of how it works.
Thickness and cost of bulletproof glass
It must be noted that thickness plays an important role in the durability of the bullet-resistant glass. These glasses are usually designed to shield from a bullet fire or a round of bullet fires. Based on the force exerted by the ramming bullet and the type of gun used, a thicker piece of bullet resistant glass is required to abort the bullet coming with more force. For example, a gunshot from a sniper rifle is more powerful than a typical pistol. Therefore, more thickness is required to stop a bullet from a rifle than from a pistol. The thickness of bullet resistant glass generally ranges between 0.25 inches to 3 inches. Their cost could be around 25$ to 100$ per square foot.
Advancements in the bulletproof glass
When a bullet is fired at bullet-resistant glass, its outside layer is pierced, but the polycarbonate layer present inside absorbs the bullet’s energy and distributes its impact considerably. Thus, the bullet is unable to exit the final layer, i.e., break through the glass to strike a target.
Interestingly few companies have recently developed “one-way” bullet-resistant glass, which is designed to stop incoming bullets, while simultaneously allowing the person at the receiving end to shoot back.
bullet proof glass
How one-way glass works
This glass works by reinforcing a brittle glass layer, and again, utilizes a tough polymer layer. The brittle layer faces outwards and shatters if a bullet is fired at it, thus spreading the force of the bullet over a large area, which is then absorbed by the tough (polycarbonate) layer behind it. A bullet fired from the other side, however, can puncture the polymer layer easily before breaking the glass, only slowing the bullet slightly.
Applications of bulletproof glass
Businesses that keep a large amount of cash and precious items like jewellery stores, banks, liquor shops often fear they could be the target of an assault by a gunman and may need something like bullet resistant glass to protect themselves and other precious items. Similarly, administrative departments in the US including local police stations and court houses are also using bullet resistant glasses in the areas which are susceptible to gun crimes. Bullet resistant windows used in the White House is much more robust than the ones used to protect cashier in a bank or executive in a bullet resistant glass cubicle. They are specially design to withstand gunshots even from high-velocity rifles. There is an increasing demand of bullet resistant glasses as countries like Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, etc due to ongoing civil unrest and rising instances of violent encounters between protesting factions.
A politician in West Africa was attacked in a bulletproof car with AR-15s and an 18 wheel semi and survived.
A politician in West Africa was attacked in a bulletproof car with AR-15s and an 18-wheel semi and survived.
Limitations of a bulletproof glass
Besides not being truly bulletproof as mentioned earlier, another problem with bullet resistant glasses is their heavy weight. Their thick and heavy composition might not be an issue in applications like windows or cubicles inside the building but makes challenging to apply it to automobiles. Not only thickness and heaviness pose an engineering constraint in automobile design but also a trade-off of robustness for clarity. The tougher the glass is, the lesser transparency it offers. This makes them impossible to use as front car glasses as it could affect the visibility of the driver while driving.
But despite limitations, we need to acknowledge efforts behind the scientists and researchers working to make bullet-resistant glass more and more robust. It’s surely an important innovation that has saved the lives of thousands of people, from the military to the highest echelons of church and state.
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Korean War Legacy Project
Frank Zielinski
Frank Zielinski was born in Staten Island, New York, and joined the United States Army at the age of seventeen. Trained as a machine gunner, he fought at the Incheon Landing, Chosin Reservoir, and at Old Baldy. As an infantryman, his unit joined the United States Marines in heated battles. One of his fond recollections while serving in Korea was being Father for a Day to impoverished Korean youth. Frank Zielinski fought in Korea for three years, leaving in September 1953.
Video Clips
Surrounded on "The Frozen Chosin"
Frank Zielinski trained as a machine gunner and landed at Incheon with General MacArthur. One of his friends drowned clambering over the side of the ship to go ashore. Another died in Incheon when North Koreans attacked their encampment as they slept. The soldiers lived in trenches on the front lines, sometimes without proper equipment. At times, his division was surrounded by North Koreans and Chinese.
Tags: 1950 Inchon Landing, 9/15-9/19,1950 Battle of Chosin Reservoir, 11/27-12/13,Incheon,Jangjin,Chinese,Cold winters,Fear,Front lines,Living conditions,Personal Loss,Physical destruction,Weapons
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The Hell of Living in Trenches
Frank Zielinski was stationed at Old Baldy when the Armistice went into effect. He remembers the danger of living in cold trenches filled with water. The enemy would attack at night, so soldiers stayed awake to guard their positions. With no hot food available, C-rations included pork and beans, cookies, cigarettes, and instant coffee. Soldiers would leave part of their rations for the children living in nearby villages.
Tags: 1952 Battle of Old Baldy, 6/26-8/4,1953 Armistice 7/27,Imjingang (River),Chinese,Food,Front lines,Living conditions,North Koreans,Poverty,Weapons
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Returning Home
Frank Zielinski describes the use of Korean "house boys" by various officers, though he himself did not take on a house boy. KATUSAS brought food up the paths to the front lines to feed soldiers. At Thanksgiving, the KSCs delivered much-appreciated turkey. Korea taught Frank Zielinski to respect and protect others.
Tags: Imjingang (River),Front lines,Home front,Impressions of Korea,KATUSA,Living conditions
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Father of the Day
Frank Zielinski has taught his grandchildren and great grandchildren about his service in the Korean War. He is proud of his service in Korea, particularly his interaction with Korean youth during R and R (Rest and Recuperation). Soldiers would play Father of the Day, adopting up to ten boys at a time to ensure they received something to eat, if only for that day.
Tags: Food,Poverty,Pride,Rest and Relaxation (R&R),South Koreans
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Video Transcript
Zielinski: My name is Frank Zielinski. I was born in Staten Island New York. I was a farmer
before I went into the service and then when I came out of the service I worked for Mobil Oil as a maintenance man. I just came out of high school. I was just quitting high school at the time because my father needed help on the farm and uh when I got out of school the army said well there’s not gonna be any work when
Zielinski: You come out so you might as well join the army. So there’s no all I’m only 17 so I don’t need to join the army now, but they said well we’ll draft you anyway if you’re 17. So I went in at 17. Well we went to Hokkaido Japan we stayed there for uh six weeks training ski training
Interviewer: Whoa
Zielinski: So then I said uh oh Korea is next didn’t expect it but that’s what happened we wounded up in Korea in 1950.
Interviewer: What was your uh basic unit and specialty?
Zielinski: 45thdivision Oklahoma National Guardsfma
Interviewer: And what was your specialty?
Zielinski: I was an air-cooled 30 machine gunner.
Interviewer: machine gunner
Zielinski: Yeah
Interviewer: Could you tell me about your training of this machine gun?
Zielinski: Yes Sir
Interviewer: Did you receive that in Hokkaido or?
Zielinski: Well, I carried it in Hokkiado. I had the 45 and I had also the machine on the air called
30 so I would be a 30 caliber system
Zielinski: machine gunner so when we landed in Incheon with Macarthur is when we lost a machine gunner so automatically I took over the gun
Interviewer: Anything before and after picture Incheon landing?
Zielinski: No. When I had got into Incheon, we went over the side of the boat over
the rope ladders. I lost one friend, he fell off between the rope end of the
Zielinski: ship and he drowned with his pack. So uh that’s where we lost him, but he did and then from there when we landed in Incheon we had this hero tent city and the first night we were there the North Koreans invaded and killed one of the fellas sleeping in his sleep and then we
were alert from that time on and from there we we hid in Incheon. Incheon was
Zielinski: leveled off there was nothing. There was nothing but rubble so that’s how we kept going until we got further out. Then we came into the Chosun frozen with the Marines. I was in the infantry and the Marines were surrounded and then we got surrounded when the lake froze we were surrounded.
Interviewer: uh-huh
Zielinski: We were surrounded by the Chinese they came over the frozen lake when the lake froze
Zielinski: overnight not not right off in when we went a little further from Incheon and that’s when we ran into trouble. That’s when we start hitting it. What happened? We ran out of ammunition. We were on the end of the supply line. We had no winter clothing. The weather hit us about 40 below zero. We had start to start in on an advance. We wrapped it around our legs.
Interviewer: Did you have a Mick Mouse at the time?
Zielinski: No. Mickey Mouse didn’t come out
Zielinski: until July
Interviewer: mm-hmm
Zielinski: that’s when they gave’em to us in July that’s when we wounded
up with trench foot because the more you sweat. How do you figure? We used the North Korean shoes and we used the North Korean cut uniforms under our uniform the jackets came up to here on us so we had to cut the shoes our toes stuck up about that far out of the shoes because
Zielinski: we’re on the end of the supply line they came so fast that you didn’t even realize it because there was so much power firepower that you were aiming for them and they were falling all around you
Interviewer: How close were you?
Zielinski: Well we came pretty close where you almost had to use the hand to hand
Interviewer: And you survived it without any
Zielinski: No wounds
Interviewer: No wounds, you are lucky man.
Zielinski: Uh I had buddies behind me.
Interviewer: How many, how many uh
Zielinski: Well you figure you had two
Zielinski: riflemen behind me they brought the ammunition when we ran out of it so they watch my back and I watched theirs, scared yes.
Interviewer: How many days you were there at around the lake of Jhungen?
Zielinski: about three days until we had uh reinforcements and our reinforcements came
Interviewer: and then what happened? That you withdrew.
Zielinski: We pulled out.
Interviewer: Pulled out.
Zielinski: We helped the Marines to get to help the Marines at that time
Interviewer: Well but when you finally withdraw from that region and you
Zielinski: And everybody was pulled back and the replacements took over
Interviewer: Right
Zielinski: Yeah
Interviewer: mhmm
Zielinski: Because that’s a fresh troop
Interviewer: So when did you leave Korea
Zielinski: When I left Korea it was 1953
Interviewer: Well you were there for three years
Zielinski: Yeah from 50 to 53. I came out in
Zielinski: September 1953
Interviewer: So you were there when the armistice was signed
Zielinski: Yes
Interviewer: Where were you?
Zielinski: I was on Old Baldy
Interviewer: What it, where is that?
Zielinski: I uh don’t remember the hill and the number but that was right where the north where the north was you can see them walking they would just stand walk around the top of the mountain just to see if you’d shoot at them but that was a peace treaty then
Interviewer: So there was a west-side of it?
Zielinski: Yes
Interviewer: Yes
Zielinski: See they were dropping these
Zielinski: 500-pound bombs and we thought they were duds but they didn’t go off until midnight then all hell broke up
Interviewer: What was the most dangerous moment that you remember during your service?
Zielinski: Uh you know in the trench when I was on the line when we got hit midnight they hit us at midnight and uh that’s when a machine
Zielinski: gun and all started firing then you had to make sure the other guy would stay awake sometimes you’d hear them snoring on God there’d be snoring you throw rocks on him to wake him up so they wouldn’t sneak up behind you
Interviewer: What was like living in that time?
Zielinski: Was hell you had water in a trench there was no way you can keep warm until we had the bunkers then finally we built our bunkers and we
Zielinski: Were able to keep ourselves warm
Interviewer: So there was no stove or anything like that
Zielinski: No. we made our own stoves.
Interviewer: Your own stuff.
Zielinski: How? We made out of ammunition cans and tomato juice cans. We made the chimney and then they do a delivery of five gallon can of gas. And we made a rubber hose from the gas can put our clamp on it, put a little piece of tubing in so it would vaporize the gas and that’s how it would heat the
Interviewer: Genius
Zielinski: Yes we had well you had a figure one hot
Interviewer: How about food?
Zielinski: Food was C rations.
Interviewer: C rations?
Zielinski: Pork and beans.
Interviewer: So there was no hot food.
Zielinski: No.
Interviewer: Not at all.
Zielinski: Only on Thanksgiving is when the KSC’s brought it out to us.
Interviewer: What was the best part of the C rations for you?
Zielinski: Well the C ration is with the cigarettes and the cookies and the uh instant coffee. Fact we left a lot of it
Zielinski: For the kids. There’s a lot of children there that were left alone and we would leave, take for what we need for today and we’d leave the rest for the kids so they’d have something to eat.
Interviewer: They were Korean villages around your base?
Zielinski: Yes. There were villages around.
Interviewer: Huh. Tell me about it please. And what was?
Zielinski: Well the only thing I can remember is it was a grass house with a concrete floor and when he used to make the fire
Zielinski: Underneath to keep warm that was to it the only thing I remember about it, I was more worried about keeping my skin
Interviewer: Uh is your unit have household boy, Korean boy, the bus boy?
Zielinski: Some did. The officers, sergeants, lieutenants
Interviewer: Not you.
Zielinski: No
Interviewer: Have you had any experience with working with the crane KATUSA?
Zielinski: Just a KSC’s when they
Zielinski: Brought the food up to us.
Interviewer: Mm-hmm.
Zielinski: We wondered how they did it. I used to carry that stuff heavier than them and they’d bring it to us.
Interviewer: What was the most rewarding moments in during your service?
Zielinski: Most rewarding is when I came out with the turkey.
Interviewer: When was it?
Zielinski: That was around Thanksgiving.
Interviewer: You were really missing Thanksgiving holiday.
Zielinski: Well the chicken and stuff you know. Things that you didn’t have.
Interviewer: So there was the happiest moment.
Zielinski: That was a happiest moment that’s when you forget about everything no matter how dirty the food was you still ate it. It was good.
Interviewer: What is the overall impact of the Korean War in your life?
Zielinski: In my life it taught me a lot to respect others, protect others and that’s what I try to do today.
Interviewer: Today. So after you coming back from Korea what
Interviewer: Did you do?
Zielinski: I had to learn everything over again it was hard to get used to having somebody tell you brush your teeth, comb your hair, get a haircut shave you had to do everything for yourself
Interviewer: But that’s what you used to do before the war.
Zielinski: Naturally, yeah, right. We were told to do it
Interviewer: About what I meant was what kind of job did you have? Did you just continue to work as a farmer?
Zielinski: No, when I came back uh I put in for a
Zielinski: maintenance man job and I worked for Mobil Oil as a maintenance man. I used to do the fireballs and party East Brunswick New Jersey so I used to repair the gas station
Interviewer: Mmm. So while you carried out all of your jobs were there anything that you think you got from the Korean War Service?
Zielinski: Yeah it taught me how to protect myself
Interviewer: Mmm-hmm
Zielinski: Discipline myself yes.
Interviewer: Mmm-hmm. Have you been back to Korea?
Zielinski: Yes
Interviewer: When?
Zielinski: I was back to your last two about three months ago
Interviewer: Three months ago?
Zielinski: Yeah
Interviewer: That was the first time?
Zielinski: It was my first time since
Interviewer: Tell me all about it. How did you feel?
Zielinski: Well when I went to Incheon I was looking to see where we landed. I couldn’t find it because it was bigger than New York City everything was changed different. I
Zielinski: thought I was back in New York. People were different the food.
Interviewer: What other place did you go?
Zielinski: Well we went to the museum and somehow I got the bug that night and it made me very sick. I was rinsing my mouth I guess after I washed the teeth and I got very sick from it.
My wife was also sick. My son’s a doctor he came with us and uh he enjoyed himself. He’s teaching the
Zielinski: Korean students today.
Interviewer: Hmm. So oh your son is in Korea?
Zielinski: No he’s here in the United States but he teaches the Korean students in Jersey
as a doctor.
Interviewer: Hmm
Zielinski: He’s his students are Korean students.
Interviewer: So when you go back to Korea and find that it’s so different how did you feel about your service and your um….
Zielinski: I couldn’t believe that after all
Zielinski: we went through to see the country change as much as it did there. Even when I went to the DMZ I couldn’t believe it. It was a big change.
Interviewer: So how did you feel about your service?
Zielinski: I felt that I did my job.
Interviewer: Overall how do you describe the legacy of the Korean War and Korean War Veterans?
Zielinski: Korean vets
Zielinski: We stick together we watch one another even today.
Interviewer: Even today.
Zielinski: Yeah.
Interviewer: Yeah and why that some people call it as a Korean Conflict or some people say substantial
Zielinski: The forgotten war.
Interviewer: Or the forgotten war. Why? And how can we overcome that?
Zielinski: That they wouldn’t even put into the history books. Half of the kids in this country don’t even know there was a Korean war unless when we go to the schools and we talk to the
Zielinski: Children about it. We take the helmets we take the canteens we show the children
Interviewer: You’re talking about tell America Program?
Zielinski: Yes
Interviewer: Yeah
Zielinski: Yes
Interviewer: Umhmm. How many grandchildren do you have?
Zielinski: I have five.
Interviewer: Five. How old they are?
Zielinski: I have a 23 he’s a policeman I have a 25 year old he’s going to be a policeman I have a granddaughter that’s a schoolteacher and I have two one seven and one five
Interviewer: What even seven-year-old?
Zielinski: seven-year-old, five year old.
Interviewer: Great-grandchildren right?
Zielinski: Yep
Interviewer: Yeah
Zielinski: No. Grandchild
Interviewer: Oh grandchild.
Zielinski: And he loves the American flag because I had brainwashed him
Interviewer: Have you talked to them about your service?
Zielinski: Yes we do. The children know.
Interviewer: Hmmm
Zielinski: They go to the parades, they watch they see, grandpa out there. I just when I go back to Korea I see a lot of these young fellas I mean they were children one
Zielinski: When I was were there. When I was there and I see. They come over thank me for what I’ve done when I was over there and it makes me feel proud. Because it could been one of those child children that I played the father of the day with when we could were in R&R; rest and recuperate they called it. We had like ten boys and we were to make sure that they would eat for that day and we’d act as their father. Most of the Korean vets did that.
Unknown: Official
Unknown person: proclamation of ambassador for peace.
Zielinski: Uhhhuh
Unknown person: Mr. Frank Zielinski. Here it is.
Zielinski: I thank you.
Unknown person: Yeah.
Zielinski: Thank you very much.
Unknown person: Thank you. And I also have a medal for you.
Zielinski: Thank you very much. It’s my honor. My honor Sir.
Interviewer: Thank you Sir.
[End of Recorded Materials]
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BioKIDS home
Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species
Coccinella novemnotata
What do they look like?
Coccinella novemnotata usually has nine spots, which gives it its name (novem- means nine in Latin), although there are spotless forms which may be confused with Coccinella johnsi. They are red, oval-shaped and range from 4.7 to 7.0 mm. They range in size (area of their elytra, which cover their wings) from 24.36 to 37.66 sq. mm. Coccinella novemnotata has a broad head with a pale band between its eyes. The front part of the pronotum (the section between the head and elytra) is also pale. The elytra have black spots that get smaller in size and in number until the back of the beetle. Coccinella novemnotata eggs are usually orange to bright yellow in color. Eggs that will not hatch shrivel and become dark brown or black within 2 to 3 days. (Gordon, 1985; Losey, et al., 2012)
• Sexual Dimorphism
• sexes alike
• Range length
4.7 to 7.0 mm
0.19 to 0.28 in
Where do they live?
Coccinella novemnotata, the nine-spotted lady beetle, used to be one of the most common ladybird beetle species in its range. It was found throughout the Nearctic region in the United States and southern Canada. However, its range has significantly decreased in recent years, especially in the United States. A survey in 2009 found only a few of these ladybird beetles in western and central United States. Another survey in 1993 found no Coccinella novemnotata in thirteen Northeastern states, though a single beetle was found in 2006 in Virginia, the first to be spotted in 14 years in the eastern states. (Gordon, 1985; Harmon, et al., 2007; Hesler, et al., 2009)
What kind of habitat do they need?
Coccinella novemnotata is found on agricultural land and lives on crops such as alfalfa, clover, corn, cotton, potatoes and soybeans. These beetles can also be found on a variety of other plants in wooded habitats, grasslands and suburban areas. A survey found that C. novemnotata is highly likely to be living in national parks, though the reason for this is unknown. (Gordon, 1985; Harmon, et al., 2007; Hesler, et al., 2009)
How do they grow?
Coccinella novemnotata has complete metamorphosis and goes through egg, larva, pupa, and adult life stages. Larvae hatch from eggs after approximately four days. The larvae undergo four stages called instars. It takes an average of four to five days for Coccinella novemnotata to reach its third-instar. After approximately seven more days, the larvae spend one day in a pre-pupal stage where they stop eating and seem very slow and inactive. The larvae then pupate. After four days, adults emerge. After one day, the elytra on the adult Coccinella novemnotata harden. (Losey, et al., 2012)
How do they reproduce?
There is no information about the mating systems of Coccinella novemnotata, but there is research that describes the mating systems of the very similar Coccinella septempunctata. Males of Coccinella septempunctata do a five step courtship display. They first approach a female, watch, then examine, mount and attempt to mate. Females who are not yet ready to mate, have recently mated, or are about to lay eggs, will reject the male. Males recognize female mates based on chemical and visual clues, such as size and female body shape. Males may mate several times in one day. It is possible that the mating habits of C. novemnotata are similar to those of C. septempunctata. (Omkar and Srivastava, 2002; Srivastava and Omkar, 2004)
There is little information about the general mating behavior of Coccinella novemnotata. It is known that C. novemnotata is ready to mate 2 to 4 days after it becomes an adult. Adults breed continuously during a several week period in the summer that happens before going into hiding for the winter. (Losey, et al., 2012)
• How often does reproduction occur?
Adults breed continuously, living for several weeks.
• Breeding season
Adults breed for several weeks in the summer.
• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
22 to 25 days
• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
22 to 25 days
Like most lady beetles, Coccinella novemnotata provides nutrients in its eggs for the offspring to grow. After laying eggs, the adults leave and likely provide no more care. (Gordon, 1985)
• Parental Investment
• pre-hatching/birth
• provisioning
• female
How long do they live?
There is little information available about this topic for C. novemnotata, though it is known that it takes about 20 days for C. novemnotata to develop from an egg to an adult. Adults then live for several weeks during the summer, and the adults that are still alive at the end of summer go into hiding for the winter. (Losey, et al., 2012)
How do they behave?
Coccinella novemnotata is a predator of many species of aphids. It is a mobile insect that hunts its prey. Coccinella novemnotata crawls or flies. It is mainly active during the day. There is little known about the social behavior of Coccinella novemnotata, most likely because there are so few of these beetles found in North America today. (Gordon, 1985)
How do they communicate with each other?
There is no information about how Coccinella novemnotata communicates and views its environment, but it is likely similar to other Coccinellidae that rely on sight and chemical detection to find mates and prey. (Omkar and Srivastava, 2002; Srivastava and Omkar, 2004)
What do they eat?
Coccinella novemnotata is an insectivore. It eats aphids, which are small insects that feed on plants. They prey on many different species of aphids, including pea aphids, green peach aphids, and cheery-oat aphids. They will also eat spider mites, alfalfa weevils, the nymphs of leafhoppers, and the eggs of butterflies and moths. (Hesler, et al., 2012; Losey, et al., 2012; Wheeler and Hoebeke, 1995)
• Animal Foods
• insects
What eats them and how do they avoid being eaten?
Other species of lady beetle often eat Coccinella novemnotata. Coccinella transversoguttata, another species of lady beetle, is known to prey on C. novemnotata. In populations that were born and raised in laboratories, it has been observed that adults and larvae of C. novemnotata will cannibalize eggs and pupae of its own species, while large larvae will eat smaller larvae. As a species of Coccinellidae, it is likely that C. novemnotata can produce toxic chemicals from its joints (called reflex bleeding) when threatened by a predator. The bright red color of these beetles acts as a warning signal to predators. Predators often known that brightly colored insects are poisonous, and are less likely to attack them. (Gordon, 1985; Hesler, et al., 2012; Losey, et al., 2012)
• These animal colors help protect them
• aposematic
What roles do they have in the ecosystem?
Coccinella novemnotata eats many species of aphids, as well as spider mites, alfalfa weevils, leafhopper nymphs, and butterfly and moths eggs. The population of C. novemnotata has decreased recently in North America. This is thought to be caused by competition for food (aphids) between C. novemnotata and other species, such as Coccinella septempunctata. Coccinella septempunctata is an invasive species, and is likely pushing C. novemnotata out of its habitat. The body size of C. novemnotata is effected by the amount of food available. In the past few years, the average body size of C. novemnotata has decreased, which shows that individuals of C. novemnotata are not getting enough food. The population of C. novemnotata may also have decreased because of climate change, as well as changes in farm land (their food, aphids, are usually very common on crops on farmland). Coccinella novemnotata is considered to be a natural enemy of Ostrina nubilalis, the European corn borer. The wasp Perilitus coccinellae is known to be a parasite of C. novemnotata adults. (Losey, et al., 2012; Wheeler and Hoebeke, 1995)
• Perilitus coccinellae
Do they cause problems?
There are no known negative effects of Coccinella novemnotata on humans.
How do they interact with us?
In 1914 in Connecticut and 1930 in Minnesota, Coccinella novemnotata was ranked as one of the lady beetles with the greatest economic importance. Since it eats large numbers of aphids, which often damage crops, it could control aphid populations and stop damage to crops. However, since that time, the population of C. novemnotata has significantly decreased, and the importance of this species has been reduced. (Britton, 1914; Stehr, 1930)
• Ways that people benefit from these animals:
• controls pest population
Are they endangered?
Coccinella novemnotata is not currently an endangered species, but due to the large decrease in population size across the United States, C. novemnotata is a likely candidate for future conservation efforts to prevent its extinction. (Harmon, et al., 2007)
Some more information...
In 2000, Cornell University started The Lost Ladybug Project, which uses images of ladybugs taken by citizens to identify lady beetles from across the country. This project has provided much information of the location of many lady beetle species, and has helped determined that there still are a few Coccinella novemnotata in the western United States. ("The Lost Ladybug Project", 2013; Losey, et al., 2012)
2013. "The Lost Ladybug Project" (On-line). Accessed March 27, 2013 at
Britton, W. 1914. Some common lady beetles of Connecticut. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, 181: 1-24.
Gagne, W., J. Martin. 1968. The insect ecology of red pine plantations in Central Ontario V. The Coccinellidae (Coleoptera). Canadian Entomologist, 100: 835-846.
Gordon, R. 1985. The Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) of America north of Mexico. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 93: 1-912.
Harmon, J., E. Stephens, J. Losey. 2007. The decline of native coccinellids (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in the United States and Canada. Journal of Insect Conservation, 11: 85-94.
Hesler, L., M. Catangui, J. Losey, J. Helbig, A. Mesman. 2009. Recent Records of Adalia bipunctata (L.), Coccinella transversoguttata richardsoni Brown, and Coccinella novemnotata Herbst (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) from South Dakota and Nebraska. The Coleopterists Bulletin, 64/4: 475-484.
Hesler, L., G. McNickle, M. Catangui, J. Losey, E. Beckendorf, L. Stellwag, D. Brandt, P. Bartlett. 2012. Method for Continuously Rearing Coccinella Lady Beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). The Open Entomology Journal, 6: 42-48.
Hudon, M. 1959. First Record of Perilitus coccinellae (Schrank) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) as a Parasite of Coccinella novemnotata Hbst. and Coleomegilla maculata lengi Timb. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in Canada. The Canadian Entomologist, 91/1: 63-64.
Losey, J., J. Perlman, E. Hoebeke. 2007. Citizen scientist rediscovers rare nine-spotted lady beetle, Coccinella novemnotata, in eastern North America. Journal of Insect Conservation, 11/4: 415-417.
Losey, J., J. Perlman, J. Kopco, S. Ramsey, L. Hesler, E. Evans, L. Allee, R. Smyth. 2012. Potential causes and consequences of decreased body size in field populations of Coccinella novemnotata. Biological Control, 61: 98-103.
Omkar, , S. Srivastava. 2002. The reproductive behaviour of an aphidophagous ladybeetle, Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). European Journal of Entomology, 99: 465-470.
Srivastava, S., Omkar. 2004. Age-specific mating and reproductive senescence in the seven-spotted ladybird, Coccinella septempunctata. Journal of Applied Entomology, 128: 452-458.
Stehr, W. 1930. The Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles) of Minnesota. University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin, 75: 1-54.
Wheeler, A., E. Hoebeke. 1995. Coccinella novemnotata in Northeastern North America: historical occurrence and current status (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Proceeding of the Entomological Society of Washington, 97: 701-716.
University of Michigan Museum of ZoologyNational Science Foundation
BioKIDS home | Questions? | Animal Diversity Web | Cybertracker Tools
Ijaz, D. 2013. "Coccinella novemnotata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed May 18, 2022 at
University of Michigan
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The role of promises for children’s trustworthiness and honesty
Kay Bussey*
*Corresponding author for this work
11 Citations (Scopus)
The ability to keep promises is often considered a major hallmark of trustworthiness (Rotenberg, McDougall, Boulton, Vaillancourt, Fox, and Hymel, 2004; Talwar, Lee, Bala, and Lindsay, 2002). But what are promises? Why do we keep and break them, and what purpose do they serve? It is surprising that so little is known about such an everyday concept. Apart from their colloquial use, promises serve a vital role in the legal system. In criminal proceedings, witnesses are required to take a sworn oath which entails promising to tell the truth. In this context, it is believed that promises have an honesty-promoting effect. On the other hand, promises are not always used to promote honesty. At times, they are used to inhibit it. For example, perpetrators of child sexual abuse sometimes ask their victims to promise to keep the abuse secret. Adults ask children to keep secrets within the family, and children swear each other to secrecy. Children may witness a school friend damage property and be sworn to secrecy by their friend; they may swear each other to secrecy over a less serious matter, such as who they like best in their class; or they may swear the victims of bullying to secrecy. It is apparent, therefore, that promises can serve different purposes in different situations. In some circumstances they can promote truth-telling and in others they can undermine it. How can promises serve such different purposes?
Original languageEnglish
Title of host publicationInterpersonal trust during childhood and adolescence
EditorsKen J. Rotenberg
Place of PublicationCambridge, UK
PublisherCambridge University Press
Number of pages22
ISBN (Electronic)9780511750946
ISBN (Print)9780521887991
Publication statusPublished - Jun 2010
Dive into the research topics of 'The role of promises for children’s trustworthiness and honesty'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
Cite this
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"url": "https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/the-role-of-promises-for-childrens-trustworthiness-and-honesty"
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On July 13, 1787, the Congress of the Confederation adopted the Northwest Ordinance, which established a government in the Northwest Territory, an area corresponding to the present-day Midwest.
In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson nominated Thurgood Marshall to be U.S. Solicitor General, the first Black jurist appointed to the post. (Two years later, he was nominated to the U.S. Supreme Court.)
In 2013, the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter first appears, sparking a movement.
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"url": "https://gordonjones.com/tag/july-13"
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The Cholula Massacre
Image From El Lienza de Tlaxcala (Tlaxcalan)
There are several things to note in this image. The serpent and flames at the top of the temple may be a reference to Xiutecuhtli, the Mexica fire-serpant and god of war. In any case, the flames are a common signifier of defeat. The Cholulan falling from the roof is symbolic of his committing suicide. Dismembered bodies are symbols of death and defeat. The Indians attacking the Cholulans are Tlaxcalans. Note the prominence of Malinche, who almost seems to be directing the attack.
Make some observations about what is included in the image:
Who can you identify?
Where are they located in the image?
How are they dressed?
What kind of military action do you see?
What is the center of this image?
Ask yourself some questions about what you see in the image:
What is the story being told in this image?
How do you account for the differences in the various stories?
Write your own interpretation of what you think happened at Cholula based on the evidence.
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"url": "https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico/image-exercises/the-cholula-massacre"
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STARFLAG: a project on collective animal behaviour
Collective animal behaviour is a fascinating phenomenon. How does global co-ordination emerge in a flock of thousands starlings swirling at dusk? How does a school of sardines organize in a circular pattern? What is the evolutionary function of collective behaviour? Is it purely defensive, or has it some other purpose, perhaps social? INFM-CNR was the leader node of a European project – FP6-NEST 12682 STARFLAG (2005-2008) – dedicated to the study of collective animal behaviour.
The STARFLAG project is now ended, but its research continues in the COBBS lab.
In order to learn from nature the fundamental mechanisms of self-organization it is essential to have a strong feedback between quantitative empirical observations on one side, and theories and models on the other side. The STARFLAG project was born exactly with this aim: scientists from many different disciplines, including biology, physics and economics, joined forces to tackle the problem of collective behaviour. By focusing on one paradigmatic case, namely the motion of large flocks of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), STARFLAG aimed to quantitatively understand the mechanisms of self-organization in natural systems, to develop models as accurate as possible, and finally to explore the role of collective animal behaviour in other disciplines. STARFLAG includes seven research institutes and it was coordinated at the European level by Giorgio Parisi.
The backbone of STARFLAG was to obtain empirical data, and this was the task of the INFM-CNR node, coordinated by Andrea Cavagna. Measuring the three-dimensional (3D) position of each individual within a large group of animals is tricky. The first measurements on small fish schools were done in the ‘60s. These early studies considered not more than 20 animals, a number that is very far from the natural case, where groups can range up to tens of thousands individuals. Surprisingly, forty years later the field of 3D observations on animal collective behaviour had done little progress, and as recently as 1998 scientists could only study groups of few tens of animals. The bottleneck was not technology, nor equipment, but something called the correspondence (or matching) problem (See Fig.1).
Figure 1.
In order to obtain the 3D positions of individual birds within the flock, STARFLAG used stereometry, which consists in taking synchronous picture of the same target from two different positions. Images a and b are the left and right photographs of the stereometric pair, taken at the same instant of time, from two cameras 25 meters apart. This flock consists of about 1300 starlings, flying at 11ms-1. To perform the 3D reconstruction, each bird’s image on the left photo must be matched to its corresponding image on the right photo. This is the correspondence, or matching, problem. Five matched pairs of birds are visualized by the red squares. In previous studies the matching was performed manually, and this severely limited the number of animals, as well as the cohesion of the group. STARFLAG developed new algorithms, inspired by statistical physics and computer vision, that can perform the matching automatically in flocks of several thousands birds. This has been the breakthrough that allowed STARFLAG to make the first large-scale quantitative study of collective animal behaviour in the field. c,d,e,f: 3D reconstruction of the flock under 4 different points of view. Panel d shows the reconstructed flock under the same perspective as the right photograph (b).
Using new techniques, inspired by computer vision and statistical physics, the STARFLAG project managed to solve the correspondence problem and to reconstruct for the first time the 3D positions of individual birds in flocks of several thousands starlings in the field. Compared to former studies, this is an advance of two orders of magnitude, which put STARFLAG in the unique position of making a detailed analysis of the rules of interaction in collective animal behaviour.
A description of the STARFLAG empirical methods and computer vision techniques can be found in these two papers: Part I and Part II
The results were striking. By measuring the anisotropic structure of birds within the flock we were able to track the interaction among the birds. At variance with previous models and theories, we found that the strength of the interaction binding two individuals does not decay proportionally to the metric distance between them, as previously assumed, but rather to the topological distance. An example may clarify this result: whenever we take the bus, we do not measure the distance between two stops in meters, or kilometres (metric distance), but rather in number of stops (topological distance). Birds do something similar: they measure the distance in units of individuals, not meters. This implies that each bird interacts with a fixed number of neighbours, rather than interacting with all neighbours within a fixed metric distance, as assumed by all current models. In particular, we discovered that each bird always interacts with 6-7 neighbours, independently of the metric distance of these neighbours.
Learn more about metric vs. topological interaction by looking at this page.
Why 6-7 neighbours? This range is significantly smaller than the number of visually unobstructed neighbours around each bird. We conclude that this specific value, 6-7, must derive from the cortical elaboration of the visual input, rather than from a limitation of the input itself. In order to keep under control a fixed number of neighbours, irrespective of their metric distance, it is necessary for the individuals to have some pre-numeric ability, or, more precisely, an object-tracking, or ‘subitizing’, ability. This capability decays beyond a certain number, and such perceptual limit defines the range of interaction. Emmerton & Delius show that trained pigeons can discriminate sets of different numerosities provided that these sets have less than 7 objects. In our field study we find a range of 6-7 neighbours. Such a striking agreement suggests that the same tracking ability at the basis of numerical discrimination may be used for interacting with a fixed number of neighbours, and then be an essential ingredient of collective animal behaviour. An alternative interpretation of the interaction range we find is that the specific value 6-7 may be functional to optimize anti-predatory response: if each individual interacts with too few neighbours, information is non-noisy, but too short-ranged; conversely, if the interaction involves too many neighbours, information is averaged over several ill-informed individuals, and it is too noisy.
Figure 2.
A flock of 3000 starlings together with its 3D reconstruction. Previous studies could deal with up to few tens of animals, in loose, non-cohesive arrangements, and very seldon in the field. Starling flocks often display a rather thin shape, similar to a pan-cake. Surprisingly enough, the aspect ratio of the flocks is quite constant, even though flocks differ considerably in number of birds. This kind of feature, as many others, would be impossible to detect without a full 3D reconstruction of the individual birds positions. From these 3D data it was possible to investigate the nature of the interaction among birds.
Why a topological, and not a metric interaction? Animal collective behaviour is staged in a troubled natural environment. Hence, the interaction mechanism shaped by evolution must keep cohesion in the face of strong perturbations, of which predation is the most relevant. We believe that topological interaction is the only mechanism granting such robust cohesion, and therefore higher biological fitness. A metric interaction is inadequate to cope with this problem: whenever the inter-individual distance became larger than the metric range, interaction would vanish, cohesion would be lost, and stragglers would ‘evaporate’ from the aggregation. A topological interaction, on the opposite, is very robust, since its strength is the same at different densities. By interacting within a fixed number of individuals, rather than meters, the aggregation can be either dense or sparse, change shape, fluctuate and even split, yet maintaining the same degree of cohesion.
A simple numerical model confirmed our hypothesis that the use of a topological rather than metric distance is beneficial for the biological fitness of the flock. Under strong perturbation, as the attack of a predator, numerical simulations show that the cohesion of the group is far more robust for a topological interaction, than a metric one. STARFLAG is also trying to find out what are the behavioural rules at the basis of the anisotropic structure observed empirically within the flock. To this aim, new models taking into account the anisotropic visual apparatus of birds and fishes are being developed.
You can find all the INFM-CNR STARFLAG papers here.
An interesting article about STARFLAG was published in Physics Today. It can be found in the press room, together with the other press coverage of STARFLAG.
If you need some STARFLAG images, you can find a selection of low resolution photos from the project here.
Contact details:
If you want to have more information about STARFLAG, please contact:
Andrea Cavagna
Irene Giardina
The team:
Take a look at the ugly STARFLAG bunch.
All images and figures are property of the FP6-NEST 12682 STARFLAG Project, INFM-CNR
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Why the Easter Bunny Brings Easter Eggs: Folktale
This fun European folktale is one explanation of why a bunny brings eggs at Easter. A folktale is a legend or tale that has a moral or lesson and is typically passed down by word of mouth.
After your student reads the story (and answers the questions at the end of the story), discuss the story.
• Is this a true story or fiction? Why?
• Define folktale.
• What is the moral or lesson of this story?
• Ask your students to write their own tale that explains why Easter bunnies bring Easter eggs.
This iBook/PDF is fully accessible with a screen reader and paired braille display. Images have alt tag descriptions.
Note: The iBook version has multiple pictures that students can scroll through; this scrolling picture layout is called a "carousel". Unfortunately, the PDF version is limited to the first picture in each carousel.
Download the Easter Bunny iBook here (open in Apple Books).
Download the Easter Bunny PDF here.
Collage of Why the Easter Bunny Brings Easter Eggs: Folktale
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Pedro Paramo Women
The Analysis of the Roles of Women as Symbols of Subjugation in Juan Rulfo’s Pedro Paramo All throughout history, women have been universally known to be subjugated by men who are considered to be the leaders of society. Juan Rulfo develops a connection to this history of women as subjugated subjects of society in his novel Pedro Paramo as he presents the Mexican women as inferior and vulnerable beings under the authority and power of the men.
In his non-sequential novel, Pedro Paramo, Rulfo establishes female characters, such as Dolores, Dorotea, and Susana, respectively as symbols of subjugation representing pain, loss, and sacrifice who are emotionally, economically, psychologically and spiritually affected by the actions taken by male characters to illustrate that females in the Mexican society live under the shadow of male dominance without holding any power.
Rulfo introduces Dolores as a symbol of pain at the beginning of the novel. When Rulfo creates the flashback to the morose event of Dolores dying, Dolores is shown to be reminding Juan Preciado, her son, to visit Comala to “make [Pedro Paramo] pay for all those years he had put [them] out of his mind,” (Rulfo, 3). Rulfo’s decision to emphasize Dolores feelings against Pedro Paramo by making her grievances against Paramo her last words before dying capture Dolores’s emotional pain.
The dialogue conveys that although Dolores is close to the end of her human experiences, her experience with Paramo, her husband, left a lasting effect on her as she continues to recall his actions towards her and wishes for repayment of the time he abandoned her. Furthermore, with this event, Rulfo skillfully employs the significance of Dolores’s name, which means pain, by presenting that Dolores continues to dwell in the “pain” of her failed relationship with Paramo, the dominant male figure she had married.
This development of Dolores’s character in reference to the pain inflicted by Paramo presents that men in society, such as Paramo, have a strong, haunting effect on the state and mind of the women who interact with them. The lasting effect of the men on the position of women in further seen as Rulfo shifts Dolores from representing pain to symbolizing the loss of identify and power by highlighting Paramo’s role and circumstance in deciding to marry Dolores.
Paramo and his ancestors owed a great amount of debt to the Preciados, the family of Dolores. However, since Paramo lacks the money to pay the debt, he suddenly commands Fulgor “to go and ask for Lola’s [Dolores’s] hand” so that he would not have to pay the debt (Rulfo, 36). Rulfo’s choice of indirectly characterizing Paramo as a bold decision-maker with this dialogue reinforces the idea that men hold the power make all decisions in society.
Furthermore, Rulfo’s use of the marriage as a way of balancing relationships of money by exchanging a woman as the repayment of debt conveys that women in society, such as Dolores, are often viewed as a prize that can be switched for a monetary value. Dolores’s lack of opinion in the matter of her marriage further establishes that women are viewed as inanimate objects that face the loss of freedom and identity throughout their lives.
This loss of identity is evident as Dolores’s position of being in “charge of everything”, including money, before her marriage shifts to following the orders of Paramo after her marriage (Rulfo, 36). This clear difference between the command and power of a woman before and after being paced under the authority of men displays how women become the symbol of loss of independence and economic freedom after being subjugated under the shadow of the men in patriarchal social structures.
The representation of women as a symbol of loss is further seen through the minor character of Dorotea. Rulfo characterizes Dorotea as the one “who rolls up a bundle in her rebozo and sings to it, and calls it her baby,” (Rulfo, 63). This characterization of Dorotea as a childless mother who pretends to have a son illustrates how the lack of being able to conceive a son has caused her to lost her normal psychological state.
The repetition of the fact that Dorotea is unable to become a mother throughout the novel, and her motherly connection with Juan Preciado later in the novel, communicates the importance that the natural roles of women hold in the patriarchal society in which the males, such as Paramo, are viewed as the warrior and the female, such as Dorotea, are viewed as the care-takers. By focusing on Dorotea’s role as a care-taker in society, Rulfo shifts from the loss of Dorotea’s mental state to her economic dependence on Miguel Paramo and sacrifice of her spiritual freedom.
After hearing about Dorotea, Miguel Paramo is presented to be “wondering how the woman might be of use to him. Then without further hesitation he went back” and called her to hire her to find girls for him, (Rulfo, 63). Rulfo’s description of Miguel Paramo’s quick decision for a woman with the use of words, such as “without hesitation” tends to establish a connection with the way one would purchase an item at a store. The words suggest that Miguel did not have any emotional attachment or sympathy for Dorotea and hired her for his selfish purpose of desiring the lustful love and company of young girls.
In exchange for the job, Dorotea received the “same food” that Miguel Paramo ate, (Rulfo, 64). Although this may suggest that Dorotea held a position equal to that of men, Rulfo’s advancement in the plotline depicting Dorotea’s interaction with Father Rentaria conveys that she had sacrificed her spiritual freedom for the job. After Miguel’s death, Dorotea confessed to Father Rentaria that she had “rounded up Miguelito’s girls” and wished to be forgiven for the sin, (Rulfo, 74).
However, Father Rentaria responded in a mediocre manner by simply stating that Dorotea “won’t go to Heaven now,” (Rulfo, 74). Rulfo’s emphasis on Father Renteria’s unthoughtful reaction by employing the use of the simple dialogue suggests that the men of the society had no interests in listening to the truths of a women. As a result, Rulfo’s construction of Dorotea’s interaction with Miguel and Father Renteria communicates the manner in which women can be cunningly used against to manipulate other women and can be robbed from the possible happiness that may lie in their future.
Although Rulfo develops Pedro Paramo’s relationship with Susana as more intimate and valuable than with the other female characters, Rulfo continues to follow the pattern of representing women as the symbols of loss by conveying how Susana’s interaction with Paramo leads to the degradation of her identity as an individual. Rulfo focuses on Paramo’s control over Susana’s life by attributing the possessive dialogue of “I wanted to have it all. Not just part of it, but everything there was to have…” to Paramo in reference to his relation with Susana, (Rulfo, 82).
The repetition of phrase of wanting to “have” all or everything depicts Paramo’s internal desire to own Susana and be the sole subject of all her thoughts and feelings. By presenting this idea of possession in relation to the most intimate relationship developed in the novel, Rulfo illustrates how men in the Mexican society aim to control the lives and the hearts of the women through even their most caring actions. Rulfo’s message that men desire to own their love is further developed when Paramo refers to Susana as the “crowning achievement,” (Rulfo, 83).
Since the word “crowning” is often associated with crowns that serve as symbols of power, the phrase “crowning achievement” classifies Paramo as the king and Susana as a trophy or prize in society. Rulfo’s connection between Susana as an inanimate object reinforces women as the symbols of subjugation that represent the loss of personal identity in society. Despite Paramo’s continuous efforts to control all aspects of her life, Susana opposes the power of Paramo at the sacrifice of her life and mental state.
Rulfo characterizes Susana as a defiant character that challenges male presence and power by confining herself to a room and by not “complain[ing] about anything,” (Rulfo, 110). Although Susana continuous lack of response establishes her as a firm female character, it also marks that she has become physically and mentally unresponsive, and thus establishes her a living image of death. Rulfo skillfully utilizes this moribund state of Susana to convey that women are subjected to give sacrifices all throughout their lives as a consequence of their interaction with male leaders.
Overall, Rulfo demonstrates the subordinate and vulnerable position of women throughout history and the Mexican society by emphasizing the power and the effect of the authority of the men. Rulfo portrays how men’s can affect the lives of women by constructing his female characters of Dolores, Dorotea, and Susana as symbols of subjugation that are required to face pain, loss, and sacrifice. Ultimately, Rulfo establishes women as the symbols of subjugation under male control to convey that society revolves around patriarchal structures and stereotypes that help classify men as more valuable and power than women.
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Art History
Reproduce THIS: Know Your Art
Pierre Auguste-Renoir, an Artist’s Struggle with Arthritis
Pierre-Auguste Renoir was one of the most influential painters in the Impressionist movement and produced a very large body of work during his lifetime. One of the lesser known facts about the artist is that he suffered from rheumatoid arthritis during the later years of his life. For a man who made his living from his hands, that could have been devastating, but instead he found inventive ways to continue his work. Some of these pieces would find acclaim with the critics long after he had passed away, who never knew that he struggled to paint them. During that time he never lost his positive attitude or his ambition to create beautiful pieces.
Renoir began to show symptoms of this debilitating disease in the last twenty years of his life. He was only fifty years old when it began, but it didn’t develop into the extreme stages until much later. This caused him to suffer both pain and deformity of his fingers, yet he still pursued his passion for painting. Renoir traveled through Europe, hoping to find a cure or at least something to slow the progression but none of his efforts were greatly successful. At one point the pain made it impossible for him to stand, so he had a wheelchair made that was comfortable enough to allow him to sit and paint for hours. Relocating to a warmer climate helped some of his symptoms and provided new inspiration for his art. Eventually, he would be forced to tie the paintbrushes to his hands with cloth bandages because he could no longer grip them with his fingers. That did not stop him from still creating beautiful works.
Many of his later works, those created while he was fighting his disease, depicted tranquil domestic life. Many of the most popular ones include depictions of young children at different activities. Two Young Girls at the Piano is especially popular, and the attention to light and detail show nothing of the difficulty his hands had in painting it. Renoir shows how an artist can still achieve their vision, even if their health no longer makes it easy.
Bring some of the spirit Pierre Auguste-Renoir had into your own home with any of his beautiful domestic pieces, or some of his earlier works created while in the prime of health. The vibrant colors and unique characters are prevalent no matter which period of his work you choose
About the Author
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Spelunking, or cave exploration, is a growing sport. Get ready for some virtual spelunking in this activity. Have fun exploring, from Mrs. Katz at Sonora Elementary.
Today’s Activities
Read / Write
Access the links to read about and see super cool cave formations, speleothems.
Answer questions on the worksheet as you go through your day as a virtual spelunker.
Read about caves in the U.S
Tell what you see in this picture.
“I see ______________________”
Erosion Math
Glaciers, Weather, and Wind Oh My! Erosion Math Worksheet
Virtual Field Trip to Moaning Cavern
Go on a virtual field trip to a local cavern, Vallecito’s Moaning Cavern.
Look at images of caves. What’s your favorite? Why?
Watch this student’s claymation video, explaining how speleothems are created. Can you create claymation or another model that represents how speleothems are created?
Draw a picture of a speleothem.
Draw a cave
Did you do today’s activities?
Teaching Tips
Accessibility Feature
Turning on transcripts for YouTube Videos [PDF]
Speech and language
Focus on word study: When we know the meaning of prefixes and affixes we can figure out the meaning of brand new words.
1. “Stala” means “dripping.” How does this help you understand the terms “stalactite” and “stalagmite?”
2. “Speleo” means “cave.” How does this help you understand the word “speleothem?”
Can you discover the meaning of “them” in the word “speleothem?”
More 6th Grade Lessons
End of Year Reflection: Hopes & Dreams
End of Year Reflection: Hopes & Dreams
Fail Forward
Fail Forward
The Present
The Present
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What is a Cascade Impactor?
Alexis W.
Alexis W.
A cascade impactor is used when a particulate substance is moved through an opening with the use of aerosol. The impactor is used to measure the range of the substance’s reach. Cascade impactors are strictly measurement-related devices.
Man with a drill
Man with a drill
In addition to measuring the range of substances moved through an opening by aerosol, the impactor can also be used to determine the particle size of the distributed substance. A cascade impactor collects its samples in a graduated manner. This allows the user to identify the sizes of the substance particles as the particles are distributed from the propellant aerosol source.
When the aerosol substance is distributed into the cascade impactor, the substance enters a series of discs designed to collect solids and different particulate matter. The substance is thus collected as it passes through the disc series. Each disc is set in sequence with both the prior and the previous disc. The size of the discs is graduated as well, to properly determine the size of the particulate matter at each stage of the impactor.
There are typically ten different stages in a cascade impactor; the stages range from large to small, depending on the substance being measured. The lighter the substance, the farther it will travel into the impactor. Each disc in the impactor has its own speed in which it is used to collect the substance being passed through it. Once the discs cease to collect any amount of matter, the user is able to determine the dispersion rate of the substance propelled by the aerosol.
The function of the cascade impactor is directly relevant to its design, which consists of a powered flow chamber that contains all of the discs. Each disc within the flow chamber represents a stage of the impactor. Each stage acts as a guide for the user to determine the dispersion rate for the substance.
As the substance is distributed into the inner workings of the impactor, the discs at each stage gather any sizable particulate or amount of solid matter they are able to. This allows smaller and smaller solid particles to pass through to the next stage of the impactor. Since each disc has its own collection velocity, the flow chamber gains speed toward the end of the impactor. This allows for the collection of the finer particles all the way through to the end of the impactor.
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• Man with a drill
Man with a drill
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Glacial Environments
IB Geography: Glacial Environments
How do glaciers form and what are the differences between Polar and Alpine glaciers?Lesson Time: 2 HoursLesson Objectives:Teacher Notes:Lesson 1It"s best to hand out all the worksheets for this lesson at the beginning. They include:1. ICT Photographs_Places and Processes_Types of glacier -Begin the lesson with the gallery of glaciers and students should discuss the physical characteristics of each type of glacier, including...
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"fasttext_score": 0.7863189578056335,
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"language_score": 0.9308504462242126,
"url": "https://www.thinkib.net/geography/page/20460/glacial-environments"
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Every year 2 billion kilos of wool are produced throughout the world. The most valuable type(s) of wool come from the fleeces of Merino sheep sheared every year; the fleeces comprise very fine curly fibres and are used exclusively for clothing.
The most valuable wool is defined superfine and comprises just 15% of annual production. Its average fineness is less than 19.5 microns, i.e. thousands of a millimetre.
The characteristic that makes wool an extraordinary product that has been used for clothing for thousands of years is its thermal insulation power. The fabric thickness stops heat exchange between the two sides. If all the fibres from 1 kg of Merino wool were laid on a flat surface they would cover an area of 200 m². This gives an idea of how much air wool cloth can hold. It is this large amount of air held in the spaces between the fibres that stops thermal conductivity and allows the body to be fresh in summer and warm in winter.
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Euripides: Alcestis
The Alcestis was first performed at the City Dionysian festival in 438 BC. It tells the tale of King Admetus of Pherae and his wife Alcestis. The Fates agree to grant Admetus freedom from death upon the condition that he finds a beloved relative to take his place. Alcestis volunteers to take her husband’s place and consequently dies. However, Hercules, a dear friend of Admetus, wrestles with Death, defeats it, and restores Alcestis to life.
According to Aristotle, the purpose of tragedy is catharsis, or the purgation of pity and fear. The Alcestis is Euripides’ attempt to purge the audience of the fear of death, which is one of the greatest fears that afflict mankind. Modern Western religions have tried to mitigate this fear by creating myths of an eternally blissful afterlife. But the Ancient Greek concept of the afterlife is gloomy. In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus tries to console the spirit of Achilles in the underworld. Achilles grimly responds, “I’d rather serve as another man’s labourer, as a poor peasant without land, and be alive on Earth, than be lord of all the lifeless dead.”
Because the Ancient Greek conception of the afterlife is so gloomy, Euripides relies on a resurrection myth similar to that of Christianity. Just as modern Christianity utilizes the bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ to mitigate the fear of death in its adherents, so Euripides utilizes the myth of Alcestis to mitigate the fear of death in his audience. Although a bleak afterlife awaits them, the Ancient Greek audience is consoled by the idea that a hero like Hercules might “bring them back from the mansions of the dead to heaven’s fair light.”
The Alcestis allays the fear of death not only in Ancient Greeks, but also in modern audiences. One does not need to believe in the myth of Alcestis to be inspired by the play’s message, which is that conquering Death is possible. Although the chorus declares that “No tears recall the dead to life’s sweet light,” and Admetus laments that “The dead return not to this light,” Hercules proves them all wrong.
The Ancient Greeks believed that they could accomplish anything. This optimism is displayed in the Greco-Persian wars, in which they defeated the vastly larger Persian army at the battles of Marathon and Salamis. The Ancient Greek confidence has been handed down to modern Western cultures, as evidenced by the concept of the “American Dream” – that anything is possible if you work hard enough to attain it. Mankind must continue to harvest this fertile sentiment in order to achieve ever greater things; the opposite emotion – pessimism – is crippling, and therefore must be eradicated.
So, whenever you are lost in despair, remember the moral of Euripides’ Alcestis: “With various hands the gods dispense our fates; now showering various blessings, which our hopes dared not aspire to; now controlling ills we deemed inevitable. Such is the fortune of this happy day.”
3 thoughts on “Euripides: Alcestis
1. What is still missing from Hercules’ victory over death is an overarching narrative of purpose to existence. Without that, I would still chose death than eternal life without meaning. As a slave or a master, it would make no difference.
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Different blood types are typically the reason that not all family members will get lice.
Different blood types are typically the reason that not all family members will get lice. Lice have a hard time spreading to a person with a different blood type than the original host.
There are four different blood types which are O, A, B and AB. Each blood type has either a positive or negative Rh factor; there are O-, O+, A-, A+, B-, B+, AB- and AB+. Your family can have a variety of blood types and Rh factors. It is very laborious for lice to transfer and thrive from a negative blood type person to a positive blood type person or from a positive to a negative. For example if you have one A+ child and one B- child, odds are that the B- child will not get lice since the infestation from one child will not be able to thrive on the other.
On the NCBI website they tested this phenomenon in an experiment they conducted with lice and different blood samples. In the experiment they allowed lice to feed on human blood of one blood type with a positive Rh factor followed by a different blood type with a negative Rh factor. The researchers observed that when feeding on the different blood type, the lice took significantly smaller blood meals, their longevity was reduced and afterwards the female lice laid fewer eggs. Ultimately this experiment showed that lice struggle to thrive from one Rh factor to another.
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"url": "https://www.headlicespecialist.com/have-you-ever-noticed-that-one-child-just-never-seems-to-get-head-lice/"
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altercation 0 152 reads
This word comes from Latin and literally means "a dispute with another person." An altercation is an angry, noisy argument.
ALL tur KAY shun
Part of speech:
Countable noun.
(Countable nouns, like "bottle," "piece," and "decision," are words for things that can be broken into exact units. You talk about "a bottle," "three pieces," and "many decisions."
Likewise, talk about one altercation or multiple altercations.)
Other forms:
altercate, altercated, altercating;
An altercation is a verbal fight, right?:
Right. Although it can escalate into a physical fight, an altercation by itself is a verbal fight.
Still, you'll notice that some writers do use "altercation" to mean "physical fight," and some even refer to "physical altercations."
So should I have defined "altercation" as "a verbal or physical fight"? No, but let's avoid an altercation over it, y'all. If the dictionaries update their definitions, I will, too.
How to use it:
When you need to refer to a heated dispute in a cold, formal, serious way, call it an altercation (instead of a fight, quarrel, dispute, squabble, or argument). Journalists, lawyers, and police officers often use this word to talk about loud, furious arguments in a detached, professional way.
Talk about people starting an altercation, getting into an altercation, being involved in an altercation, witnessing an altercation, and so on.
We often add "with:" "an altercation with her friend," "this altercation with my landlord," "another altercation with a police officer."
Or, we can add "between" or "among:" "that altercation between a husband and wife," "this altercation among the tenth graders."
You might talk about an altercation over, about, or concerning a specific issue: "the altercation over a price," "their altercation about the property line," "an altercation concerning the inheritance."
She was itching for an altercation and already had one finger in the air.
They've matured. They don't stir up profane altercations at the dinner table any more.
Rating 1.00/5
Rating: 1.0/5 (4 votes)
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Project Genesis
Mitzvos (Commandments)
First Fruits
Question: How is the First Fruit offering practiced in today’s society?
Answer: Great question! For the First Fruits, one would go out to the fields when the fruit buds would begin to grow and designate the first fruits. One could designate just the first fruit of each species, or he could choose to dedicate the whole field (the Sages later instituted that one per sixty fruit should be designated). The fruit would be brought to Jerusalem and given to the Cohanim (priests) to eat. It would be arranged in a beautiful basket which was brought to Jerusalem amidst great joy and rejoicing. If Jerusalem was far away, the fruits could be dried before the trip. These laws only apply to the special “seven species” associated with the land of Israel: wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates. Additionally, the fruit must have grown in the land of Israel and only during the times of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem. Today, there are no applicable laws of the First Fruits.
All the Best, Rabbi Azriel Schreiber
No Follow-ups »
No published follow-up questions.
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Saint Eustace, c. 1500–1501
Albrecht Dürer, German, 1471–1528
Engraving on laid paper
Sheet (partially trimmed within platemark): 13 15/16 × 10 3/8 in. (35.4 × 26.4 cm)
The Edith A. and Percy S. Straus Collection
Habits of Mind
• OBSERVE DETAILS Observe details / time to think and reflect
Making Prints
Discussion through works of art encourage how to approach ambiguous and complex ideas, thoughts, and feelings. The MFAH offers a democratic space where students and teachers can develop, practice and articulate these habits of mind. Remember that the quality of the conversation is what is important, not finding the artist’s “answer.” Slow down and take the time to make careful observations. Talk about what you notice, and try to avoid jumping to conclusions and interpretations. Be sure to give enough time for silent looking and thinking.
Curriculum Objectives
• Describe printmaking as a medium for making multiple copies of an image and identify several printmaking processes.
• Explain use of line, texture, value in prints.
• Create prints that express their own perceptions and experiences.
Observe Details
Connecting to the Work of Art
Before his conversion to Christianity, Saint Eustace was a Roman general named Placidus. One day while hunting, he tracked a white stag that climbed onto a high rock. Looking up at the beast, Placidus saw an image of the crucified Christ between the animal’s horns. Placidus decided at that moment to convert to Christianity. The next day, Placidus, his wife, and children were baptized and he took the name Eustace.
Albrecht Dürer depicts Eustace in fifteenth-century hunter’s garb. His horse stands nearby and his hunting dogs rest in the foreground. In the background, a German castle and town sit on a hill. Eustace is supposedly drawn in the likeness of Emperor Maximilian, the Holy Roman Emperor and Dürer’s patron.
In Saint Eustace, Dürer’s largest print, the artist depicts nature realistically, with many carefully observed details. The dog, horse, and deer, as well as the foliage, water, stone, and pebbles, are meticulously presented so that the print becomes a tapestry of nature studies. The attention to perspective is a reminder of Dürer’s studies of Italian Renaissance art, while the detailed landscape background recalls 15th century Flemish paintings. Dürer explores a range of tones possible within the medium of engraving and creates atmospheric perspective by contrasting darker lines in the foreground with lighter areas that depict the distant objects. For additional information about the Renaissance use of perspective, see the Ferrarese School The Meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Teachers’ Guide Grades 4-6, page --).
Engraving evolved in the fifteenth century from the metalsmith’s technique of carving designs on metal. The image is cut into a copper plate with a burin, a sharp tool with a v-shaped edge. Lines can be made thinner or thicker by tilting the burin while incising the line. Once the image is completed, the plate is inked, then wiped with a cloth to remove ink from the surface and push ink into the engraved grooves. When the plate and dampened paper are run between the two rollers of a printing press, the pressure forces the remaining ink out of the grooves of the plate and onto the paper.
Albrecht Dürer, one of the first geniuses of printmaking, learned engraving in his father’s goldsmith studio. At the age of thirteen, he was apprenticed to a painter and designer of woodcuts. After learning the artistic traditions of Germany and Flanders (modern Belgium), Dürer visited Venice in 1494-95 and again in 1505-7, gaining first-hand knowledge of Italian Renaissance art. Dürer devoted much of the rest of his career to creating monumental and natural figures moving within a convincing three-dimensional space. He spent the last years of his life editing his writings on art. His book on proportion was published the year after his death.
• What do you notice about this artwork? Look closely at the background, middle ground, and foreground.
• Consider the four dogs in the foreground. How does the artist portray them in different positions? What can you say about the other animals and the way that they are portrayed from the foreground to the background?
• What is odd about the central figure? What do you notice about perspective in general? Notice the lack of a horizon line and the off-kilter depth perception.
• Consider the black and white color scheme. What does this tell you about the type of artwork we are dealing with? How would this artwork be different if it was in color?
• Can you spot another figure in this composition? Where and who is he/she?
• Consider the relationship between the different animals. What do meaning do you think their placement in the work has?
• The artist gives an incredibly detailed rendition of this scene. What does that tell you about the type of artwork this could be? Where in the composition do you especially see the precision? This artist was famous in his time and widely copied for his great artistic skill.
• This is an engraving and its title is Saint Eustace. Is Saint Eustace portrayed in the scene? Where? Why do you think the artist portrays him in 15th century clothing?
• Can you spot the figure of Christ in the background? If you look closer, what is strange about this figure? Do you know of other examples where Christ appears as (part of) an animal?
• According to legend, a Roman general named Placidus was hunting when Christ appeared to him as a white stag with a radiant crucifix between its antlers. This vision prompted Placidus to convert to Christianity.
• Consider the landscape in the background. Is it realistic? The legend that this scene refers to was set in Roman times. Does the landscape look Roman to you? What does it remind you of?
• The artist was one of the first in his time to achieve a certain celebrity status. This was mostly because of the medium of engraving, allowing for prints that could be multiplied and spread widely. Do you think the skill displayed in this work justifies the artist’s fame? Why?
• Have students select a meaningful event and create a drawing of that event. Demonstrate the process for making relief prints of the drawing. (see Art Lesson: Printmaking: Relief Process)
• Have students pull six prints. Sign and number the prints
• Compare and contrast the six prints. How and why do they vary? Save prints if needed for the math assessment.
The Learning Through Art program is endowed by Melvyn and Cyvia Wolff.
The Learning Through Art curriculum website is made possible in part by a grant from the Institute of Museum and Library Services.
All Learning and Interpretation programs at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, receive endowment income from funds provided by the Louise Jarrett Moran Bequest; Caroline Wiess Law; the William Randolph Hearst Foundation; The National Endowment for the Humanities; the Fondren Foundation; BMC Software, Inc.; the Wallace Foundation; the Neal Myers and Ken Black Children’s Art Fund; the Favrot Fund; and Gifts in honor of Beth Schneider.
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Mud and clay vermiculations are irregular and discontinuous deposits of incoherent materials, almost ubiquitous. Found both inside and outside of caves, overlying limestone or other materials, they are formed from many substances (clay, mud, candle-black, colloidal silica, etc.). Also their shape dimensions vary greatly. The following genetical hypotheses have been proposed: fossil fillings; chemico-genetical deposition; biological formation; mechanical deposition from moving water or air; clay-layer drying process (Montoriol-Pous hypothesis); physicochemical deposition from drying liquid films. The last is proposed by the authors who, having discussed the various hypotheses, give many examples and the results of some experiments. They distinguish two types of vermiculations: Type 1 or negative vermiculations and Type II or normal vermiculations. The genesis of type I is explained by the Montoriol-Pous hypothesis; these vermiculations are large and made of clay or other colloidal material, and are due to the gradual drying of a layer of clay or other substance. The last stage of this drying process causes the vermiculations to form in a more or less dried state. The vermiculations of the second type are small and thin, much ramified and always with a clear "halo" around them. Vermiculations consisting of many materials have been observed, usually as macroscopic aggregates. They are caused by the drying of a liquid film containing suspended colloidal particles. The proposed mechanism provides a good explanation of all the observed characteristics of vermiculations.
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What is the thread count?
The thread count is usually used to describe the fabric density. In most case, it refers to cotton or poly-cotton (polyester blended with cotton as fibers) fabric. Many other man made fabrics are determined by other factors such as weight per square meters and so on.
The thread count is the number of threads vertical plus horizontal per square inch of fabric. Example 180+220 thread fabric will be described as 400-thread count.
The thread count cannot solely tell the fabric quality. In fact, very high thread count means fabric made from very thin thread thus the fabric will be less strong enough.
For a plain-weave fabric, 200-400 thread count should well for most of bed linen or sheets.
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Battle Wounds: Never Pull an Arrow Out of a Body
Battlefield_woundsOften in western films there is a scene where an arrow is yanked from the body of a fallen comrade. As dramatic as that may be it is definitely not the recommended method for removing an arrow.
Battle wounds in the American Revolutionary War were of a wide variety, none of which were easy to treat medically. One of the worst was when the victim was struck by an arrow. While the vast majority of combatants carried muskets or rifles, bows and arrows were used, sometimes along with a musket, by Native Americans.
Medical texts during the Revolutionary War period are silent regarding the treatment for arrow wounds. The most complete and detailed account of arrow wounds and treatments is Dr. Joseph Howland Bill’s “Notes on Arrow Wounds,” which is considered the “definitive work on American arrow wounds.”[1]
Dr. Bill did not practice during the American Revolution. He served during the Civil War. However, the wounds he dealt with would have been comparable to those of the 18th century. Bill was originally from Philadelphia and attended Jefferson Medical College. After graduation he joined the U.S. Army, was commissioned 1st Lieutenant, and in 1860 was assigned to Fort Defiance, New Mexico. There he wrote his 22-page essay, “Notes on Arrow Wounds,” published in the American Journal of Medical Sciences, 1862. In less than a year Bill was transferred east. He continued to serve in the Army until his death in 1885.[2]
Bill states arrows inflict wounds “with a fatality greater than that produced by any other weapons — particularly when surgical assistance cannot be obtained.”[3] Bill understood the importance of recording his observations for the Army and future settlers as well as documenting his experiences and findings, from both living and dead arrow wound victims, for history and medicine.
Arrowheads could be made from stone, antlers, shells, hardwood, bone, or metal. The arrowheads Dr. Bill most encountered were filed metal while the shaft was usually made from a dogwood branch. For the shaft the dogwood branch was soaked, all the bark removed, and then the limb was straightened using a twisting method. This whole straightening process took about three days.[4] Feathers were also an important part of the arrow. The size and type of feather used determined the speed and rotation of the arrow. The heavier the arrowhead the larger the feathers needed to spin the arrow.[5]
Once the shaft was ready, the arrowhead was attached using tendons and sinews. This kept the head secure, until the tendon got wet. Once wet, the arrowhead would become loose and easily separate from the shaft. So, when the arrow penetrated the body the arrowhead would loosen from its contact with blood and other bodily fluids. Dr. Bill explains the worst thing a friend could do was to try to remove the arrow by pulling on the shaft, which would cause the arrowhead to be left behind forcing the doctor to search for the projectile.[6]
In some situations the arrow proved more destructive to the victim and more difficult to treat for the doctor than a gunshot wound.[7] The problems came from the nature of arrow warfare and the shape and texture of the projectile. Dr. Bill estimates an “expert bowman can easily discharge six arrows per minute.”[8] In one of Dr. Bill’s cases three soldiers suffered a total of 42 arrow wounds between them. Although this number of wounds was extreme, Bill states he rarely saw someone with a single arrow wound.[9]
Further complicating the multiple wounds was that each arrowhead had to be removed. Unlike a gunshot wound, the arrowhead must be located and extracted. Arrowheads were rough and sharp. No tissue around the arrowhead could heal and in the body’s attempt to rid itself of the foreign object infection would rage forming an abscess. Every time the victim moved the arrowhead’s rough edges would inflame and aggravate the injury and eventually lead to a fatal infection or amputation.[10] In contrast a 18th century bullet did not have the sharp edges and could become encysted in tissue or encased in bone and safely remain in the body. The importance of removal is clear in Dr. Bill’s instructions: “We might as well cut the patient’s limb up until we do find the arrow-head.”[11]
Now the gravity of a friend’s attempt to pull the arrow from a wounded comrade becomes apparent. If the shaft was left in place, Dr. Bill’s treatment was to make an incision to enlarge the entry wound and slide a finger down the shaft to feel the depth of the wound and determine if the arrowhead is lodged in bone.[12] Without the shaft in place the doctor was forced to search for the arrow by making a larger incision, probing through tissue, causing more trauma, and taking more time. It was much easier for the doctor and patient if the shaft was left intact until a doctor could remove the head and shaft as one piece. Further, there was always the danger that the arrowhead could not be found leaving the “angular and jagged head… buried in bone to kill – for so it surely will.”[13] If, however, the arrowhead is removed properly, the wound was likely to heal naturally.[14]
If lodged in bone, the doctor could expect to use great force to remove the head. Special instruments were usually employed for this procedure. For instance, a wire loop was often used to grasp the arrowhead, but Dr. Bill frequently reported using strong dental tooth-forceps.[15] The doctor would guide the forceps down his finger and onto the arrowhead.[16] Once the forceps grasped the arrowhead the finger was withdrawn and traction could be applied. Sometimes, however, the arrowhead would be lodged so deeply in bone the forceps would bend from the force of the traction used.[17]
One method to determine if the arrowhead was lodged in bone was by “twirling the shaft,” if the shaft moved the arrowhead was declared not to be lodged in bone.[18] The force needed to remove an arrowhead embedded in bone was surprising. In one particular case Private Bishop was hit in the upper arm near the shoulder. Dr. Bill describes his effort; “…and bracing my knees against the patient’s thorax, I applied all the traction I could muster. Suddenly the arrow-head flew out of its seat, and I would have fallen on the floor, had not the steward caught me.”[19] In 1876 Dr. Bill presented his own design of forceps specifically for removing arrowheads.[20]
Much of the victims’ chance of survival depended on where they were injured and how deep the wound. A number of injuries to the arms were reported, probably because soldiers would attempt to shield themselves with their arms and hands.[21] If the arrow went through a limb it would usually heal normally. The entrance wound appeared as a “very small and narrow slit“ surrounded by a reddish bruise while the exit wound would be larger but without the bruise.[22] For the treatment of this kind of wound Bill would apply “cold or evaporating lotions” and order the patient to allow the injured arm or leg to rest. Meanwhile Bill would watch for any sign of infection which he would treat with “bandages, compresses, and an early evacuation” of any drainage if necessary. Barring any infections, however, the injury would generally heal in a week.[23]
Complications could occur, however. For instance, even though doctors knew how to treat a severed artery, medical help often could not be obtained in time to stop the victim from bleeding to death. Other complications included fractures, broken bones, and severed nerves, but if the arrowhead was removed these injuries were not usually fatal.[24] One particular example of a complication and Bill’s skill is that of Private Martin of the 3rd Infantry. Martin suffered an arrow wound to his right leg; while the arrow did pass through, Martin was left with “agonizing pain” in his toes and foot. The arrow had injured a major nerve, which Dr. Bill divided to stop the pain.[25]
One particular complication of limb wounds involved muscle contractions. If the arrowhead “scrapes the bone near the edge” it could cause a muscle contraction so forceful the metal arrowhead tip was bent to resemble a “fish-hook.”[26] Apparently this complication was common enough for Bill to write “that the digital examination of arrow wounds should always be practised” because if the arrow head is bent upward pulling on it would only injure the victim more.[27] Two precautions should be taken. First, the doctor should push down on the arrowhead to dislodge the hook and then the doctor’s finger should remain on the curved point of the arrowhead during the removal “in order to prevent the entangling” of the hook in any tissue.[28] Bill treated two men who suffered this complication. In the first injury the arrowhead had wrapped around the ulna in the forearm, and the second, around the fibula in the lower leg.[29]
Some of Bill’s most interesting cases involved the head. Bill reports on a total of five head wounds. In three of the cases the brain was wounded and two men died and in the two cases where the brain was not injured both men lived.[30] Unless the arrow was fired straight at the head from a short distance it usually did not penetrate the skull. According to Bill the danger of a headshot came mainly from compression of the outer table of the skull since few arrows reached the brain itself.[31] The result of cerebral compression can include unconsciousness, slowed respirations, high blood pressure, fever, and rapid pulse.[32] Thus, the doctor would have to not only remove the arrowhead but also trephine the skull to release the pressure.[33] Usually fatal were hits to the “orbit” or eye socket but Bill never treated this particular wound himself.[34]
A post guide named Miguel was hit on the left side of his skull by an arrow. By the time Miguel reached Bill someone had removed the shaft and Miguel was suffering from the symptoms of compression sickness. Bill prepared to trephine the skull after he removed the arrowhead. However, once the arrowhead was dislodged “symptoms of compression at once vanished, the man turned over and sneezed, and rose up on his feet.”[35] Later Miguel had to be treated for a headache but otherwise recovered fully.[36]
A great deal of Dr. Bill’s essay describes wounds of the trunk. The chest and abdomen represent the largest part of the human body and house the majority of the major organs. The bowmen knew that a hit to the trunk was likely to be fatal and is where they aimed. Thus, the trunk received more injuries than other areas of the body.[37] Moreover, particular care had to be allotted for all trunk injuries until the location and depth of the wound could be ascertained because any arrowhead could be potentially lodged in the spine, which was usually fatal.[38] Bill would use his knowledge of anatomy and arrow wounds to ascertain if an arrowhead was more likely to be lodged in a rib or vertebrae from the length of the exposed shaft.[39]
An arrow wound to the lung, explains Bill, is much more dangerous than a gunshot wound for three reasons: amount of blood loss, infection, and emphysema. For example, arrow wounds cause more bleeding than gunshot wounds because an arrow “makes clean slits and punctures” while a “ball tears and bruises.” Bill also explains arrows tend to lodge themselves in the lung “whilst a ball generally passes” causing empysema, an infection in the body cavity.[40] Bill states the “third danger peculiar to arrow wounds of lung is the supervention of emphysema” about twelve hours after the injury occurred.[41] Emphysema is a condition where the air spaces in the lungs are distended causing difficulty in breathing.[42] However, Bill goes on to say that the onset of emphysema is more of a nuisance than danger.[43]
Of the fifteen men Bill saw with chest wounds, six had injured lungs and four of them died. Of the nine men without injuries to the lungs all survived.[44] The wide range of chest injuries Bill encountered demonstrates the nature of complications possible. From the five detailed cases that included chest wounds, chest wounds were usually accompanied by infections, such as the case of Salvador Martinez. An arrow entered Martinez‘s chest “between the fifth and sixth ribs on the right side, and passed out between the seventh and eighth on the left.”[45] When Martinez saw Dr. Bill he was having difficulty breathing and in great pain. Bill treated Martinez aggressively for sixteen days but was unable to save him. Upon a postmortem examination Bill found the right lung “solidified and engorged with pus” and the left lung also full of infectious matter.[46]
Abdominal wounds also proved to be exceedingly dangerous because unlike the lungs the abdomen is not protected by the rib cage.[47] Of Bill’s twenty-one abdominal cases all but one was fatal.[48] As Bill states, “Arrow wounds of the abdomen are generally fatal. An arrow can scarcely pass through the abdomen and fail to open a vessel or wound an intestine.”[49] If the abdominal wall is breached the main threat is from a hemorrhage or an infection resulting from a punctured intestine. Bill recommends enlarging the wound in order to examine the abdominal cavity. If the intestines are lacerated, gold wire was used to suture the injury.[50] Again, the arrowhead must be removed if the patient was to have a chance at recovery.
Overall Bill reports he “observed” eighty arrow wounds, the majority to the trunk, thirty-six in all. Of these thirty-six men injured twenty-two died. The extremities are next with a total of 35 wounds.
Bill’s observations from treating the wounded as well as his empirical postmortem research provided the medical community then and the history community today with the only documentation for the nature and treatment of arrow wounds.
The author wishes to thank Lisa A. Ennis for her assistance with the research of this article.
[1] Earle, A. Scott, ed., Surgery in America, New York, Praeger, 1983, p. 228.
[2] Earle, 228, 230.
[3] Bill, Joseph Howland, “Notes on Arrow Wounds,” American Journal of Medical Sciences, 154, 1892, p. 366.
[4] Bill, 366.
[5] Stockel, H. Henriette, The Lightning Stick: Arrows, Wounds, and Indian Legends, Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1995, 47-48.
[6] Bill, 366-367.
[7] Stockel, xii.
[8] Bill, 369.
[9] Dodge Ibid.420
[10] Bill 374
[11] Bill, 374.
[12] Bill, 370.
[13] Bill, 367.
[14] Bill, 368.
[15] Bill, 367.
[16] Bill, 370.
[17] Bill, 367.
[18] Bill, 381.
[19] Bill, 371.
[20] Earle, 238.
[21] Bill, 369.
[22] Bill, 369.
[23] Bill, 370.
[24] Bill, 370.
[25] Bill, 370.
[26] Bill, 371.
[27] Bill, 372-373.
[28] Bill, 373.
[29] Bill, 379.
[30] Bill, 368.
[31] Bill, 375.
[32] Thomas, Clayon, M.D., Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary 18th Edition (F. A. Davis Company, Philadelphia, 1997): 426.
[33] Taber’s, 1992.
[34] Bill, 374.
[35] Bill, 375.
[36] Bill, 376.
[37] Bill, 376
[38] Bill, 380.
[39] Bill, 382.
[40] Bill, 376-377. Taber’s, 630.
[41] Bill, 377.
[42] Taber’s, 629.
[43] Bill, 377.
[44] Bill, 368.
[45] Bill, 378.
[46] Bill, 378.
[47] Bill, 376.
[48] Bill, 385.
[49] Bill, 385.
[50] Bill, 385-386.
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• What a read! You never disappoint, well done on this one Hugh. I was a little squeamish at times as I read just imagining the excruciating pain these men went through not only being shot by the arrow but then having it removed in a time when anesthesia as we know it did not exist!
It’s funny but it always seems so noble in the movies when someone gets shot by an arrow in the abdomen and pulls it out only to continue fighting until the battle is won through their bravery and leadership.
I suppose it wouldn’t make a good movie if the hero was shot by an arrow only to fall off his horse to certain death.
• Michael, Glad you enjoyed the article. When I came across this topic I realized that I knew absolutely nothing about treating arrow wounds….other than Hollywood. I was very pleased to be able to find Dr. Bill’s detailed report. Thanks for your comments.
• I’ve been researching the 18th-century for nearly 40 years and don’t remember a single comment about treating arrow wounds. I’ll bet there aren’t a half-dozen of all the learned folks studying the period who know anything about this topic. Until now, that is. Many thanks, Hugh.
• Mike – Thank you very much for that wonderful compliment. I try to find topics that are more obscure. No sense in repeating what everyone already knows. So many outstanding researchers have covered so much ground that finding “untilled soil” is a problem. However, when some out-of-the-way topic is found research can be aimed at that specific point…and, with luck sometimes something useful can come of it. Thanks, again.
• Hugh, the Army’s Surgeon General’s department released a study in 1871 of wounds between 1865-1871 which it deemed instructive. The study is at and is entitled “A Report of Surgical Cases Treated in the Army of the United States from 1865-1871”. If you download it, on the p. 149 of the PDF reader there is a section on arrow wounds with an brief introduction to historical medical practitioners who wrote about arrow wounds. The URL is:
• This is a very interesting read. I am in the process of writing a Fantasy trilogy, and the bow and arrow is a weapon used in abundance. This article is very informative and will help tremendously in my writing of injuries sustained by this weapon. Thank you for your information.
• Well, the ”emphysema” that Dr Bill describes is actually a pneumothorax that causes shortness of breath and if it is was tension pneumothorax, then it would be life threatening. A big problem of this puncture wounds was infections, as antibiotics that days did not exist. So, if the patient survived from the bleeding, the he may die from infection, including tetanus. But even for bleeding, except surgical hemostasis, fluid rescue infusions (such as saline) also did not exist. In conclusion, an arrow puncture wound would be a great challenge for the doctor, however many of the victims suprizingly survived, perhaps because during the war it was difficult to targen with effectively the victim, especially if the indian was up on a horse. Thus, many injuries were superficial.
• Excellent! I need to learn how serious a spear wound might have been, but survival. What would have been the first steps taken by rangers? Would one have probed the wound to promote bleeding, applied sugar or honey. This ranger survived a Comanche spear and was transported to San Antonio a few days later In a wagon where he eventually recovered.
• Fascinating article. I am a historian of Chinese medicine researching the treatment of arrow wounds in China from the 6th to 19th century. Arrowheads stuck in bone were a standard problem for them as well. They used “numbing drugs” to ease the pain of removing them (with pincers). Good to have these comparative perspectives from American medicine!
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Gelo Ethnic Group
With a population of 550,746 (2010), the Gelo people live in dispersed clusters of communities in about 20 counties in western Guizhou Province, four counties of the Wenshan Zhuang-Miao Autonomous Prefecture in southeastern Yunnan province and the Longlin Multi-ethnic Autonomous County in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.
Over the last 2,000 years or more, the Gelo people have lived in many places throughout China. Bridges, wells, and some villages in Guizhou Province still bear Gelo names, even in the absence of a Gelo community. The group’s name dates back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Before, they were called “Liao.” Descended from the Yelang, the strongest tribe in the Han Dynasty’s Zangke Prefecture, the Liaos moved out of Zangke to Sichuan, where they became subject to the feudal regime, between the third and fifth centuries. As with other south-central minorities, the Gelos were ruled in the Yuan and Ming dynasties (1271-1644) by appointed chiefs, who lost their authority to the central court when the Qing Dynasty came to power.
Until 1949, most Gelos were farmers. They grew rice, maize, wheat, sweet potatoes, and millet. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Gelo farmers had no irrigation or ways of storing water. Droughts inevitably brought about devastating consequences. Side businesses, especially cork production, bamboo weaving and making straw sandals were essential to the Gelos for survival.
Only about a quarter of the Gelos still speak the Gelo language belonging to the Chinese-Tibetan language family. Yet, because of close contact with other ethnic groups, their language has not remained pure. There are Gelo-speaking people unable to converse with each other. For this reason, Mandarin Chinese has become their common language, though many Gelos have learned three or four languages from other people in their communities, including the Miaos, Yis, and Bouyeis. Living among other ethnic groups, the Gelos have become largely assimilated to the majority Han customs.
Gelo women wear very short jackets with sleeves embroidered with patterns of fish scale. They also wear tight skirts divided into three sections, the middle one of red wool and the upper and lower ones of black-and-white striped linen. Short, black sleeveless gowns which hung longer in the back are customary too. Their shoes had pointed and upturned toes. Men wore front-buttoned jackets with long trousers.
The Gelo people practice ancestor worship. They also worship many gods, as they believe all things have spirit.
Most Gelo festivals echo Han traditions with some differing practices. During the Spring Festival (the Lunar New Year), Gelos offer a huge rice cake to their ancestors and after it is made, it remains untouched for three days. In Guizhou’s Anshun, Puding, and Zhenning, Gelo communities also celebrate the sixth day of the sixth lunar month by sacrificing chickens and preparing wine to bless the rice crop already in the fields.
The sixth day of the seventh lunar month marks the second most important event of the year, a festival of ancestor worship in Wozi and Gaoyang villages of Puding County. Oxen, pigs, and sheep are slaughtered for ritual sacrifices to ancestors.
On the first day of the tenth lunar month, Gelos give their oxen a day of rest. This is the day of the Ox King Buddha, and in some communities on this day oxen are honored and fed special rice cakes.
Gelo folk literature consists of poetry, stories, and proverbs. Poems are of three, five or seven-character lines. Most Gelo folk tales eulogize the intelligence, honesty, diligence, and bravery of the Gelo people, and satirize the upper classes. Typical are “The Brave Girl” and “Deaf Elder Brother and Blind Younger Brother Stealing Sheep.” Gelo dances are simple and graceful, accompanied by the erhu, horizontal xiao, suona, gong, drum and other string and wind instruments.
“Flower Dragon” and “Bamboo-Strip Egg” are two favorite Gelo games. “Flower Dragon,” in fact, is a ball of woven bamboo, a little larger than a ping-pong ball. Inside are bits of broken porcelain, coins, and sandstones. The game, especially popular in Zunyi and Renhuai, is played by groups of pairs on hillsides. “Bamboo-Strip Egg” is also a ball, larger and stuffed with rice straw. Two teams of three or five throw and kick the ball, avoiding contact except with the hands or feet.
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Absolution at Gettysburg: Father William Corby, C.S.C.
On the hot afternoon of July 2, 1863, the Union Army's Irish Brigade, a unit composed predominantly of Catholic immigrants, waited for the order to go into action. It was the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, a three-day conflagration that saw over 50,000 casualties between both sides. The previous day, Robert E. Lee's Confederates had driven the Union troops through the town of Gettysburg onto a hill called Cemetery Ridge. Now, Lee strove to dislodge them from their stronghold and destroy the Union Army.
Just before the Irish Brigade went into the fight, its chaplain, Father William Corby, climbed up onto a boulder to give the men general absolution from their sins. Since there was no time for individual confession, he talked briefly about patriotism, bravery, and penance before pronouncing the formula. About 320 of the brigade's 530 men fell in the wheat field that day, but the tide was turning in favor of the Union.
There are numerous statues on the Gettysburg battlefield, but only one is dedicated to a chaplain. In 1910, alumni of the University of Notre Dame, where Corby had been president, erected a statue of him giving absolution. The event has also been commemorated in paintings, poems, books, and film. "It's a symbolic depiction of the bond between Catholic faith and American patriotism at the nation's supreme moment of crisis," wrote Civil War historian Lawrence Kohl. Corby symbolized Catholic commitment to the Union.
William Corby was born on October 2, 1833 to a prominent real estate dealer in Detroit. At the age of 16, he left school to work for his father. Four years later, he started college in South Bend, Indiana. In 1843, a group of French priests belonging to the Congregation of the Holy Cross had started a small Catholic college that grew into America's flagship Catholic university—the University of Notre Dame.
Kohl notes that it was "little more than a tiny French boarding school for boys of all ages," when Corby arrived. During his time at Notre Dame, Corby began to think more seriously about the priesthood. In 1857, he joined the Holy Cross Fathers and taught at the school while pursuing theological studies. Three years later, on the eve of the Civil War, he was ordained a priest.
While many Protestant churches split over the issues of secession and slavery, the Catholic Church took no official stand on the war. Bishops in both North and South supported their troops. Catholic young men followed suit, joining both the Union and Confederacy. Several dozen priests served as chaplains in both armies, and over six hundred religious women ministered to the sick and dying in hospitals. Their work did much to reduce the anti-Catholicism that had flourished in the pre-war era.
In the fall of 1861, Father Corby gave up his teaching duties at Notre Dame to become chaplain of the 88th New York Infantry, a unit in the Irish Brigade. Founded by General Thomas Francis Meagher, a prominent figure in Irish New York circles, the brigade was composed mainly of Irish Catholic volunteers. The brigade fought in nearly every major battle in the Civil War's Eastern Theater. At the start, it had over three thousand men. By the time it was disbanded in 1864, there were barely a few hundred.
The chaplain's duties were not clearly defined. One veteran priest told a new chaplain, "Do what you can; learn as you proceed." In certain respects the entire Army of the Potomac, the main body of Union troops in the East, was his parish. He traveled through the army, celebrating Mass, hearing confessions, and providing spiritual comfort to Catholic and non-Catholic soldiers.
He was also present on the firing line through most of the Army of the Potomac's major battles, ministering to the wounded and the dying. The priest, as Corby saw it, was a "go-between, exercising, as best he could, the offices of Christian charity in numerous ways." It was hard work, but in his memoirs he wrote,
I recall a poor soldier who was accidentally shot through the left lung. I happened to be nearby, had just time to hear his confession, and he breathed his last. All the aforesaid labors, trials, and fastings were well rewarded by the chance given to save that one soul.
He believed the sacraments gave soldiers "new courage." "In our darkest hours and during our longest marches, the Holy Sacrifice made us feel that we had God with us to guide us and assist us to live well," he wrote. "And, if need were, to die well."
After seeing service in some of the war's hardest battles during three years with the Irish Brigade, Father Corby returned to Notre Dame in the fall of 1864. He served twice as president of the university, taught there, and stayed there for most of his remaining years. But the war had been a defining moment in his life.
7/2/2012 4:00:00 AM
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Middle ages 1327 dating system
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It was especially deadly in cities, where it was impossible to prevent the transmission of the disease from one person to another.This way of thinking about the era in the “middle” of the fall of Rome and the rise of the Renaissance prevailed until relatively recently.The phrase “Middle Ages” tells us more about the Renaissance that followed it than it does about the era itself.Starting around the 14th century, European thinkers, writers and artists began to look back and celebrate the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.Edward I would send royal order to officials in the localities (mainly sheriffs) requiring them to gather a specified number of horses, carts, and food supplies by means of compulsory sales.Those supplies would then be transported to depots.Berkeley had been imprisoned for several years by Edward, and his father had died during his own imprisonment, so he had little reason to like the king.
Edward failed to find the Scottish and had to retreat but the next year he signed the treaty of Northampton which agreed that Scotland should be independent and Robert the Bruce should be King.bases for supplying field armies and garrisons, and 3) a well-developed planning system to assess needs.Edward I created a sophisticated and efficient supply system for his field armies and garrisons in Wales and Scotland between 12 based on the royal prerogative of purveyance.: not until end of Thirty Years War (1618-48) proper attention paid to question of supply.In 1640s French calculated needs of troops and established contracts with merchants and a system of magazines (supply depots).
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Lesson Plan
Fort Union Fur Trade Overview
This map highlights the significance of Fort Union's location among the Upper Missouri Plains Tribes.
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Grade Level:
Upper Elementary: Third Grade through Fifth Grade
Social Studies
Lesson Duration:
60 Minutes
Common Core Standards:
4.RI.1, 4.RI.3, 4.RI.5, 5.RI.3, 5.RI.4, 5.RI.5, 5.RI.6
State Standards:
State: North Dakota
Subject: Social Studies
Grade Levels: K-4
State: North Dakota
Subject: Social Studies
Grade Levels: 5-8
In this lesson, students will answer the following essential questions:
What is the fur trade? Who was involved in the fur trade? Where did the fur trade take place? What was the organization of a fur trade company like? What was the relationship between fur traders (immigrants) and American Indians?
For 39 years, Fort Union was the longest-lasting and most profitable fur trading post on the Upper Missouri River. Here seven Northern Plains Indian Tribes, including the Assiniboine, traded buffalo robes and other furs for goods such as cloth, guns, blankets, and beads. A bastion of peaceful coexistence, this fort annually traded over 25,000 buffalo robes and $100,000 of merchandise. In this lesson, students will explore what the fur trade is, who it involved, and where it took place.
1. Decide whether to have students work individually, in partners, or in groups.
2. Decide if you will split the class into breaking down both readings simultaneously, or all together one at a time.
3. Get The Trade House video ready to play
4. Identify students who may need support or an extra challenge.
5. Make one copy of the Fort Union Fur Trade Overview – Student Document for each student and/or group.
This is a document with the readings and worksheets for the students to be able to complete the lesson.
Download Fort Union Fur Trade Overview – Student Document
Lesson Hook/Preview
Option One: Play The Trade House video.
Option Two: Ask students if they ever had to communicate with someone who was different from them. Did they speak a different language? What ways did you try to communicate without speaking? Have you ever gone somewhere and needed to buy something but YOU were the stranger that didn’t know the language or didn’t understand? How did you feel, what did you do?
1. Do Now Activity: Using classroom discussion and brainstorming find synonyms for important key vocabulary terms.
2. Have each student read the summary of the Trade Process and Players. Can be done as guided reading. Have students annotate as they read noting key players or steps in the trade process. (Option: students could be in two groups, group 1 doing steps 2 & 3, while the other half completes 5 & 6 – then switch.)
3. Have students work in small groups to answer questions in student packet. Assist struggling students by prompting them with a particular player or action of the trade.
4. Have all students watch The Trade House video.
5. Have students read Fort Union History. Can be done as guided reading. Have students brainstorm the meaning of underlined words using context clues, finding synonyms, referring to Do Now activity, etc.
6. Have students work in small groups to answer questions in student packet. Assist struggling students by prompting them to refer to specific paragraphs for information.
7. At the end of the lesson prompt students to answer questions about the fur trade. Share out answers. If you chose to split the class in half, have students mix and mingle to compare answers.
1. Trade: an exchange of items, usually without payment of money.
2. Bourgeois: a shopkeeper or merchant.
3. Engage: to bind, as by pledge, promise, contract, or oath; make likable
4. Clerk: a person who sells goods in a store.
5. Trader: a person who trades; a merchant or business person.
6. Interpreter: a person who provides an oral translation between speakers who speak different languages.
7. Assiniboine: a member of a North American Indian people living in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana; one of the Sioux peoples
8. Legal: permitted by law; lawful
9. Commercial: of, relating to, or characteristic of commerce.
10. Enterprise: a company organized for commercial purposes; business firm.
11. Metropolis: the chief, and sometimes capital, city of a country, state, or region.
Supports for Struggling Learners
1. Have students brainstorm on vocabulary words.
2. Prompt students to take one paragraph of the text at a time and annotate the reading.
Enrichment Activities
1. Have high performing learners create a graphic organizer or poster of the organizational structure of a fur trade company.
2. Create a graphic organizer/picture to represent the trade process (timeline, cycle, etc.)
Additional Resources
Fort Union Multimedia Resources
Contact Information
Email us about this lesson plan
Last updated: May 21, 2015
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Example of Zero Based Budgeting
Zero-based budgeting is financial plan methods that engage starting with $0 and adding only sufficient money in the financial plan to cover predictable costs.Example of Zero Based Budgeting demonstrates that There are many ways to generate company budgets. Let’s take the advertising department of Company XYZ as an example. Last year, the department spent $1 million. What’s the right way to set a budget for next year?
Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB):
Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB): Learning Objective of the article: Define and explain the term “zero based budgeting” and “incremental budgeting” in managerial accounting. Explain the importance and use of zero based budgeting in business. What are advantages and disadvantages of zero based budgeting? Contents:
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Gross National Happiness
Happy woman carrying a basket in Bhutan
Keren Su / Getty Images
The Gross National Happiness Index (GNH) is an alternate way (different than Gross Domestic Product, for example) to measure a country's progress. Instead of solely measuring economic indicators like GDP, GNH includes the spiritual, physical, social and environmental health of people and the environment as its key factors.
According to the Center for Bhutan Studies, the Gross National Happiness Index "implies that sustainable development should take a holistic approach towards notions of progress and give equal importance to non-economic aspects of well-being" (GNH Index).
In order to do this, the GNH consists of a number index that is derived from the ranking of 33 indicators that are a part of nine different domains in a society. The domains include factors such as psychological well-being, health, and education.
History of the Gross National Happiness Index
Due to its unique culture and relative isolation, the small Himalayan nation of Bhutan has always had a different approach to measuring success and progress. Most importantly, Bhutan has always considered happiness and spiritual well-being as an important goal in a country's development. It was due to these ideas that it was the first place to develop the idea of a Gross National Happiness Index to measure progress.
The Gross National Happiness Index was first proposed in 1972 by Bhutan's former king, Jigme Singye Wangchuk (Nelson, 2011). At that time most of the world relied on the Gross Domestic Product to measure a country's economic success.
Wangchuk said that instead of simply measuring economic factors, social and environmental factors among other things should be measured as well because happiness is a goal of all people and it should be the government's responsibility to ensure that a country's conditions are such that a person living there can attain happiness.
After its initial proposal, GNH was mainly an idea that was only practiced in Bhutan. In 1999 however, the Center for Bhutan studies was established and began to help the idea spread internationally. It also developed a survey to measure the population's well-being and Michael and Martha Pennock developed a shorter version of the survey for international use. This survey was later used to measure GNH in Brazil and Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
In 2004, Bhutan held an international seminar on GNH and Bhutan's king, Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuk, expressed how important GNH was for Bhutan and explained that its ideas were applicable to all nations.
Since the 2004 seminar, GNH has become a standard in Bhutan and it is "a bridge between the fundamental values of kindness, equality, and humanity and the necessary pursuit of economic growth…" (The Permanent Mission of the Kingdom of Bhutan to the United Nations in New York). As such, the use of GNH in combination with GDP to measure a nation's social and economic progress has also increased internationally in recent years.
Measuring the Gross National Happiness Index
Measuring the Gross National Happiness Index is a complex process as it includes 33 indicators that come from nine different core domains.
The domains within GNH are the components of happiness in Bhutan and each one is equally weighted in the index.
According to the Center for Bhutan Studies, the nine domains of GNH are:
1. Psychological well-being
2. Health
3. Time use
4. Education
5. Cultural diversity and resilience
6. Good governance
7. Community vitality
8. Ecological diversity and resilience
9. Living standard
In order to make measuring the GNH less complicated these nine domains are often included in the four larger pillars of GNH as laid out by the Permanent Mission of the Kingdom of Bhutan to the United Nations in New York. The pillars are 1) Sustainable and Equitable Socio-Economic Development, 2) Conservation of the Environment, 3) Preservation and Promotion of Culture and 4) Good Governance. Each of these pillars includes the nine domains - for example the 7th domain, community vitality, would fall into the 3rd pillar, Preservation and Promotion of Culture.
It is the nine core domains and their 33 indicators though that makes up the quantitative measurement of GNH as they are ranked according to satisfaction within the survey. The first official GNH pilot survey was conducted by the Center for Bhutan studies from late 2006 to early 2007. The results of this survey showed that more than 68% of Bhutan's people were happy and they rated income, family, health, and spirituality as their most important requirements for happiness (The Permanent Mission of the Kingdom of Bhutan to the United Nations in New York).
Criticisms of the Gross National Happiness Index
Despite the popularity of the Gross National Happiness Index in Bhutan, it has received considerable criticism from other areas. One of the largest criticisms of GNH is that the domains and indicators are relatively subjective. Critics claim that because of the subjectivity of the indicators it is too difficult to get an accurate quantitative measurement on happiness. They also say that due to the subjectivity, governments may be able to change GNH results in a way that best suits their interests (
Other critics claim that the definition and therefore the ranking of happiness varies country by country and that it is difficult to use Bhutan's indicators as measurements to assess happiness and progress in other countries. For example, people in France may rate education or living standards differently than people in Bhutan or India.
In spite of these criticisms, however, it is important to note that GNH is a different and important way to simply look at economic and social progress around the world.
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Homer Hesiod Hymns Tragedy Remythologizing Tools Blackboard Info
The name of the great popular Athenian law-court, instituted by Solon. The word was also applied to the locality in which the greatest number of its members, and sometimes all of them, assembled. The number of the Heliastae, or members of the court, or jurors, was, in the flourishing period of the democracy, 6,000, 600 being taken from each tribe (phyle). The choice of the Heliastae was determined by lot, under the presidency of the archons. No one was eligible who was not a fully qualified citizen, and over thirty years of age. On their election, the Heliasts took the oath of office, and were distributed into ten divisions of 500 each, corresponding respectively to the ten tribes. The remaining 1,000 served to fill up vacancies as they occurred. Every Heliast received, as the emblem of his office, a bronze tablet, stamped with the Gorgon's head [or with an owl surrounded by an olive-wreath: Hicks, Hist. Inscr. No. 119], his name, and the number of his division. The different courts were mostly situated near the agora, and distinguished by their colour and their number. On court-days the Thesmothetae assigned them by lot to the different divisions of the Heliasts. Every Heliast was then presented with a staff bearing the number of his court, and painted with its colour. On entering the room he received a ticket, which he exhibited after the sitting and thereupon received his fee. This system of paying the jurors was introduced by Pericles, and the fee, originally an obolos (about 1 1/3,d.), was afterwards increased to three obols. In some instances only a part of one division of the jurors would sit to try a case; but in important cases several divisions would sit together. Care was always taken that the number should be uneven. The jurisdiction of the Heliaea extended to all kinds of suits. In public causes it acted as a court both of first instance and of final appeal. For private causes it was originally only a court of appeal; but in later times these suits also came to be brought before it in the first instance.
Type: Standard
gutter splint
gutter splint
gutter splint
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In This Section
FAQs about Hyperhidrosis
Through the online educational seminar, “Do You Suffer from Excessive Sweating,” Dr. Malcolm Brock helps people better understand excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis). These are answers to some of the most commonly asked questions. View the entire seminar here.
What is hyperhidrosis?
Hyperhidrosis is excessive sweating. Hyper means “more” and hidrosis means “sweating.” The body uses sweat to regulate temperature and sweat is one way the body cools. When people sweat too much, however, it could mean they have this condition.
Hyperhidrosis can be a socially isolating condition, as their excessive sweat can be embarrassing. This condition affects 3% of the population.
When people have hyperhidrosis, they have the normal amount of sweat glands but their sympathetic response is higher. This means that when they begin to sweat, they overproduce sweat for reasons doctors don’t fully understand.
The good news is that there are many different types of treatments for hyperhidrosis.
What causes hyperhidrosis?
There are two types of hyperhidrosis:
• Primary hyperhidrosis: often an inherited disorder, which means a member of your family may have had it
• Secondary hyperhidrosis: caused by a condition, medications or behavior (like chronic alcoholism)
Where on the body do people experience excess sweating?
There are several places on the body that people experience hyperhidrosis:
• Palmar hyperhidrosis—excessive sweating of the hands
• Axillary hyperhidrosis—excessive underarm sweating
• Pedal Hyperhidrosis—excessive feet sweating. Sweating on the hands can be linked to feet sweating.
• Facial Hyperhidrosis/Blushing—flushing and sweating of the face
Is there any way I might outgrow hyperhidrosis?
If your hyperhidrosis is caused by a family genetic predisposition, then it is unlikely that you will outgrow hyperhidrosis. The good news is there are many forms of treatment that you can explore with the doctors at Johns Hopkins.
How do you diagnose hyperhidrosis?
Most of the time, by listening to a patient’s history, our doctors can diagnose hyperhidrosis. First, before they can recommend any treatments, they must rule out any other possibilities that could be causing the symptoms. Once those are ruled out, our doctors can also perform other tests, including a starch iodine test and a test using a device called a vapometer to determine how much sweat the different parts of your body makes.
What are the treatments for hyperhidrosis?
We understand how much hyperhidrosis can affect your quality of life. Our doctors take treating hyperhidrosis very seriously, but always want to proceed in the safest manner possible when considering all treatments available. If your hyperhidrosis is moderate, many of these conservative treatments can help.
After determining that you have primary hyperhidrosis, you doctor will probably recommend conservative treatments first, before exploring surgery. Those conservative treatments include:
• Oral Medications: These medications, given by pill, are designed to affect your whole body, also called systemic treatment. These medications are known as anticholinergics; they cause whole body dryness, and may also cause irritating dry mouth and dry eyes.
• Topical Medications, such as Aluminum Chloride: This cream is applied in the evening. After applying it to your hands, or other affected areas, you cover the area and wear this protection over the area overnight. In the morning, the area should be dry.
• Iontophoresis: This form of electrical therapy can help people with hyperhidrosis of the hands and feet. You put your hands in water and an electrical current runs through the water. The electrical current minimizes the activity of the sweat glands. You must do this therapy 2-3 times a week for 20-30 minutes. There is a “recipe” on the Internet to create this device: DO NOT USE CAR BATTERIES AND PIE CRUST CONTAINERS to create iontophoresis treatment—that can be very dangerous.
• Botulinum Toxin: Known as Botox®, this medication can help with face, hand and underarm hyperhidrosis. It requires a number of shots, for example, the hand requires approximately 40 shots and many patients ask for local or general anesthesia. The effect typically lasts for 3-6 months. Please note that we do not offer Botox treatments.
• Microwave Thermolysis: During the procedure, your underarm skin is exposed to microwave energy and it destroys the sweat glands. The research from this device is very encouraging; some people have had dryness for up to two years now following the procedure. It typically takes 2-3 sessions over the course of three-six months.
What should I expect during the procedure?
Before the procedure, your doctor will numb the underarm area. Then your underarm skin is lifted into the system and microwave energy is directed to the sweat glands. The procedure typically takes an hour and involves no incisions or cuts; you should not feel any discomfort. After two treatments in our center, 95% of patients report a significant reduction in underarm sweat. You should be able to return to normal activities or work right away, and you can typically resume exercise within several days.
What are the surgical treatments for hyperhidrosis?
• If you have tried conservative treatments for hyperhidrosis and not had the level of success you had hoped for, your doctors may recommend surgical treatment, known as a sympathectomy or sympathotomy. A sympathectomy is removal of the sympathetic nerve; our doctors at Johns Hopkins prefer to cut the nerve instead of removing it. That is why we refer to the surgery as a sympathotomy.
• If you have not had your sweating for a long time, (arms, hands and feet), you will not be a surgical candidate for a sympathotomy. If you have truncal hyperhidrosis (sweating on your body or groin), you may also not be a good candidate for surgery.
• For treatment of hyperhidrosis, surgeons used to have to open the entire chest to locate and cut the sympathetic nerve, the nerve that controls the sweating reaction in people. Now we have VATS, which stands for Video Assisted Thoracic Surgery. Your surgeon makes a small incision in your underarm and using a small camera and light, is able to locate the sympathetic nerve and make the appropriate cuts. The increased magnified visualization of the sympathetic nerve offered by VATS eliminates the need to open up people’s chest.
• VATS gives our surgeons an amazing amount of precision, so they can localize the exact place on the nerve where the cut should be made.
• Surgeons also used to clip nerve with the idea that clip removal would make the surgery reversible: what they now know is that clipping is irreversible. To date, the best evidence suggests that clipping and cutting the nerve are fairly interchangeable although larger studies are needed to evaluate the two techniques head-to-head.
• Learn more about a sympathotomy.
What should I expect from the surgery?
The surgery is outpatient, which means you leave the hospital on the same day.
What are patients’ levels of satisfaction after surgery?
Patients are typically satisfied following their surgeries, with specific levels depending on where they first experienced hyperhidrosis. Patients undergoing surgery to treat sweating on their hands are usually the most pleased with results, with over 90% reporting satisfaction; those with excessive sweating in the underarm area or on their faces report a 70 to 80% satisfaction rate.
What is compensatory sweating?
Compensatory sweating occurs when the original hyperhidrosis is no longer localized to the area where it first occurred. Often it can travel to the trunk or body or back of legs or knees and can occur after surgery. It doesn’t always occur right away; it can take about 6 weeks before we see this and doctors still don’t know why. What they do know is that the higher on the sympathetic nerve they have to cut, the more likely that compensatory sweating may happen, which is why now surgeons avoid cutting above rib 3.
There is a seasonal component with compensatory sweating. Our doctors at Johns Hopkins have noticed that patients get better in the winter, but experience more sweating in the summer.
When patients do suffer with compensatory sweating there are medications that are able to help.
Is there a way to reverse the surgery?
Some doctors have tried experimenting with nerve grafts to try to reconnect the cuts that were originally made in the sympathetic nerve. However, none of these procedures seems to be successful. Therefore, it is important to understand that a sympathotomy is a permanent procedure and does carry risks.
Does insurance cover this procedure?
Most health insurance plans do cover this surgery, but you need to check your individual policy. We find greater success in having insurance cover a sympathotomy when we can document that you have tried conservative therapies, including medication, iontophoresis, and Botox®. Once we show that we have tried other treatments, you can often appeal to your insurance company, which we will help you do.
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'A' Longest Common Subsequence (LCS) implementation Atom Feed 1
I found myself wanting to do a Linux style diff of a graph (directed acyclic) in C++. In digging around I found the Longest Common Subsequence algorithm (dating back to 1974!). I decided to understand it by implementing a version in C++. This is a C++ template implementation which works under some constraints.
1 Contents
1.1 Introduction
I ran into the Longest Common Subsequence algorithm first while looking for how diff worked. I read a bit, then jumped right in, trying to avoid Google search results that pointed to C++ implementations since I wanted to write my own.
Why did I want to write an LCS implementation? Well, it turns out that having found "a" common subsequence, one can display diff-like output based on that common subsequence algorithm's results. Basically: solving LCS gives you diff.
I read a bit on Wikipedia, a UCI course note from 1996 and from a site called algorithmist.
First some definitions. A sequence X is defined as an ordered set {}.
A subsequence is basically a subset of an ordered sequence. Say a sequence S which is {}.
A common subsequence is a subsquence common to two sequences. For example, if we have two sequences (of characters/text) X={A,B,C,D,B,A,G,Z,C,D,C,A} and Y={B,C,A,D,C,G,Z} we can easily see these subsequences:
In this case by inspection I can see two longest ones:
A B C D B A G Z C D C A
B C A D C G Z
Which gives S={B,C,A,G,Z} and:
A B C D B A G Z C D C A
B C A D C G Z
Which gives S={B,C,D,G,Z}
1.2 Chapter 1 Logic/Algorithm
At first analysis, if we have two sequences for which we are seeking a longest common subsequence we can find the solution in the following way. This is the brute force method. If matches then we move on to the next. If not, we compare with . We keep proceeding through Y comparing to until we find a match, for my example above, at , or we get to the end of Y.
When we get to the match point, we increment the X position and proceed from where we were in Y. Using the example above, we found == so we go to and start comparing with . This time we will get to the end of Y in our example.
If we get to the end of Y without a match then we move on to the next X, in our example, and reset the comparison to the last place that we found a match in Y + 1, which in this case was and go to the next one, .
In our example we will once again hit the end of Y without a match; this time we move to . Here we find a match because == == 'C'.
We increment our position in both sequences to and . Proceeding as before we should reach matching and matching .
At that point, both increment to the end without any more matches and we have found:
A B C D B A G Z C D C A
B C A D C G Z
or S={A,C,G,Z} for our first potential "longish" subsequence.
Then we move to starting at and do it all again form which immediately match. We proceed to and that also matches . Then to which matches .
The algorithm I came up with is implemented in brute force example for LCS.
Now, to understand the potential cost of this it is clear that we go through Y at least n times (where n is the number of items in X). So that is O(n*m) (m is the number of items in Y). However, at each point we do not match, we could potentially rewind multiple times. Doing a lot of testing with no with sequences like X={A,B,C,D} and Y={D} I saw some extra looping which I stopped with some if statements but these cost time. In any case, what you see is the final version and it still will cost more comparisons than the ideal LCS algorithm.
What if we take every subsequence of X and look for it in Y? Then we have the longest subsequence, X itself, then start knocking off one character at a time and check again. This truly brute force algorithm is provided in find ALL common subsequences and then sort for longest.
A critical insight into this problem is to realize that it can be broken down into sub-problems. Let us define a suffix as the first part of a sequence. For example, above suffixes would be A, AB, ABC, ABCD & etc.
Now, suppose two sequences start with the same element. Then to find their LCS we need to only compare the remainder. In other words, if the first item matches then a LCS is the item that matched plus a LCS of X = {} with Y = {}.
If the first element does not match, then obviously it is not part of an LCS and can be ignored. But then how do we proceed? We must check X = {} against the Y = {} and vice-versa to see which comparison yields a longer LCS.
This solution is analogous to the description in the Wikipedia reference except that there it is more formally defined and he is removing the last element instead of the first.
My version leads to a recursive solution like recursive solution for LCS problem.
1.3 Chapter 2 Implementation
I went through a series of implementations for fun and exploration. The first and most basic was a C version for char* comparisons. The second was a C++ version which used memoization to keep track of the comparisons.
1.3.1 Section 2.1 C version for char*
The first code I implemented was to demonstrate the memoization algorithm from the UCI article pretty much as-is (longest common subsequence algorithm in C for char*). It is implemented in C.
1.3.2 Section 2.2 C++ version (first try)
The next thing I decided to do was think about this in terms of the sequence being any object. As a result I would need to think more about indices and what it meant to be at the end of a set of objects and the size of the object collection. That was too much to think about so I decided to make an LCS C++ template class that could be used for c++ containers or at least some containers. The code is here LCS C++ template classes and test/example code is here LCS C++ template TEST.
1.4 Chapter 3 What else?
At this point comes the meat of my problem. I want to compare two graphs. I've not read any literature about that (yet) but am considering the following way of doing things. At each node in the graph there are edges from that node to the nodes below. What makes a node in one graph equal to a node in the other graph? The edges must match and the nodes they point to must match.
These are an example of graphs I might want to compare:
Suppose we have two graphs like the above, G1 and G2. Functionally we are asking is G1 == G2. This is the same as asking if G1(N1) == G2(N1). At this point I make a rule to simplify my life. If the top nodes match and each edge to the next nodes match and those nodes match (not their children but just the nodes themselves) then I say that G1(N1) IS equal to G2(N1). I do not insist that ALL descendants match. Furthermore, I do not insist that p1_1 and p1_2 are in a particular order, just that they match some edge in G2(N1). For example if G(N1 - p1_1 -> N21) == G(N1 - p1_2 -> N21) then this means that p1_1 and p1_2 are equivalent.
In my case, this lead to looking at the longest common subsequence (LCS) of the edges. This would allow diff-like output in the case where one or more edges DO match but others do not match or are missing. This would provide more information than my current comparison performs because my current comparison stops upon encountering an edge that is out of sequence without being able to check if maybe the NEXT one would have matched.
What I am working with and how I do the comparison between the two graphs at the moment is to grab the list of nodes. For each node, I grab the list of edges and compare them until I fail to find a match. At that point the whole process stops. I want to be able to continue to check other nodes and other edges without stopping.
To proceed, the meaning of a node matching is simple: the characteristics of the node are compared and if they are equal, we proceed with the next step. [Note to self: For optimization I may decide to keep some of this info around as well. There are many repeated nodes in the graphs I am comparing and if node N1 has been compared to N1 before, there is no need to compare it's characteristics all over again.] Next compare the edges. I approach this as an LCS problem. Each edge_list G1(N1)(p1_1, p1_2, p1_3, etc) will be compared to G2(N1)(p1_1, p1_2, p1_3, etc) the same way we approach the longest common sub-sequence problem. Then we go on to the next node in our node_list and do the same thing.
1.5 Update 2011-12-23
I am busy with a new job. When I started this work I was unemployed and keeping busy with this and a number of other things. Now my efforts are to learn more about the things I need for the new job. So I'm leaving this where it is and making it public.
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Main Page | See live article | Alphabetical index
The gauss, abbreviated as G, is the cgs unit of magnetic induction, named after the mathematician and physicist Carl Friedrich Gauss. One gauss is defined as one maxwell per square centimeter.
For many years prior to 1932 the term gauss was used to designate that unit of magnetic field intensity which is now known as the oersted. This change in terminology was introduced to distinguish between magnetic induction and magnetic intensity as physical magnitudes.
The SI unit of magnetic induction is the tesla. One gauss is equal to 10-4 tesla.
1 T = 10 000 G
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"url": "http://www.fact-index.com/g/ga/gauss.html"
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About Seesaw Sign Up
Students use creative tools in the Seesaw app or website to complete classroom activities like "Scientific Method Wo…"
Melanie Bird
Student Instructions
Scientific Method Word Problem
Salinity Sam is interested in learning more about saltwater and the buoyancy of an object. He is curious because he visited the Great Salt Lake this summer and he noticed he could float effortlessly on the water. He is convinced it has something to do with the amount of salt in the water. He formulates a hypothesis; if the salinity of the water is increased then an object will be more buoyant. First he measures out 300 ml of water into three 500 ml beakers and labels them as A, B, and C. In beaker A he adds no salt, in beaker B he adds and mixes in 25g of salt, and in beaker C he adds and mixes in 50g of salt. He uses the same object to evaluate buoyancy. When the object is placed into beaker A, it barely touches the bottom of the beaker. Salinity Sam records his observations after the buoyancy of the object is tested in each beaker. He discovers that when the object is placed into beaker C, it almost floats to the top of the water.
6th Grade, Science
12 teachers like this
Students will edit this template:
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"url": "https://app.seesaw.me/activities/e7vhe9/scientific-method-word-problem"
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Who discovered hay fever?
Who discovered hay fever?
We’ve stumbled across a fascinating bit of hay fever history on the BBC News website, and thought that it would be fun to share it with you. Read the full article here.
So, who discovered hay fever?
In in 1819, a Liverpool born London doctor called John Bostock presented a study to the Medical and Chirurgical Society called ‘Case of a Periodical Affection of the Eyes and Chest’. John Bostock had suffered from stuffiness, catarrh and a general feeling of heaviness, every June since the age of 8. The study was based on himself! Some of the treatments that Bostock subjected himself to included bleeding, cold baths, taking opium and self-induced vomiting.
Perplexed by the clockwork timing of his symptoms, Bostock set about broadening his research. Bostock had spent his academic career taking special interest in bodily fluids, in particular bile and urine and had decided to use his skills to research the affliction which is now termed as ‘hay fever’.
Over 9 blynedd, Bostock found 28 subjects to study and released a second article in which he christened the condition “catarrhus aestivus” neu “summer catarrh”. At this point in time, Bostock was alone in his belief that an event specific to the summer season was causing the dreaded symptoms. The medical establishment did not believe there was a problem. By 1928, an idea had emerged among the public that the reactions were caused by the ‘effluvium’ (smell) from newly formed hay.
Bostock didn’t agree. He thought a recurring disease, exacerbated by the exhausting heat of summer, was to blame. He rented a clifftop house near Ramsgate, Kent, for three summers in a row, enjoying total rest. His symptoms reduced so much that he “nearly escaped the disease”.
Sea air quickly became a fashionable fix for a number of ailments as many followed Bostock’s example.
The term ‘hay fever’ was first used by The Times in 1827, when it reported that the Duke of Devonshire was “afflicted with what is vulgarly called the Hay-fever, which annually drives him from London to some sea-port”.
It wasn’t until 1859, when another British scientist named Charles Blackley discovered the true cause of the common summertime affliction. He had sniffed a bouquet of bluegrass and begun sneezing. He cross referenced this with the abundance of grass during the month of June, and from then became convinced that pollen was the route cause. Fodd bynnag,, Blackley had still not reached the conclusion of ‘allergy’, he believed that the problem was being caused by poisons in the pollen.
Nearly 200 years on, there has been extensive research into causes and treatments for hay fever, but there’s still a long way to go. For lots of fantastic information on hay fever and other allergies, visit the Allergy UK website.
To check out our Guide to Managing Allergies, cliciwch yma. (No blood letting or cold baths, we promise!),
To read the full article on the BBC website, cliciwch yma.
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"url": "https://www.haymax.us/blog/who-discovered-hay-fever/?lang=cy"
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In 331 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the Persian empire, stretching his rule from Greece to Asia Minor, to Egypt and India. This made for an incredible melting pot of artistic styles, Greek art stretched to Asia, whilst Asian and Egyptian styles influenced Greece's artisans.
With the demand for decorative arts and gold jewelry ever-growing in Greece, buyers desired exotic motifs, with their far-reaching influences, Greek jewelers and artists began to incorporate acanthus leaves and other flowers from lands from afar with Heracles knots.
Alexander's rule over the Persian empire gave him access to the treasures of Babylon, which in turn placed lots of gold in circulation in Greece. Years after Alexander's reign, the Greeks continued to be a leader in creative industries such as jewelry design.
In the Hellenistic period, jewelry would stay in the family as an heirloom. The Greeks would even offer jewelry to the gods, with headpieces, necklaces and more items of jewelry found in the inventory of great temples.
Hellenistic jewelry was also burled with the dead, with ancient tombs having some of the best preserved pieces of Hellenistic jewelry.
This diadem is unusual in form as it combines intricate work on an extremely delicate material.
The Herakles knot, also referred to as the ''knot of Hercules'' and the ''marriage-knot,'' was a popular design in ancient Greek which was influenced by the ancient Egyptians.
The idea of the motif is that the two intertwined ropes are meant to protect the lovers from evil. This knot using in marriage ceremonies is most likely to be where the phrase ''tying the knot'' derived from.
Greek jewelry from the Minoan period onwards often features the knot motif. The knot can also be found in Greek home decor, including mosaics.
This piece has a rosette and acanthus motif in spiral-beaded wire and there is a border of beaded wire. The Herakles knot is decorated with similar
filigree with scrolls, vine leaves, rosettes and a central larger multi-tier rosette.
The history of cameos can be stretched back to 15 000 BC, were carvings were made to record events. They were also worn as symbols of beliefs, with ancient Greek and Roman carvings depicting gods and goddesses as well as mythological legends.
Cameos would often depict heroes or rulers, and were popular with men before they were favoured by women. In the Hellenistic era, some women would choose to wear a cameo depicting Eros to let the opposite sex aware she was available for courting.
These examples coming up for auction at Leclere depict a dolphin and a lion, exactly why these were chosen for this piece are unclear, but both creatures have a rich history with ancient Greece. The lion was considered the ruler of the land whilst the dolphin ruled over the seas. The label The Lion and the Dolphin by the Greek poet Aesop most likely led to the creatures being held in such high esteem.
The lion and dolphin are also symbols found in astronomy. Dividing the stars into mythological figures was started in Babylon, continued to be practiced in Egypt and continued by the ancient Greeks.
Leclere's Antique jewelry auction will take place on October 6, 2017. Check out the full catalog here.
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"language_score": 0.9716461896896362,
"url": "https://www.barnebys.com/blog/going-for-gold-13-lot-auction-could-bring-in-over-150-000/"
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cirq.OP_TREE = typing.Union[cirq.ops.raw_types.Operation, typing.Iterable[typing.Any]]
Union type; Union[X, Y] means either X or Y.
To define a union, use e.g. Union[int, str]. Details:
• The arguments must be types and there must be at least one.
• None as an argument is a special case and is replaced by type(None).
• Unions of unions are flattened, e.g.:
Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]
• Unions of a single argument vanish, e.g.:
Union[int] == int # The constructor actually returns int
• Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.:
Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str]
• When comparing unions, the argument order is ignored, e.g.:
Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]
• When two arguments have a subclass relationship, the least derived argument is kept, e.g.:
class Employee: pass
class Manager(Employee): pass
Union[int, Employee, Manager] == Union[int, Employee]
Union[Manager, int, Employee] == Union[int, Employee]
Union[Employee, Manager] == Employee
• Similar for object:
Union[int, object] == object
• You cannot subclass or instantiate a union.
• You can use Optional[X] as a shorthand for Union[X, None].
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"language_score": 0.7544822692871094,
"url": "https://cirq.readthedocs.io/en/latest/generated/cirq.OP_TREE.html"
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Thomas Jefferson, Famous Pursuiter of Happiness
Drawing by Elizabeth Wagele
Thomas Jefferson was the imaginative and productive founding father responsible for the phrase “pursuit of happiness” in the Preamble to the Declaration of Independence. He was an Epicurian (“I consider the genuine doctrines of Epicurus as containing everything rational in moral philosophy of which Greece and Rome have left us.” – Letter to William Short, October 31, 1819.) I believe he was an Adventurer in the Enneagram system of personalities. Adventurers typically engage in many interests and activities:
According to Wikipedia, “Jefferson had a love for reading. By 1815, his library included 6,487 books, which he sold to the Library of Congress to replace the smaller collection destroyed in the War of 1812. He was an accomplished architect who helped popularize the Neo-Palladian style in the United States. He was interested in birds and wine, and was a noted gourmet. Jefferson was a prolific writer. He learned Gaelic to translate Ossian, and sent to James Macpherson for the originals. Jefferson invented many small practical devices and improved contemporary inventions. These include the design for a revolving book-stand to hold five volumes at once… Another was the “Great Clock,” powered by the Earth’s gravitational pull on Revolutionary War cannonballs. Jefferson invented a 15 cm long coded wooden cypher wheel, mounted on a metal spindle, to keep secure State Department messages while he was Secretary of State. The messages were scrambled and unscrambled by 26 alphabet letters on each circular segment of the wheel. He improved the moldboard plow and the polygraph, in collaboration with Charles Willson Peale. As Minister to France, Jefferson was impressed by France’s military standardization program known as the Système Gribeauval and later as President initiated a program at the Federal Armories to develop interchangeable parts for firearms.”
Stephen Greenblatt wrote The Swerve: How the World Became Modern, on how Lucretius’ epic poem, “On the Nature of Things” (first century BC), shaped the thought of Galileo, Freud, Darwin, and Einstein and influenced writers such as Montaigne and Shakespeare. He says Jefferson owned five copies of the poem. Lucretius believed the Universe was made of units or atoms and was not created by a miracle. He believed in avoiding pain and tried to convince people not to have a fear of death. Presumably Jefferson agreed with him that neither the mind nor spirit can survive independent of the body. So fear of death is a projection of terrors experienced in life, a fear of pain that only a living mind can feel.
Lucretius also says people who fear the prospect of eternal non-existence after death should think back to the eternity of non-existence before their birth, which they probably do not fear. Adventurers should find this idea appealing because they look for ways to not be afraid. Certain other types would not be as attracted to such a carefree thought (leaving views handed down by their religion aside, that is).
Adventurers, including Thomas Jefferson, try to fill their lives with positive activities, thoughts, attitudes, and options. When something doesn’t go well for them, they usually get over it rather quickly.
For more Famous People, see my website:
and my Psychology Today blog:
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history of fly tying - professor
The History of Fly Tying
Today’s fly tiers are participating in a tradition that goes back thousands of years. The tradition has evolved remarkably as new technologies, methods, and materials have been developed. However, the core of the practice looks much the same as it did in ancient China or 19th-century England. Let’s take a closer look at the history of fly tying.
Early History of Fly Tying
When looking at the history of fly tying, we can’t say precisely when the first person created an artificial fly for fishing, but there’s evidence that flies were used in ancient China as early as 3,000 BC. Chinese fishermen used a feather from a kingfisher attached to a hook. A few thousand years later, in about 200 AD, we have evidence that Macedonians used similar artificial flies. They used dyed wool for the fly’s body and a rooster’s feathers for the wings.
Medieval Fly Tying
fly tying history - dry flies
Fly tying was clearly practiced around the world for centuries. The next printed evidence we have of the practice is a book printed in 1486 in St Albans, England, thought to be written by a prioress named Juliana Berners. Juliana wrote about hawking, hunting, and fishing, and the book included a section titled the Treatyse of fysshynge with an Angle (although this section may have been added in the late 15th century). The treatise included descriptions of different artificial flies for use in different seasons. Again, the materials were largely wool and feathers from different birds.
Early Modern Advancements
history of fly tying - advancements
Between the 17th and 19th centuries, there were many advancements in materials and technique that enabled anglers to craft more varied, more effective flies. In the 17th century, an aristocrat named Charles Cotton published a collection of flies with a high level of detail that imitated real flies. Alred Ronalds, who was both a fisherman and an artist, continued his work in 1836 when he published The Fly-Fisher’s Entomology, which featured pictures of real flies next to pictures of their artificial copies, along with detailed instructions for tying. This enabled many other fishermen to reproduce detailed, convincing flies.
Fly Tying in the Modern World
history of fly tying - green highlander
Up until the late 19th century, flies and fishing lines were made to float on the surface of the water. At the beginning of the 20th century, fishermen began to realize that fish would also be drawn to the larval stage of the fly underneath the water, opening up a whole new realm of possibility for fly tying. Until this point, flies were also tied entirely by hand. Then, in the 1880s, anglers began using hook vises. This made complex tying techniques much easier. Since then, the basic approach to fly tying has remained largely the same. However, the constant development of new synthetic materials and patterns continues to create flies that are more realistic and more successful. While this is by no means a comprehensive history of fly tying, we hope you learned something new!
history of fly tying - parts of salmon fly
1 Comment
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1. Great article for the history buffs, we should all want to know the history of this great sport, avocation we enjoy…..
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In New Spain, Conceptionist and Jeronymite nuns adorned their habits with religious escudos, pictorial badges promoting their favored Marian devotions.1 Worn on the chest and measuring between six to ten inches, a striking example is housed at the Museo Franz Mayer in Mexico City (Fig. 1).2 The celebrated Virgin of Balvanera, a Romanesque sculpture from the Rioja region of Spain, is shown seated on a throne, lodged within a tree trunk, and surrounded by a vivid landscape. Set within a tortoiseshell frame, most of the surface is embroidered with silk and silver thread, betraying a feminine skill often mastered in the convent.
According to a fifteenth-century local account, the Virgin of Balvanera was crafted by Saint Luke, sent to Spain by Saint Peter, venerated in a chapel until 462, and then hidden in a hollow of an oak tree. Following the area’s Reconquista, an angel led a hermit to the icon’s discovery. Like the Virgin de Aranzazu, a medieval sculpture miraculously rediscovered in the Basque countryside, the Virgin of Balvanera announced early Christian piety while claiming regional identity. Expatriates from the Rioja established her devotion in colonial Mexico City: Conceptionist nuns oversaw the Balvanera convent and church while Riojanos funded a chapel in her honor on the grounds of the Franciscan monastery.3 Surviving devotional paintings by Juan Correa, José de Ibarra, and Miguel Cabrera were perhaps intended for these spaces.
The origin of the escudo is found in chivalric insignia, late medieval badges, religious jewelry, and the painted miniature, yet the form adopted larger proportions and vast importance in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century New Spain.4 As Elizabeth Perry argues, initial production in the 1630s was a response to a set of partial reforms aimed at regulating religious dress.5 Archbishop Francisco Manso y Zuñiga instructed Conceptionist nuns to wear images of the Immaculate Conception on their habits and to forgo adornments—specifically “gold, stone, or enamel”—that seemed contrary to their vows. Wealthy nuns responded by commissioning painted escudos and replacing gold frames with tortoiseshell. By the mid-eighteenth century, the opulent emblems not only articulated a woman’s religious affiliations, family fortune, and ethnic purity but also expressed her desire to influence political opinion. In a period of Bourbon reforms aimed at promoting austerity and a more collective, interior spirituality, the Mexican escudo became a mark of protest. Unreformed nuns proudly adopted and flaunted the object while reformed convents refused it. In the words of Perry, “the escudos de monjas had become both a product of imposed religious reform and an indigenous subversion of that reform.”6
While a nun was typically cloistered, her image was not. As the anxiety caused by the religious reforms intensified during the second half of the eighteenth century, nun portraiture—like the escudos themselves—became more prevalent and visually sumptuous (Fig. 2).7 Echoing the nun’s visage, the escudo had the advantage: it was able to speak. Thus we locate the object not as a decorative accessory but as Derridean prosthetic—at once part of the body and outside of it.8 It conveys Otherness in its materiality and yet it is the part of the human figure that is most metonymic with its wearer, most intimately connected to her cosmopolitan identity, agency, and being. Appendage no longer—the Conceptionist detaching herself centuries ago—the prosthetic functions as a substitute for the absent nun and continues its life acquiring its own artificial supplements: a museum structure, glass vitrine, wall text, and catalog entry.
The Balvanera escudo offers us genealogical vision, yet the genre and the materiality betray a matrix in which foundation narratives and the rhetoric of purity are ceaselessly disrupted. It is not simply the case that our nun—Riojan or not—was a female religious in colonial Mexico, but that the insignia’s silk, silver, and tortoiseshell stress the various and variegated communities of an early modern Hispanic world. What would a Baroque viewer see when looking into the Mexican escudo-mirror? Would they find China? Spain? Mexico? Refracted ambiguity. Silk production was both important and profitable in Puebla, Oaxaca, Granada, and Cordoba throughout the sixteenth century. While the establishment of the Manila Galleon in 1565 eventually led to the importation of less expensive silks from China, silk often arrived in the Americas not as finished product but as ribbon, trim, and thread to be transformed at its destination. Silver thread was also typically imported, this despite the fact that the presence of the mineral in any form communicated Spanish America’s metallurgic and geo-cultural prestige. And while tortoiseshell could be found in Mexico’s coastal waters, finished products such as fashionable combs and fans were frequently imported from Spain. Yet in eighteenth-century Mexico, the raw material most likely originated in the southern Philippines or Indonesia. The Balvanera escudo is not only exotic and alluring, it is compellingly unknowable.
Exotic materials—in concept if not in origin—were prime sources for religious products. In the affluent cities of New Spain, metallic threads heightened the aura of specifically sacred settings, often appearing on priestly vestments, altar cloths, and the dress of a miraculous image. That the thread was used to delineate the Virgin of Balvanera was appropriate, therefore, and merited by the divine icon as much as by the nun’s own affluence and social conceits. Similarly, tortoiseshell carried religious associations in colonial Mexico, often appearing in church spaces such as the pulpit in Querétaro’s Santa Rosa Viterbo.9 Silver, perhaps the most abundant luxury item in a Baroque church, transformed lamps, chalices, censers, reliquaries, and ecclesiastical garments into magnificent treasures. The nun’s badge, therefore, mimics both ecclesiastical prestige and the cosmopolitan church space, underscoring the power of the female religious body to consciously select and reject material referents in the demarcation of a simultaneously global and local identity.
1. Conceptionist and Jeronymite convents restricted membership to Iberian-born women and American descendants of peninsular Spaniards (Creoles).
2. The Grandeur of Viceregal Mexico: Treasures from the Museo Franz Mayer, ex cat. (Houston and Mexico: Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and Museo Franz Mayer, 2002), 334-335.
3. For the Balvanera convent and church, see María Concepción Amerlinck de Corsi and Manuel Ramos Medina, Conventos de Monjas: Fundaciones en el México Virreinal (Mexico City: Grupo Condumex, 1995), 44-50.
4. Virginia Armella de Aspe and Guillermo Tovar de Teresa, Escudos de Monjas Novohispanas (Mexico City: Grupo Gusta, 1993); Martha Egan, “Escudos de Monjas: Religious Miniatures of New Spain,” Latin American Art 5, no. 4 (1994): 43-46; Elizabeth Perry, “Escudos de Monjas/Shields of Nuns: The Creole Convent and Images of Mexican Identity in Miniature” (Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 1999).
5. Elizabeth Perry, “Convents, Art, and Creole Identity in Late Viceregal New Spain,” in Women and Art in Early Modern Latin America (Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2007), 321. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004153929.i-451.73
6. Ibid., 335.
7. Ibid.; James Córdova, The Art of Professing in Bourbon Mexico: Crowned-Nun Portraits and Reform in the Convent (Austin: University of Texas, 2014); Monjas coronadas: Vida conventual femenina en Hispanoamérica, ex cat. (Mexico City: INAH, 2003).
8. For Jacques Derrida, the term prosthetic is useful in examining language and the relationship between speech and writing. Similar to the “logic of the supplement,” it simultaneously signals an addition and a lack, at once outside and inside, both extension and substitute (see, for example, Of Grammatology and Monolingualism of the Other: Or, the Prosthesis of Origin). David Wills further develops this notion and applies it more widely in Prosthesis (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1995), emphasizing the always already fragmented body and the function of prosthetics—whether natural, mechanical, or technological—in the assimilation of otherness (what he calls an internal exteriorization). The Balvanera escudo is a prosthetic in that it articulates identity and assimilates otherness while disrupting the notion of an apriori integral body. Furthermore, the escudo is an artificial attachment with an afterlife, challenging the primacy of the human body by allowing for its own additions. See Wills, “Two Words Pro-Derrida,” For a concise overview of the concept in literary theory, philosophy, art history, media studies, and cyborg anthropology, see Sarah Coffey, “prosthesis,” in The Chicago School of Media Theory, A recent volume that explores many of these themes is The Prosthetic Impulse: From a Posthuman Present to a Biocultural Future, eds. Marquard Smith and Joanne Morra (Boston: The MIT Press, 2007).
9. Virginia Armella de Aspe, El carey en México (Mexico City: Grupo Multibanco Comermex, 1979).
Cristina Cruz González
© Cristina Cruz González
Citation Guide
1. Cristina Cruz González, "The Balvanera Escudo," Object Narrative, in Conversations: An Online Journal of the Center for the Study of Material and Visual Cultures of Religion (2014), doi:10.22332/con.obj.2014.50
González, Cristina Cruz. "The Balvanera Escudo." Object Narrative. In Conversations: An Online Journal of the Center for the Study of Material and Visual Cultures of Religion (2014). doi:10.22332/con.obj.2014.50
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The Geographical Location of the Jaredites/Olmecs
“…Jared came forth with his brother and their families, with some others and their families, from the great tower, at the time the Lord confounded the language of the people…" (Ether 1:33)
The Jaredites came from the Tower of Babel.
Note: "...the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth." (Genesis 11:9)
Evidence indicates that the “tower of Babel” was located in Mesopotamia.
The Jaredites crossed the sea. (Ether 6:5)
After leaving the Eastern Hemisphere and crossing the sea they landed in the "promised land".
(Ether 6:12) That is the Land that was promised to the Jaredites.
The Book of Mormon then indicates that just like the Mormons who entered the land of Utah, or like the first Pilgrims who came to the east coast of the now United States, one of the first things that the Jaredites did, like the early Mormons or Pilgrims, was they began to "till the earth" and live in that location. (Ether 6:13)
Therefore the oblivious place for them to settle would have been next to the sea that they had just crossed.
The major population area, archaeological ruins and cities of the Jaredites/Olmecs people would be of course mapped next to the "sea", as shown on the following map.
The Jaredites/Olmecs oldest and main populated region located next to a "sea".
These Ancient "Cities" date exactly to the Book of Mormon Jaredite time period.
In 1830 A.D., when the Book of Mormon was first published, no one in the world knew the dates of occupation of these Ancient Cities.
These Ancient Cities had to have had 10's of 1,000's of people occupying each major City.
"And it came to pass that his father did build up many cities upon the face of the land, and the people began again to spread over all the face of the land." (Ether 10:4)
<<The Jaredites/Olmecs "spread over all the face of the land."
Map from; (Latin American Studies)
The Jaredites civilization lasted over 2000 years. During this time there is evidence that the Jaredite people spread outward as far north as the United States, and as far South as Peru.
See: The Jaredites/Olmecs...of Mesoamerica
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Main Idea and Text Structure Review Directions
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Main Idea and Text Structure Review
Directions: Read each passage and on a separate sheet of paper…
1. Write a sentence explaining the main idea of the text
2. Create a graphic organizer that represents the information in the text
3. Come up with a title related to the main idea of the passage.
1. Being a clown isn’t all fun and games. Rodeo clowns expose themselves to great danger every time they perform. When cowboys dismount or are bucked off of bulls at riding competitions, rodeo clowns jump in front of the bulls and motion wildly to get their attention. In this way rodeo clowns provide an alternate target, and in doing so protect the rider. So you see, sometimes clowning around can be serious business.
2. The wolverine, a medium sized mammal weighing no more than 50 lbs., has earned its reputation for ferocity with its documented ability to kill prey many times its size. The reason why wolverines have so many conflicts with other animals (including wolves, cougars, and even bears) is probably because of the wolverine’s preferred hunting style. Rather than chasing down or tricking its prey like most hunters, the wolverine prefers to take its meals directly from other hunters. So while a polar bear or a lone wolf might be enjoying a hard earned carcass, a hungry wolverine may try to take his lunch. This keeps the wolverine in plenty of fights.
3. Sometime in December of 1891, Dr. James Naismith, a gym teacher at the YMCA College in Springfield, Massachusetts was trying to keep his gym class active on a rainy day. He wanted a vigorous game that would keep his students moving. After rejecting a few other ideas because they were too rough or not suited for the walled-in gym, Naismith wrote out the rules for a game with peach baskets fixed to ten-foot elevated tracks. Naismith’s students played against one another, passing the ball around and shooting it into the peach baskets. Dribbling wasn’t a part of the original game, and it took a while to realize that the game would run more smoothly if the bottoms of the baskets were removed, but this game grew to be one of the most popular sports in America today. Can you guess which one?
4. What’s that humming sound? Could it be hummingbird, the only bird capable of backward flight? Hummingbirds have many unique flight habits that distinguish them from other birds. Most birds flap their wings up and down to fly, but the hummingbird moves its wings forward and backward very rapidly in a figure eight pattern. This allows the hummingbird to hover in position, fly upside down, and move about very rapidly. And while other birds have to push off with their feet to begin flying, and work their ways up to their top speeds, the hummingbird can both start flying at maximum speed and stop flying instantaneously. After you’ve seen a hummingbird in flight, it’s unlikely that you’ll mistake them for another bird.
5. Remember, if something is worth doing, it is worth doing correctly. That said, the key to making perfect cookies is merely a matter of preparation and precision. To begin with, read your cookie recipe thoroughly before baking. Make sure that you have all of the necessary ingredients before you continue. Next, use good tools and utensils. Sometimes, the craftsperson is only as good as his or her tools. By using good tools you can minimize mistakes and improve the quality of your product. Lastly, you should use top quality ingredients. Unlike in the fairytales, you can’t turn lead into gold. If you use poor quality materials, you’ll create an inferior product. So, to make perfect cookies you should use the highest quality materials available. Bon apatite!
6. The term “machine gun” is commonly applied to any gun that is designed to fire repeatedly and in rapid succession for as long as the trigger is held down. During the course of warfare, the trigger of some machine guns may be held down almost continuously for hours to create suppressant fire (rounds fired not necessarily to kill an enemy, but to prevent them from attacking). All of this firing can generate a lot of heat, which may cause the weapon to overheat and malfunction. But this situation has been addressed in a number of ways. For one, practically all machine guns fire from an open bolt, which allows air to cool the breach between bursts of fire. Additionally, some machine guns have removable barrels, which allow hot barrels to be replaced. And some advanced machine guns even have sophisticated barrel cooling systems, which maintain a functional heat level within the weapon. As you might have concluded, a lot of brain power has gone into keeping those guns firing.
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Latest in Tomorrow
Image credit: SDubi via Getty Images
Google and Harvard use AI to predict earthquake aftershocks
It's more accurate than previous methods, but isn't ready for primetime.
SDubi via Getty Images
Scientists from Harvard and Google have devised a method to predict where earthquake aftershocks may occur, using a trained neural network. The researchers fed the network with historical seismological data, some 131,000 mainshock-aftershock pairs all told, and more accurately predicted where "more than 30,000 mainshock-aftershock pairs" from an independent dataset occurred, more accurately than previous ways like the Coulomb forecast method. That's because the AI method takes multiple aspects of stress shifts into account versus Coulomb's singular approach.
This model isn't ready for primetime yet, though. The scientists note that their study only counts one type of aftershock triggering when making predictions (static stress changes), rather than accounting for static and dynamic stress changes. "The combination of static and dynamic stress changes leads to a spatial distribution of aftershocks that differs from the pattern caused by static stress changes alone," Nature writes.
Then there's the fact that the models don't take complex faults into account when making predictions. The science journal explains this shortcoming as such: "This could explain why the authors see no evidence of a lack of aftershocks near faults -- caused by an overall decrease in stress -- despite the fact that this feature is readily apparent in situations in which data and circumstances allow it to be clearly observed."
It's a promising start. And given the very nature of how neural networks function, this will only get better with more testing and additional time.
From around the web
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Tuesday, March 20, 2018
A brief history of lines in the Arctic
This 1599 map by Dutch navigator Willem Barentsz is the first to map Spitsbergen since the Vikings discovered it several centuries earlier.
Map: Barentsz (1599), Toronto Public Library
From The Arctic Institute by Greg Sharp
The exact origin of the expression “to draw a line in the sand” is unknown.
Some say it stems from the invasion of Egypt in 168 BC by Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Syria whereas others argue that it is associated with the Battle of the Alamo.
One of the most popular origin stories is that it is derived from John 8:6 in which Jesus draws a line on the ground while addressing those eager to stone a woman accused of adultery.
That the expression moved from the more tangible “ground” in the Bible to the more ephemeral “sand” in current use, is perhaps fitting.
While humans have a tendency to fix firm boundaries and expect no one to cross them, the historical record is testament to just how fickle and fleeting such lines in the sand can be.
Inherently dynamic and temporally limited, the capricious nature of lines is noticeable in any discussion of the Arctic.
As the circumpolar north has increasingly come to the fore of international relations, such discussions have taken many tones.
Will conflict break out over unsettled boundaries?
Will a revisionist power seek to change existing delimitations?
While definitive answers to these questions are not found in the past, examining how we got to the present can provide insight into long-term trends.
A different view of the world!
This circular map has the North Pole in the centre,
and shows the geology of everything above the Arctic Circle.
New Polar Frontiers
European powers, obsessed with the idea that there might be a shorter passage to Asia through the North American landmass, had long held an interest in the Arctic.
In the areas where solid land existed, the normal (European derived) rules of acquisition of title applied.
To be sovereign over a slice of the new world, the European powers had to demonstrate both the corpus and animus occupandi—the ability and intention to exert power over a given piece of land.
To prove that a state had the ability to control a given territory, they had to demonstrate the “colonial effectivités” (sovereign activities) required.
This normally manifested as proof of administrative control such as deed registration, tax collection, and the licensing of professions.
In 1822, for example, the Russian Minister to Washington, Pierre de Poletica, defended Moscow’s claims to Alaska based on the “three bases required by the general Law of Nations and immemorial usages among nations; – that is, upon the title of first discovery; upon the title of first occupation; and, in the last place, upon that which results from a peaceful and uncontested possession of more than half a century.”
A century later the Dominion of Canada, eager to shore up its claims to the Arctic Archipelago, relied on a similar mixture of discovery, occupation, and uncontested claims.
What’s up with Canada’s Arctic maps?
Arctic Yearbook editor Heather Exner-Pirot walks us through the weird world of Canada’s eccentric northern cartography.
(Circumpolar North Map/Government of Canada)
Sector Theory
How the Arctic Ocean and the extended icepack would be divvied up was a trickier question as effective occupation was not an option.
Instead, a new approach reminiscent of the Papal Bulls that divided the new world emerged: the sector theory.
This theory was first proposed in public in a speech to the Canadian Senate by Pascal Poirier, a Senator, in 1907.
The sector theory was simple: draw straight lines from the land boundaries of the respective Arctic countries, across the ocean and the ice, to the North Pole—this would be the new division of the Arctic.
It should be noted that Poirier believed that Canada’s claims to the Arctic relied on other forms of title first and foremost; the sector theory was only a fourth element.
Despite receiving a cold reception in the Canadian Parliament, the sector theory drew much attention in the interwar period.
This was, in part, due to a decree released by the Soviet Presidium in 1926 that based its claim to Arctic lands on the basis of the sector theory.
Proponents of the theory, both Soviet and otherwise, rested their claims on rather fragile grounds.
They argued that a sectoral approach would ease tensions between Arctic states and that it was simple, practical, and inevitable.
Opponents fiercely opposed this approach, saying that it reversed the traditional order of acquisition of title: how can a state lay claim to something it knows nothing about? Many saw the sectoral approach, based as it is on the idea of contiguity, as a perversion of the now discarded hinterland doctrine.
While the Arctic was militarized during WWII and remained so during the Cold War, an awkward legal status quo persisted with the Soviet Union maintaining their sectoral approach and the United States choosing a more conservative, at times disinterested, approach to the issue.
In the 1990s things took a turn towards cooperation with the two superpowers negotiating maritime boundaries in the Bering Strait, Bering Sea, and the Chukchi Sea.
As with the hinterland doctrine during the scramble for Africa, the sector theory passed out of usage.
In its place, states reverted to the traditional means of demonstrating title for territory and turned to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to resolve the maritime aspects of the Arctic frontier.
An illustration showing the territorial sea, the contiguous zone,
the exclusive economic zone and the international waters.
Made by Arctic Portal
Of the Arctic countries, all but one has ratified UNCLOS.
The sole objector, the United States, nevertheless considers the key provisions of the “constitution of the seas” as customary international law.
States are allowed to claim a twelve-nautical-mile territorial sea, a 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ), and the possibility of exercising sovereign rights over an extended continental shelf beyond 200-nautical miles if it can be considered a “natural prolongation” of the coastal state’s landmass.
Extensive data is required to support such claims, which are then processed by the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf—a commission of scientific experts.
In case of overlap or conflict, treaties have become the primary means of finalising boundaries and, in the minority of cases, boundary disputes come before third-party dispute settlement mechanisms.
The donut hole
Going forward
Although but a brief overview of the evolution of how states have drawn lines in the Arctic—and one that omits the suppression of Indigenous ways of understanding the Arctic—several patterns can be tentatively teased forth.
Of particular note, where different visions of the region have co-existed, there has been no resort to the use of force even where the capacity to do so existed.
The Soviets, for example, eventually peacefully relinquished their approach derived from the sector theory.
Instead, successful boundaries have been those fixed by rendering the Arctic knowable through administration, maps, and data.
When on land, these boundaries were decided by proving effective occupation of a territory.
Maritime boundaries, for their part, are being delineated through data provided to UNCLOS—at least for the time being.
Could it be that, going forward, states will eschew revisionism and stay the cooperative course? History, of course, cannot answer this; but it does provide interesting food for thought.
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当前位置：首页 -> 9级英语阅读 - > The Bat
The Bat
添加时间：2014-02-19 16:14:11 浏览次数： 作者：未知
• Once upon a time, the animals living on the ground and those flying in the sky fought against each other. However, a bat could not take part on either side because he was timid and had no courage.
When the beasts seemed like winning, the bat went to them and said, "I would like to fight with you." They believed him.
Yet, the bat began to worry, as the birds started to move ahead. So, the bat went to them and begged, "I am on your side because I am winged, too."
They pleasantly accepted the bat. "Sure. Since you have wings, you are on our side." The fight between the birds and the beasts continued and the bat went back and forth1 to the winning side.
Then one day, peace was made in the woods. The birds and the beasts learned that the bat went hither and thither2 between them. All the animals determined3 to expel him. Turned away from both sides, the bat started to live in a dark cave.
单词标签: forth thither determined
1 forth [fɔ:θ] Hzdz2 第7级
2 thither [ˈðɪðə(r)] cgRz1o 第12级
• He wandered hither and thither looking for a playmate. 他逛来逛去找玩伴。
• He tramped hither and thither. 他到处流浪。
3 determined [dɪˈtɜ:mɪnd] duszmP 第7级
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Water buffalo
Is a very large hoofed animal. It survives in the wild in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Vietnam and Thailand and is very widespread as a domestic animal in Asia, South America, North Africa and Europe.
The water buffalo is a massive, powerful animal, with the widest horn span of any bovid. Adults range in size from 1800 to 2600 pounds, although females typically weigh around 1650 pounds and males upwards of 2200 pounds. It is very dependant on the availability of water. Historically, its preferred habitats are low-lying grasslands and their surroundings.
The Water Buffalo eats grass and leafy aquatic vegetation. It is a grazer, feeding in the morning and evenings and lying up in dense cover or submerging in wallows during midday. In addition to keeping it cool, wallowing helps to remove skin parasites, biting flies, and other pests. Where there is substantial human disturbance, the Water Buffalo becomes mostly nocturnal.
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The adjective qualified means someone who is fitted or eligible and has the qualities that the institution is looking for. It could also mean someone who has the necessary qualities to be able to perform a job or task.
Synonyms are eligible, able, capable, or trained.
The word origins from Medieval Latin (1525 – 1535) quālificāre, equivalent to Latin quāl(is) of what sort plus -ificāre -ify. It was first used 1758 meaning “qualified for election” and in 1962 “capable of getting enough support to win an election”.
Because of her high score, she became qualified to study at Oxford University.
After all the hardships, he became a qualified professor and will soon be teaching at the university.
Being qualified for the position is not as important as having a good personality.
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Clutch (eggs) Information
From Wikipedia
A sea turtle clutch
A clutch of eggs is the group of eggs produced by birds, amphibians, or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.
In birds, ornithologist David Lack carried out much research into regulation of clutch size. [2] In species with altricial young, he proposed that optimal clutch size was determined by the number of young a parent could feed until fledgling. In precocial birds, Lack determined that clutch size was determined by the nutrients available to egg-laying females. An experimental study in Black Brent Geese (Black Brant), which rarely lay more than 5 eggs, found that the probability of an egg successfully leading to a fledged gosling declined from 0.81 for two-egg clutches to 0.50 for seven-egg clutches, whilst the nesting period increased with the increasing number of eggs laid. This suggests that there is no benefit for female Black Brant to lay more than five eggs. [3]
See also
2. ^ Lack, D. (1947). "The significance of clutch-size, parts I and II". Ibis. 89 (2): 302–352. doi: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1947.tb04155.x.
3. ^ Leach, A. G.; van Dellen, A. W.; Riecke, T. V.; Sedinger, J. S. (2017). "Incubation capacity contributes to constraints on maximal clutch size in Brent Geese Branta bernicla nigricans". Ibis. 159 (3): 588–599. doi: 10.1111/ibi.12475.
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Isaiah T. Montgomery
Born into slavery in 1847 near Vicksburg, Mississippi, Isaiah T. Montgomery lived on a plantation owned by Joseph Davis, the brother of Jefferson Davis. Davis permitted his slaves to be educated, and Montgomery learned to read and write at an early age. During the Civil War, the Davises fled the plantation, but the Montgomery family stayed and maintained the property. After the war, Davis sold his property to the Montgomerys, no longer slaves. The family was successful for a time, and Isaiah married in 1872. However, the business began to decline, and in 1877 Isaiah and his wife moved to Vicksburg. In 1887, they moved again, founding the all-black town of Mound Bayou as a commercial center for black farmers, a lifelong dream of Montgomery’s. He served as the founding mayor and engaged in several business enterprises. In a controversial move, Montgomery was elected the only black delegate to the Mississippi constitutional convention of 1890 and supported an amendment to disfranchise blacks and some whites. He remained active in entrepreneurial ventures and Republican politics and died in 1924.
More about:
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"url": "http://timeline.mdah.ms.gov/people/isaiah-t-montgomery/"
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Gravity Storage
Basic Concept
A new StoreAge
Basic Concept
The fundamental idea of the hydraulic potential energy store, Gravity Storage, is based on the hydraulic lifting of a very large rock mass using water pumps. The rock mass acquires potential energy and can release this energy when the water that is under pressure is discharged back through a turbine.
The decisive variable with such energy storage lies in the storage capacity. It increases with the fourth power of the radius, r4.
The construction costs however only increase with the square of the radius, r². This means that the construction costs increase substantially more slowly than the storage capacity. Thus, very low costs per kilowatt hour of storage capacity are possible. Strictly speaking, the price per kilowatt hour of storage capacity decreases with 1/r². This is the outstanding competitive advantage of this storage concept.
If a piston is selected for the Gravity Storage having a radius r and a length l=2r, then the piston can be lifted to the height h=r. The height h=r results from the consideration that the seal must lie somewhat above the center of gravity, thus at a distance r above the bottom of the cylinder so that the cylinder is hydrostatically stable while floating.
The storage capacity E is given by the density ρr of the rock and the density ρw of water, and the gravitational acceleration g:
E = (2ρ– 3/2ρw)πgr4
The last term is decisive – the radius to the fourth power. This has two important consequences. First, the storage capacity can increase 16-fold by doubling the radius, and second, the construction costs only increase by approximately the square of the radius. Therefore due to geometrical rules, the relative cost per energy unit decreases proportionally to 1/r².
In Tab. 1 the values for the storage capacity are given for a rock density of 2600 kg/m³.
A diameter of 250 meters would already result in a storage capacity of 8 GWh, which is comparable to the largest pumped storage power station in Goldisthal, Germany (8.4 GWh).
Storage capacity with different sizes
Usable Capacity [GWh]
Number of people supplied for 24 h*
2 Mill
Diameter [m]
Volume of water [1000m3]
Pressure [bar]
The efficiency of a Gravity Storage, at approximately 80%, is comparable with that of a pump storage.
The storage requires mainly two central seals:
1. Sealing the piston and the exterior walls
2. Sealing ring around the Piston to withstand hydraulic pressure
The piston and its surroundings are sealed with concrete and steel, so that no water can leak out of the displaced volume. A rolling membrane sealing is fixed between piston and cylinder. Here in more detail.
Methods known from mining and tunneling are used for the construction.
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Activity 4
You are an explorer and just happened to stumble upon a group of natives to North America. You decide to stay and observe these unusual individuals from a distance. Write a minimum of 10 journal entrees describing your observations. What do you see, hear, smell, and experience?
1. Choose a Native American Tribe to "stumble" upon.
2. Make sure you are aware of the cultural region's surroundings for what you describe the setting in your journal.
3. Write at least 10 journal entrys in your journal about what you observe the families in the tribe doing.
4. For your journal, you will be using a blog. You will have your own blog on the following site: Mrs. Becker's Wiki
5. Let Mrs. Becker know if you choose to do this activity. I will then create your page for your postings.
6. You will need to write with paper and pencil before you can "publish" each entry.
After clicking on the Rubric link, you may print it.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8796740770339966,
"url": "https://educatorpages.com/site/MrsBecker/pages/70818"
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Lap and Wave Winding
Lap Winding :
When the winding is connected in such a manner that the end of the one coil is connected to the starting end of other coils (adjacent coil) of the same pole and so on then the winding is known as lap winding.
Lap and Wave Winding
Lap winding can be of three types simplex, duplex, and triplex. In simplex lap winding, there are as many parallel paths as there are a number of field poles. The multiplex (duplex or triplex) lap windings are used where heavy currents at low voltage are necessary. The duplex lap winding is obtained by placing two similar windings on the same armature and connecting the even-numbered commutator bars to one winding and the odd-numbered ones to the second winding.
Important Points Regarding Lap Winding :
i. The back and front pitches Yb and Yc should be odd and approximately equal to pole pitch = Z / P. Where,
• Z = number of conductors on the armature
• P = number of ( field ) poles
ii. Yb should be either greater or less than Yf by 2m. Where,
• m = multiplicity of the winding.
Lap and Wave Winding
• m = 1 for simplex winding
• m = 2 for duplex winding
• m = 3 for triplex winding
Where Yb is greater than Yf, the winding progresses from left to right and known as Progressive Winding. If Yb is less than Yf, the winding progresses from right to left and is known as retrogressive winding.
iii. The average pitch is given by,
YA = YB + YF / 2
iv. The resultant pitch Yr is always even, being the difference of two odd numbers Yr = 2 for simplex lap winding (4 and 6 for duplex and triplex respectively).
v. The number of slots for 2 layer winding is equal to the number of coils. The number of commutator segments also equal.
vi. The number of parallel paths equal to the number of poles for simplex winding (and is equal to 2P, 3P, 4P, etc., for duplex, triplex, quadrupled, etc).
Wave Winding :
Lap and Wave Winding
In wave winding, the coil side is not connected back but progresses forward to another coil side. In this way, the winding progresses passing successively every N-pole, S-pole till it returns to the coil side from where it was started. Because the winding progresses in one direction around the armature in a series of ' waves ', hence it is known as wave winding or series winding.
Important Points Regarding Wave Winding :
i. Both Pitches Yb and Yf should be odd and of the same sign.
ii. Back and front pitches must be nearly equal to the pole pitch and maybe equal or differ by 2 in which case, they will be one more or one less than the average pitch.
iii. Commutator Pitch,
Yc = Average Pitch Ya
iv. Resultant Pitch,
Ya = Yf + Yb
v. The average Pitch, which must be an even integer is given by,
YA = Z ± 2 / P
• Z = number of conductors
• P = number of poles
The +ve sign in the above formula will give progressive winding and the -ve sign a retrogressive winding.
vi. For an even number of pairs of poles i.e., for 2, 4, 6, or 8 pair pole machines :
1. The average pitch may be odd or even.
2. The number of coils must be odd.
3. The number of commutator segments must be odd.
vii. For odd numbers of pair of poles :
1. The number of coils may be even or odd.
2. The number of commutator segments may be even or odd.
3. If the number of coils is even, Ya must be odd and vice-versa.
Use of Dummy Coils :
The wave winding is possible only with a particular number of conductors but sometimes the standard armature punchings available in armature winding shops do not meet the requirements of the winding as they may accommodate more than the required number of conductors. In such cases, dummy (coil or) coils or idle coils are employed. These coils are placed in slots to preserve the balance of the machine but are not electrically connected to the rest of the winding.
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<urn:uuid:009cf326-321e-40ff-ae12-c87356b6ee38>
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Question #88d26
1 Answer
Apr 16, 2017
Lead(II) iodate is white and lead(II) iodide is yellow.
The equations are
#"Pb"("NO"_3)_2"(aq)" + "2KClO"_3"(aq)" → underbrace("Pb"("ClO"_3)_2"(s)")_color(black)("white") + "2KNO"_3"(aq)"#
#"Pb"("NO"_3)_2"(aq)" + "2KI(aq)" → underbrace("PbI"_2"(s)")_color(orange)("yellow") + "2KNO"_3"(aq)"#
Human eyes can see only visible light ( wavelengths about 300 to 700 nm).
If all these wavelengths are present, we see it as "white" light.
A blue substance absorbs most visible wavelengths except blue, so we see it as blue.
Most substances, including lead(II) chlorate, absorb wavelengths that we cannot see and reflect the visible wavelengths, so we see them as white.
Lead(II) chloride is an exception. It absorbs all wavelengths but yellow, so we see it as yellow.
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"url": "https://socratic.org/questions/58ed4ea2b72cff2ed8f88d26#407384"
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"Bloody Monday"
Election day, Aug. 6, 1855, known as Bloody Monday due to riots led by “Know-Nothing” mobs. This political party was anti-Catholic and nativist. Attacks on German immigrants east of downtown and Irish in the west caused at least 22 deaths, arson, and looting. Catholic Cathedral of the Assumption & St. Martin’s Church were threatened with destruction. American (Know-Nothing) Party. This party feared that Catholic immigrants from Germany and Ireland threatened Protestantism and democracy. By 1854, the party claimed a million members nationwide and led Jefferson Co. govt. They split over slavery and by the end of the Civil War they had vanished from politics in Louisville and Jefferson Co., Kentucky.
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"url": "https://lnei.uml.edu/bloody-monday/"
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The production and drinking of ale can be traced back 4,000 years to the first harvesting of barley. Since then, ale has gone from uniting warrior tribes to becoming an essential element of pub culture.
Ale was produced on a domestic scale throughout the Middle Ages. As a result, an estimated 1 in 5 houses were also informal alehouses (as well as the first pubs and taverns). The selling of ale formed local economic markets within communities, with women as the dominant producers. Whilst today some may regard ale as a luxury product, ale was a staple drink during this period, with the only alternative being contaminated water sources. Preserving ale started during the 15th century through adding hops.
Speculation surrounds the origins of this method; suspects include returning Crusaders from the early 1400s or traders from Flanders. Ale could be produced in larger quantities due to the expansion of investment, machinery and technology during the Industrial Revolution. Major profit making brewers such as George Adlam in Bristol and R.W Andrews in London emerged. However, the quality of ale also suffered during this period. Mass brewers cared little for the taste and texture of the ale.
Instead, they chose to increase profits through preserving ale in bottles (causing a loss of taste quality) and reducing the volume by injecting Carbon Dioxide (producing a frothier drink).
During the last 40 years there has been something of an ale revolution- the introduction of ‘Real’ ale. The ‘Campaign for Real Ale’ (CAMRA) has been at the forefront of this. Valuing secondary fermentation in the kegs and the use of natural ingredients, they argue for the importance of micro-breweries. It is this resurgence in the quality of ale that has made it so vital to British pub culture.
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"url": "https://manchesterhistorian.com/2012/a-history-of-alcohol/"
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A. Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover
Back to main page
In 1919 Wilson appointed Palmer as his Attorney General. Palmer had previously been associated with the progressive wing of the party and had supported women’s suffrage and trade union rights. However, once in power, Palmer’s views on civil rights changed dramatically, in part because of the anarchist bombings and attempted bombings carried out by the followers of Luigi Galleani from April through June 1919. These bombings led to the Red Scare of 1919-20 and to the so-called ‘Palmer Raids’, named after Mitchell Palmer who led them.
Worried by the revolution that had taken place in Russia in November 1917, Palmer became convinced that Communist agents were planning to overthrow the American government. His view was reinforced by the discovery of thirty-eight bombs that had been intended for leading politicians, justice officials, newspaper and business men, including John D. Rockefeller and Palmer himself. Only two of these bombs were detonated. The rest either failed to detonate or were intercepted before reaching their intended targets. They were intended to reach the homes of those targets on May 1 or the day celebrated since 1890 as the International Day of Communist, Socialist and Anarchist revolutionary solidarity.
Palmer was the intended victim of a further bomb attack in June 1919. However, the perpetrator, an Italian anarchist, Carlo Valdinoci inadvertently blew himself up outside Palmer’s Washington home. (Two near casualties of the same bomb were Franklyn and Eleanor Roosevelt, who were living opposite Palmer at the time and who had passed his house moments earlier. A bomb part landed on their doorstep).
Having himself twice been the intended victim of attempted bombings, Palmer recruited John Edgar Hoover as his assistant they used the Espionage Act (1917) and the Sedition Act (1918) to launch a campaign against radicals and left-wing organizations.
In particular he launched the so-called ‘Palmer raids’ on 7th November 1919 (the 2nd anniversary of the Russian Revolution’). Palmer claimed that Communist agents from Russia were planning to overthrow the American government. Over 10,000 suspected communists and anarchists were arrested. Palmer and Hoover found no evidence of a proposed revolution but 3500 of these suspects were held without trial for a long time. The vast majority were eventually released but roughly 556 were eventually deported, including Emma Goldman.
When the May revolution failed to materialize, attitudes towards Palmer began to change and he was criticised for disregarding people’s basic civil liberties. Some of his opponents claimed that Palmer had devised this Red Scare to help him become the Democratic presidential candidate in 1920. Palmer failed to win the nomination and although he helped Al Smith (1928) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932) in their campaigns, he was no longer an important force in the Democratic Party. Alexander Mitchell Palmer died on 11th May, 1936.Hoover-Edgar-J-002
John Edgar Hoover went on to be appointed Director of the Bureau of Investigation in 1924, which later became the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. Together with the Bureau of Education and the Bureau of Naturalization, these organisations were responsible for the of naturalisation of legal immigrants or the removal of illegal immigrants, political subversives, such as Marcus Garvey, who was deported in 1927 following a short sentence after being found guilty of mail fraud.
Hoover would survive in that role in until 1972, so he provides a link between the Red Scare of 1919-20, the McCarthy period of the 1950s, and the era of Richard Nixon and Watergate.
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“There Were None of the Fair Sons and Daughters Who Repented of Their Sins”
Brant Gardner
Literary: This is a highly stylized verse. The “fair sons and daughters” is a phrase that is repeated four times. Certainly the phrase refers to descendants, but in this case, there function is to include all of the people of the land. The final “there were none of the fair sons and daughters” indicates that the entire body of the Jaredite polity is unrepentant.
The next stylized part of the verse is the inclusion of the names of Cohor and Corihor. While Coriantumr is a current figure, Cohor and Corihor are probably related to the historical people that we have already seen bearing those names.
Both Corihor and Cohor come from the earliest times of the Jaredite peoples, so that their “fair sons and daughters” are rather certainly symbolic at this point. Corihor is the first of the listed sons who rebel against their father (Ether 7:4). Cohor is also a rebel against family, who establishes a separate kingdom (Ether 7:20). The presentation of these two names from history is meant to describe the two types of people involved in this last war of destruction. There is the current ruling line, represented by Coriantumr, and there is the rebellious portion of the people, symbolically represented by the ancestral rebels, Corihor and Cohor. All of these aspects of political conflict are present, and none of them will turn to the Lord.
Multidimensional Commentary on the Book of Mormon
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"url": "https://bookofmormon.online/commentary/1636104101"
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• english
• spanish
Until now, I haven’t talked about the structure of the Feedel alphabet, but as you might already noticed, the alphabet has a certain logic about how you form the different orders starting from the basic shape.
We can divide the symbols of the Feedel in five basic shapes:
Two have flat bottoms:
Six have rounded bottoms:
Nine have only one leg:
Fourteen have two legs:
Three have three legs:
The basic grid is constructed with 7 columns and 33 rows. The way I’m explaining the alphabet is the one called Hahu, that is, reading it horizontally from row 1 to row 33. The other way is by reading it vertically column by column, or Abugida. If we read the alphabet this way, we can find common elements in the characters of a same order.
The 1rst column from Ha to Pä is the basic shape that defines the basic sound or first order.
The 2nd column or second order from Hu to Pu is very simple, you only have to add a horizontal line to the middle of the right side of the basic shape, example:hoy2. The exceptions are the two symbols with flat bottoms Ru and Fu where the line is added to the bottom: ru_fu
The 3rd column or third order from Hi to Pi is formed in most of the cases by adding a short horizontal line to the bottom in the right side of the shape, example:lawe3. If the basic shape of the letter is one with one, two or three legs, then the third order sign is added directly, but if the basic shape has a rounded bottom, then you add and extra leg to be able to add the sign of the third order, example: sawt3. But Ri, Fi and Yi are formed differently, without following the expected pattern: ri_fi_yi
The 4th column or fourth order from Ha to Pa is formed in many ways depending on the shape of the basic letter. Most of the letters with one leg form the forth order by adding a curved line to the left bottom, example:ta. But Na and Ña are different: na_na. The letters with two or three legs shorten the left leg or legs, example: lawe4. Rounded bottom letters add an extra leg such as in the third order but without adding the short horizontal line, example:may4. As always, Ra and Fa are different:ra_fa
The 5th column or fifth order from He to Pe is also formed easily with a semicircle added to the right bottom the same way the short horizontal line is added to form the third order, example:lawe5. This means that letters with rounded bottoms will need to add an extra leg, example:hoy5
The 6th column or sixth order from Hï to Pï has a lot of variations in the way it is formed, that’s why it’s difficult to establish a rule. There are twelve different ways to form it, so it’s better to learn the sixth order of each letter separately.
La 7th column or seventh order from Ho to Po has three different ways to form. Most of the letters with only one leg add a small circle on top:ko, but not Yo, Go and Po:yogopo. The letters with two or three legs shorten the right leg or legs turning in a mirror image of the fourth order:hawt7, but the syllable Lo is formed adding a circle to the right side of the basic shape:lawe7. The letters with rounded bottom add a curved line to the center of the bottom of the basic shape:sawt7, but Ho and Mo are formed differently: hoy7 may7. Finally Ro and Fo add the circle on the right top of the letter:6res7 fo.
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Fraser’s sedge grows in rich mountain forests on moist slopes and along streams, within a fairly restricted range in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Populations are documented from
Pennsylvania south to Georgia and Tennessee.
The narrow range of Fraser’s sedge and the loss of its habitat have reduced it to a relatively small number of scattered
populations. There is some concern that the existing populations may be so small that they are falling victim to genetic drift, a loss of genetic diversity that can reduce a species’ ability to adapt to changes in its environment.
HOME 'S' LIST
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Food is always political, from its unequal distribution to working conditions on farms to issues of ecology and animal rights. So it stands to reason that one of the most systematic designers of a utopia would put it front and center in his plans. As food historian Jane Levi writes, early nineteenth-century French philosopher Charles Fourier thought food was one of the key elements of a perfect society.
Fourier was an early socialist, envisioning a society divided into “phalanxes,” cooperative, self-sufficient communities composed of exactly 1,620 people—two of each of the 810 character types that he believed comprised the human race. In the mid-nineteenth century, Levi writes, around 200,000 people in the United States subscribed to Fourier’s political philosophy, and there were many Fourierist publications and groups in the United Kingdom and France, too.
To Fourier, the joy of eating was one of the great pleasures of life. But he argued that people must develop the instinctive love of food to a higher level. That involved learning about and participating in agriculture, food preservation, and cooking. In Fourier’s view, only sex was a more central aspect of ideal human life. In his utopian society, Harmony, aficionados of food and sex would rank slightly higher than scientific experts—who, in turn, would be a bit above those who were most advanced in the arts.
In Harmony, children’s early education would take place largely in the kitchen, which should be outfitted with tools designed for small hands.
“In common with the rest of the population, the children should work with their tastes and thus be primarily involved in preparing their favorite foods: dishes such as sugared creams, compotes, cakes, jams, and fruits,” Levi writes.
Unlike Rousseau, who idealized a simple, ascetic vegetarian diet, Fourier celebrated expansive human appetites. He mocked radicals who urged people to eat cabbage, turnips, and black broth for political reasons.
In Harmony, people would eat not only delicious food, but a whole lot of it. The society’s residents, particularly children born there, were to develop vigor and accelerated digestion, which would allow them to eat five meals a day. The most advanced Harmonians might eat nine.
Levi writes that Fourier meant his ideas about food to be taken literally, but he also used them as an easy way to write about ideas that might otherwise offend his readers.
“After the insights I’ve just given on the pleasures of the table, we could foresee the pleasures of love elevated to the same degree,” he wrote at one point.
Fourier even suggested replacing war with an enormous, months-long cooking contest, with alliances resulting in innovative combinations of dishes, and victory celebrated by the release of 300,000 Champagne corks. In response to those who might mock this vision, he noted that the cruelty and suffering of real-world war must surely be seen as more ridiculous.
Likewise, it may be hard to take Fourier’s overall ideas seriously, but his imaginary world of culinary perfection might offer an interesting reflection on the food culture we really live in.
Utopian Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1, SPECIAL ISSUE: UTOPIA AND FOOD (2015), pp. 41-57
Penn State University Press
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"url": "https://daily.jstor.org/the-joy-of-eating-in-utopia/"
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Nara period, an introduction
Fragment of the Flower Garland Sutra, known as igatsudō Burned Sutra 二月堂焼経, ca. 744, hanging scroll, silver ink on indigo-dyed paper, H. 9 3/4 in. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Fragment of the Flower Garland Sutra, known as Nigatsudō Burned Sutra 二月堂焼経, c. 744, silver ink on indigo-dyed paper, 9-3/4 inches high (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Nara period (710–794 C.E.): The influence of Tang-dynasty Chinese culture
China’s Tang dynasty concentrated such a diverse range of foreign influences that its artistic and cultural characteristics are often referred to as the “Tang international style.” This style had a major impact in Japan as well. Featuring an eclectic and exuberant mix of Central Asian, Persian, Indian, and Southeast Asian motifs, Tang-dynasty visual culture comprised paintings, ceramics, metalware, and textiles.
As these foreign imports were shaping Chinese artistic expression at home, Tang-dynasty artifacts and techniques spread beyond China to neighboring states and along the Silk Road. In Japan, the lavish Tang style was intertwined with Buddhist devotional art.
Elegantly transcribed sutras, calligraphed in silver ink on indigo-dyed paper, exemplify this form of Tang-inspired Nara-period art. The painstaking practice of copying Buddhist sacred texts by using precious materials was deemed to earn spiritual merit for everyone involved, from those preparing the materials to the patrons.
The intermingling of political power and Buddhism in the Nara period found its utmost expression in the building of the “great eastern temple” or Tōdaiji and, within this temple, in the casting of the “great Buddha”—a gigantic bronze statue that stood approximately 15 meters/ 16 yards tall and necessitated all available copper in Japan to produce the casting metal.
The Great Buddha (Daibutsu), 17th century replacement of an 8th century sculpture, Tōdai-ji, Nara, Japan (photo: throgers, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
The Great Buddha (daibutsu 大仏), 17th century replacement of an 8th century sculpture, Tōdai-ji, Nara, Japan (photo: throgers, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Although the current statue is a later replacement of the Nara-period artifact, it nonetheless suggests the effect of opulence and awe that it must have achieved in its day. Tōdaiji continued to transform and adapt through the centuries, but its identity is still inextricably linked to the grand scale and commensurate ambition of Nara-period culture.
Sociopolitical power was concentrated, during the Nara period, in the new Heijō capital (today’s city of Nara). Surrounded by Buddhist temples, the Heijō palace was the primary site of imperial power. It also housed subsidiary ministries, modeled on the Chinese centralized government. Generous spaces characterized the palace complex. These spaces accommodated outdoor celebrations, like those of the New Year, but also served to emphasize a sense of distance and therefore the due reverence to the emperor. The palace complex was designed to separate the realm of the emperor from the outside world. That principle of separation was reflected within the palace compound itself, where the emperor’s living quarters were set apart from government buildings. The architectural configuration of the palace reflected the hierarchical configuration of power.
Little of the palace survives today, as various structures within the complex suffered the vicissitudes of nature and history, while others were transferred to the new capital, Heian, for which the next period was named.
Additional resources:
For information on other periods in the arts of Japan, see the longer introductory essays here:
A brief history of the arts of Japan: the Edo period
JAANUS, an online dictionary of terms of Japanese arts and architecture
e-Museum, database of artifacts designated in Japan as national treasures and important cultural properties
On Japan in the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
Richard Bowring, Peter Kornicki, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Japan (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993)
Cite this page as: Dr. Sonia Coman, "Nara period, an introduction," in Smarthistory, January 20, 2021, accessed October 7, 2022,
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Wikimedia Commons
During the Roman Empire, the Sibylline Books were used to influence future events through rituals and predictions. Roman rulers consulted the books when important decisions needed to be made. Can’t make up your mind about going to war? Read a prophetic book. The Sibylline books first appeared around the time of Solon and Cyrus. They were handed down from the oracle Hellespontine Sibyl to Erythaea Sibyl, and finally to Cumae Sibyl before making it to Rome.
How the Romans used the books
The Roman Senate used the books to make tough decisions. They didn’t follow the books to make direct predictions about future events. The Sibylline Books provided guidelines about religious observances to follow to avoid disastrous outcomes.
The theory was that if you executed the right rituals, your people could avoid destruction. Plagues, comets, earthquakes, and wars were no match for the Sibylline Books. Their interpretations were passed through an oracle and Greek translators, leaving plenty of opportunity for abuse and misinterpretation.
Acquiring the books
Getting the Sibylline Books was no easy task. The Cumaean Sibyl who offered them to the Roman king Tarquinius demanded a ridiculously high price. When Tarquinius refused, she burned three of the nine books. She repeated her offer, refusing to adjust the price for the torched books.
When Tarquinius refused once again, the Cumaean Sibyl burned three more. Tarquinius had one more opportunity to save the remaining three books. He paid the original offer and preserved them in a vault beneath the temple of Jupiter.
Tightly guarded
The Roman Senate guarded the Sibylline Books with a small army of patricians. Initially, only two men were appointed to keep watch over them, but around 376 BC, ten custodians were appointed. The five patricians and five assistants were expected to keep 24-hour watch over the books. It was their sole task.
The positions were held for life, and the guards were exempt from all other public duties. The temple where the books were kept burned to the ground in 83 BC and the books were lost forever.
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A short introduction Cookie policy Links
Solution to: Eureka!
The upward force, needed to keep a block of ice floating, is equal to the weight of the ice. According to Archimedes, the weight of the ice therefore equals the weight of the displaced water. When the ice has melted, the weight of the resulting water still equals the original weight of the ice. Therefore, the amount of water from the melted ice equals the amount of displaced water.
Conclusion: the water level stays the same.
Back to the puzzle
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Why violin makers adopted the f-shaped hole
violin flow velocity
Why did violins slowly develop f-shaped sound-holes? Because it makes them more acoustically powerful than their ancestors, which had holes shaped liked a circle — as a team of MIT scientists recently concluded.
Back in the the 10th century, the makers of European stringed-instruments were building "fitheles" — the ancestor of the modern violin — but they used round holes. By the 12th century, they'd started using half-moon shapes, and a century later they'd refined it to a sort of C-shaped hole. Then in the 15th century they pioneered little circles at the ends of the holes, which, by the 17th century, had become the modern f-shaped hole.
A team of MIT scientists recently wondered why the shape had evolved that way. After crunching the math and doing some experiments, figured it out: The f-shape turns out to have physics that push a lot more air than a circular hole, making the violin's output dramatically more powerful. From the Economist:
"The answer, arrived at after several pages of advanced mathematics, and confirmed by experiment, is that holes' sound-amplification properties depend not on their areas but on the lengths of their peripheries. They showed how the shape of the hole varied over the centuries, and how that affected its power output. The final Cremonese design had twice the sonic power of the circular holes of the fithele."
The entire paper by the MIT team is online here and is pretty interesting too. That image above shows the gist of what's going on: You can see how the f-shape drives much more air-flow than the round one, with high air-flow marked as yellow and red. Below, an image from the paper showing the increase in power as the shape changes over time.
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What is Magnetic Stirrer and Its Function?
Definition and function of magnetic stirrer – In the laboratory, usually a researcher often performs various practicums. Researchers often mix chemical solutions in a beaker for analysis. The substances to be dissolved must be mixed until homogeneous or completely mixed. To get this perfection, a researcher needs a stirrer called a magnetic stirrer .
Before using this tool, a researcher needs to understand the meaning and function of the magnetic stirrer in order to use this tool optimally. This tool is used by researchers because to dissolve chemical liquids researchers must be able to stir constantly. This is not possible if stirred manually. In this article the author will explain the meaning and function of the magnetic stirrer in a clear and easy to understand manner.
Definition and Function of Magnetic Stirrer
What is a magnetic stirrer ? Magnetic stirrer is a laboratory instrument used to stir a solution by heating using a magnetic rod inserted into the solution container. Mixing liquids or solutions that have low viscosity often uses a magnetic stirrer to make it homogeneous.
As just discussed, the magnetic stirrer stirring process is assisted by a magnetic bar or commonly known as a “stir bar”.
A magnetic stirrer is a stirrer that uses a magnetic field to move a stir bar or a stir bar that is placed in a liquid solution so that it will help mix the solution homogeneously. Besides being useful for stirring, a magnetic stirrer can also heat a liquid solution magnetically and mechanically.
A magnetic stirrer can also be referred to as a magnetic mixer which is a laboratory tool that uses a magnetic field to move bars or flea . This magnetic field causes the bars that are placed in the liquid to rotate according to the speed set by the user of this tool.
Magnetic stirrer is also usually combined with a hotplate in order to be able to regulate the temperature of the liquid at the time of stirring.
stir bar - magnetic stirrer
What is a stir bar?
A stir bar is a bar magnet with a ring raised in the middle to rotate around the tool. Like the picture above, generally the stir bar has a shape like white pilus. The length also varies from mm to cm. This stir bar or stir bar is simple in shape, so it is easy to clean and disinfect. Oh yes, the stir bar is magnetic or also known as a magneton. This part is very important for the stirring in the liquid with the rotation process.
See also How to Calculate Margin of Error
A. Magnetic Stirrer Function
There are several functions of the magnetic stirrer in the testing laboratory, including the following:
1. Has incredible speed
The speed possessed by this magnetic stirrer tool exceeds the speed of the human hand in stirring a solution. If this solution is stirred by human hands, it will take a long time so that this will make it difficult for researchers to work. This of course will make the performance of the researcher decrease.
In addition, the use of a magnetic stirrer can also be very fast which will make the liquid solution mix faster. So, researchers can analyze the liquid solution. If the researcher does not use this tool, the researcher will need a long time to stir and analyze a practicum.
What is Magnetic Stirrer and Its Function
2. Stirring stably
This magnetic stirrer can stir the liquid solution stably and quickly. This speed can be set by the researcher when using this tool. Bars or flea placed in a liquid can rotate stably and quickly so that it can stir the liquid solution completely or homogeneously.
The homogeneity of a liquid solution will clearly affect the results of the quality of the analysis of researchers in examining a liquid solution. If the researcher cannot stir stably, the results he will get will also be less accurate. This can be an untruth in doing the practicum.
3. Stirring constantly
The use of a magnetic stirrer can facilitate the work of researchers because this tool can stir constantly. Where, if the researcher stirs manually it will be difficult to get a constant mix. Because the energy of each researcher will be different, the results of the stirring speed will also be different and cannot be constant.
If the researcher does not use a magnetic mixer in stirring the liquid solution. The liquid will not be mixed perfectly or there will even be a clotted solution so that this will affect the quality of the research carried out because constant stirring can only be obtained by using a magnetic stirrer.
B. Advantages of Using a Magnetic Stirrer
The small size makes the bars on the magnetic stirrer widely used in practice. This selection is based on the stability and stability of the magnetic stirrer rather than manual stirring. In addition, it is more efficient and has no externally movable parts to break or wear.
See also Cell Organelles: Definition, Structure, Function, Various
The small size makes the bars or fael much easier to clean and sterilize than other devices. This tool does not require lubricating oil which can contaminate the beaker or liquid solution. In addition, this tool can also be used for closed vessels because the magnetic stirrer does not require complicated rotary seals compared to other laboratory equipment.
C. Working Principle of Magnetic Strrier
Working Principle of Magnetic Strrier
The working principle of a magnetic stirrer is by utilizing a magnetic field or a stationary electromagnetic which becomes a motor in moving a bar or a substance in stirring a liquid solution. This magnetic field will make this magnetic stirrer able to stir liquids quickly, steadily and constantly.
In optimizing the working principle of the magnetic stirrer. Choose this tool that fits the beaker or container to be used. If the selection is not right, this will certainly make this tool unable to work optimally. And the results that will be obtained by researchers will not be optimal. For more details, here are the principles and how the magnetic stirrer works:
1. Magnetic Principle
• Magnetic stirrer is used to mix all kinds of liquids
• The stirring produced by this tool is using a magnetic field
• The size of the magnetic stirrer speed can be adjusted according to the needs of researchers or users
• Using this stirrer can speed up homogenization
2. How Magnetic Strirrer Works
• Prepare a container that already contains the liquid solution
• Place the container on the hotplate
• Turn on the hotplate by connecting to the mains
• set the hotplate temperature by setting the temperature setting button
• Put the magnetic stick into a container in which there is a solution
• Then, adjust the magnetic stirrer speed by pressing the stirrer magnetic adjustment button clockwise.
• If, the stirring speed is too high, adjust it again by turning the magnetic adjustment knob of the stirrer counterclockwise
• Stir until the liquid solution becomes homogeneous
• When finished, remove the magnetic stirrer from the liquid solution container
• Turn off the hotplate by disconnecting from the mains
• Take the container with hot hands
D. How to Care for Magnetic Stirrer
Maintenance on the magnetic stirrer tool is carried out to prevent damage and prolong the service life of the tool. There are several efforts you can do to treat magnetic stirrer tools, including:
See also Structure and Function of Nucleic Acid
How to Care for Magnetic Stirrer
• It is recommended that you store the instrument on a flat, dry and clean surface.
• Do not connect the power supply until the base surface has dried.
• We recommend that you do not just spray the cleaning solution into the instrument to prevent corrosive damage to the instrument.
• During mixing, when the stir bar is not stirring, reduce speed or disconnect power to check.
• Medium speed operation can continue to work for 8 hours, high speed operation can continue to work for four hours, this is done to prevent severe vibration during operation.
• To clean it, you can use some cleaning solutions such as aopropyl alcohol and water containing tension.
• The instrument housing must be properly grounded to avoid accidents.
• Routinely calibrate, especially at its temperature.
Magnetic Stirrer Calibration
Calibrating is one of the efforts to maintain the magnetic stirrer. This is useful to ensure the accuracy of the tool. If the magnetic stirrer is used frequently, the calibration is carried out every 3 months. Meanwhile, if it is rarely used, the calibration is once a year. The calibration of this tool will focus on the temperature because the heat energy produced greatly affects the stirring results. Then, how do you calibrate the magnetic stirrer?
1. Begin calibration by using a thermometer calibrated to 300°C.
2. Place the beaker or flask containing the sample in the center of the heating plate.
3. Press the ON button to turn on the appliance. Operate the magnetic stirrer without using a magnetic stirrer or stir bar
4. Set the temperature by turning the temperature control knob.
5. Dip a calibrated thermometer into one side of the beaker.
6. Record the control panel temperature display and the temperature of the thermometer being calibrated.
7. Repeat the procedure at a different temperature. And note the temperature.
That’s the function of the magnetic stirrer that you can know now. Hopefully the readers will understand more about this laboratory tool. You can also look for other references about the magnetic stirrer function on other sites to add more insight.
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Constitutional Amendments | Instant Homework Solutions
Part 1: Consider the following questions: What problems with the original Constitution, or changes in society, led to the creation of the Bill of Rights and the other amendments that followed? How and why do amendments become part of the Constitution? Part 2: Select one of the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Explain the liberties protected by the amendment, citing the text of the amendment. Describe the factors and history that led to the establishment of the amendment. Explain the constitutional process for adding amendments. Part 3: Select one of the other 17 amendments to the U.S. Constitution not included in the Bill of Rights: Explain the amendment, its goals, and/or the protections it affords. Describe the process by which the amendment was ratified. Part 4: Cite 4 peer-reviewed, scholarly, or similar references to support your assignment. Do not use Wikipedia, Quora, Yahoo Questions or other crowdsourced websites as references. Include a reference list in APA format. Use in-text citations in APA format. Format your assignment following APA guidelines including references as one of the following: 18- to 20-slide presentation with detailed speaker notes in a separate word document 875-word paper Another format approved by your instructor
Constitutional Amendments | Instant Homework Solutions
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Military mandated sanitation
From 1899 to 1941 US Marines given the title “Insular Patrolman” were selected to live in Guam’s villages and maintain order. Among their many duties was to enforce the island’s sanitary and public health regulations as dictated by the US Navy administration.
From the time the US gained control of Guam, the insular patrolmen became its eyes and ears – and enforcers – to ensure that its strict new rules were followed. The Naval administration exerted almost full control over Guam residents through its stringent regulations. The justification given for this was they were trying to improve the overall health of the island and for the protection of military personnel and the Chamorro people. Some of the sanitation and public health rules enforced included:
• weeds around homes could not reach beyond six-inches in height;
• laundered clothes must be dried at least eighteen inches from the ground; and,
• school girls were ordered to wear skirts which bottoms had to be at least four inches from the ground (effectively banning the use of the traditional mestisa).
Such regulations were put in place to promote hygiene and with respect to the rules on clothes, it was a measure to prevent dirt from getting on the clothing. The insular patrol had the power to ticket or issue fines to offenders. Repeat sanitation violators were arrested.
House-to-house inspections became an everyday reality in every village by the end of the first decade of Naval rule. The inspections were not limited to houses and grounds, but also for the identification of ailing Chamorros during epidemics.
Health regulations and leprosy
In 1902, Naval Governor Seaton Schroeder issued General Order No. 43 which mandated the segregation of people thought to have Hansen’s disease or leprosy. Not only did it establish a “leper colony” in Ypao on Tumon Bay, but it directed patrolmen to identify and apprehend suspect cases of Hansen’s disease. Those “diagnosed” with the disease were immediately confined at Tumon. Families were also fined or arrested for attempting to conceal or aid relatives in escaping confinement.
Chamorros were often misdiagnosed and treated as prisoners in the Tumon leprosarium. They were referred to as “inmates” instead of as patients suffering from a disease. In Colonial Dis-Ease, Guam historian Anne Perez Hattori writes of the misdiagnoses:
On Guam early in the 20th century, despite the certainty that the disease was a menace to the island, definition and treatment of it were still uncertain procedures. Ailments such as gangosa, yaws, and syphilis were frequently misdiagnosed as Hansen’s disease, and persons suspected of suffering from it were confined in a “leper colony” before undergoing a medical examination.
Dr. Anne Perez Hattori
Once at the colony, patients were guarded and not allowed to leave the premises, which were mostly surrounded by a high barbed wire fence. Visitors had to seek permission from the Naval governor to visit those confined at the colony. An article in the Guam Recorder, a newspaper at the time, stated that at night patients were placed in houses that had iron bars on the windows and padlocked doors.
This harsh treatment led many Chamorro families to flaunt the laws and attempt to conceal sick family members from the patrolmen. In addition to the already standing order to arrest family members caught hiding family members suspected of having the disease, Governor E.J. Dorn in 1910 began taking Chamorro parents who hid their sick children to court.
Schroeder and subsequent appointed governors considered their efforts to separate the “leper” from the community noble and in the best interests of the people on the island and the military’s mission. They defended the need for the establishment of the Tumon colony, the enforcement of confinement and the eventual exile of persons thought to have the disease. Governor George Dyer wrote in a 1905 letter to the assistant secretary of the Navy:
The necessity for the segregation of the lepers for the protection of the white population, and incidentally the existence and efficiency of the Naval Station, is unquestionable. This has been demonstrated in many places notably in Hawai`i.
In 1912, (this would be the first of several forced relocations until the practice ceased in 1924) close to 20 patients were involuntarily shipped to a larger colony on Culion Island in the Philippines. The prior year, Governor George R. Salisbury began the efforts to remove the patients to the Philippines. Navy administrators—and by extension the patrolmen—were unable to securely quarantine patients from the community.
Navy administrators believed that their inability to contain the patients could potentially cause the spread of the disease to military personnel and the community, and they also wanted to relieve the economic burden of detaining and feeding the patients. Most of the patients would never see their families again.
By Connor Murphy and Tanya M. Champaco Mendiola
For further reading
Angeny, G.L. “Leprosy in Guam.” The Military Surgeon: Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 25, no. 1 (July 1909): 312-317.
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Pitvipers are probably some of the scariest creatures on earth. Equipped with a deadly set of fangs and thermally sensitive facial pits, they can always track down a warm meal. Aaron Krochmal explains that until recently it was thought that prey detection drove the evolution of the facial pit receptors, but important new research is now challenging this assumption(p. 4231).
During his previous work at Indiana State University with George Bakken,Krochmal discovered that one pitviper species, the western diamondback rattlesnake, uses its facial pits to detect cool refuges to shelter from excessive heat, suggesting that these thermal radiation receptors may actually be a more general-purpose organ than previously thought. So Krochmal, Bakken,and their colleague Travis LaDuc, decided to go one step further. They tested whether other pitvipers' facial pits also allowed them to seek out cooler corners.
Krochmal and his colleagues chose 12 diverse species of pitviper to work with, and one closely related subfamily of true viper, the puff adder. Puff adders do not have facial pits. Instead, they are equipped with supranasal sacs, which may be able to detect thermal radiation from prey, but it was unclear whether they were involved in behavioural thermoregulation.
To test the snakes' ability to differentiate between hot and cold environments, the team designed a Y-shaped maze made of plumbing pipes for the vipers to move through, and placed it inside an environmental chamber at a scorching 40°C. By cooling the end of one branch of the structure to 30°C, they made a heat `refuge'. After releasing a snake into the bottom of the Y, the team waited to see which environment the reptile chose.
All species of pitviper tested moved toward the cool refuge and avoided the hot branch of the maze, suggesting that they could determine heat differences from a distance. The team also made absolutely sure that the snakes were using their receptors to choose between the hot and cooler branches by temporarily disabling their facial pits. They insulated each of the viper's facial pits with a small polystyrene ball, topped by a tiny piece of aluminium foil. Krochmal admits that this part of the study was probably the most nerve wracking, and, being acutely aware of the dangers of working with such venomous vipers, he'd spent the year prior to their arrival, `dreaming up ways to keep from dying'.
Fortunately, the planning paid off. Deprived of their facial pits, the pitvipers failed to home in on their cooler refuge, only ending up in the 30°C refuge by chance; the facial pits were involved in behavioural thermoregulation. However, when the team put the puff adders to the Y-test,these true vipers only found their way to the cooler refuge by chance. They weren't capable of behavioural thermoregulation using thermal radiation cues.
Krochmal and his colleagues were very excited. `When we started testing we saw that all pitvipers were able to make a thermoregulatory decision based on radiation and we really knew we were on to something; that what we had been seeing was unique to pitvipers, and an ancestral trait' he says. This uniqueness also suggests that this behaviour may have evolved at the same time as the facial pits. Maybe those pits are more than just prey detectors after all.
Krochmal, A. R., Bakken, G. S. and LaDuc, T. J.(
). Heat in evolution's kitchen: evolutionary perspectives on the functions and origin of the facial pit of pitvipers (Viperidae:Crotalinae).
J. Exp. Biol.
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An electron moves from point A to point B. The potential difference between these two points is 100 V. What is
a. the point of higher potential?
b. the work done on the electron?
c. the final speed of the electron if its initial speed is zero?
Next question
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Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine
By Rabbi Joseph Schwarz, 1850
Explanation of the Seas, Rivers, Mountains, and Valleys of Palestine.
Palestine has three lakes* or seas:--1, the Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites; 2, the sea of Genezereth, or Lake of Tiberias; and 3, the sea of Merom, or Lake Semechonitis.
* In Tractate Baba Bathra, fol. 74b, we read: "There are seven seas and four rivers which surround (or border) Palestine, namely, the seas of Tiberias, Sodom, Chelath, Chiltha, Sibchi, Aspamia, and the Great Sea (the Mediterranean). The four rivers are the Jordan, the Yarmuch, Kirmion, and Pigah." It is farther stated there that the Jordan’s sources are in the cave of Pameis, and that it runs through the lakes of Sibchi and Tiberias, through the Salt Sea into the mouth of Leviathan.--At the end of Talmud Yerushalmi, on Kilayim, these seven seas or lakes are called the Great Sea, the Sea of Tiberias, Somcho, the Salt Sea, the Chultha, Shelyith, and Apamia. But, as regards the Lake of Chamatz, it is observed that the Emperor Diocletian had it dug, and had it filled by the rivers which he conducted into it, wherefore it is not reckoned among the lakes formed by nature. This reading appears to me more correct than the first; still several corrections are necessary. Through means of literary investigations, I correct and explain the above as follows. Chultha or Chiltha signifies the Lake Phialo, which is called in Arabic Birkath al Ram. It is about 120 paces in circumference, and lies 10½ English miles east of Banias, and is the actual source of the Jordan. (See Josephus, Bell. Jud., book iii. ch. 18.) The whole country bears at this day the name Balad al Chuli, Land of Chuli. I suppose the origin of the word to be חול Chul (see Gen. 10:23). This, by the way, will explain a very obscure passage in Erechin 2, where it speaks of בחולת המחוז, or the district Cholath, which was very stony and salty, and therefore unfruitful. The country is likewise called Balad al Malchi; which means "the country of salt," from the fact that the country is, so to say, covered with a crust of salt (see Tractate Ahaloth, the end of chap. iii.); whence I conclude that the present Chuli is derived from the ancient Chiltha or Chultha.--Sibchi is an incorrect reading, and should be Somcho, which is the same as the sea Semechonitis, also called Kaldayeh, which signifies "the high," identical with the Hebrew מי מרום (Me Merom), literally the "high waters" (Josh. 11:5). The common people call it very erroneously ים חוילה Yam Chavila, the Sea of Chavila.--Chelath or Shelyith is wrong, and should be אילת Elath, which is the Red Sea (Deut. 2:8), which bounds Palestine at the south, since the Talmud speaks here of the country in its greatest extent.--Aspamia is also incorrect, since under this term there is always understood Ispania, Latin Hispania, or Spain, of which I shall speak more extensively in another place; the correct reading would be Apamia. Even at the present day there is found, north of the village Phamia (which see), the dry bed of an ancient lake, which the Arabs call Bacharea, which means "the little sea." The river Al Azy, the ancient Orontes, runs through the bed of this lake in a northerly direction.
Chamatz Lake is south of the town of Hams or Chams, and is called Bachr Chams, "the Great Sea," also Bachr Kadissa. It is formed by the just mentioned Al Azy, which runs into it, and continues its course after issuing from it. This will explain the meaning of the passage from the Talmud Yerushalmi, quoted above, that Diocletian had made it by causing rivers to run into it. (See also T. Yer. Shekalim, chap. vi.)
Yalkut to Deut. 33: 23, speaks erroneously of the sea Sufni, as it should be Somcho.
ים המלח or ים סדום
(Gen. 14:3.)
The Salt or Dead Sea (Lake Asphaltites) is called in the Arabic language Bachr Lot (Lot's Sea), and is 70 English miles in length, and from 15 to 20 in breadth.* Towards the south, however, it is narrow and shoal, and about 4 miles broad, and from 3 to 4 feet in depth. This sea is enclosed on the east and west by high mountains and rocks; but towards the southeast there is an extensive, fair and fruitful plain, several miles in size.
* According to Josephus, Bell. Jud., book v., chap. 5, is this sea 580 stadia in length, and 150 in breadth.
It is true that the water of this sea is clear and pure; nevertheless it is more impregnated with salty matter than all other sea-waters, and is withal very bitter, somewhat sulphurous in smell, and so acrid that no one can keep it in his mouth. When I made the attempt to take a little of it in my mouth, the sharp, bitter, and sulphurous taste remained perceptible more than half an hour. Salt thrown in this water remains undissolved. 100 parts of this water contain 42 parts of salts, 24 parts bitter, salty, and sour calcareous earth, and 7 parts salty natron. The weight of this water, compared to pure distilled water, is as 1211 to 1000. To institute several comparative experiments, I employed water from the Dead Sea, some taken from the Mediterranean at Jaffa, and the usual cistern (rain) water; and, on weighing them, I found that the first compared to the second as 9 to 8, and to the latter as 9 to 7. I have, however, to remark here, that I made these experiments in the month of April, at which time the Dead Sea had, on account of continued rains, taken up many streams, through which circumstance the weight of its water was much less than it usually is, and especially in the summer months, when the evaporation condenses it more than at other times. The water of this sea has also a peculiarity that nothing thrown into it will sink. Even a man, unacquainted with swimming, may confidently bathe here, for he can no more sink in this lake than in an empty vessel.* Josephus even tells† that the Emperor Vespasian had men who could not swim thrown into the Dead Sea with their hands even tied on their backs, and that not one of them was drowned.
* The Talmud therefore remarks correctly (Sabbath 108b), that a person never was drowned in the Salt Sea.
† Bell. Jud., book v., chap. 5.
Everything which lies a little time in this water is covered with a crust of salt. On living objects, however, the skin is partially peeled off. The air in the vicinity of this sea is so impregnated with particles of salt and sulphur, that the clothes of persons who are a short time* on its shore are covered, so to say, with a coating of salt. Neither fish, nor worms, nor any other living things are ever found in this sea. Even those fish which swim in the Jordan, as it disembogues itself into this sea, perish the moment they touch it. If you carry this water to ever so great a distance, and place fish therein, they nevertheless die immediately. At the bottom of the Dead Sea there is found a black, fetid slime. Every morning there ascend such strong sulphurous vapours from this water, that they can be seen at a great distance. On a winter's day, at the time of the rains, I was once able to observe this from the holy city itself; for as I looked in the direction of this sea, I saw, so to say, a great cloud rising upward from the same. Should a bird fly over the surface of the water during the disengagement of these strong vapours, it would drop down dead instantly. For this reason there are but few living animals seen in the whole neighbourhood, also but few trees and plants. In the vicinity of this sea is found a species of stone-coal; there is also a species of black bitumen met with, which floats on the surface of the water, and is afterwards driven on shore. The salt, which is found in large quantities in the whole adjacent country, and especially on the seashore, cannot be used in food, because it is extraordinarily bitter, and has, moreover, the smell and taste of saltpetre. (See art. Salt.)
Although the surface of this sea is 598 feet lower than the Mediterranean, and receives the Jordan and several other minor streams, yet it never overflows its shores. This circumstance furnishes sufficient proof that this sea must have subterranean† outlets, either to the Mediterranean or the Red Sea.
* This is, however, the case only in damp and foggy weather, but not when it is hot and in sunshine.
† These unknown outlets the Midrash expresses by saying that the Jordan passes through the Dead Sea into the mouth of Levithan, to wit, the unknown terminations.
The mountains on the shores of the Dead Sea are almost perpetually encircled by the mists ascending from its waters. These mists, which are very unwholesome, and cause the drying up of the vital powers, producing consumption, &c., have also the most pernicious influence on vegetation. It therefore happens that the fruit produced on the trees of these mountains, though to outward appearance healthy and sound, are dried up within, rotten, and filled with a carbonaceous powder. Especially is this the case with the pomegranate and lemon; which circumstance is no doubt referred to by Josephus, when speaking of the Sodom-apples, which he says fall into dust on being touched. (See also Deut. 32:32.)
It is thus that the divine curse still rests on this neighbourhood, destroyed in consequence of the sins of its inhabitants. [It yet stands as the personified consequence of vice, and forms the most striking contrast in what it is now to the hopeful future promised in the thirty-sixth chapter of Ezekiel 5: 8-16, 33-36, and ibid. 47:1-12 ; the latter especially being a remarkable prophecy, promising a complete change of the whole surface of the country, as it was and as it now is, and which, if accomplished, must render Palestine indeed the highway of nations and the centre of the earth,--situated, as it is, in the midst of the great thoroughfare between the sea of India on the east, and the Mediterranean on the west.]
The Sea of Chinnereth. ים כנרת
(Numb. 34:11.)
This lake, called in the Arabic Bachr Tibaria, i. e. Sea of Tiberias, because this city is situated on its western shore, is about 12½ English miles in length, and 5 in breadth,* and lies 535 feet lower than the surface of the Mediterranean. On the north, near the village Tanchum (which see), the Jordan enters this lake, and leaves it again at the south, near the village Samach (כפר צמח). It is a remarkable thing that the Jordan, which passes through this lake its entire length, does not mingle with its waters, since its course is clearly perceptible in the midst of the lake till it leaves it again, and resumes its own proper course. (Compare with Bereshith Rabba, chap. 2, and Josephus, Bell. Jud., chap. 18.)
* Josephus (Bell. Jud., book iii., chap. 18), gives the dimensions 100 stadia in length, and 40 in breadth.
The environs of Chinnereth are uncommonly fertile and productive; and it forms, on the whole, a complete contrast to the recently described Dead Sea. For instance, in the same measure as the water of the latter is nauseous, bitter, heavy, and salty, so is the water of Chinnereth agreeable, sweet, and light, and used, therefore, by the inhabitants of Tiberias, as drinking water. The Dead Sea is, moreover, as its name already indicates, dead; and is neither navigated by men in vessels, nor inhabited by fish or other living things. The Chinnereth, however, has all kinds of the best fish, and other species of aquatic animals; and one sees constantly an active intercourse carried on there through means of small vessels, in which, at times, the inhabitants of the other side of Jordan bring wood and other articles for sale to Tiberias. And lastly, whereas on the other district still rests the punishment sent from heaven on Sodom and Gomorrah, and the whole environ of the sea is nothing but a frightful scene of desolation, one sees near Chinnereth, as already stated, a fruitful country and one truly blessed of God, extending itself before the eye, and presenting an abundance of earthly treasures.
There prevails a calm nearly the whole year on the Sea of Chinnereth ; when, however, a storm does arise, which is seldom the case, it occurs very suddenly, and then, in a few minutes, the boats which may be caught out in it are generally upset. The force of the waves in that case is also so great, that many of the houses in town are thereby endangered.
Waters of Merom. מי מרום or מי סומכי
(Joshua 11:5.)
This little lake is called by the Arabs Bachr Chit, Wheat Sea, because much wheat is sown in its neighbourhood; it is also called Bachr Banias, or improperly Bachr Chuli. It is 10 English miles south of the sources of the Jordan, and is about 5 English miles long and 3¾ broad. It is only in winter, however, that this lake has water in it, which is turbid and muddy, and in which fish are found. In summer, however, it is dried up; and it is then a swamp overgrown with weeds, and then serves the Arabs, who come hither with their numerous flocks, and encamp thereon during the whole summer, as a pastureground. Many canes also grow here, among which wild beasts, &c., find shelter, especially serpents and wild boars. Not far from the village Malcha, situated on its northern shore, the Jordan enters this lake. The inhabitants of the village just named cultivate the rice plant in this vicinity, which is the only place in Palestine where this plant grows. This rice, which is sent to the other towns, is quite singular in its colour and flavour; it is red in appearance, and swells in cooking to an unusual degree. The western portion of this lake is inhabited by the Duphni-Arabs, who derive their name from the town of Daphne (Riblah), which formerly stood in this district. (See Riblah p. 26. )
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“How do you know which server to select?”
English Lesson: How do you know which server to select?
A coworker is showing you how to use a software system at work. While showing you how to connect to the company's network, she chooses a server from a list. You want to know why she picked that one.
How do you know which server to select?
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How do you know (clause)?
Use this phrase to learn about something that a person seems to understand better than you:
How do you know which one to choose?
How do you know where to go?
How do you know when it's time to flip it?
a server
A "server" is a computer that other computers connect to.
Websites run on servers. A lot of companies also have servers to hold information that's shared between different employees.
select (something from a list)
The word "select" means "choose":
Which option have you selected?
"Select" is a little more formal than "choose".
It also suggests choosing something from a list or a group of options, like a menu. "Choose" can be used in the same way as "select". But you can use "choose" to talk about yes-or-no choices:
I chose not to go.
It's less common to use "select" in this kind of situation.
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1. In the tobacco hornworm, wing spreading involves a stereotyped series of movements which take 74 min to complete and which include two components, wing folding and wing inflation.
2. Moths decapitated at the moment of eclosion show neither wing inflation nor wing folding. If decapitation is delayed until 5 sec after emergence, then the full wing-spreading behaviour is displayed.
3. Newly emerged moths which are confined show intense digging-behaviour and delay the onset of wing spreading until after their release. Decapitated moths attempt to spread their wings immediately, regardless of whether or not they are confined.
4. Surgical experiments showed that the brain was not required in a neural capacity in order for wing spreading to occur; it was needed only as a source of the eclosion hormone. The neural influence of the suboesophageal ganglion was required until immediately after eclosion.
5. Newly emerged moths whose abdomens had been removed showed wing-folding behaviour. No inflation occurred and the duration of wing folding was much longer than normal. It was concluded that wing-folding behaviour was centrally programmed but that the abdomen could modify the length of the programme.
6. Injections of bursicon into abdomenless moths reduced the duration of wing-folding behaviour to almost normal levels. Therefore, in some manner, bursicon has an important role in determining when wing-folding behaviour will come to an end.
This content is only available via PDF.
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Monday, 10 August 2015
Agriculture in European Little Divergence: The Case of Spain
For most of the sixteenth century, Spanish political might rose together with a sustained and intense economic development, allowing the country to remain among the most affluent nations of Europe. However, with the turn of the century economic growth halted, and was followed by a rapid decline. The crisis of the seventeenth century was particularly hard with the Iberian economy that only recovered significant growth levels during the first years of the eighteenth century. As a consequence, Spain lost ground with the leading economies of Europe and became a secondary power not just in political terms but also in economic ones. What were the roots of the little divergence between Spain and the north of Europe? What was the role played by the agricultural sector? In a new EHES working paper, Carlos Álvarez-Nogal, Leandro Prados de la Escosura and Carlos Santiago-Caballero analyse the evolution of Spanish agriculture between 1400 and 1800, using an extensive database of tithes to reproduce the changes experienced by the primary sector. The results suggest that agriculture played a significant role explaining the little divergence, experienced between Spain and the leading economies in Western Europe during the late modern age.
Stored in ecclesiastical archives for centuries, tithe records are among the few direct accounts of agrarian production for preindustrial times, and have been widely used by economic historians to estimate the evolution of the primary sector in the very long run. The historical presence and power of the Catholic Church in Spain, had positive externalities for economic historians that have at their disposal tithe records that are generous both in geographical and chronological terms. The tithe was one of the most important taxes in preindustrial Spain for the Church – and other authorities - that received it and for the producers who suffered it. It usually represented a ten per cent of total output that had usually to be paid when the product had been harvested. Virtually all agrarian production was taxed, from livestock to grain, wine, olive oil or honey. Even the new crops like maize that arrived from the New World were quickly introduced by the church in the list of taxable products. This paper collected an extensive dataset of tithes at local and regional levels between the fifteenth and the eighteenth centuries that were unified to estimate the evolution of agrarian production in Spain in the very long run.
The results show that output per head reached its maximum levels in the mid fifteenth century and remained high until the late sixteenth century, suffering a severe contraction between 1570 and 1590, a period followed by a milder deterioration up to 1650. Although a small recovery took place between the late seventeenth century and the mid eighteenth century, the following decades were characterized by a new fall, reaching output per capita its minimum around 1800. Therefore, Spanish agriculture moved from a relatively high path to a lower one that persisted at least until the beginning of the Peninsular War. The results using a direct estimation like tithe records coincide with those obtained by Alvarez-Nogal and Prados de la Escosura (2013) using an indirect estimation though a demand function.
Agricultural output per head (Tithes and Demand approach) and population, 1400-1800 (decadal averages in logs) (1790/99=100).
The authors believe that the intense collapse that took place in the late sixteenth century was consequence of urban and international demand contraction, that resulted from the collapse of domestic markets, monetary instability, and war in Iberia. As consequence incentives to produce for the market decreased as did the intensive use of labour and land. As a result, the land rent-wage ratio contracted all the way to the 1670s, even when real wage rates continued to decline until the 1640s, and only recovered in a sustained way since the 1720s. The periods of agrarian contraction also coincide with the two largest climatic oscillations experienced in Spain, the Initial Oscillation between 1570 and 1640 and the Maldá Anomaly between 1760 and 1800.
Agrarian production per head and population moved together up to 1750, suggesting the existence of a land abundant frontier economy until the mid eighteenth century. It was only during the second half of the eighteenth century when the results seem to indicate the existence of a Malthusian pattern.
During most of the modern age, Spain lost economic ground with the rest of North-Western Europe. Far from being able to compensate part of the gap, Spanish agriculture contributed to the little divergence between north-western and southern Europe. Long-run trends in agricultural output per head between Spain and Britain show that agriculture fuelled the increasing gap between both powers. In Spain output per head fell dramatically after 1570 and did it again during the second half of the eighteenth century. By 1800 output per head was considerably lower than in the late fifteenth century. On the other hand, output per head in Britain exhibits a mild U shape with the levels of 1450 already recovered in the 1770s and overcome by 1800. While in Spain agriculture employed about two-thirds of the male labour force by the late eighteenth century – and four fifths by 1500 – in Britain the numbers went down to just over one-third in 1801 from two-thirds in 1522 (Broadberry et al., 2014). Labour productivity in Spain suffered a long-run recline throughout the early modern age, while it showed a significant increase in the case of Britain. Therefore, the study concludes that far from being helpful, agriculture was a significant player in the little divergence experienced between north-western and southern Europe.
This blog post was written by:
Carlos Álvarez-Nogal, Associate Professor in Economic History,
Leandro Prados de la Escosura, Full Professor in Economic History
Carlos Santiago-Caballero, Associate Professor in Economic History at Universidad Carlos III de Madrid.
The working paper can be downloaded here:
1 comment:
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3.0 5
Elbe River
Elbe is also known by its Czech name Labe. Elbe is the river basin of the North Sea, which begins in the Czech Republic. Its main course is in Germany. Both names of the river have the same origin. In antiquity, the Greeks, Celts and Romans called the river Albis, and the ancient Germans called it Albia. These names are similar to the Latin word Albus, which means light.
There is a hypothesis that the name derives from the ancient Scandinavian word Elfr, which means river. This hypothesis is often rejected because Elbe has no direct connection with the Scandinavian countries. The name Elbe is likely to have come from the Indo-European root Albho, which means white.
From a historical perspective, Elbe has always been an important frontier in European geography. The Romans called the river Albus. They once tried to move the eastern borders of the empire to the Elbe and were defeated in battle in the ninth year of the new era. In the Middle Ages, Elbe passed the eastern boundary of the empire of Charlemagne.
In 1945, shortly before the end of World War II, troops of the Third Reich were caught between the armies of the allied forces in the west and Soviet forces that in the east. On April twenty-fifth, the two forces met at the Elbe and the event became known as the Meeting of the Elbe. After the war, Elbe was crossed by the borders between East and West Germany.
In August 2002 there was a great flood, in the upper reaches of the Elbe. Tens of thousands of people were evacuated, about thirty thousand houses were destroyed and damaged by water. Twenty people died, about seven hundred and fifty kilometers streets, five hundred and forty kilometers of railway and one hundred and eighty bridges were completely destroyed.
For many years, the Elbe was considered contaminated and therefore unsuitable for bathing. Lately, however, programs were implemented, to restore the ecology of the river.
Elbe begins at fourteen hundred meters altitude in the area known as the Giant Mountains, in northern Czech Republic. Among the streams that form the Elbe, the most famous is White Elbe. Elbe River forms a waterfall that falls from a height of one hundred ninety-seven meters.
Dresden and Elbe
After the Czech Republic, Elbe flows through Bohemia. After crossing the Czech-German border, the river heads towards the northwest, to the North Sea.
The river passes through Dresden and along Meißen, then along the border, which for years had earmarked East from West Germany. Then, it passes Torgau, Wittenberg, Dessau, Magdeburg, Wittenberge and Hamburg on its way. Then, into Elbe flow the rivers Schwarze Elster, Havel and Elde. Magdeburg has a viaduct that passes above the Elbe and over her shores.
Elbe also reaches Hamburg. While passing through the town, Elbe has many branching streams, such as Dove Elbe, Gose Elbe, Köhlbrand, Norderelbe, Reiherstieg and Süderelbe.
(5 )
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